1168

Complementation of verbs and adjectives Verbs in relation to verb complementation 11-69

They may be either copular (clause pattern SVC), or complex transitive verbs, or monotransitive verbs with a noun phrase object), we can give only
(clause pattern SVOC): a sample of common verbs. In any case, it should be borne in mind that the
list of verbs conforming to a given pattern is difficult to specífy exactly: there
SVC: break even, plead guilty, Iie 101V
are many differences between one variety of English and another in respect
SVOC: cut N short, work N loose, rub N dry
of individual verbs, and many cases of marginal acceptability.
Sometimes the idiom contains additional elements, such as an infinitive (play
hard to gel) or a preposition (ride roughshod over ...). Note The term 'valency' (or 'valencc') is sometimes used, instead of complementation, ror the way in
which a verb determines the kinds and number of elements that can accompany it in the clause.
(The 'N' aboye indicates a direct object in the case oftransitive examples.)
Valency, however, incIudes the subject 01' the clause, which is excluded (unless extraposed) from
(b) VERB-VERB COMBINATIONS complementation.
In these idiomatic constructions (ef 3.49-51, 16.52), the second verb is
nonfinite, and may be either an infinitive: Verbs in intransitive function
16.19 Where no eomplementation oecurs, the verb is said to have an INTRANSITIVE
make do with, make (N) do, let (N) go, let (N) be
use. Three types of verb may be mentioned in this category:
or a participle, with or without a following preposition:
(l) ' PURE' INTRANSITIVE VERas, which do not take an object at aH (or at
put paid to, get rid oJ, have done with least do so only very rarely):
leave N standing, send N paeking, knock N fiying, get going John has arrived. Your views do not matter.
(c) VBRBS GOVERNlNG TWO PREPOSITIONS
Examples:
These are a further varíant on prepositional verbs:
appear die fall happen rise
It developedfrom a small club into a mass organization in three years. come digress go líe wait
(11) VBRBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE Wlm THE SAME MBANING, and
Similarly: strugg/e with N for N, compete with Nfor N, apply to Nfor N, ta/k
without a change in the subject-verb relationship. Informally, such
to N about N. Normally either one or both prepositional phrases can be
verbs can be described as having an 'understood object' (ef App 1.54):
omitted; eg:
He smokes (a pipe). I am reading (a book).
It developed into a mass organization in three years.
But in sorne cases the intransitive verb acquires a more specific
Note To end Ihis survey of verb idiorns and their grammatical characteristics, mentíon may be made meaning, so that a particular kind of object is 'understood'; eg: John
of rare patterns such as make surelcerrain followed by a rhar·c1ause; see jir followed by a ro· drinlrs !u'(1/,i!y ['drinh alcoholT
infinitive; and verb + noun combinations such as (urn rurlle and rurn ¡rairor.
Examples:
approaeh drive help pass win
drink enter leave play write
(111) VBRBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE, but where the semantic
Verbs in relation to verb complementation
connection between subject and verb is different in the two cases; eg
the intransitive use has an affected participant as subject (ef 1O.21f),
16.18 In 16.20-67 we survey types of verb complementation, before turning to
whereas the transitive use has an agentive as subject (ef App 1.54):
adjective complementation (16.68-83), and (more briefiy) to noun comple­
mentation (16.84-5). Many verbs are versatile enough to allow several The door opened slowly. ef: Mary opened the door.
complementation types (ef the discussion, for example, of get in lO.3). It is The car stopped. el: He stopped the caro
therefore likely to bemisleading to talkof'intransitive verbs', 'monotransitive Examples:
verbs', 'complex transitive verbs', etc. Rather, it ís often better to say that begin close inerease turn walk
verbs have 'monotransitive use', 'monotransitive complementation', etc. ehange drop move unite work
Although one verb may belong to a number of different complementation
Type (111) also includes intransitive verbs with MuTUAL PARTICIPATION
types, it is usually possible to observe a common ground of meaning in tbe
(efI3.60), as in:
various uses.
For each type of complementation, we give a list of verbs belonging to that 1 have metyou. '" We have meto
pattern. No claim of completeness i5 made for these lists; when the The bus eollided with the caro - The bus and car collided.
membership of a type is smaH, a fairly exhaustive list of verbs is given, Intransitive verbs are numerous, particularIy in categories (JI) and
whereas when the membership is very large (as in the case of intransitive (III).
 11-70 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1171

Note [a] The folIowing are examples of intransitive (ie Type l) phrasal verbs(cfI6.3):
Table 16.20 Verb complementation types
}al! out ['quarrel'] make ojlfescape'] pas.. away['die']

blowover [of a storm. etc] Jali back ['retrcal'] catch on ['understand']

Variants Example Section
Come ogrsuccecd'] make up {'cnd a quarrel'] pul! up estop']

look up ['improve'] fal! Ihrough ['fail'] crop up ['occur']

COPULAR (Types S VC and S VA)
corneour ['bloom'] passour['faint'] opt out [of a choice]
(A 1] Adjectival Cs The girl seemed restless. (16.21)
come lO ['become conscious'] fall off['decline']
[A2j Nominal C, William is my friendo (16.22)
Further examples are to be found in 16.3. [A3] Adverbial complementation The kitchen is downstairs. (16.24)
[b] Category (1) includes the íntransiti ve verbs líe <tnd rise, which are sometimes confused by
native speakers with the;r transitive counterpartsü,y and raise, becauseoftheir formal simíladty. MONOTRANSITIVE (Type SVO)
A similar correspondence exists betweenfall (intransitive) andfell (transitive); eg: They fe/led a [BI] NounphraseasO Tom caught the ball. (16.26)
Iree. (with passi ve)

~A01TIC/f J~C{éfli . 0v// t [B2] Noun phrase as O

(without passive)
[B3] That-clause as O
[B4] Wh-clause as O
[B5J Wh-infinitive as O
Paullacks confidence.

I think that we have meto

Can you guess what she said?
Ileamed how to sail a boato
(16.27)

06.30)
(16.35)
(16.37)
[86) To-infinitive ( - 8) as O We've decided to move house. (16.38)
[87] -Ing clause (-8) as O She enjoys playing squash. (16.39)
Types of verb complementation [B8] To-infinitive ( + 8) as O They want us to help. (16.41)
[89J -Ing clause (+8) as O I hate the children quarrellíng. (16.42)
16.20 There are four main types of complementation to consider: COMPLEX TRANSITIVE (Types SVOC and SVOA)
[CIJ AdjectívalCo Thatmusicdrivesmemad. (16.44)
[A] Copular, eg: John is only a boyo [C2] Nominal Co They named the ship 'Zeus'. {16.46)
[B] Monotransitive, eg: 1 have eaught a bigfish. [C3J O + adverbial lleftthe key al home. (16.48)
[C] Complex transitive, eg: She called him a hero. [C4J 0+ to-infinitive They knew him to be a spy. (16.50)
[D] Ditransitive, eg: He gave Mary a doll. [C5] 0+ bare infinitive 1 saw her leave the room. (16.52)
[C6] O + -ing clause 1 heard someone shouting. (16.53)
Although these complementation types have already been generally discussed [C7J O + -ed clause I gol the watch repaired. (16.54)
in 2.16 and elsewhere, it is necessary now to list the verbs of each type in
DITRANsrnvE (Type SVOO)
more detail, paying particular attention to the active-passive relatíon (el [D 11 Noun phrases as Oí & Od Théy u;}ered her some/ood. (16.55)
3.69fJ). In this survey, we shaIl also list variants on the aboye patterns; for [D21 W:th prepositional O Plcas~ s.:zy SiJ:;;cthing lo USo (1&.56,
example, cases where the verb is foIlowed by a finite or nonfinite clause. Such [D3] Oí + that-c1ause They told me that I was ill. (16.59)
variants will be distinguished by numbers: [Al], [B2], etc. The various sub­ [D4J O, + wh-cIause He asked me what time it was. (16.61)
types of complementation under these headings are illustrated in Table 16.20. [05] Oí + wh-infinitive c1ause Mary showed us what to do. (16.62)
[D6J O, + lo-infinitive 1 advised Mark to see a doctor. (16.63)
In addition, we shall use where necessary the suffixes 'ph' (for phrasal
verbs), 'pr' (for prepositional verbs), and 'ph-pr' (for phrasal-prepositional
Within the sub-types [A lj, [A2], etc it is sometimes valuable to distinguish
verbs). For example, [B4ph-pr] will refer to a class of phrasal-prepositional
additional semantic sub-types, for which the roman numeraIs (i), (ii), etc will
verbs taking a wh-clause as prepositional object (eg:'jind out about whether be used. Other distinguishing marks applied to verbs in the following sections
...). It is not always necessary to recognize such detailed classifications, but will be explained where they occut.
it is use fui to be able to do so when the occasion arises. Two points may be
noted about complementation of multi-word verbs. First, a phrasal verb
cannot normaIly be interrupted by a clause as object:
Copular complementation
He left off driving a ear. ""' *He left driving a ear off.
Second, a Type 1 prepositional or phrasal-prepositional verb is appropriately [Al) Adjecnve phrase as subject complement
classified, for the purposes of complementation, as monotransitive, since the 16.21 A verb is said to have COPULAR complementation when it is followed by a
prepositional object is analogous (eg with respect to the active-passive subject complement (C.) or a predication adjunct (ef2.16, 2.22, 8.26jJ), and
relation) to a direct object (efI6.14). In general, multi-word verbs behave when this element cannot be dropped without changing the meaning of the
like other verbs of the same general type, and we will make a point of verbo The verb in such a clause is a COPULAR (or linking) verb, and is
mentioning them or listing them separately only when they are numerous or equivalent in function to the principal copula, the verb be. Copular verbs faH
where there is something special to be noted about them. into two main classes, according to whether the subject complement has the
(Note: in Table 16.20, +S = 'with subject'; - S = 'without subject'.) role of CURRl!NT ATTRIBUTE or of RESULTING ATIRIBUTE (el 10.20). Thís
 1172 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1173

distinction corresponds to that between CURRENT copulas and RESULTING [b] Die as in He died YOUllglpoor, elc does nOI lit easily into eilher 01' the calegories Iisted. The
copulas (efconc!usive verbs, 4.35). Normally, current copulas are stative (ef verb die ilself is conclusive, bul Ihe complemenl which follows it refers lo a curren! altribute.
The meaning is: 'He was young/poor, etc at the lime of his death'.
4.28ff), and cannot cooccur with the progressive aspect.
The dístinction is illustrated below with an adjectival complement, the
first kind of complementatíon we will consider: (A21 Noun phrase as subject complement
16.22 Again, the verb be is the principal copula used in this pattern:
CURRENT: The girl seemed very restless.

RESULTING: The gi rl beeame very res tless.

William is my friendo Oslo seems a pleasant city.
The following is a fairly full list of verbs regularly used in this pattern, The verbs marked (N] in 16.21 can be used with noun phrase complements,
together with typical adjectival complements: as well as with adjective phrase complements. The following list of such
verbs is fairly full. However, it should be noted that especially in American
CURRENT RESULTING
English, there is a tendency to avoid this construction with certain verbs.
(i) be (friendly) [N] (iv) beeome (older) [N]

Instead, both AmE and BrE prefer an infinitive construction (Type (B6] in
appear (happy) [N] eome(true)

16.38 below) with lO be following the finite verb:

feel (annoyed) [N]
end up (happy) [N]
look (pretty) [N]
get (ready)
lt appears the only solution. - It appears to be the only solution.
seem (very restless) [N]
go (sour)

There is also, especially in informal AmE, a tendency to prefer a construction

smell (sweet) grow (tired)

in which a copular verb is followed by like (ej 16.24 Note [a]):

sound (surprised) [N]
prove (rather useful) [N]
taste (bitter) tum (cold) [N]
It seems like the only solution.
tum out (fortunate)
(íií) remain (uncertain) [N] CURRENT RESULTING
wind up (drunk) [N] (informal)
keep (silent)
(i) be (my friend) (iv) beeome (an expert)
slay (motionless)
end up (her slave)
(ii) appear! (the only solution)

End up, tum out, and wind up.are copular phrasaI verbs. The verbs marked jeel! (a fool)
prove! (his equal)
[N] in the list also occur with a noun phrase complement (though not all with look 1 (a fine day) turn (traitor)
the same freedom or acceptabílity; efI6.22). The roman numerals in the list seem (a genius) turn out (a success/disaster)
idcntify semantic groups which are discussed in 16.24 below. sound 1 (a reasonable idea)
wind up (a millionaire) (informal)
In áddition to the copular verbs abov.:, th~rc are vcrbs ~'hich havc this tÜI) remain (good friends)

function with severe restrictions on the words occurring in the complement

(ef 10.16). The restriction may be a lexical restriction to certain idiomatic The classes (i-iv) match those in 16.21. (On the omission of the artic!e in the
verb-adjective sequences such as rest assured (ef 16.17), or it may be a complement in beeome president, etc, eI5.42.) The superscript '1' indicates
semantic restrictíon (eg the meaning of blush restricts the adjective to a subset that such verbs do not often occur in this pattern but (particularly in AmE)
of colour words: blush searlet, but not *blush green). Sorne examples are given are preferred in the construction with lO be or like (see aboye).
below, with typical adjective complements:
Note [al With a noun phrase complement,feel has Ihe meaning 'have the sensalion ofbeing .. :; bul
CURRENT RESULTING with an adjective complemenl, it has not only this meaning (as in She felt ill), but also Ihe
meaning of'cause a sensalÍon ... ', as in The lablefell rOll.gh (cf4.29fJ.
(v) bum (low) (vi) blush (bright red)
[b] The noun phrase foUowing ael as, eount as, pose as, pass for and similar combinalions is in a

lie (flat) fall (silent)

copular relation wilh Ihe subject, and these combinalions may be reasonably descríbed as

loom (large) jall down (dead)

'copular preposilíona! verbs' on Ihe analogy of inlransití ve and transíli ve prepositional verbs (ef

play (rough) [N] jreeze (solid)

16.5-7; also 16.47). Correspondíng to Ihese constructions wilh current meaning are resulling

run (wild)
copular prepositional verbs such as ehange inlo, grow illlo, and IIl.Tn illlO, wilh the general meaning

plead (innocent)
of'become'. Nole Ihe near-synonymy of He lurned Irailor and He lll.rned in/O a lraitor.

rest (assured) slam (shut)

[e] Sorne verbs occur more marginally in the above pallerns; eg: slay in They slayed goodfriends.

stand (firm) (N] spring (open)

Turn as in lurn Iraitor is formulaic, and is more or less restricled lo a small numbec of

stand up (straight) wax (eloquent) (archaic)

combinations.

[di One oc two verbs such as make and parl can appear wilh a noun phrase complemenl, but not

Many of these verbs resemble intransltive verbs, the complement being with an adjective phrase complemenl:

added almost as an optlona! specifier. They parledlhe best offriends.

They make a charming couple .
Note [a] 00 is current in go hungrylllaked, but is normally resulting elsewhere, as in go ['= 'become'] .(In a senlence like They parled friendly onee more, friendly once more would be not a complement,
sourlredl wildlmad. but a verbless clause; cfLO.16, 14.9.)
 1174 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
Semantic notes on copular verbs
16.23 The main verb be i8 the most central copular verb, and the most neutral in
meaning. It i8 also overwhelmíngly the most common. Although it generally
has current and stative meaning, notice should be taken él' its use also in
reference to events and acti vities:
There was a roar as the ball bounced off the goal post.
You're being very helpful. (cf4.31)
In sorne cases, be is close in meaning to become:
Ann wi1\ be a qualified nurse next year.
Cora was angry when she heard about the accident.
As the list8 in 16.21-2 show, copular verbs apart from be fa1l into three
c\asses. First, there ís the divisíon between current and resulting verbs; then
the current verbs divide further into 'verbs of seeming' (ii) (including seem,
appear, and the perceptíon verbs look, sound, etc), and 'verbs of remaining'
(iií) such as remain, stay, and keep. The resulting verbs (iv) are in the main
'verbs of becoming', but their meanings díffer in detail, as we shall now briefly
show.
Become is a process verb (cf 4.34), placíng emphasis on the duration of the
change, whereas get places more emphasis on the agency behind the event or
on the result of the change: Get ready! but not *Become ready! Go and turn
tend to refer to changes which happen in spite of human agency, and
therefore are often used for deterioratíons: go mad; go wild; go sour; go stale;
He turned into a monster. { She grew into afine woman.
turn livid; turn white [of hair}; turn sour. Turn more especia1ly seems to apply
to natural changes from one state to its opposite: turn greenlbrown [of leaves];
turnfinejcold [or weather]; turn ripe (BrF..). Grow i8 also associated with
natur¡¡.l changes, especial1y with grfl(\ll"\ <::h~.nges (grC'w o/d, g!'ow tall), and 15
likely to occur with comparative adjectives as in grow cooler, grow more
contento In many cases, more than one verb can occur with the same adjective,
and it is difficult to give precise conditions for selecting one rather than
another.
Note Come is very restricted as a copular verb, but it makes an interesting contrast with go in examples
like go wronglcome right. The association ofgo wi th deterioration (gd rollen, etc) is complemented
by the association of come with improvement in come true, etc. These aSsociations may be
connected with the positive and negative direction (from the speaker's viewpoint) of come and
go as verbs ofmotion.
IA3) Complementation by an adjunct
16.24 The principal copula that allows an adverbial as complementation is once
again be. The complementing adverbials, termed predication adjuncts in this
function, are mainly space adjuncts (cf8.3, 8. 39ff) :
The children are at the zoo. The kitchen is downstairs.
but time adjuncts too are common with an eventive subject (cf8. 76):
The party will be at nine. The outing is tomorrow.
and other types of predication adjunct are grammatical (for further examples
cfIO.IO).
Types of verb complementation 1175
Get and keep are two more copular verbs which occur specifically with
place adjuncts (or adjuncts metaphorically related to these):
At last we got home. Get offthat chair!
They kept out oftrouble. How did you get here?
Be, get, and keep are clearly copular verbs in this function because of their
inability to occur without the adjunct: *The children are; *At last we got;
* They kept. More marginally, other verbs such as five, come, go, remain, stay,
stand, fie belong to this category (cf8.27). These also occur as intransitive
verbs with roughly the same locative (or abstract locative) meaning, bul are
in many contexts felt to be incomplete unless sorne complementation is
added:
My aunt lives in Shropshire.
?*My aunt lives.
The need for the verb to be followed by sorne complementation is perhaps
strongest in pure locative statements such as Cannes lies on the French Riviera.
Whereas verbs like Uve and lie show the resemblance of adverbial comple­
mentation to the 'zero complementation' of intransitive verbs, verbs like
remain, stay, come, go, turn, and grow show its similarity to copular
complementation by adjective phrases. The parallel i8 brought out by pairs
such as:
He turned red. She grew tall.
{
However, for our purposes it will be preferable to treat sequences such as
turn into and gmw into as copular prepositiona! verbs (cfI6.22 Note [bJ).
Note [a] The verbs of 'seeming' (eI 16.23) seem, appear, look, sound, fee!, smell, and laste are
complemented by an adverbial clause beginning as if(or less frequently as though) in sentences
such as the following:
Jilllooked as ifshe had seen a ghost.
It seems as ifthe weather is improving.
(In a similar meaning, appear and seem can also be followed by a thal·clause; ef 16.34.) An
alternative construction is one in which the as if clause is replacea by a phrase introduced by
Iike;
That music sounds like Mozar!. (ie 'like the music of Mozar!']
Sil! looks (just) like his father.
After the same verbs. one also frequently hears clauses introduced by Iike. but these are often
regarded as nonstandard: /1 seems Iike lhe wealher is improuillg.
lb] There is also a curious idiomatic use offeellike (cfI6.22 Note [a]) meaning 'want':
¡feel like a cup ofcoffee.
Arguably, this is not copular; it belongs rather to (he category of monotransitive prepositional
verbs [Blpr](cf 16.28).
More exceptional cases of verbs with adverbial complementation are:
behave followed by an adverbial ofmanner:
well.
He behaved { Hlee a prisoner of conscience.
(However. behave can also occur intransitively or reflexively as in: Why don'l you behave
(yourselj) ?)
(ji) lasl and take followed by an adverbial ofmeasure (duration):
tOOk }
The haymaking { lasted (for) a week.

 1176 Complementation of verbs and adjecti ves Types of verb complementatíon 1177

In the case of lake the duration adverbj¡¡l is obligatory, since ¡he verb entails the (iii) Typically animate subject + typically animate object:

eompletion of the task, In the ease of [/1st, the adverbial is omissible in such examples as: Mrs Wood liked the new neighbours.

The hOI weolher won'l [asl.

- The new neighbours were liked (by Mrs Wood).

admire despise hug kiss reject ridieule

Monotransitive complementation beat flatter kill meet respect supporl
16.25 Verbs used in monotransitive function require a direct object, which may be (iv) Typically concrete or abstract subject + animate object:

a noun phrase, a finite clause, or a nonfinite clause. In addition to these

The news shoeked our family.

categories the verb may be a Type 1 prepositional verb (ef 16.5) or phrasal­
- Our family was shoeked (by the news).

prepositional verb (efI6.9), which for our present purposes will be treated as
affeet bo/her fascínate incense satisfy trouble
analogous to a verb with a direct object. We will begin by considering the
appal deceive grieve please surprise upset
straightforward case of verbs with a noun phrase as direct object, and then
continue with variants of this basic pattern. Note The following is a sample of monotransitive (or Type Il) phrasal verbs [Blph] with typical
objects. Further examples are ílIustrated in 16.4.

back up ['supporf someone] {el down ['disappoint' someone]

Complementation by a noun phrase as direct object b[ow dowll (a tree) make up (a story)

break off(negotiations) pass over (a questíon)

IBl1 With the passive bring about (a change) put acros! (an idea)

16.26 Direct objects are typically noun phrases which may become the subject of a burn down (a house) put off(an appointment)

draw up (a contraet) lell off['rebuke' someone]

corresponding passive clause: fill out (a form) lum off(the light)

Tom eaught the ball. ~ The ball was caught (by Tom), knock down (someone) win over ['convince' someoneJ

These, Jike the verbs in (Hv) aboye, can be used in the passive voiee.
(On the limitations of the passive transformation, ef 3.67ff.) Common
examples of monotransitive verbs allowing the passíve are:
IB21 Without the passive
begin desire get love pass support 16.27 A few stative monotransitive verbs, the most common of which is have,
believe do hear make produce take normally do not allow a passive transformation:
bite doubt help marr)' receive use
bring end hold mean remember visil
They have a nice house. - *A nice house is had (by them).
eall enjoy keep meet require want These so·called MIDDLE VERBS, including have, laek,fit, suit, and resemble, are
carry expect know mind say wash discussed in detail in 10.14.
close feel lead move see waste
cut find like need start wateh Note A related type ofverb is found in expressíons of measure sueh as cosl len dollars; weigh 20 kUos:
describe follow lose obtain study win but these can equally well be analysed as having an obligatory adjunet as complementation,
since How much ... ? is an alternatíve question to Whal . .. ? in elíeiting this kind of expression
Sorne of these verbs, such as end and move, belong to types which can be asa reply:
either intransitive or transitive (ef 16.19). Something of the range of A: Whal }d . {eost? B: Tendollars.
A: Howmuch oes lt weigh? B: Twentyki[os.
monotransitíve verbs can be seen by dividing them into semantic groups
according to the kinds of subject and object that they take:
(i) Typícally anímate subject + typically concrete object: Variants of monotransitive complementation
Professor Dobbs won the prize.
- The prize was won (by Professor Dobbs). Complementation by nODn phrase as prepositional object
carry eover examine see throw win
clean eat lower stop watch write ¡Blprl Prepositional verbs
16.28 Although verbs such aslook al have been classified as 'Type 1 prepositional
(ji) Typically animate subject + either concrete or abstract object: verbs' (those without a direct object; efI6.5), in the analysis of complemen·
Everybody understood the problem. tatíon they lit more happily with monotransitive rather than intransitive
- The problem was understood (by everybody). verbs. This is partIy because of the resemblance of the prepositional object
abolish define explain invent report utter to a direet object, eg in accepting a passive volee (ef 16.14), though usually
eover discuss forget lose rt1-le win with some awkwardness of style:
 1178 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1179

The managementpaidjor his air rares.

He admitted lo doing his bit. r confess 10 telling a lie.
This amounts 10 doing nothing. She look In playing golf.
_ His air rares were paidjor by the management.

[b] Prepositions may combine with that to form complex suoordinators such as in thal, saue that.
But also when a prepositíonal verb is followed by a that-clause Oí a to­ excepl that (ef 14.12).
[e] [n general, choice of prepositíon is the sume for morphologicalIy related verbs and nouns:
infinitíve c1ause, the preposition disappears, and the prepositional object
refer to - reference lo; believe in - belie/in. etc. There are exceptions, however: hope as a verb is
merges with the direct object of the monotransitive pattern. Compare the followed by for, while the corresponding noun construction has of: He hopesfor suecess, bu! His
following two series, (A) with a prepositional verb and (B) with an ordinary hope ofsuecess.
monotransitive verb:

' on ~he meeting.

onlt.
[Blph-prJ Phrasal-prepositional verbs
\ [6.29 Type 1 PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS also take a prepositional object. As
(A) The a reed lon meeting each other.
y g on when to meet.
we saw in 16.9, such verbs can, like prepositional verbs, occur in the passive
(that) they would meet.
(eg: She dealt with the problem ~ The problem was dea/t with); but many of
to meet each other.
them are awkward, in fact barely acceptable, in this construction: ?*The
the meeting.
discussion was wa/ked out on (by the principal negotiator). In the sample list
it.
below, the verbs marked [Pl are among those that can fairly readily occur in
8) Th b d meeting each other.
the passive:
( ey remem ere when to meet.

break inon keep away from ['a void']

(that) they had meto
(someone's conversation) keep up with (the Joneses)
\ to meet each other.
cateh up on (my reading) look down on ['despise'] [P]
Ye! the preposition omitted before a that-clause can reappear in the eateh up with ['overtake'] look forward ro
corresponding passive: That they showd meet was agreed (on), even in check up on ['investigate'] [Pl ['anticipate with pleasure'JIP]
extraposition (ef 18.33ff), where the preposition immediately follows the come down with (a cold) look outfor ['watch for']
passive verb phrase: cut down on (expenses) look up ro ['respect']
do away with ['abolish'] put up wirh ['tolerate']
It was agreed (on) eventually that they should meet.
faee up to ['confront'] run away with
Examples of Type 1 prepositional verbs are: get away with (a crime) stand up for ['defend']
aeeountfor concemrate on /ook alter/at/un/to gel down to (serious taik) turn out for (a meeting)
addto eonformto objeet lO Phrasal-prepositional verbs are rather informal, and many of them have
adjust lO eonsen! to part with idiomatic metaphorical meanings which are difficult or impossible to
admit lO eontribute to payfor paraphrase (eg: run away
agree with/on/to deal with prayfor
aim at/for decideon preaeh aboutlon
a//owfor dwe// (up)on providefor . Complementation by a finite clause
applyfor enlarge (up)on quarrel about/with
argueabout hear about/of read about
(B31 That-clause as object
arrangefor hint at refer to
[6.30 The conjunction in that-clauses which function as object may be zero, as in 1
askfor hopefor rejoiee at
hope he arrives soon; but when the clause is made passi ve, the that cannot be
attend to insist on relyon de1eted, and thus obeys the same rules as other that-clauses as subject (ef
believe in interfere with resort to 15.4). The normal passive analogue has ir and extraposition, that being again
eallfor/(up)on learnabout runfor optional:
earefor leeture about/on speak about/on
commenton listen to taketo Everybody hoped (that) she would sing.
complain about Uve on think aboutlof That she would sing was hoped byeverybody. <stilted)
eonceiveof longfor wishfor '" *She would sing was hoped by everybody.
{ It was hoped by everybody (that) she would sing.
[a] When to precedes an infinitive, it is an infinitive marker (as inforgel 10 mee! her) and not a
Note That-clauses have one of three types of verb phrase. depending on the
preposition; when it precedes an -ing participle, however, it is a preposition (as in She consenled
lO gelting engaged). Other examples of lO in a prepositional verb preceding an -ing clause are: 'governing' verb in the matrix clause:
 1180 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1181

ís coming alone. 1:· The verb also occurs in the active with a to-infinitive directly foIlowing:
. . . will be comin alone. He promised to come (cf 16.38).
(A) mdlCatIve verb: 1 supposethat he 'fl lg
{ Wl come a one. 2: The verb also occurs with a following noun phrase followed by a to­
has come alone. infinitive: They supposed her lo be dead (cfI6.50).
(B) putative should: I regret that he should be so stubborn. 3: The verb is also a member ofthe suasive group below, in·l6.32.
(C) subjunctive verb: I request that she go alone. 4: The pro-form so can stand in place of the that-clause (cf 12.28); eg: 1 think
so.
(A) with the indicative is the most usual type. The putative should type(cf
5: Say occurs with an infinitive, as in She said to come before len in the
14.25) (B) is more common in BrE than AmE, and (C) the mandative
directive sense of'She told us to come before ten'.
subjunctive (cf 3.58-9) is more common in AmE than in BrE. In BrE the
5ubjunctive 15 felt to be formal, and is found typicalIy in official styles of
Examples:
writíng. Corresponding to these three constructions, it is necessary to
acknowledge 2 boast declaré mention report 2
recognize only two main categories of superordinate verbs. Type (i) may be
add certify 2 deny2 object retort
called FACTUAL, since it goes with the indicative verb (A), and introduces
admit 2 claim l disclose predict 4 say2.4.S
what one might generalIy describe as factual or propositional information.
affirm 2 comment exclaim proclaim 2 state 2 • 4
Type (ii) may be described as SUASIVE; such verbs imply intentions to bring l • 2• 4
agree l • 3 complain explain 2
promise submit
about sorne change in the future, whether or not these are verbal1y formulated
al!ege 2 concede 3 forecast pronouncé suggest3
as commands, suggestions, etc. Suasive verbs can be followed in the that­ ?
announce­ confess2 foretel! prophesy swear
clause by aH three constructions (A-C), but the indicative (A) construction is
restricted, and is not generally accepted in AmE. argue confide guarantee l • 2 protest testify 2
There are two minor categories, Type (iii) emotive verbs (cf4.29, 10.23) assert confirm 2 hint remark DOW
I

bet contend 3
and Type (iv) hypothesis verbs, which are dealt with in 16.33. These types insist repeat warn 2
convey 4
are displayed in Fig 16.30: maintain reply write
The 'PRIVATE' type of factual verb expresses intelIeetual states sueh as belief
CLASSES OF VERB VERB PHRASE IN TH A T-CLAUSE
and intellectual acts sueh as discovery. These states and acts are 'private' in
Type (i) FACTUAL (A) indicative verb the sense that they are not observable: a person may be observed to assert
~¡/
(16.31) (eg: claim) ~// that God exists, but not to believe that God exists. Belief is in this sense
MaJor ..- 'pdvate'. Examples of such verbs are:
Type (ji) ~UA~IVE
(16.32) (eg: suggest) (B) puta ti ve should accept doubt imagine 2 • 4 realize
anticipate dream imply reason
ascertain ensure 3 indicaté recal!
Type (iii) EMOTlVE (C) mandative subjunctive verb assume 2 • 4 establish infer4 reckonl. 4
(I6.33)(eg: regret) believe 2 • 4 estimate 2 insure recognize 2
Minor
calculate expectl.2.4 judgé reflect
Type (h') HYPOTHESIS
(D) hypotheücal past OR were­ check f ancy 2 know 2 remember
(16.33) (eg: wish) subjuncti ve fear l • 4
conclude learn l reveaP
conjecture feeP mean L• 2 see
Fig 16.30 Monotransitive verbs with a that-c!ause as complementation (Class [B3])
consider 2 find 2 note 2 sense
decide 1.3 foresee notice2 • 4 show 2
Note In terms of the speech act classes of 11.2, Type (í) (factual) verbs are associated with the
deduce forget 1 observe 2 signify
expressíon of speech acts concerned with STATEMEN1'S, while Type (ji) (suasive) verbs are
assocíated wíth DIRECI1VBS. deem 2 gather4 perceive 2 • 4 supposé· 4
demonstrate guess 4 presume2 • 4 suspect 2 • 4
determine 1.3 hear4 presuppose 2 think 2 • 4
Type (i): Factual verbs discern hold pretend l understand2 • 4
16.31 We may subdivide factual verbs into 'PUBLIC' and 'PRIVATE' types. The discover 2 hOpe!·4 prove 2
former consists of speeeh act verbs introducing indirect statements:
Many ofthese verbs, especially the 'public' verbs, are also used for introdueing
They agree/admit/claim that she was misled. directspeech; eg:
The superscripts 1-5 in the lists below are to be interpreted as follows: 'Perhaps it's time to leave', suggestedTim.
 Types of verb complementation 1183
1182 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

For detailed discussion of this use of verbs of speaking and thinking, el '
The mten ded{the news to be suppressed.
y that the news (should) be suppressed. <more formal)
14.30it:
With some verbs, such as allow, the infinitive construction is by far the more
Note [al NOl induded in the first list aboye are verbs expressing manner of ulterance, such as mumb/e,
muuer.5hou(. ","imper, whisper, and yell. These can introduce direct speech quotations (eg: '1 am
usual.
• ,,}Ie muuereá), but they can also introduce indirect or reported speech by means of a thal­
elause: She mu!lered Ihal she was ilI. The list of such verbs is large, and some verbs occur more Other types oC verb with that-c1ause complementation

easily with Ihal·clauses than others do. Type (iii): Emotive verbs

[b] Al! the following phrasal verbs belonging lO this 'factual' category are 'public' verbs: chime
in, lel an, lel OU!, make out, poinl out, repor! back:
Tim poínted oUI that the train was often late.
In this construction, the particle has to precede the thal-clause.
16.33 This consists of a small group of verbs such as regret, marvel, rejoiee, and
wonder, which can occur with (A) the indicative or (B) the putative should
construction, but not with the mandative subjunctive construction:

[el Among the 'prívate verbs', see, suppose, and assume can be uscd with a Ihal-clause in which
worries about it.

lhe present tense rerers to future time (cfI4.23):

1 regret that she should worry about it.

See (to ít) that they get somethíng to eal. {

See here means 'make sure'.

*worry about it.

[di Doubl, being a verb of negative meaning, is typically followed by whelherfif(ef 15.6, 16.35).

Bu! more especially when it is in a nonassertive context, doubt occurs with a thal-clause:

Semantically, this group belongs with adjectival constructions such as be

1don'! doubt (buI) thal they'JI accept a! once. sorry, be anxious (ef 16.71).
Note !hat in this construction, doubl is sometimes followed by bUI. Doubl canno! be followed by
_-'Type (iv): Hypothesis verbs
an altemative wh-clause (efI5.6):
'1 dou bt whe!her or no! they'U accept. The two verbs wish and (in the imperative) suppose may be followed by a
that-clause containing a verb in the hypothetical past or the were-su bjunctive:
Type (ii): Suasive verbs I wish (that) she were here; She wished she hadn't spent the money; Suppose
16.32 These verbs can be followed by a that-clause either with putative should (ef (that) one of us died. ef 14.24 on the use of tense and mood following these
14.25) or with the mandative subjunctive. A third possibility, a that-clause verbs, which may also occur in a number of other patterns. In particular, for
with an indicative verb, is largely restrícted to BrE: other uses of wish, efI6.38, 16.41, 16.44, 16.46, 16.57.
The modal idiom would rather (or lts contraction 'd rather) (ef 3.46) is a
ShOUld leave }
People are demanding that she leave the company. third example of a hypothesis verb:
{
lea ves <esp BrE) I'd rafher you didn't mention the price.

1t is .núl'c d.ifficült, in the casc of suasive verb:;, to rr..ak;; a subdí vision between Many resid".'!1ts wo!t!d rather that the bus service were subsidized.

'PUBLICo and 'PRIVATE' verbs: for this reason, we present the verbs below in a Complementation by an extraposed subject that-clause
single listo Nevertheless, gene rally it is usefuI to see a distinction between the 16.34 The that-clause in examples like It seems that you are mistaken is not an object
'public' verbs which describe indirect directives (such as request; ef 14.33), ofthe verb, but rather an extraposed subject. Nevertheless, it resembles other
and the 'private' verbs which describe states of volition or desire, such as that-clauses we have been examiníng (a) in having a deletable that, and (b)
intend: ín being semantically associated wíth the preceding verbo Moreover, no
agree l demand l intendl, 2 reeommend 2 nonextraposed that-clause is possible in this case (*That you are mistaken
allow 2 desire 1 ,2 mové request!,2 seems), and so it seems appropriate to include this with that-c1ause
arrange l determine I ordain2, 4 require complementatíon. The main verbs occurring in this pattern fonn two groups
askl, 2 enjoin 2 order! resolve l of synonyms: (i) seem and appear; and (H) ehanee, happen, and transpire:
beg!,2 ensure pledge!' 2 rule It appears that Frank lost his tempero

command 2 entreat 2 prayl' 2,4 stipulate It happened that the weather was exceptionally cold.

concede grant prefer!' 2,4 suggest 2 ,4

decidé insist pronounee 2 urgé The phrasal verbs come about 'happen'] and turn out [= 'transpire'] also
deeree 4 instruct 2 propose!' 2 vote!, 2 belong here. Appear and seem can be followed by the pro-form so: Jt seemsj
appears so. The adverb so sometimes occurs before happen or one of its
The superscripts 1,2 and 4 have the same meaning as in 16.31 aboye, The synonyms: It so happensj happened that . , ..
choice between the three constructions in the that-clause in [1] above varies
between AmE and BrE. For detailed discussion of these preferences, ef Note [a) A related construction with extraposed object (ef 18.35) occurs in the following transitive
14.25. phrasal verbs:

It will be noted that the noun phrase + infinitive construction (ef16.50) is let (il) OUI; noise (it) aboutfabroad; put (ie) about; rub (ie) in:

Jack let (jI) out [= 'divulged'] that the animal had been stolen.

a common alternative to the that-clause for suasive verbs:

 1184 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1185

Thc it which occurs as prcparato~y ohjcct is in this case optional. although the omission is not 3: The verb can also occur with a foHowing wh-infinitive clause (ef 16.37);
usual. In the comparable construction rake jI Ihal, the il ís obligatory: f lake ir Ihat you are eg: 1 didn'¡ know what to sayo
enjoying yourselL'es.
[b] Compare the complementation of seem. appear, etc by an as if'clause (ej 16.24 Note [a)). The preposition of a prepositional verb is optionally omitted before a wh­
[e) On the related constructions tI slrikes me IlwI ... , tI (Jccursiseems /O me 1!¡111 ... , eJ 16.59
clause, and hence it is convenient to include in the aboye list verbs for which
Note, 16.60 Note.
the wh-clause is basically a prepositional object. For example:
I inquired (about) whether the tíckets were ready.
IB41 Wh-c\ause as object
Theyhaven't yet decided (on) which ftight they will take.
16.35 Many of the verbs which take a that-clause as object can also take a wh­
interrogative clause (cfI5.5ff): For the corresponding passive, again, the preposition is optional, whether or
not the nominal clause is in extraposition:
I asked her to confirm whether the f1ight had be en booked.

Can you confirm which ftight we are taking? Which ffight they will take has not yet been deeided (on).

They haven't yet confirmed how much the f1ight costs. It has not yet been deeided (on) which f1ight they will take.

Notice that in aH three illustrative sentences aboye, confirm occurs in what Sometimes there is a slight difference of meaning if the preposition is
may be described as a nonassertive context (ef 2.53). The use of the wh­ included; contrast:
interrogative clause (which generally implies Iack of knowledge on the part
of the speaker) is particularly common where the superordinate c1ause is She asked what he wanted.
interrogatíve or negative. Gn the other hand, there are sorne verbs which ,¡. She asked about what he wanted.
themselves express uncertainty, such as ask and wonder: these occur with the Whereas ask introduces the question which the speaker actually asked and
wh-c1ause without this nonassertive constraint. Examples of verbs taking the for which she requires an answer, ask about does not indicate what the
wh-in terrogati ve clause are: question might have been. Gther prepositional verbs in this class are: argue
antieipate [NA] doubt note [NA]3 (about); beware (01) (ef3.54 Note); not eare (about); check (on); depend (on);
argue [NA]2 enquire 2 ,3 notiee[NAj3 hear (about); refieet (on). There is also the phrasal-prepositional verb find out
arrange [NA]3 establish 3 observe [NAj3
(about).
aseertain3 explain 3 pereeive [NA]3

Note A few verbs are followed by a wh-exclamative clause (indirect exclamation: ('f I 0.1 04) beginning
ask 2 ,3 express point out [NAj with whal or hoH': l realized whar aJeoll had been; 1 kno", hol!' busy J'ou are. These clauses are
beware 2 fathom [NA] ponder3 difficult to distinguish from wh-interrogative clauses. Other verh, in (he p"ttero ind'loe ~~rlt1im,
calcula te [NAP ftnd out 2, 3 prediet [NA] express, maroel, reflect,lhínk.
care[NA] 1, 2 forget 3 prove

eheek 2,3 guess realize [NA]

record [NA]

Complementation by a nonfinite clause

ehoosé hear [NA]2
confirm [NA] imagine [NA]3 refieet 2

eonsider [NAP indieate [NA]3 remember [NA]3 Nonfinite clauses in complementation

16.36 When a nonfinite clause follows the verb it is often difficult to separate three
decide2.3 inquire 2 ,3 say(NA]3
of the major types of complementation which we distinguished in 2.16. This
demonstrate 3 judge3 see(NAj3
is especially true if a noun phrase intervenes between the superordinate verb
depend 2 knoW[NAP show 3
tel! [NA}!' 3
and the verb of the nonfinite construction:
disclose learn [NAj3
diseover 3 make out {NA] think (NA]3 They like the ehildren to visit them.

discuss 3 mind [NA]l wonder3 They supposed (he ehildren to be guilty. (2]

They asked the ehildren lo bring somefood. [3]

The symbol (NA] after a verb indicates that this complementation is
particularly likely to occur in a nonassertive contexto The superscripts 1-3
are interpreted as follows:
1: This verb is part of a negative or predominantly negative construction
when combined with the wh-interrogative clause: not eare; not mind; ean't
fathom; ean't tell.
2: The verb is basically a prepositional verb, and has a preposition which
may be optionaHy added (see below),
Gn the face of it, aH three of these sentences conform to the same pattern
(verb + noun phrase + to-infinitive ...). But there are reasons for classifying
them differentIy:
[l} exemplifies MONOTRANSITIVE complementation (l6.38ff)
(ef: They like the ehildren's visits - SVO)
(2) exemplifies COMPLEX TRANSITlVE complementation (l6.43ff)
(ef: They supposed the ehildren guilty - SVOC)
1186 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1187

[3] exemplifies DITRANSITIVE complementation (l6.55ff) [B51 Wh-infinitive clause as object

(ef: They asked the ehildren a question SVOO) 16.37 It is as well to begin the survey of nonfinite c1auses as objects with c1auses
We will return in 16.64ffto differences between examples such as these. At which happen to be immediately related to those dealt with in 16.35. These
present, since we are dealing with monotransitive complementation, we are are wh-infinitive c1auses (ef 15.5):
concerned only with the type illustrated by [1]. In nominal function, only two He learned how lO sail a boat as a small boy.

kinds of nonfinite c1ause normally occur: the to-infinitive c1ause and the -ing You must not forget when lO keep your mouth shut.

participle c1ause. Hence nonfinite c1auses functioning as object can be 1couldn't decide (on) whieh bieycle to buy.

distinguished, for the present purposes, in terms of the categories in Tab/e

16.36: The last example illustrates the occurrence of the optional preposition with
prepositional verbs, as already observed with finite c1auses of the same type.
Table 16.36 Nonfinite clauses as object The corresponding passive pattern also occurs:

Without subject With subject The Curies discovered how to isolate radioaetive elements.
- How to isolate radíoaetive elements was discovered by the Curies.
lo-infinitive [B6] }ack hates [B8] J ack hates
to miss the train. her to miss the train. The passive with extraposition (efI6.30, 16.35) is also sometimes possible:

-ing participle [B7] Jack hates [B9] Jack hates
missing the train. her missing the train.
In Tab/e 16.36, the italicized parts are analysed as nonfinite c1auses acting as
direct object. The status of the infini tive c1ause and its subject in pattern [B8]
is discussed in 16.41. Later, in 16.66, we consider the arguments for
considering her an object in the [B8] and [B9] examples.
The fol1owing criteria confirm that the itaJicized portion of [B6-B9] is
basically a nonfinite c1ause as direct object:
Early in the present century, it was discovered how to iso/ate radioaetive
elements.
The verbs marked '3' in the list in 16.35 aboye provide a sample of verbs
occurring with the wh-infinitive c1ause as object.
Note Many verbs which introduce wh-infinitive clauses rarely ir ever introduce yes-110 interrogative
clauses (introduced by whelher) of the same type: 1 have jórgollell how 10 swím but no! *¡ have
forgorten whe/her lo swim. Among such verbs are demo/!strale, dísco~'er, and explain. Nevertheless
in unusual con!exts such sentences can be found:
1 have forgotten ..helher 10 ulljí-eeze thísfood before cooking il.

(A) The nonfinite c1ause can be replaced by a pronoun it coreferring to a

jB61 Subjectless infinitive c!ause as direet object
clause, or by a no~n norninalizing the meaning of :l clause: f6.38 When a subjectless ínhmtlve clause is direct object, the 'understood' subJect
Everyone likes it; He likes her frequent visits.
(B) The nonfinite clause can be made the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence (ef of the infinitive clause is always the same as the subject of the superordinate
18.29):
clause. Verbs taking this kind of complementation are listed below,
subdivided into semantic categories:
What everyone likes (best) is to ta/k to her. [B6]
What everyone likes (best) is ta/king 10 her. [B7] O) dread[B7, B8] (iv) ehoose[B7] (vi) ask (vii) affeel
What he likes (best) is for her lO eall ofien. [B8] hate [B7, B8] hope beg c1aim
like [B7, B8] intend [B7, B8] decline profess [B7]
In this version of [B8], as the infinitive c1ause is now in complement
loathe [B7, B8] mean [B7, B8] demand
position, the introductory for has to make its appearance. (viii) afford [B7]
love [B7, B8] need[B7] offer
(C) For [B8] the introductory for itself, where it appears, is a marker of the attempl
prefer[B7, B8] plan [B7] promise
construction as a nonfinÍte clause. eontrive
propose [B7] refuse
(D) Correspondingly, for [B9], a subject pronoun in the objective case can (ii) begin [B7] endeavour
want[B7, B8] swear
often be replaced, in formal style, by a possessive pronoun (cfl4.6): eease [B7] fail
wish [B8] undertake
He doesn't like melmy coming often. commenee [B7] learn
vow
cominue [B7] (v) deign manage
This is what one would expect (ef 15.12) given that me and my can both
starl [B7] disdain [B7] negleet
be subjects of an -ing clause.
he/p [B7, B8] omit
(iii) forgel [B7]
Not all verbs that we consider direct objects satisfy al! these criteria. scorn [B7] try [B7]
remember [B7]
Nevertheless, it is on this basis that the verbs Usted below are included in the venture [B7]
regret [B7]
classes [B6-B9].
 1188 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1189

The symbols to the right of sorne verbs indicate that these verbs also occur . Tbe lo-infinítive here, howcver, has a resuhative meaning which makes the construction
resemble on the one hand that of a catenative verb, :md on the other hand that of an inlransitíve
with the subjectless -ing clause (Type [B7]) or with the infinitive clause with
a subject (Type [B8]). From the latter group, howeyer, verbs such as ask are verb folJowed byan adjunct. With pay and (to a lesser extent) woit, Ihe adjunct status is more
obvious, as is clear from th~ possibility offroming the ínfinitivc c1ause:
excluded, because the construction of sentences like He asked me to help is You have to pay ro go in.
ditransitive (el 16.63) rather than rnonotransitive. - (In arder) lO go in, you ha ve to payo
We now add a list of prepositional verbs belonging lo the same pattern He waited lo see her.
[B6pr]. The preposition is omitted before the infinitive clause object (cI9.2), - ?(Inorder) lO see her, he wailed.
but is present where the prepositional object is a noun phrase or, for that Similarly, unlike begin + infinitive, the infinitive following SIO{' ís purposive; contras!:
She [S] began IV] to eat lunch [O].
matter, an -ingclause. Compare: BUT: She [S] stopped [V] to eat lunch lA].
about the baby. [Blpr] On the other hand, these two verbs have matchíng uses ín complementation Type [B7J:
She didn't bOlher aoout feeding the baby. [B7pr] She { sbegan} . lunch.
topped eatmg
{ [B6pr]
to feed the baby.
In the following list, the verbs are placed in semantic groupings corresponding
to sorne of those aboye (apart from an additional miscellaneous group (ix»,
and the omitted preposition is placed in square brackets: (B7) Subjectless -ing participle clause as object
(i) long [for] [B8] (vi) agree [tojonjabout] [B8] 16.39 Again, with this type of complementation, the subject of the nonfinite verb
ache (for] assent [to] is usually identical with the subject ofthe preceding verb:
aim (for] [B8] consent [to] 1 love lístening to music.
aspire [to] The accused denied having met the witness.
(vii) pretend [to]
burn(for] ['The accused denied that hejshe had met the witness']
burst (for] (viii) strive (for]
(not) care (for] seek (for] This rule accounts for the restriction that when the participle is followed by
c1amour (for] [B8] a reflexiye pronoun, the pronoun norrnally has to agree (in number, person,
(ix) arrange(forJ[B7, B8] and gender) with the subject of the superordinate c1ause:
itch (for] [B8]
yearn (for] [B8]
(ji¡) bother(about] [B7, B8]
decide ron] [B7]
resolve [on] [B7]
prepare [ror] [B7]
S he
-¡ . ..
l
herself.
He .. enJoys smgmg to himselj. lI
condescend [10] serve (for] [B7] But wíth one small group of verbs (rnarked '2' in the list below) it is not the
delight [in] [B7] understood subjectofthe particíple, but its understood object that is identified
hesitate [about] [B7] with the subject of the superordinate clause. In such cases, therefore, the
participle construction matches in meaning the passive of the corresponding
Examples:
infinitíve construction [B6]:
Martin longed to leave home.

mendíng. painting.
They sought to rnake amends.
Your shoes need { to be mended. That door needs { to be painted.
1 would hesita te to interfere.

We've decided to move to a new house.

(Th~ aboye use of need ís often replaced, in dialectally restricted usage, by an
Note [al We distínguish the verbs of Type [B6] from <::!ltenative verbs (el 3.49) of 'seemíng' and
'occurrence' preceding infinitíve clauses which <are not dírect objects, but whích relate
semanlícally to a Ihal-c1ause as subjecl: He appears lO like Ihe sha.,. - Tilar he likes the show
appears [Irue]. The verbs in Ihis c1ass correlate c10sely with those occurring with obligatory
extraposition ofthe subjecl (cfI6.34) appcar, seem, chance, happen,lurn OUI:
Jt appearedft;hancedthat the children were asleep.
"" The children appeared/chanced to be asleep.
lb] Another group of verbs which are closely associated with a following infinitive but which do
not belong to Type [B6J ioc1udes hasten, conspire, and set out:
1 hastened lO reassure her.
equivalent use of want.)
For an addítional group of verbs (marked '3' in the list below), the subject
of the particíple is indefiníte, and is independent of the subject of the
preceding verbo For example, in He recommended introducing a wealth tax, it
is clear that the person recommending the tax is likely to be different from the
persones) who would be responsible for introducing it. The meaning of this
sentence is equívalent to that of He recommended the introduction 01 a wealth
tax.
In the following list of verbs in the pattern of [B7], Types (i) and (ii)

correspond to Type [B6(i)] ('emotive') and Type {B6(ii)] ('aspectual'). The

They conspired lO murder Caesar.
verbs grouped under (iií) are however in thiscase a miscellany, since further
He set out lO conquer the world.
sernantic grouping is difficult.
1190 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1191

(i) (can't) bear l (not)fanci miss l

This paraphrase relation, however, exists mainly withverbs of dynamic
begrudge l hate l regret l • 4
meaning; contrast verbs of stati ve meaning:
detest! like! relish!
I admit knowing him.
dislike l loathe!
love l
resent l

(can't) stand 1

'*
1 admit having known him.
dread l

(not) mind l

5: On the construction with (ry, cf 16.40.

enjoy
(ii) cease quit start l
Examples of prepositional verbs belonging to this class ([B7pr]) are:

commence resume stop I

bankon l decide on playat seeabout!
eontinue
counton l delight in l resort to shrinkfrom
(jii) admit4 forget l • J. 4 recommend l. J ;O Examples of phrasal verbs ([B7ph]) are:
avoid (ean't) heli rememberl. 3.4
eonfess4 imagine! repent break off give up Jeaue off putoff takeup
eonsider ínvolvel. J require 2 Examples of(B7ph-pr] are:
deny4 justifyl.J risk l ,3
deserue 2 need l ,2 save l ,3 doaway with get around to go infor look forward fo
diseouragel. 3 permit l ,) tryS The following sentences ilIustrate these patterns:
envisage l ,3 propose want l , (dialectaI 2 )
escape reealll. 3.4 We counted on getting there early. [B7pr]
I've taken up playing tennís. [B7ph]
The verbs ofType (i) preceded by a negative (such as ean't bear) have a built­ Jim is looking forward lo having the house to himself. [B7ph-pr]
in negative bias, so that they cannot occur in straightforward assertive
contexts: It IS important to notice that the lo in gel around to, lookforward to, and resor!
to is not an infinitive marker, but a preposition. Hence 1 am looking forward
Cora doesn't mind waiting. ?*Cora minds waiting. to seeing you is grammatical, but not *1 am looking forward fo see you.
They can, however, occur in nonassertive contexts:
Note [al The superscript '1' in the aboye lisU is not added lo verbs like stop, although a noun phrase
Do you mind waiting?
can be inserted between the participle and (he preceding verb in ~uch cases:
How can anyone bear wearing clothes like that?
They stopped (her) working all night.
Thís ls because the construction containing the extra noun phrase (her in the aboye example) is
and also in 'second instance' contexts, ie where the construction refers back arguably complex transítive (e! 16.53) rather than monotransítive (as is evident from the
to a nonassertive occurrence of the same construction earlier in the discourse: marginally acceptable passive ?She was slopped working all nighl).
[b) Also we exclude from the aboye lists catenative verbs such as go in We wenl running and gel
stand] wor k'mgwlt
. h t hatglr.
.1 in Gel moving! (e!3.49).
A : 1[ dcan't'ji
on t anc)'
Choice betwecn the infinitive and participle constructions (lB6) and (B71)
B : We, ral you 'ti'
1I 1,m a f'd HAVE to [stand it. . k'
jiancy wor . h h ero
mg Wlt
J 16.40 Where both constructions [B6] and {B7] are admitted, there is usualIy felt to
be a difference of aspect or mood which infiuences the choice, As a rule, the
Superscripts in the aboye lists are interpreted as follows: infinitive gives a sense of mere 'potentiality' for action, as in She hoped fo
1: The verb also occurs in pattern [B9], ie with a subject preceding the leam French, while the participle gives a sense of the actual 'performance' of
participle (ef 16.42). the action itself, as in She enjoyed leaming Freneh. In the case of try, the
2: The participle has a 'passive' interpretation (see aboye). double meaning is particularly clear:
3: The participle has 'independent' interpretation; ie the subject of the [1 ]
participle clause is not necessarily coreferential with the subject of the Shel '1a tne
' d {to bribe the jailor.
bn'b' h " lor.
mg teJa!
preceding verb, and may have indefinite meaning.
4: The participle may occur with a perfective construction: [1] implies that Sheila attempted an act ofbribery, but did not manage it; [2]
implies that she actualIy did bribe the jailor, but without (necessarily)
1 admit having seen it. (l]
achieving what she wanted. With other verbs, the difference is more subtle,
But with such verbs, the nonperfective construction can also be used with and may be overruled or neutralized by the meaning of the verb of the main
past meaning. Thus [1] is synonymous with [2]: clause. For example, the negative meaning of avoid and escape cancels out
1 admit seeing it. [2] the sense of 'performance' in He escapedlavoided being branded as a traitor.

1192 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
Let us consider more carefully three classes of verb which take both
constructions:
(O EMOTlVE VERas (see Type (i) in the lists in 16.38 and 16.39), With the
verbs which take both constructions (e/read, hate, like, loathe, love, and
prefer) the bias of the infinitive towards 'potentíality' tends to fa vour its
use in hypothetícal and nonfactual contexts; eg:
Would you like{ ?./o see } my stamp collectíon?
. seemg
1hate{?to see.m} rude, but you're blocking the view,
,seemmg
On the other hand, the particípial construction is favoured where the
speaker is referring to something which definitely happens or has
happened:
, loalhed {?to
Bnan 1" live} m
, the country,
lUmg
(But with would loathe, the infinitive is just as acceptable as the -ing
participle,)
Here to Uve implies that Brian could exercise choice about where to
live, whereas living presupposes that he actually did live in the country,
and probably had no choice in the matter, But in other contexts there is
little appreciable difference between the two constructions:
Do you prefer [ tocoOk 1 [to eat J'
coa k'mg . for yourself, or ea t'mg .,m a restaurant?
(in ASF2C7ü'AL VERBS of beginni!1g, (:a~ti!1urng) and ending also in many
cases take both constructions:
Lucy started/cOntinUed/ceased{to
IIntmg
W~ite}While in hospital.
In such examples as this, there is no observable difference of meaning
between the constn,lctíons. But in other cases, a contrast between
'potentiality' and 'performance' may influerice the choice:
to speak, but stopped because she objected.
H e started{ speak"mg, an d k ept on for more t h an an h bur.
The association of the -ing participle with the progressive aspect may
also influence a p[\;ference for the participle where multiple activities
are involved:
to open a.llthe cupboards,
H e began { openlflg
,
all the cupboards.
Here opening is more appropriate than to open, While sorne verbs in this
group (begin, continue, cease, sean), allow both constructions, others
(finish, stop) altow.only the participle construction. (Go on and keep (on)
may be classified as catenative verbs (cf3.49); onfinishfstop followed by
the infinitive, cf16.38 Note [b].)
Types of verb complementation 1193
(di) RETROSPECTlVE VERBS. For three verbslorget, remember, and regret, the
'potentiality'/,performance' distínction becomes extended into the past
so that there is a temporal (as well as in part modal) difference between
the two constructions. The infinitive construction indicates that the
action or event takes place after (and as a result of) the mental process
denoted by the verb has begun, while the reverse is true for the participle
construction, which refers to a preceding event or occasion coming to
mind at the time indicated by the main verb:
1 remembered to fill out the formo ['1 remembered that 1 was to fill
out the form and then did so']
{ 1 remembered filling out the form, r'l remembered that 1 had filled
out the form']
lforgot 10 go to the bank. ['1 forgot that 1 was to go to the bank, and
therefore did not do so'J
{ lforgot (about) going to the bank, [rare without about; '1 forgot that
1 went to the bank' or', .. that 1 should have gone .. .']
1regret to tel! you that John stole i1. ['1 regret that 1 am about to tel!
you that John sto le i1']
{ 1 regret telling you that John stole i1. ['I regret that 1 told you that
John stole i1' or ' .. , that 1 am now telling you ... 'J
16.41
[B8) Complementation by to-infinitive clause (with subject)
The verbs in this group (as distinct from the apparently similar 'object +
't. infinitive" -:o!1struction; el 16#50) are restricted to a small numbcr chicfly
denoting (nol) liking or wanting: (can't) bear, desire, hate, like, ¡oL'e, prefer,
want, and wish:
They don't like the house to be left empty.
1 wouldn 't want you to lose your way,
After these verbs, the noun phrase preceding the infinitive cannot be made
the subject of a passive main c1ause: *The house isn't liked to be left empty (by
them),
There is moreover an alternative construction (chiefly restricted to AmE)
in which the noun phrase is preceded by for which marks it as the subject of
an infinitive clause, rather than as object ofthe main clause:
Jack prefersfor his wife to drive the truck. <esp AmE)
These two observations point in the direction of a monotransitive analysis of
such verbs,
In the following, however,Jor has a different status and must occur in both
AmE and BrE:
They arranged for Mary to come at once,
In this case the construction is that of a prepositional verb arrange for
([B8prl), the infinitive clause acting as prepositional object. Other examples
 1194 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1195

wherejor occurs as part of a prepositional verb are: askfor, eatlfor, aehefor, Thus thefrom is optional.
aim for, bum for, burst jor, eare for, clamour for, erave for, hope for, iteh for, In the very few cases where we ha ve a choice between an -ing participle
long jor, plan jór, prepare for, wait for, yearn for: and a to-infinitive construction there is usual1y felt to be a difference of aspect
or mood such as that described in 16.40:
We were al! aching/burning/bursting jor the performance to begin.
They plannedfor the mayor to arrive on the following day. 1 hate the children lo quarrel [, , . they're ordinarily such good
fríends]. [1]
For some of the verbs in these clauses, the that-clause with should ([B3(ií)j) is
1 hate the children quarrelling [... all the time]. [2]
an alternative form of complementation:
focuses on the children's 'potential' for quarrelling; [2] emphasizes their
They planned that the mayor should arrive on the following day.
'performance' the point being that they do quarrel, rather often in fact. An
A further reason in favour of a monotransitive analysis of verbs of Type aspectual difference is uppermost in:
[B8pr] is the possibility (in some cases) of a passive, with or without
ehiming (... all night long).
extraposition: cloc k {
t he
1 hate .. .
to ehlme (... Just when I'm gOtng to sleep).
For the administration to resign so quickly was not called foro
It had been arranged for the food to be served indoors. The infinitive suggests a single chime, while the participle suggests continual
chiming (ef4.35, 4.67f).
Note [al Sorne [B8pr] verbs, such as arrangefor, planfor, and preparefor, also have a [B2] construction
in which they are followed by a direct object. Compare: Have you arranged the meeting? Have Note Verbs ofthe 'observational' type, eg: notice in 1 noticed him writing a leller, do not belong in this
you arrangedfor ¡he meeting? Compare also She askedfor the children to leave and She asked ¡he group, and are dealt with in 16.53. For such verbs, the genitive is not a possible alternative: *¡
children /O leave. noticed hís writíng a Jet/er.
[b] Desire, expect, and intend, although they tit into this category with respect to introductory for
and the extraposed passive, also accept the passive of the 'raised object' which applies to [C4]
(cfI6.50). Thus expect, for example, pennits two associated passives:
It was nOt expected for the administration to resigno Complex transitive complementation
The administration was not expected to resigno 16.43 In 2.16 we applied the term COMPLEX TRANSlTIVE to verbs in the pattems
The former of these, however, is felt to be awkward and of marginal acceptability. On such
SVOC and SVOA. In this chapter we extend the term to other clause patterns
contlicts of c1assífication cfI6.64jf.
in which an object is followed by another element which is not an object (eg
a nonfinite clause). A distinguishing characteristic o[ complex transitive
jB91 Complementation by -ing participle clause (with subject) compiemc:ul"i.ÍúlI j" thallhe two el<:ments íuiiuwiug the: yerb (eg object and
6.42 Verbs which accept this pattern comprise a considerable subset of those object complement) are notionally equated with the subject and predication
verbs accepting the subjectless -ing clause as object: they include the verbs respectively of a nominal c1ause. For example:
marked '1' in the list of 16.39. The genitive form of the subject is an option MONOTRANSlTIVE: She presumed lhat her father was dead. [1]
in formal English (ef 15.12), but is often felt to be awkward or stilted: She presumed her father to be dead. [2]
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE : 1". h d d
{ Sh e presumed her Jat er ea . [3]
1 dislike him/ his driving my car.
We look forward to you/your beeoming our neighbour. In [3J, her father (O) and dead (C) are equivalent in meaning to a separate
In some cases, particularIy when the subject of the participle is not a pronoun clause, viz the that-clause in [l]. This relationship remains where the object
and does not have personal reference, the geniti ve option is rare: complement is expanded into an infinitive clause, as in {2]. Yet her father to
be dead, in spite of its clause-like meaning and appearance, does not act
syntactica1ly as a single constituent, as is evident in the passive, where the O
h' l' cras h'mg mto
h { vehicle}
P eter stopped te? . t h"
e .ence.
.ve lees ' is separated from its complement:
The genitive is also rare with a pronoun with nonpersonal reference: Her father was presumed (by her) to be dead.

1 look forward to {?~t }geUing warmer in spring.

.lts
The verbs of negative meaning stop, prevent, and prohibit have a related
ditransitive construction (cfI6.56f) in which the prepositionfrom precedes
the -ing clause as second object:
They tried tó preven! the planefrom landing on the runway.
This divisibility into two elements of a semantically clausal construction
following the verb is the defining property of complex transitive complement­
ation.
We begin with three already familiar patterns of complex transitive
complementation: those corresponding to [A I-A3] (ef 16.21-4).
Note On the simílarities between complex transitive and ditransitive complementation, see 16.66ff

\
 1196 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1197

ICII Adjective phrase as object complement [B3] The verb can also be used monotransitively (el Note (a]) with a
16.44 The SVOC pattern (ef2.16) in whích the object complement is an adjective that-clause.
phrase is found with verbs which, like copular verbs, may be divided into [C2] The verb can also occur wíth a noun phrase as object complement.
CURRENT and RESULTING types: [C4] The verb can a1so occur with an object + infinítive construction.
You should keep the cabbagefresh. (1] Examples:
That music drives me mad. [2]
The secretary /eft a1l the letters unopened.

The verb keep in [1] introduces the current attributefresh, while the verb The doctors pronounced her conditíon utter/y hope/ess. Oi)

drive in [2] introduces the resulting attribute mad. These two verbs therefore 1 want my coffee stronger than this. (iii)

exemplify the two main categories of complex transiti ve complementatíon in We've alwaysfound the assistants very frtend/y. (iv)

this pattern. The current verbs (ef16.21ff) are usually staiive, and the The long waIk made us a11 hungry.

resulting verbs are always dynamic. Further examples of each type are: They have declared the house unfit for habitatíon. (vi)

CURRENT
Note that the adjectival complement may contain modifiers and adjectival
RESULTING
complementation (ef16.68-83). A passive construction in which the direct
ho/d[C2] (v) drive [C4] object becomes subject is also an important criterion:
keep [C2] get [C4]
/eave [C2] make [C2, C4] AH the letters were left unopened (by the secretary). (i)
prove [B3, C2, C4] Her condition was pronounced utter/y hope/ess (by the doctors). (ji)
(ii) eall [C2]
render[C4] Note [a] There is sometimes a meaning difference between the object complement construction and
eonfess [B3, C2, C4]
send the corresponding that-clause [B3) or objeet + infinitive [C4] eonstruction:
profess [B3, C2, C4]
1 imagined myself severely ill. [3]
turn

pronounce [B3, C2, C4] ,p 1 imagined myself to be severely ill. [4]

report [B3, C4] eertify [B3, C2, C4]
Sentence [3] suggests that the speaker is indulgíng in a flight of faney; sentence [4J suggests that
declare [B3, C2, C4] the speaker is deluding himself (eg that he is a hypochondriae). A differenee is also to be
like observed between [5] and [6]:
proclaim [B3, C2, C4]
prefer[B3]
They gol him angry. [5J
want
,p They got him lo be angry. (6]
wish [B3, C2, C4]
where [5J suggests 'made him angry in spite of himself', and [6] suggests 'persuaded him to be
angry'. (Yet a third meaning is represented by Don'l get me wrong ['Don't misunderstand me 'J.)
(iv) belíeve [B3, C2,
Two íurther comrasts are:
We found the ehildren undernourished. [' We encou nte red them ín tha t cond itíon 'J [7]
eonsider [B3, C2, C4]

,p Wefoundthe children lo be undernourished. [8]

deem [B3, C2, C4]
['Our examination revealed their condition']
find [B3, C2, C4]
and:

ho/d[B3, C4]
He declared the meeting offieial.

imagine [B3, C2, C4]

He declared the meeting lO be officiaL

where [9] has a performati ve and resultati ve force ('The meeting beeame official as a result of his
judge [B3, C2, C4]
announeement') not regularly present in [lO].
presume[B3, C2, C4]
[b] Have in sentences sueh as We have IWO employees s;ck is not a member of the [CI] category,
rate [C2, C4]
but belongs to a special have-existential construetion lo be discussed, with existential sentences
reekon [B3, C2, C4]
in general, in 18.51. Since it has no passive, this elause construction lacks one criterial feature of
suppose [B3, C2, C4]
comp1ex transitive constructions: *Two employees are had sick.
[e] There is a variant order in which the object complement precedes the object; eg: He thought
think [B3, C2, C4]
desirable most ofthe women in the room (efIS.37). This order tends to occur when the object is a
long noun phlase.
Type (O is a category of current verbs of general meaning; Type (ii) consists
offactual speech act verbs (cf16.31); Type (iii) of volitional verbs; Type (iv) 16.45 In addition to the verbs listed in 16.44 aboye, there are many verbs which
of verbs of inte11ectual state; Type (v) of general resulting verbs; and Type belong more peripherally to Type [C1]. Their membership is more peripheral
(vi) ofresulting verbs referring to speech acts which havethe performative in one or both of the following respects: (a) They occur only in restricted
force of declarations. (Ho/d occurs twice in the aboye list: as a general verb sequences such as rub ... dry (ef 16.17); (b) They can occur in the [BI]
[Type (i), as in She he/d her head high]; and as an inte11ectual state verb [Type monotransitive construction without appreciable change of meaning; íe, the
(iv), as in 1 ho/d you responsib/e]). The symbols added after sorne verbs object complement is optional, and resembles an optional adverbial. Iil the
indicate other related complementation types to which those verbs belong: following typical co11ocations, the object noun phtase is symbolized by N:

1"

 Types of verb complementation 1199

1198 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

(i) hold 2 (iv) believe (v) appoint l.2· 3

CURRENT RESULTING
keep2 consider 2 choose!' 2. 3
bring (a child) up health/ boil (an egg) 8aft 1 eleetl. 2. 3
leave! deem
buy N eheapl erap (hair) shor¡1 esteem l. 2. 3 make
return (a letter) unopened! freeze N hard' (ii) cal!
canfess find prove
serve (food) hOlleold' paint N red/blue/ ... 1 imagine 2 vote!
seU N eheaplnew 1 roll N flat profess
judge 2
sweep (the fioor) clean 1 pronounce (vi) baptize 1.3
presume certify 2.3
calour N blue!yellow/ ... 1 (iii) wish rate 2 christen t • 3
dye N pinklgreen/ ... 1 reckon 2 erown l • 2• 3
knock (someone) senseless suppose declare
polish N smooth 1 think
scrape N clean I proclaim
name!·2.3
swing (a door) open
The superscript '2' indicates that the as-construction (cf 16.47) is also possible.
For those combinations marked 'l', the object complement could be easily The superscript '3' indicates that the verb is also monotransitive, and that
omitted without a change in the basic sense of the verbo the verb retains the same meaning when the object complement is omitted.
Among resulting attributes, the adjectives open, loose, free, and clean are Hence She appointed him secretary implies that she appointed him. Examples
particularly common: push N open, shake N loose, set N free, wipe N clean. of each sub-type follow. With profess and wish, which are used to illustrate
The collocations make sure and make certain are peculiar in that the object sub"types (H) and (iii) respectively, a reflexive pronoun as object is normal.
is a that-clause and always follows the adjectivaI complement:
She held her niece (a) captive for several years. (i)
Please make sureleertain that you endose your birth certificate. The prince professed himself a supporter of free speech. (ji)
1 have often wished myself a millionaire. (iii)
There is no passive *be made sure/certain ... With other collocations, the Charles does not esteem him a trustworthy adviser. (iv)
that-clause object is postponed by extraposítion (ef 18.35);
The committee has elected you its chairman. (v)
He found it strange that no one else had arri ved.
Her parents named her Sophia after her grandmother. (vi)
1think it very odd that she left without saying goodbye.
Some verbs in this pattem are unlikely to occur in the adive, eg: think,
The emperor pronounced it illegal for landlords to enfranchise their
beíieve, reckon. The foilowing are exampies of the passive conslruclÍon;
tenants.
Her niece was held (a) captive for several years. (i)
Extraposition is optional with make N clear, and therefore the preparatory it She was named Sophia after her grandmother. (vi)
may be omitted: She made (it) e/ear that we were regarded as trespassers.
As with Type (el], the object may be a clause postponed by extraposition:
Note [al Sorne collocations require the object to be a rellexive pronoun: Ilaughed myself sick; They
roared themselves hoarse. Here the object complement cannot be omitted: *llaughed myself We have made it a condition that the new agreement be signed by all the
[b] The resultative pattern illustrated in thís section is quite productive, and occurs with rare or original signatories.
newly-converted verbs such as se/lotape and scotchtape: se/lotape N fiat <RrE) ; seotehtape N fiat He has proved it a falIacy that old age brings wisdom.
(AmE). Similarly:
¡'ve deepfrozen the bread solido Note [al The zero article occurs optionally with captive and prisoner as object complements, as in (i)
above: She held her niece (a) caplive. Hold ... caplive/prisoner and keep ... captive/prísoner are
unusual in that the omitted article is indefinite rather than definite. Examples of the zero article
with definite meaning (e/S.42) are:

Edgar was judged overall winner.

(C21 Noun phrase as object complement They appointed Sue captain of the athletics team.

6.46 Most of the verbs listed in 16.44 can occur also with a noun phrase [b] The object + infinitive construction with 10 be, as with Type [Gl], is not always equivalent to
complement. In addition, there are a few verbs which occur with anoun the pattero with a phrasal object complement. For example, name can be used with 10 be only if
phrase, but not with an adjective phrase, as complement, eg: appoint. These the following noun phrase designates a future role or status:

Her parents named her (*/0 be) Gladys.

verbs, marked '1' in the list below, can also occur with theobject + infinitive The selectors named her (lo be) a memberofthe touring team.

construction: As can be used with name only on the same condition as applies to lO be: *Her parenls named her
as (}/adys (cf 16.47 below).

The queen appointedWilliam Cecil (to be) her personal secretary. [el The copular retation can obtain not only between the object and complement as in [11. bu!

The list is subdivided into categories corresponding to those in 16.44: also between subject and complement as in [21:

t'
¡
 1200 Complementation of verbs and adjectíves Types of verb complementation 1201

She made him ¡¡ good husband. (S V O"C,,) [1 J The experts raled his paintings (as) poor bUI representalive ol
She made him a good wife. (S VO,C,) [2J
their class.

[1 J has the passive analogue He ''''as !>ladea good husband; but in the entirelydifferentconstruetion
of (2], where the copular rdation is between she and a good ,,·!le. no passive is possible. Thc They classed J ane as partialty sighted.

meuning is: 'She \Vas a good wire to him·. A prepositional verb 01' this Same unusuall'attcrn is The media described the situation as hopeless.

strike . .. {l., in, 101' example: ~ The situation was described as hopeless.
He stmck me os a brilliant slralegist.

where a bri/lianl strategist is su bjcet eomplement.

Verbs not allowing this construction are marked '1' in the aboye lists. The
construction ís exceptional in allowing an adjective phrase to occur after a
prepositíon. A more orthodox construction is obtained by adding the word
(Clprl and (C2prl Object complement foUowing prepositional verb being before the adjective phrase, and thereby converting the prepositional
16.47 The preposition as designates a copular relation, particularly in specifying a complement into a nominal -ing clause:
role or status associated with the direct object: The ehureh eondemned the relie The media descríbed the situation as being hopeless.
as a lraud. Following a complex transitive verb and a direct object, the
prepositional complement of as functions semantícally as an attribute, and Note [al Count as and rate as can also oecur in an analogous as-conslruction without lhe object, as
may be termed a 'prepositional object complement' in the same way as the 'prepositional' copular verbs; eg: This coan/slra/es as a tWtable success (e/ 16.22 Note lb]).
noun phrase following a transitive prepositional verb is called a prepositional [b] Allhough as is classcd as a preposition in Ibe above pattern, il in some ways resemblcs the
object: conjunction as which introduces clauses of comparison (e/15. 71). Consider Ihe following curious
examples, in which as introduces on Ihe one hand a clause and on the other hand a noun phrase
a geníus. [C2]
in an appositional relation lo Ihe clause:
We considered him as a genius. [C2pr]
Report me as 10m - a superannuated dolt.

{ Hedescribcd her as he/ound her, a liar.

tobeagenius. [C4]
1 • {(as) a genius,
~ He was cons!dered t b '
o e agemus. (C31 Complementation by object and adjunct
Consider as, like regard as, class as, etc, therefore exemplifies yet another type 16.48 Our next category, Type [e3], consists of verbs which occur in the SVOA
of prepositional verb: one that is followed by a prepositíonal object pattern (el2.16), ie verbs which ha ve as their complementation an object
complement rather than a prepositional object. followed by a predication adjunct. The most characteristic adjuncts to occur
Occasionally the prepositionlor occurs in this copular function, instead of in this pattern are prepositional phrases of space, and more particularly of
as: direction; eg:
He took these words as evidence. He took me lor a fool. 1 slipped the key into the lock.

He stood my argument on its head. [2]

In the following list, for verbs in column (i) the preposition is optional, where Take your hands out olyour poekets.

for verbs in column (H) the preposition is obligatory:

The passive ís illustrated by:
(i) appoint (as)! (ii) aeeept as

ehoose (as) aeknowledge as

The key was slipped into the lock. [1 al
eonsider (as) eharaeterize as
Sentence [2] exemplifies the abstract or metaphorical use of such verbs and
eount (as) class as
adjuncts. Many of the verbs which fit into this pattern are causative verbs of
deem (as) define as
motíon: put, get, stand, se!, sit, lay, place, send, bring, take, lead, drive, etc.
esteem (as)! describe as
The class is open-ended, since verbs normally without causative meaning
rate (as) intend as!
can be adapted to this function; eg: show, see, elbow, etc in:
reekon (as) mistakelor

report (as) regard as

The attendant showed us to our seats. ['conducted us ...']

eleet (as)! see as

May I see you home? ['escort you ...']

eertify (as) take asllor

He elbowed and bribed his way to fame.

erown (as)! trea! as

They talked me into it. ['persuaded me .. .']

make Unto)! use as

Other verbs are associated with space position adjuncts rather than direction
proclaim (as)
adjuncts:
Most verbs in [elpr] and[e2pr] can also introduce an adjective phrase in the They lelt the papers at my offiee.

function of prepositional object complement: Always keep your eyes on the road when driving.

 Types of verb complementation 1203

1202 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

The attackers eaught us ofJour guardo

(C4] He was known to be a spy. [C6] Ann was caught reading rny
He wished them at the bottom ofthe sea.
diary.
Again, the spatial meaning ofthe adjunct rnay be understood in sorne abstract [e?] He was seen executed by a fi.ring
[eS] Someone was heard to slam
or rnetaphorical sense, as in the third exarnple aboye. squad.
Adjuncts of other sernantic types are less cornrnon, but instances are the the door.
adjunct of rnanner following treat:
On the face ofit, the patterns [C4] and [e6] are indistinguishable from the
badIY ,
rnonotransitive patterns [B8] (eg: She hates the train to be late) and [B9] (eg:
Her parents treated her as if she were a baby.
She hates the train being late). in which the nonfinite c1ause has a subject of its
{
as/ like a small ehild. own. The ability of the noun phrase preceding the nonfinite verb to become
and the optional adjunct of duration following last: subject of a passive is, however, an important distinction between thern (see
further 16.51 and 16.53).
This rnoney will ha ve to last you «(for) six months).
Note These patteros [e4] and (e6] are distinguished from corresponding patterns in which the
Note [al Treot has a dilferent meaning when the adjunct is omitted: nonfinite c1ause is an adverbial by the raet that the ímplied subject of the nonfinite verb is O
Her parents treated her. [= 'did something pleasant for her'] rather than S. Note the ambiguity of:
[b] Superficíally similar to the aboye pattern ís that iIIustrated by remind andfurnish followed by She left him to finish the jobo She lert him holding the baby.
an object and a prepositional phrase:

She reminds me ofmy sister.

They furnished all the passengers with ¡!fe jackets.

These however are classed as transiti ve prepositional verbs (cfI6. 7-8), and will be dealt with in
16.56fbelow. The difference between Ihese prepositional verbs and verbs of complemenlation IC4J Object + to-infinitive complementation

Type [e3] is that in Ihe former case the lexical verb governs a particular preposition, remind 16.50 The verbs in this group are rather numerous, and rnay be subdivided,

of,furnish ... with. (Alternative prepositional constructions are sometimes available, however: semantically, into the following categories:
provide . .. with,provide . . . for.)
(í) announee (iií) intend (vii) assist
declare mean bother
proclaim bribe
Variants of complex transitive complementation (i v) appoint
pronounee eondemll
.6.49 We now examine variants of complex transitive cornplernentation in which elect
reporl dar'¿
thc direct object ¡s f01lo'w<:d by ji nonfinite dau~1: acting as predication name
repute [esp P} defy
adjunct. Al! four kinds of nonfinite construction (ef 14.6-8) are possible: vote
rumour (P only] encourage
say[P only] (v) cause
help
[C4] to-infinitive: [C6] -ing participle: tip (esp BrE> drive
induce
They knew hirn to be a spy. 1caught Ann reading my diary. force
inspire
(H) assume get[no P] press
[CS] bare infinitive: [C7] -ed participle: believe lead summon
1 heard someone slam We saw him beaten by the eonceive (formal> prompt
thedoor. World Heavyweight Champion. eonsider
i (vi) al/ow
expeet
The nonfinite clause in these patterns (in italics in the above table) has no feel authorize
subject itself, but its implied subject is always the preceding noun phrase, jind compel
which is object of the superordinate c1ause. This noun phrase, which if a imagine
eonstrain
know
enable
personal pronoun is in the objective case, is commonly termed a RAISED
OBJECT (ef further 16.640): semantically, it has the role of subject of the presume
entitle
nonfinite verb; but syntactically it is 'raised' from the nonfinite c1ause to reekon
equip
function as object of the superordinate verbo Hence in general, this noun see [P only1
jit
phrase (in italics in the table below) can become subject of the corresponding suppose
oblige
passive. (The passive of [C5] normal!y requires substitution of a to-infinitive take
permit
for abare infinitive; the passive of [C7) is of marginal currency; ef 16.54 thínk[esp P1
requíre
understand
[P = Passive]
Note [a).)
 1ZU4 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
Types (i) and (ti) correspond to the factual verbs of category [B3J discussed
in 16.31: the nonfinite construction following these verbs can often be
replaced by a lhal-clause with an indicative verbo Compare:
The poli ce reported that the traffic was heavy. [B3]
{ (- 1 arn allowed to take one month's leave.)
The police reported the traffic to be heavy. (formal) [C4]
JOhn believed that the stranger was a policeman. [B3}
{ = John believed the stranger to be a policeman. (formal) [C4]
With factual verbs such as these, the nonfinite clause normaIly contains the
verb be or sorne other verb of stative meaning. EspecialIy when the nonfinite
main verb is other than be, the finite clause (of pattern [B3]) is preferred to
the infiniti ve one, except that the infinitive construction provides a convenient
passive form:
The traffic was reported to be heavy.
The stranger was believed to be a poli cernan.
Sorne verbs in this construction have no lhat-clause equivalent:
They tipped him to be the next president. (esp BrE)
- He was tipped to be the next president.
(*They tipped that he would be the next president.)
Sorne verbs (marked [P only] in the list abo ve) occur only in the passive
version of this construction:
The field marshal was said to be planning a new strategy.
(*Someone said the field marshal to be planning a new strategy.)
Other verbs (marked [esp PJ) occur chiefly in the passive:
The Broadw.iY piOJu.,;tioli was inoughi to have made Max's fortune.
(?Newsmen lhought the Broadway production to have made Max's
fortune.)
Ofthe twq classes of factual verbs, Type (i) consists ofpublic verbs (cf16.31)
referring to a speech act, and Type (ii) consists of private verbs expressing
belief, etc.
16.51 Of the remaining semantic types, Type (iii) consists of verbs of intention (on
intend itself ef 16.41 Note lb]); Types (iv) and (v) consist of causative verl?s,
where the infinitive clause identifies the resultant state (Type (iv) verbs also
belong to class [Cl]); Type (vi) cC:lUsists of verbs with a modal character,
expressing such concepts as enablement, permission, and compulsion; and
Type (vii) consists of a variety of verbs of 'influencing' between which a
common factor appears to be that the nonfinite clause has a purposive
meaning. Examples are:
(iii) They intended Mary to sing an aria.
(- Mary was intended to sing an aria.)
as fixed expressions, in which let has an auxiliary or particIe-like function;
(iv) The meeting elected Mr Martín to be the next treasurer.
(- Mr Martin was elected to be the next treasurer.)
Types of verb complementation 1205
(v) This optimistic forecast led the administration to promise tax: cuts.
( _ The administration was led (by this optimistic forecast) to
promise tax cuts.)
(vi) My contract allows me to take one month's lea ve.
(vii) Our teachers eneouraged us to think for ourselves.
(- We were eneouraged to think for ourselves.)
In Type (iv), the infinitive main verb is normaIly be, and can be omitted;
They appointed her (lO be) the social secretar)'. This type overlaps with Type
(v), 16.46.
Note [al There are a number of multi-word verbs in this category: [C4prl: counl Ofl ••• lO ... ; depend
Ol! .•• lo ... : re/y on ... lO ••• ; [C4phl: make ... OUI 10 .•• ; [C4ph-pr]: keep 01/ al .. . lo •..
(which has no passive). Examples are:
1 am dependillg 011 you lO give us your fu!! support.
They malle him oul to be a monster of depravity.
Why do you keep On al me 10 work harder?
[b] Sorne passives of pattem [C4] (eg: be allowed, be supposed) have a semi-auxiliary (cf3.47f)
interpretation in which they lose their connection with the corresponding active construction,
especia!!y as regareis agency.
(es) Object + bare infinitive complementation
16.52 This pattern occurs with a relatively smaIl number of verbs:
(i) have (ii) fee! overhear[P?] (iii) help [P?]
let hear [PI see [PJ know [P]
rnake [PI notice [P?} watch
observe[P]
Typl: (i) consists uf vl:rbs uf ¡;u\:¡,cíVI: meaning; Type (ii) has percepwal verbs
of seeing and hearing; and Type (iii) is a residual class of two verbs which
are optionally followed by a to-infinitive. The marker [PI indicates that the
passive (normaIly with a to-infinitive) is possible; [P?] indicates that the
passive is of doubtful or limited acceptability.
(i) You shouldn't lel your family ínterfere with our plans.
We must rnake the public take notice ofuso
(- The public must be rnade to take notice ofus.)
(ji) Did you notíce anyone leaue the house?
The crowd saw Gray score lwo rnagnificeni goals.
( - Gray was seen lo seore two rnagnificent goa!s.)
(iii) Sarah helped us (to) edil the seript.
1 have known John (to) give better speeches than that.
(- John has been known lO giue better speeches than that.)
Know followed by the bare infinitive is confined mainly to BrE, and to the
perfective aspect: have known. Lel in group (i) is in other constructions
cIassified as similar to an auxiliary (ef3.SI). Let has an apparent passive in
combination with such verbs as lel go and lel fal!, but these are best regarded
They let the prisoner go horneo - ?The prisoner was let go horneo
 1206 Complementation of verbs and adjectíves Types of verb complementation 1207

Note that this apparent passive has the bare infinitive, in contrast, for The passive with this pattern is regular:
example, to make, which has to have the to-infinitive in the passive:
We could hear the rain splashing on the roof.
They mude him understand. ~ He was made to understalld. ~ The rain could be heard splashing on che roof
A teacher eaughc them smoking in the playground.
A third verb in group (i) is have, which (like have in monotransitive
- They were eaught smoking in the playground (by a teacher).
constructions) does not occur in the passi ve:
Prepositional verbs with this type of complementation ([C6prJ) include eome
They had me repeat the message. ~ *1 was had (to) repeat the message.
aeross, eome upon, listen to, and look at: Look at those ehildren climbing the
Note [a] The formulaic nature of let him go and similar expressions is illustrated by variants such as wall. But these [C6prJ prepositional verbs have no prepositíonal passive:
[1-3J, which cannot be fitted into any regular complementation pattern:
gothe rope. [1] seen }
They lel the rope go. [2] The guards had been ? spouhed searchíng the building.
{ .wate ed
{ goofthe rope. (3)
[b] Of the two constructions with help, tha! with 10 is more common in BrE, and that without 10 *looked at
is more common in AmE. Have in this construction (e/18.S1ff) also has no passive, in keeping with its
[e] Arare verb in category (i) is the now rather archaic bid, with a to-infinitive complementation
in the passive: use in other constructions:
They bid/bade me sil down. - r was bidden 10 sil down.
She had us working day after day.
*We were had working day after day.

[C61 Object + -ing participle complementation Note Feeloccurs especially with a reflexive pronoun object: Shefelt herselffalling in love.
16.53 The verbs in category [C6] consist of verbs of perception (Type (i», verbs of
encounter (Type (iO), and two verbs of coercive meaníng (Type
[C7) Object + -ed participle complementation
feel[C5] see[C5) (ji) eateh (iií) have 16.54 We can distinguish three small groups of verbs complemented bv a raised
hear[C5) smell diseover get object followed by an -ed participle c1ause:
notiee [C5] spot find
observe[C5) spy leave (i) CAUSATIVE verbs: get, ha ve
overhear[CS) wateh [CS) She gotlhad the watch repaired immediately.
pereeive Oi) VOLITlONAL verbs: want, need, like
I wantlneed this watch repaired immediately.
Perception verbs marked [CS] occur also with the bare infinitive pattern (jii) PERCEPTUAL verbs: see, hearJeel (oneself), wateh
[CS). Wíth such verbs there ís an aspect difference between [C5) and [C6), as Someone must have seenl heard the car stolen.
described in 4.61f:
A fourth group is peripheral to this construction:
Tim watched Bill mendlmendingthe lampo
(iv) Verbs for which the -ed participle describes a resulting state:find,
The bare infinitive, having nonprogressive meaning, implies that Bill did the
wholejob while Tím was watching; the -ing clause, with progressive meaning, ! diseover,leave
They found/diseoveredfleft him worn out by tra vel and exertion.
has no such implicatíon.
This complementatíon pattern differs from that of [B9), not only in its j In this construction, as in that of (C6), have can ha ve either an agentive
causative meaning, or a stative meaning. Hence The guard patrol had two men
progressive aspect, but also in that the noun phrase following the
superordinate verb cannot take the genitive (or possessive) form (ef 16.42): shot is ambiguous, meaning either 'The patrol caused two men to be shot', or

1 saw him lying on the beach ,.,., *1 saw his lying on the beach.
Another difference from pattern [B9) is that the -ing predication can normally
be omitted without radically altering the meaning:
1 saw him lying on the beach. [entails: ¡ saw him)
Contrast:
1 hate my friends leaving early. [does notentaíl: 1 hate my friends)
I 'The patrol suffered the los s oftwo men by shooting'. The latter meaning is
that of the have-existential construction (ef 18.S1ff). In general, this
complementation type is semantically equivalent to one with an ínfinitive
\
form of the verb be. Thus in Type (ii), ¡ would like my room cleaned is
synonymous with ¡ would like my room to be cleaned; in Type Oií), He saw the
team beaten is synonymous with He saw the team be beaten.
Note [al There is no passive for most verbs in pattem [e7], and at best the passive is dubious: ?The
car must have been seen stolen. The acceptability of the passive with Type (iv) is exceptional:
 1208 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1209

The car wasfound abandoned. This is, indeed, an indication that Type (iv) may not belong here
The indirect object is normally animate, and is the recipient or beneficiary of
so much as with the objecl complement construction [el l. ¡he participle construclion being
the process described by the verb (ef 10.19). Unlike ditransitive verbs of
adjectival (cf: an abandoned car).
category [D 1] (eg: give), ditransiti ve verbs with prepositional objects nonually
lb1In addition to the two meanings of haue + objec! + -ed participle above, a third meaning

results ifthe -ed clause is analysed as a postmodifier of Ihe object; eg: She had a book (which >vas)
have only one passive:
stolenfrom the library.
We addressed our remarks to the children. [D2a]
"-' Our remarks were addressed to the children.
(*The children were addressed our remarks (to»
W e reminded him of the agreement. [D2bl
Ditransitive complementation "-' He was reminded of the agreement.
(*The agreement was reminded him (of)
ID11 Noun phrases as both indirect and direct object Sorne verbs have a11 three possibilities of construction in the active; many
16.55 Ditransítive complementation in its basic fonu involves two object no un have two; forothers there is only one possibility (in sorne cases the alternatives
phrases: an indirect object, which is nonually anímate and positioned first,
and a direct object, which is nonually concrete. The two noun phrases differ
-1 are not identical but very similar in meaning):
from those of[C2] in not being in a copular relationship:
He gave the girl a doll
tel! [01 + 2a + 2b] Mary told only John the secret. {DI]
'--v--" '--.r-'
Mary told the secret only to John. [D2a]
1
S V Oí Od Mary told only John about the secreto [D2b]
The difference between this and complex transitive complementation is seen offer [01 + 2a] John offered Mary sorne help. [DI]
in: 1 John offered sorne help to Mary [D2a]
svoe: He found her a loyal friendo

('" She was a loyal friend)

/ I envy [01 + 2b] She envied John his success. [DI]
SVOO: He found her an apartment.
She envied Johnfor his success. [D2b]
---
( - The apartment was for her)

wish [01] They wished him good luck. [DI]

The characteristics of indirect objects in contrast to direct objects are fully --
discl!ssed in 10.7. b/amefD2a + 2b] Helen blamed the divorce on John. rD2al
Sorne ditransitive verbs have two passive analogues, which we shall Helen blamed Johnfor the divorce. [D2bj !

distinguish as 'first' and 'second':

say [D2a] Why didn't anybody say this to me? [D2a] I

The girl was given a doll. [FIRST PASSIVE]

A doll was given the girl. [SECOND PASSIVE]

warn [D2b] Mary warned John ofthe dangers. [D2b) I

Of these two, the first passive, in which the indirect object becomes subject,
is the more common. The prepositional paraphrase is more usual, as an The different constructional possibilities of certain verbs provide a means of
alternative, than the second passive: A dol! was given to the girl. (For a list of achieving different focus (cfI8.37f). Compare the fo11owing pairsofsentences
verbs ofType [01], ef16.57 below.) as pronounced with unmarked (end) focus:
Mary blamed the broken vase on IOHN.

{ Mary blamed John for the broken VÁSE.

[D21 Object and prepositional object (ef: John was blamed ... by MARY.)

16.56 In the ditransitive category, prepositional verbs fonu an important group
with its own sub-divisions, and may therefore be given a separate category
number {D2]. These verbs are those we have called Type II prepositional
verbs (cfI6.7-8). Alongside the ordinary indirect object pattern, two main
prepositional patterns rnaybe distinguished: _
Indirect object + direct object.
Direct object + prepositional object.
lndirect object + prepositional object.
The government supplied blankets for the HOMEless.
{ The government supplied the homeless with BLANKets.
(ef: Blankets were supplied ... by the Góvernment.)
Note [al The aboye constructions are presented in the most typical syntactic ordering, but post­
ponernent of the direct or índirect object may take place in contexts where end-focus or end­
[D1] weight is required (cf18.37); eg; John offered lO Mary Ihe help thal she needed.
{D2a] [b] Additional prepositional verb patterns should be briefly mentioned. There is, for example,
[D2b] the double-prepositional-verb pattern noted in 16.17(c) ;
 Types of verb complementation 1211
1210 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

1 am applying lo the hospital}or ajobo

There is a further possibility that two prepositional objects may follow a dírect object: [DI + 2b] envy envyfor
We are paying $100 lo the garage for the repairs. excuse exeusefor
forgive forgivefor

Verbs of complementation types ID1\ and [D2\ [Di] allow

16.57 The following list gives sorne of the verbs that occur in Types [DI], [D2aJ, eharge
[D2b], organized aeeording to the cross-classifications of 16.56 aboye. We fine
are interested here only in synonymous or nearly synonyrnous constructions, refuse
in which the same participant roles (ef lO.18jJ) oceur. Hence many possible wish
prepositional verbs are ignored. Pay for, for example, is ignored because it
introduces a further participant (the commodity bought) not inc\uded in pay [D2a + 2b] blameon blamefor
(with) and pay (to). supply for/to supply with
Table 16.57 [D2a] address to
announee to
Type [DI) Type [D2a] Type[D2b]
eommunieate to
EXAMPLE serve (Jaek scampi) serve (searnpi) serve (J ack) explain to
to (Jack) with (scampi) sayto

[DI + 2a + 2b) pay payto pay with [D2b) advise about

provide (AmE) providefor provide with punishfor
serve serve to serve with etc
tel! tell to tell about
The membership of[D2b] is numerous. Here are further examples, arranged
[DI + 2a) (l) bring bring to
by prepositions:
den}' deny to
give give lo thankfor eonvineeof robof refer to
grant gram to preventfmm deprívenf <uspee f 9f sentenee to
hand hand to proleet from informof warnof subject ro
leave leave to/for imerest in persuadeof congratulate on treat to
lend lend to aecuseof relieveof confine to charge with
offer offer to convictof remindof introduce to compare with
owe oweto
Note that reflexive verbs (cf 6.25) sometirnes oecur with a prepositional
promise promiseto
object; eg: We pride ourselves on the serviee we ofler. Sorne of the verbs abo ve
read read lo
(such as compare with) ean have two inanimate objects.
send send to
In Table 16.57, we have distinguished, under[Dl + 2a], verbs taking to as
show show to
their preposition from those takingfor; eg:
teaeh teaeh to
throw throw to (i) She sent Paul a present. '"'" She sent a present to Paul.
(ji) She made Paul a meaL '"'" She made a mealfor Paul.
(ii) do dófor
find findfor Occasionally, a preposition other than to and for oceurs in this function:
make makefor OiO She asked Paul a favour. '"'" She asked a favour ofPaul.
order order for
reserve reservefor 16.58 Distinct from [D2aJ and [D2bJ aboye is a kind of prepositional verb which
save savefor has already been discussed in 16.7-8; a verb for which the direet object
spare sparefor forms part of an idiomatic unit with the verb and the preposition. The
syntactic properties of this type, which we label (D2e], have already been
(iii) ask askof dealt with, and it is enough here to list a further sample ofsueh idioms:
 1212 Complementation of verbs and adjectives I
Types of verb complementation 1213

eateh síght of make allowanee for! put a stop to rare and formal in comparison with the similar infinitive construction (ef
give place to make fun of set jire to 16.63) :
give way to make afuss over/about! take aeeount Ofl
keep pace with make roomfor take advantage ojI WOUld} help. <formal)
?I begged her that she {
should
lose sight of make use ojI take eare of 1
lose toueh with pay attention to 1 take note ojI 1 begged her to help. <more usual)

lose traek of put an end to take notice ojI For those verbs marked 'O' the indirect object is obligatory; foc those marked
Those marked with a raised '1' can take not only a prepositional passive (ef '(O)', the indirect object is optional; for those marked '«O», the indirect
16.7-8) but also can easily take a passive for which the idiomatically-fixed object is not only optional, but unusual:
direct object beco mes subject; eg: (Some) allowanee was made for loss of (i) advise (O) remindO (ií) ask3 «O»
eamings; (Little) notiee was taken of this evento Other verbs can take the assureO satisfyO beg 3 (O)
passive, but with greater difficulty; with these examples, as with prepositional bet (O) show3 (O) eharge (O)
verbs in general, idiomatic cohesion is a matter of gradience. eonvineeO teaeh 3 (O) eommand «O»
forewarn (O) tellO ínstruet «O»
Variants of ditransitive complementation informO wager(O) order «O»
notify 3 O warn (O) petition 3 (O)
ID3J Indirect object + that-cIause object persuadelO write 2 • 3 (O) tellO
16.59 Corresponding to monotransitive verbs ofType [B3] (efI6.30) are ditransiti ve promise 3 (O)
verbs for which the direct object is a that-clause:
The superscripts are interpreted as follows:
John eonvinced me (that) he was right.
1: Persuade in the sense of'convince' belongs to Type (i); but it may also
~ I was eonvineed (by John) (that) he was right.
be used in a Type (ií) sense of 'persuade someone to do something'.
The second passive is unacceptable when the direct object is a clause: *That 2: Write is found with an indirect object + that-clause especially in AmE.
he was right was eonvineed me. Thus the first passive (ef 16.55) above is the 3: With verbs so marked, the indírect object can be replaced by a
only passive that can occur with this pattern. With sorne verbs, such as prepositional object (ef 16.60).
eonvinee above, it is impossible to delete the noun phrase object: Note Superficially similar W the [D3] pallern is lhe 'impersonal' construction Íf strikeslstruck me (Ihal)
*John conviuc",J (lhat) he was riguí. .. ,asin:
It strikes me this work is for his own amusement.
With other verbs, such as show, the indirect object is optional: But here the Ihal-c1ause (as in 16.34) is the extraposed subject of the verbo Compare: He strikes
me as . .. (cf16.46 Note [el) and lt occursto me that ... (cfI6.34 Note [e)),
The professor of mathematics showed me that Pythagoras was mistaken.
~ The professor of mathematics showed that Pythagoras was ID3prl Prepositionalobject + that-cIause object
mistaken. 16.60 The verbs marked '3' in the aboye list can be optionally followed by a
Ditransitive verbs followed by a that-clause may be divided into a subtype preposition, thus forming a category similar to [D2a] in 16.56:
introducing an indirect statement, and a subtype introducing an indirect He promised «to) me) that the debt would be repaid.
directive (ef 14.33). In the indirect statement, the that-cl,ause contains an
indicative verb; in the indirect directive the verb may be indicative or For most verbs of [03] which permit a prepositional object, the preposition
subjunctive, and often contains putative should or another modal verb (ef is to:
16.32 for the distribution ofthese options): He wrote to me ... He reported to me that ... etc
INDIRECT STATEMENT: Exceptions are ask and beg, which (in somewhat formal usage) are followed
May 1 inform you that your order is ready for eolleetion? by the preposition of:
INDIRECT DIRECTIVE :
I ask/begofyou that you will keep this secret. <formal)
mightbe}
She petitioned the king that her father ~:ould be pardoned. There is, in addition, a group of verbs which were classified in 16.31-32 as
{ monotransitive, but which optionally allow the preposition to preceding a
prepositional object. These may be distinguished as Type [D3pr], and
In the following list, Type (i) verbs introduce indirect statements, and Type subdivided into sub-types (i) and (íi), as in the paraUel description of [B3]
(H) verbs introduce indirect directives. The indirect directive construction is verbs:
 1214 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Tvpes of verb complementation 1215

Joan mentioned (to me) that her father was síck. [Type (O]
Jim was reluctant to inform us (o/) where he got the money.
Or Oay recommended (to her) that the treatment be continued. [Type (ii)]
Would you remind me (about) how we start the engine?
For el{ample: A preposition may always be placed before the wh-c1ause. In the aJ:¡ove cases,
the prepositíon is optional, but in the case of verbs like enquire o/ (Type
(i) acknowledge declare remark (ji) propose [04prJ) the preposition is obligatory: ¡ enquired ofthe clerk which doeuments
admit explain repon recommend were needed. The complex preposition as to can be rather general1y used for
announce mention say suggest introducing the wh-clause; eg: I enquired ... as to which documents were
complain pointout signal
needed.
eon/ess prove state
As before, Type (i) verbs introduce indirect statements, and the less numerous [D5) Indirect object + wh-infinitive clause object
Type (ii) verbs introduce indirect directives. As befare, too, sorne exceptional 16.62 This is yet another complementation pattern (comparable with [B5], 16.37)
verbs take a preposition other than to: which may be taken by sorne verbs listed under[03] in 16.59:
She demanded o/me that . . . She agreed with me that ... etc advise ask instruct remind show teach tell wam
Unlike the nonprepositional verbs of [03], these prepositional verbs al!ow The instructor taught us how lo land sa/ely.
the that-c1ause to become subject of a corresponding passive clause, an option - We were taught (by the instructor) how to land sa/ely.
which is more acceptable with extraposition: They advised him what lO wear in the tropies.
That several ministers are resigning has been admitted to our Please remind me where to meet you afier lunch.
correspondent. The equivalent prepositional verb pattern [05pr] is iIIustrated by suggest to,
~ It has been admitted to our correspondent that several ministers recommend to :
are resigning.
It has been shown to us al! that Miss Jones was innocent. Could you please suggest to the visitors which museums to visit?

Without the preposition, ie with an ordinary indirect object, such sentences Here, as in the [04] type, a prepositional phrase introduced by as lO can be
are at best marginally grammatical: 1*It has been shown us al! that Miss Jones used:
was innocent. Helen advised us (as to) how to maintain the machine.
~~otc The constructions of lt appc::;-s¡!:appe(:~/,¡;cf:ur:;/seems ro me :ha: . , , slipclfida!ly app.ear ti) bclvüg
ID61lndirect object + to-infinitive clause object
to the paltero [D3prl. but in faet these contain monotransitive verbs with an extraposed tnat­
elause as subject: 16.63 We have seen that the [03] pattern may be used to introduce indirect
It occurredlseemed to me that he was Iying.
statements, and that the [04] pattern may be used to introduce indirect
e/similar patteros with extraposition in 16.34. 16.59 Note.
questions. Now we tuen to the verbs of class [06], which introduce indirect
directives (c/14.33):

ID4) Indirect object + finite wh-c1ause object 1 lOldjadvisedjpersuaded Mark to see a doctor. [I]
~ Mark was toldjadvisedjpersuaded to see a doctor. [2]
16.61 This pattern of complementatíon is primarily found with the verb ask, which
introduces a reported question: This complementation category looks like those of[B81 and [C5], in that the
John asked me what time the meeting would end. verb is followed by a noun phrase and an infinitive construction. But the [06]
~ 1 was Gsked (by John) what time the meeting would end.. pattern differs from these in that the noun phrase following the verb is an
indirect object, as will be c1arified in 16.66 below. As with other verbs
AIso used with this pattern are verbs which take an indirect object followed introducing indírect speech, the subject refers to the speaker of sorne speech
by a that-clause (Type (i) of [03]), but for these the wh-clause tends to be act, and the indirect object refers to the addressee. Like [03] verbs, [06]
limited 10 nonassertive contexts (cf16.35). Compare: verbs form only the first passive exemplified in [2] above: we do not find *To
George didn't tell them that the train was late. [1] see a doctor was lOld Mark. The fol!owing verbs belong to this c1ass:
George didn 't tel! them whether the train was late. [21 f~: advise command entreat instruct remind teach
;¡,
The difference of meaning between the that- and whether-constructíons can :l<
~-
..
I ask counsel exhort invite! request 1 tell
beg detai[l /orbid order recommend urge
be stated in terms of presupposition. Sentence [1] typically implies that the ~.' i. beseech direct implore persuade
train was late, while [2] is noncommittal on the matter. [04] verbs can also
introduce other question words such as where and how: ~ challenge! enjoin 1 incite l prayl
~i
~;:
'~~
 1216 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1217

Those verbs marked with araised '1' do not have the equivalent construction Each ofthese sentences consists ofthe sequence N¡ V N 2 to V N 3 , and yet we
have analysed them respectively as monotransitive (S V O), complex
with a that-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive verb (Types [B3(ii)J,
[030i)]). Contrast: °
transitive (S V Col, and ditransitíve (S V O¡ 0d)' A different analysis, in
sorne ways more revealing, would recognize an overlap between two
They {~eg~tedd} her to stay another week. competing descriptions of the intennedíate noun phrase N 2' There is little
mm e doubt that in [1 J this is to be analysed as subject of the infinitive clause (e!
They {*mm
~eK.gtedd}
e
(her) that she would stay another week. 16.36); whereas in [3J there are equally strong reasons for regarding N, as
(indirect) object of the main clause (e! 16.66):
The alternative that-clause construction, however, is more formal, especially
when the indirect object is presento

Note [a] The verb promire. when it occurs wíth this kind of complementation. is exceptional in that
the understood subject of the infinitíve is identified with the subject rather than with the object
of the maín c1ause : S· V / ' 1""­ S V O
Sarn prornised me to get some rood. I I
= Sam promised me that he would get sorne roed. S· '0 I I I
I I
V I I I
V
¡
O
{ o;" Sam promised me that lwould get sorne roed. I I I I
I I I I I I I I I ¡
The present pattern [D6] ¡s, however. less cornmon with promise than the [B6] pattern without Nz NJ N2 N)
the indírect object: Sam promised to get some¡ood.
NI V 10 V NI V lo V
lb] Only ordercan be followed by a passive infinitive: He ordered Ihem lo be imprísonedlreleased. Fig 16.64b Sentence[l] Fig 16.64c Sentence [3J

Multiple analysis and gradience in verb complementation Sentence [2J, however, partakes ofboth these descriptions. From the semantic
16.64 Before we leave verb classification, it is important to reflect on the problems point of view, it requires the analysis of Fig 16.64b (ef: They expeeted [that
of dividing verbs into complementation types. The major division of James would win the race]). But from the structural point of view, the analysis
complementation patterns into copular [AJ, monotransitive [BJ, complex in Fig 16.64c is more appropriate, reflecting N 2 's ability to become subject of
transitive [C], and ditransitive [OJ categories (introduced in 2.16) has been the passive sentence: James was expeeted to win the raee. We might reasonably
extended with little difficulty te include patterns in which the verb's say that in [2J, N 2 behaves like an object (0" rather than Oí) in relation to the
ccmplementation includes finite and nonñnitc clauses. This is the basis rOí" first verb, but like a subject in relation to the second, infinitive verh Tbe
the classification Qf verbs into types in 16.20-63 aboye. But unavoidably, our term RAISED OBJECT, applied in 16.49ffto the intermediate noun phrase of
aim of presenting a clear classification has obscured sorne problems of patterns [C4 - Cn incorporates yet another way of recognizing this double
gradience and multiple analysis (e! 2.60ff), and to illustrate these we return analysis, by envisaging a process whereby the subject of the infinitive
to three superficially ídentical structures aIread y discussed in 16.36. These becomes the object of the preceding finite verbo This raised object will be
are now illustrated with three new examples, each of which conforms to the symbolized, in what follows, S/O.
pattern NI V N 2 to V N 3 , (where N = noun phrase, and V = verb phrase):
16.65 Given that the double analysis aboye provides sorne insight into clauses
Table L6.64a containing nonfinite complementation, we could take such an analysis
further, and apply it to aH complex transitive patterns, including the more
NI V N2 to V NJ straightforward SVOC and SVOA pattems of[Cl - C3]:
[B8] S V
, .
O
\
that John is a good driver.
1 consider John to be a good driver.
lB3J
[C4]
We like all parents to visit the schooL I [1] { John a good driver. [C2]
[C4] Is V O Co The paraHelism of meaning and phrasal relations demonstrated in these
three sentences recommends an analysis in which the complementation of
They James therace I [2] pattern [C2J, John a good driver, would be regarded as a clause in its own
right: ie as a verbless clause consisting of S = John and Cs = a good driver,
[D6] IS O¡
\ without an intervening V. This description would not, however, displace the
We I asked I the students I toattend Ia lectu~en_~ by now familiar S V Od C o analysis, but would rather be seen as an alternative
way of looking at the same construction.
 1218 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1219

Gradience (d') to V N 3 can marginally become the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence:

16.66 The teehnique of multiple analysis stiU leaves some subtletíes unexposed.
What this teehnique has suggested is that there are the fol!owing three
eategories eorresponding to [1 in 16.64:
N 2 S: We like all parenls to visit the school.
N 2 = S/O: They expeeted James to win the raee.
N z = O: We asked Ihe sludents to attend a leeture.
But more than three eategories ean be appropriately distinguished if we
reeognize [1) and [3] as end-points of a gradient, with [2) at some point on the
seate between them. This area of grammar affords a good example of
? What they asked the students was to attend a lecture. (Contrast the
decidedly unaeeeptable * What we like the parents is to visil the school.)
(e') Nz , which like Oi in general is usually 'personal', can be detached from
[1) its place after the first V to beeome subjeet of a eorresponding passive
[2] sentenee: The students were asked to attend a lecture.
(n In a reduced eonstruction, the infinitive marker to ean be omitted: We
asked them; We persuaded them; etc.
Note [a] With some ditransitive verbs, criterion (a') has to be interpreted as the replacement of the
infinitive clause by a preposition and prepositional object (cfI6.56-8):

gradienee. They reminded hím ofhis responsibílities.

One man challenged the other lo a duel,

At the monotransitive end of the seale, [I) ean be characterized by a
number of criteria whieh suggest that N 2 to V N 3 (al! parents to visit the school)
constitutes the direct object of an SVO pattern:
(a) It ean be replaced by a pronoun referring to the cIause or noun phrase
nominalizing it: We like it; We like al! paren/s' visits.
(b) It can be an answer to a what-question:
A : What do you like best?
B: We like al! parents to visit the school.
(e) In some dialects, it can be preceded by the infinitive clause introdueer
for: We like (it)for all paren/s to visit the school.
(d) It ean easily (when preeeded by for) be the focus of a pseudo-cIeft
sentence: What we like (best) is for al! parents to visit the school.
[b] Criterion (d') is less relíable than the others, since the pseudo-cleft sentence is unacceptable
for many verbs, But a pseudo-cleft sentence in which the indirect object is replaced by a
prepositional object tends to be more grammatical: Whal Ihey asked ollhe sludenls was lO attend
a leclure, (The alternative construction with the substitute verb do, which also occurs with [1], is
always more acceptable: What Ihey asked Ihe students lo do was lO attend a lecture,)
16.67 To give a simplified illustration of the analysis of gradience in the sequence
NI V N 2 to V N 3 , we now take a subset ofthe eriteria listed aboye, and apply
them to a range of verbs on the gradient eonneeting [1] and [3] of 16_66.
---

~
(e) When the sequenee N 2 to V N 3 is turned into the passive form N 3 to be (1) (2) (3) (4)
ask, elect, intend, want,
Ved z by N z , there is no ehange ofmeaning: CRITERIA
lel/, allow, expect, like,
We !ike aIl parents to visit the sehcel.
= We like the school te be visited b:¡ al! parents.
~ etc
I etc etc etc

(f) In a reduced construetion the infinitive marker to remains: We like them (a') lo V N 3 can be replaeed by
a finite clause + - - -
does not have the same meaning as We like them to.
At the other, ditransitive end of the seale, a eontrasting set of criteria (e') ehange of meaning in passive
of N 2 10 VN 3 + + -
eharaeterize [3), and support the analysis of N 2 (the students) as an indireet ---

object and to V N 3, (to attend a lecture) as a cIausal direet objeet: + + -

(e') N 2 can beeome subjeet of passive
---
+ ---

(a') 10 V N 3 ean be replaced by a pronoun, a noun phrase, or a finite clause,

with N z still funetioning as indireet object: Fig 16.67 A eomplementatíon gradient

SOmething. The matrix uses only three criteria, and thereby distinguishes only four
We asked the students a question. categories. This is sufficient to indicate the principie, however, that the three
{ categories [BS], [C4], and [D6) of our taxonomy eould be broken down ¡nto a
what they wanted.
finer spectrum of eategories between which the differences are small. In
(b') 10 V N 3 can be the answer to a wh-question, while N 2 funetions as effeet, Fig 16.67 distinguishes two subeategories of [C4]: one (including elect
indirect object:
and allow) whieh is c10ser to the ditransitive type, and one (including inlend
A: What did you ask the students?
and expect) eloser to the monotransitive type. Elect and allow respond to
B: We asked them to attend a lecture.
cri terion (e') :
(e') When the sequenee N 2 to V N 3 is turned into the passive sequence N 3 to
be Ved 2 by N 2 , the meaning is always changed: They elected Miss Coe to suceeed the present seeretary.
They asked the students to attend a leeture. #: *They elected the present seeretary to be sueceeded by Miss Coe.
#: *They asked a lecture to be attended by the students. We don't allow residents to entertain visitors.
this case, indeed, the passive transform results in an absurdity.) #: We don't allow visitors to be entertained by residents.
 1220 Complementation of verbs and adjectives
Adjective complementation 1221

while intend and expeet do not:

Note There is a considerable parallel, as the categories [El-ES] aboye demonstrate, between patterns
They intended the students to see the professor. associated with adjectives and those associated with monotransitive verbs. The chief difference
= They intended the professor to be seen by the students. is that adjectives cannot be followed by a noun phrase object. To bring out the parallel further,
They expeet the students to enjoy the classes. . we could describe adjectives exemplified in 16.69 below (averse to, consc;ous oJ, etc) as
'prepositional adjectives' comparable with prepositional verbs. We could moreover identify
= They expeet the classes to be enjoyed by the students. 'phrasal adjectives' (derived from participiaI forms ofphrasal verbs) such as ron down ('exhausled,
Note depressed') and 'phrasaI-prepositionaI adjectives' such as fed up (with). These tatter variants,
Por verbs in group (3), the voice oflhe infinitive clause and the voiceofthe main clausemay be however, are rare enough lo be disregarded in the foUowing lists.
independently varied, with the result Ihat a SlÍntence like They expected the students lo enjoy lile
classes has tbree corresponding passiv~s with ¡he same meaning:
They expected the classes to be enjoyed by the students.
'" { The students were expecled lo enjoy the classes.
The classes were expected lo be enjoyed by the students.
[E1] Adjective complementation by a prepositional phrase
16.69 Like prepositional verbs, adjectives often forro a lexical unit with a following
The last example has a passive verb phrase in both the superordinate clause and Ihe infinitive
clame. . preposition: good at,fond oj, opposedto, etc. The lexical bond is strongest
with adjectives for which, in a given sense, the complementation is
obligatory: Max is averse to games"" *Max is averse. Such adjectives are
marked '1' in the following lists.
The lists make a distinction between participial (ef 7.15-19) and
nonparticipial adjectives. The differencebetween participial adjectives and
the -ed participle of the passive construction is discussed in 3.75-77. These
lists provide on1y a small sample of the adjectives accompanying the
Adjective complementation prepositions concemed. In particular, it is often possible for the same
adjective to go with two or more prepositions, as in angry about, angry at and
1.68
Categories of complementation in adjective phrases (ef 2.28, 7.21-2) are angrywith.
similar in variety to those ofverb complementation. We distinguish [El-ES)
as follows: ABOUT: He was very worried about her reaction. (ef9.60)
NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL
[El] Complementation by a prepositional phrase
[E2] Complementation by a that-clause .... angry knowledgeab/e aggrieved frightened
[E3] Complementation by a wh-clause glad mad annoyed pleased
[E4) Complementation by a than-clause

i.: happy reasonable delighted worried

[ES] Complementation by a to-infinitive clause
AT: She was badat mathematics. (ef9.62)
[E6] Complementation by an -ing participle clause
NONPARTICIPIAL P ARTlCIPIAL
These complementation patterns can occur after an adjective (and· its angry good alarmed . disgusted
modifiers, if any) in various syntactic functions. For example: brilliant hopeless amused·:·' pleased
The violín ís (rather) difficu/t to play.
elever terrible delighted puzzled
(adjective phrase as CJ
FROM: Thevillage is remotefromthe bustle ofcity life. (ef9.18. 9.47)
Mary found the violín (rather) diffieu/t to play.
different distant distinct free remo te
(adjective phrase as CJ

The violín is an instrument (rather) diffieult to play.

OF: She was aware ofhis difficulties.
(adjective phrase as postmodifier)
NONPARTlCIPIAL . PARTICIPIAL

The on1y posítion in which an adjective cannot normally be followed by íts afraid conseious l glad eonvineed

complementation is the premodifying position in a noun phrase: *a keen ashamed empty proud1
seared

child on ehess. But here, too, with certain constructions (Types [ES(i») and eapable fond 1 short1
tired
[ES(v)D the complementation can follow discontinuously after the head certain full worthy
noun: The violín is a diffieult instrument to play (ef discontinuity with ON/UPON: Their plan was based on cooperation.
comparative constructions, IS.75). For illustrative purposes, we will confine
examples in the following sections to the subject complement function. The
NONPARTICIPIAL I PARTICIPIAL

lists, like the verb lists in 16.20-63, will be selective. contingent 1 intent1 reliant l based l set 1
dependent keen severe hentl
 Y'

"¡
1222 Complementation of verbs and adjectives ~
Adjective complementation 1223

TO: AH capital gains are subject to taxation. (that) you didn't call the doctor before.
, NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL 1 am surprised (that) anyone of your intelligence should swallow a tie .
{
answerable
averse l
close
due 1
liablé
simz1ar I accustomed l
. allied 1
inclined 1 ,
opposed1
likethat.
With some adjectives (those in category [E2b(ií)], 16.72) the should-clause
can be paraphrased by an infinitive clause with a subject:
WiTH: This plan is not compatible with our princíples.
NONPARTICIPIAL I PARTICIPIAL It was natural for him to go to London after the war.
angry happy annoyed drunk = It was natural that he should go to London after the war.
busy impatient bored enchanted That-clauses cannot be preceded by preposítions. Hence adjectives which
ClJmfortable incompatible1 concerned obsessed are constructed with prepositions before noun phrases ([El]) drop the
compatiblé sick delighted occupied preposition before a that-clause (cfI6.28). Compare the folIowing:
content uneasy depressed overcome
familiar disappointed pleased . {OfhiS innocence. [E 1]
friendly 1 am convlnced (th at) he IS
. mnocen
. t. [E2]
disgusted satisfied
furious dismayed taken 1 Many that-clauses folIowing an adjective are actualIy subjects postponed by
distressed extraposition (cf18.33):
Note lal In general, choice of preposilion remains the same after morphologicalIy related verbs,
lt is lucky (that) you came. - That you came' is lucky.
adjectives, and nouns: differentftom, differ from, differencefrom. But Ihis eorrespondence is not

always lo be relied on: contrastfull ofwilhfilied wllh; proud ofwith pride in.
These are listed separately in 16.72.
lb] Other prepositions whieh less comrnonly enlee into adjective + prepositlon idioms ¡nelude for

and lowards: graleful for, sorry for, inclined towards.

le] Usedfollowed by the preposition lO, a more informal synonym of accustomed(to), is participial lEla) Adjectives with experiencer (cflO.23 Note) as subject
in spelling, but has the speeial pronuneiation nu:s~/. Unlike accustomed, however, used does 16.71 (i) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATIVE VERB ONLY (cfNote [a] below)
not oceur with a following infinitive (ef 16.79). This adjeetival used to, in spite of identity of These adjectives express degrees of certainty or confidence: aware,
spelling and pronunciation, is quite distinet from used lO as a marginal modal (cf3.44). Contrast: certain, corifident, sure:
I'm used lO hard work. I used ro work hard.
Id] In the past, prescriptive objeetions have been made' to the use of to ralher Ihan from after We were corifident that Karen was stíll alive.
averse and different. Howevee, ro is the normal preposition to fol1<:11:' averse, and differenr 10 is
quite widely used (esp in BrE) as an altemative lo differentfrom. On iJifferent rhan, cf15.66 Note,
(ii) THAT-CLAUSE HAS PUTATIVE SHOULD, OR SUBJUNCTIVE VERB
16.74.
(or marginally aloo an indicative verb)
le] Wilh can be omitted after (fn)compalibie if the subject is plural, cf'mutual participation',
The three principal adjectives in this class are anxious, eager, and willing:
13.60:

·Carl is incompatible. OUT:

he should be permitted to resígn 1

Cad and Eva are incompatible.
Are you willing that he be permitted to resign 1 .
{
1he is permitted to resign 1; ..~;
[E2] Adjective complementation by a that-clause (On the distribution of these three altematives, cfI6.30.)
6.70 Like that-clauses following a verb, that-clauses folIowíng an adjective may (iH) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATIVE VERB OR PUTATIVE SHOULD
have:
These adjectives express emotions:
(A) indicative verb: 1 am sure (that) he is here now. I'm so thankful that nobody was hurto .
(B) subjunctíve verb: They were insistent (that) we be ready. (formal) Were you surprised that Ray should win the prize?
(C) putativeshould: I'm sorry (that) he should hove left. <formal)
NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL
The uses of the mandative subjunctive and of putative should have been afraid hopeful alarmed depressed horrified
discussed in 3.59 and 14.25 respectívely. Putative should often occurs after angry proud amazed disappointed irritated
expressions of emotion (sorrow,joy, displeasure, surprise, wonder, etc), and glad sad amused distressed pleased
is often accompanied by intensifying expressions such as so, such, like thisl grateful sorry annoyed disturbed shocked
that, ever, or at all. The indicative that-clause, on the other hand, refers to an happy tha7lkful astonished frightened upset
established fact. The foHowing pairs illustrate choices of construction:
There is a tendency to prefer the putative should construction in
1 {(that) 1 have to leave so early. nonassertive contexts, or where the adjective has negative or unfavour­
am sorry (that) you should have been (so) inconvenienced. able associations,
 Note
1224 . Complementation of verbs and adjectives

[a] The restriction oC Type (i) above lo 'indicative verbs only' is meant to allow Cor the use of
modal auxiliaries, including should in a nonputative sense; eg; I am a~are that I should [= 'ought
lo'] havejoined longago.
[b) Afraid is unique among adjectives in that it accepts the pro~oun so (and ¡ts negative
equivalent Mt) as a that-clause substitute (cfI6.31);rm
afraid SO/MI.
T
1
¡
Note

A: 1 . ha h l' Id 'l' h
t IS apparentt t s e IVes oesn t Ive ere.
Adjective complementatlon 1225

[a] Although tlle pro-forms so and n01 cannot be used after tllese [E2bI adjectives (ef 16.71
Note [bJ), there ¡sa possibilityofreplacing the adjective + solnat by a related adverb + so/not:
{B: Yes, obviously/fortunately so.
B N' '.J I I di
: o, ev."ent y sa y no . t

[b] When an adjective ofType (iii) above occurs after a modal verb construction, the that-clause
is commonly replaced by an if-clause. If the modal verb in the main c1ause is hypothetical (eg:
would), the verb in the if·dause is placed in tlle hypothetical pasto Compare:
It is sad that you have to leave.

IElbJ Adjectives with anticipatory it as subject It will be sad ifyou hove to lea ve.

16.72 {
The that-elause in this eonstruetion is an extraposed subjeet. Three types are It would be sad ifyou had lo lea ve.
again distinguished, matehing those in 16.7l.
(i) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATlVE VERBONLY (cfI6.71 Note CaD
These adjectives have to do with truthor knowledge: [E3] Adjective complementation by a wh-clause
It is true that she never cemes on time. 16.73 As with that-clauses, we have to distinguish those adjeetives ([E3a]) which
are predicated of an experieneer (normalIy a person) as subject, and those
apparent evident likely possible untrue ([E3bD which go with antieipatory it. In the latter case, the wh-clause is an
certain implicit obvious true well-known extraposed subject. Examples are :
clear indubitable plain unlikely
(ji) THAT-CLAUSE HAS PUTATIVIl SHOULD, OR SUBJUNCTIVE VERB (or margin­ E3a 1 was unsure { (on} {what 1 should sayo [1]
[ 1 (about) whether the problem was solved. [2]
aIly, also, an indicative verb)
[E3b] It was unclear what they would do. [3]
These adjectives express eoncepts concerned with modality or volition:
Type [E3a1 consists of adjectives which are constructed with prepositions,
should be lifted tomorrow. and whieh therefore belong also to Type [EI1. The preposition is sometimes
It is essential that the ban be lifted tomorrow.
{ omitted before the wh-clause (ef15.5 Note reD. In Type [E3b], on the other
(1) is lifted tomorrow. hand, no preposition can be inserted: • It was une/ear of/about what lhey would
appropriate essentíal important necessary vital do. AIso no infinitive wh-cIause is possible (ef i 6.37): It is unsure where to go
compulsory fitting impossible obligatory",­ is unacceptable unless it refers to sorne anímate being (sueh as a mouse), and
crucial imperative improper proper is consequently not interpreted in terms of extraposition.
Retuming to Type [E3a], we note that in sorne cases the adjective takes a
Various deverbal adjectives ending in -able also belong to this group, eg: wh-elause in assertive eontexts: eg: eareful (about), doubtful (as to), fussy
advisable, des/rabIe, preferable.
(about), puzzled (as to), une/ear (about), uncertain (o!), undecided (about),
(iii) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATlVE VERB OR PUTATIVE SHOULD unsure (0/), unaware (o/) :
This group consists mainly of emotive adjectives, and ineludes a large John is care/ul (about) what he does with his money.
num ber of participial adjecti ves ending in -ing:
Most of these adjeetives are intrinsiealIy negative In meaning. In other cases,
It· {strange } th t {She is so late.
although elsewhere it is associated with an indicative that-clause [E2a(i)], the
IS upsetting a she should be so late.
adjective tends to oceur with a wh-cIause in nonassertive contexts (efI6.35),
NONPARTICIPIAL PARTlCIPIAL eg: aware, certain, e/ear, sure:
awkward logical alarming perplexing Are you sure (o/) how mueh the maehine costs?
curious odd annoying pleasing 1 wasn't altogether clea¡- (about) what we had to do.
disastrous peculiar depressing shocking
A similar division may be made among adjectives of the antieipatory-it
dreadful sad disappointing surprising type ([E3b]). Those whieh intrinsieally express doubt, and therefore take this
extraordinary silly embarrassing

fortunate tragie frightening

strueture even in assertive contexts, include doubtful, uneertain, une/ear,
¡rrational unfortunate irritating
unsure, and unknown. Those normally oceurring with an indieative that-elause
(le Type [E2b(i)]) inelude apparent, eertain, obvious, and plain. They can take
Various -able/-ible adjectives also be10ng tp this group: admirable, a wh-cIause in nonassertive contexts. Each type is illustrated in:
eommendable, deplorable, despieable, incomprehensible, inconceivable,
It was une/ear whether an amendment would be accepted.
lamentable, remarkable, understandable, unjustifiable, etc.
It was not obvious how far the westernization process would I!:O.
 ~
"'"
'~'<>' '~~~1:~:':
'1 -.:
Adjective complementation 1227
1226 Complementation of verbs and adjectives ,
¡
In these types it is possible to insert a subject preceded by for; eg in Type
After adjectives of Type [E3a] there may also occur an infinitive wh-clause: 1
(vi): The food is ready (jOr Ihe children) to eat.
was uncertain (oi) what to do. This is preferable to the finite c1ause in cases
illustrated by [1-3] aboye, since the subject can remain unexpressed in the
Note
Infinitive complementation following adjectives modified by lOO and enQugh is discussed eIse' .
reduced nonfinite version. where, in 1S.73.

[E4] Adjective complementation by a than-clause (ES(i)) Bob is Iplendid to wait

16.74 There is an unusual construction in which a noncomparative adjective is 16.76 Type (i) has an analogue in a construction involving extraposition (cf18.33):

foIlowed by a comparative than-clause as complementation. Different is the 1t is splendid of Bob lo wait. This type OC construction also permits a head
only adjective which fits into this pattero, and even then there is a tradition noun between the adjective and the infinitive:
which regards the use of than here as impropero There is, however, no
felicitous alternative to the different than construction in examples such as: , Bob must be a spiendid craftsman { !~ ~:~: bUilt} this house.
She's quite a different girl than she wasfilie years ago. [11 As this example shows, the infinitive may be perfective. We may also
The various stylístic variants of, and alteroatives to, the than-clause after compare constructions in which an evaluative noun with its determiner
different are examined in 15.66 Note lb]. When the c1ause is reducéd to a replaces the adjective :
noun phrase, it becomes possible to usefrom as an alternative to than:
oolish
You'relffafool } to spend so mucho
The unions are taking a very different attitude ~:;} the employers.
You're { WOnderfUl} . for me.
1 to walt
When the noun phrase folIowing thanffrom cannot be derived by ellipsis from anange
a c1ause, than is decidedly less acceptable thanfrom: Adjectives in this group are evaluative of human beha~iour. They inelude:
The main languages of southern India are totaIly different In origin careful crazy mad silly wise

{?~~:~} those ofthe northern partofthe country. careless greedy nice unwise wrong

These adjectives can also occur with anticipatory il and an of-phrase as

Note [al On differenl/rom and different 10, .:/16.69 Note [dI. additional complementation (cf16.82):
[bj It is aloo possible for a Ihan-c1ause to be used after !he adverb difilrently:
In the west of the country, they pronounce their vowels quite aifferently /han (they do) in the It was foolish of you to spend so mucho
easl. .',.
The same prescriptive objections are made to differenlly Ihan as to different Ihan.
IE5(H») Bob is I/OW to react
16.77
In Type (ii), the sentence corresponds to one in which the adjective becomes
[E5] Adjective complementation by a to-infinitive clause an adverb,while the infinitive becomes the finite verb:

[6.75 We distinguish seven kinds of construction in which an adjective is foIlowed

Bob is slow to react. - Bob reacts slowly.c;,,,,'
by a to-infinitive c1ause. They are exemplified in the following sentences,
which are superficially alike : In another analogue, the adjective is follo:wed by in and an -ing participle:
Bob is slow in reacting. The infinitive verb phrase must be simple: for example,
Bob is splendid to wait.
unlike the inftnitive phrase in [E5(i)], it cannot be perfective: *Bob is slow ItJ
(ii) Bob is slow to react.
have reacted. Other adjectives in this small group are quick and prompt.
(iii) Bob is sorry to hear it.
(iv) Bob is hesitant to agree with yOU. There is also a partial adverbial analogue (e/8.127ff) for Type (i), but in Type (i), unlike Type
Note
(v) Bob is hard to convince. (ii), the perfective infinitive, and'even the get-passive (e/3.66) can be used:
(vi) The food is ready to eat. loan was wise to resigno ~ loan wisely resigned.
(vii) lt is important to be accurate. loan was careless to get beaten. - loan carelessly got beaten,
{loan is careless to have got beaten.
In Types (i-iv) the subject of the main clause (Bob) is also the subject of the
infinitive c1ause. We can therefore always have a direct object in the infinitive
IES(iü») Bob is 10rry lo hear it
clause if its verb is transitive. Por example, if we replace intransitive wait by In Type (¡¡i), the ,head of the adjective phrase is an emotive adjective
transitive build in (i), we can have: Bob is splendid to build this house. 16.78
(commonly a participial adjective), and the infinitive clause expresses
Por Types (v-vii), on the other hand, the subject of the infinitive is
unspecified, although the contextoften makes clear which subject is intended. causation:
 1228 Complementation of verbs end adjectives Adjective complementation 1229

I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. ['rm sorry because I have kept you We are aecustomedto take teaon the terrace. (formal)
waiting'] He was wont to leave the office at 5 p.m. (formal, archaic)
1 was exeited to be there. [- 'To be there exeited me']
Adjectives in this group correspond c10sely to the adjectives followed by a (ES(v») Bob is !lard to convince
that-clause in 16.71 (Type [E2a(iii)D: 16.80 In Type (v), the subject of the sentence is identified with the unexpressed
NONPARTICIPIAL
object of the infinitive clause, which must therefore have a transitive verb;
PARTICIPIAL
hence the unacceptable *Bob Is hard to arrive. There is an analogous
afraid happy annoyed disgusted construction in which the adjective is complement to an infinitive c1ause
overwhelmed
angry impatient astonished dissatisfied acting as (extraposed) subject (ef 18.36):
perturbed
ashamed indignant bored embarrassed puzzled
content jubilant coneerned fasemated . . {- To convince Bob is hard.
relieved Bob IS hard to convmce. "'" It is hard to convince Bob.
furious thankful delighted frightened surprised
glad depressed interested Adjeétives so used refer 10 degrees of ease or comfort, and ¡nclude:
worried
disappointed overjoyed
awkward hard tough (informal)
eonvenient impossible trieky (informal)
IE5(iv») Boh is heaitant to agree withyou
difficult niee (informal) unpleasant
16.79 In Type (iv), the head of the adjective phrase expresses volitional meaning,
easy pleasant
or a modal meaning such as ability, possibility, or liability. Examples are:

Unless there is ellipsis, we cannot omit the infinitive c1ause, and so there is
NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL no semantic implication between (say) The bread was hard to bake and The
able keen determined bread was hard. Unlike the preceding types, Type (v) permitsfor + subject to
anxious Iiable disposed be inserted at the beginning of the infinitive clause: Those darts are trieky
apt Iikely [E2b] fated[E2b] (for a beginner) to use. Where the infinitive has no overt subject, its implicit
eertain [E2b] loath inclined subject is understood to have an indefinite meanihg:
curious powerless poised
due prone prepared
Jack is easy 10 fool. = Jack is easy for anyone to foo!.
eager ready [E5]
eligible reluetant
(all) set
unqualified
'" Note With some adjec.tives in this group, such as nice or unpleasant, the entailment relation between
be + adjective ro V and be + adjective is less easy lO avoid; eg: Jenny is nice lo know ímplies that
fit [ES] sure [E2b] Jenny is nice.
free [ES] unable
greedy weleome
IE5(vi») Thefood is ready to eat
hesitant willing
16.81 Again, in this type the subject of the main clause is identified with the object
impotent worthy
of the intinitive c1ause. But unlike Type (v), Type·(vi) has no analogous
The adjectives marked [E2b] occur with a corresponding construction with construction with an infinitive clause subject:
extraposition of a that-clause: The food is ready to eat ...... *To eat the food is ready.
JilI is likely to attend. Also, we can generally (a) omit the infinitive clause, or (b) substitute a passive
- It is likely that JiU will attend. infinitive clause without change of meaning:
Those marked [E5] are capable of occurring with an infinitive construction Are these cups available (to use)?

of 'passive' meaning, ie with an indefinite implied subject and a coreferential = Are these cups available (to be used)?

implied object:
Theyare not fit to eat. = They are not tit to be eaten.
Some ofthe most common adjectives in this list have a tendency to coalesce
with the preceding copula 10 form a semi·auxiliary verb (ef3A7): be able to,
be willing to, be sure to. In addition to modal and volitional adjectives, some
adjectives of aspectual meaning, such as aeeustomed and wont may be placed
here:
Some adjectives of this type, such as available,fit.free. ready, and suffieient,
belong additionally 10 Type (iv), .so that a sentence like The lamb ia ready to
eat is ambiguous, in one sense (the most accessible) being equivalent to the
passive The lamb is ready to be eaten. Then there is a wider set of adjectives
which often occur without complementation at all:
The air isfrosty (to breathe).
Its fur is soft (to touch).
 1230 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Complementation of abstract nouns 1231

In both Type (v) and Type (vi), the subjectofthe main clause can be equated The cartons are worth(while) saving.
with the prepositional object of the infinitive clause, so that the infinitive ("" It's worth(while) saving the cartens).
c1ause ends with a deferred preposition:
(iv) There is a variant eonstruction in whieh a preposition oecurs between
She is pleasant to talk to. (-It is pleasant to talk to her.)
. the adjective and the participle clause. In some cases the preposition is
This paper is terribly flimsy to write on.
optional (cf(i) aboye):
Is the cloth sufficient to make a dress out ol?

I'm busy (with) getting the house redeeorated.

In Type (vi), as well as in Type (v),for + subjeet may be inserted before the We'refortunate (in) having Aunt Mary as a baby-sitter.
infinitive verb: Are these books free (for visitors) to borrow? 'Are these In other cases, the preposition is obligatory:
books available ... to borrow?'].
We are used to not having a car (cf16.69 Note [e]).
(E5(vii)J Jt is important to he accurate I'm hopeless at keeping the garden tidy.
16.82. We saw in 16.72 that a that-clause following an adjeetive may prove to be a She's not capable oflooking after herself.
subjeet postponed by extraposition (ef18.33). A to-infinitive clause following
Note [al The adjectival constructions in (ii) above may be compared, in some cases, with nominal
an adjeetive may have the same oouree: constructionsof equivalent meaning;

It is essential to spray the trees every year.

!t's 110 goad/use telling him anything.

There's 110 point (in) telling him anything.

- To spray the trees every year is essential.

8uch constructions are introduced either by anticipatory il (el 18.33) or by eltistential there (el
The infinitive clause can also be introduced by for + subjeet: 18.4$). AmE also hu There's no use telling him anythlng.
(b) Worthwhlle is sometimes spelled as two words. The vacillation between the spellings
It is vital (for the ehildren) to be properly cIad. worthwhile and worth while reflects an unclarity about the status of this sequence, which may
It will be strange (for us) to be living alone. altematively be regarded as the preposition worth (eI9.6) followed by a noun. Compare;

Adjectives ofTypes (ji) and (iii) in 16.72 ([E2b]) may have this construction:
lt's not worth your whife staying. lt's not {worlhh whh~e} (your) staying.
worl w ,..1
important,Jortunate, lueky, surprising, etc. Possible also belongs te this group.
An addítional group of adjeetives oeeurring after anticipatory it are those
adjeetives (ehiefly naming evaluative attributes of persons) whieh occur in
pattern [E5(i)] (ef 16.76). The adjeetive in this group is often followed byan
of-phrase identifying the persones) being discussed: "
It was wrong (of him) to teIllies.
¡i

It is niee ofyou to phone. Complementation of abstract nouns

16.84 In this coneluding section we will show, as a conneeting link between this
[E6] Adjective complementation by an -ing participle cfause chapter and the next, how the pattems of complementation described for
[6.83 A number of sub-types ofthis pattem may be mentioned. verbs and adjectives in 16.20-83 are aloo to be found with abstraet nouns
which are morphologieally related to those verbs .....a nd adjectives. (ef
(i) Busy is followed by an -ing participle clause without subject: nominalization, 17.51ff, and appositional constructions, 17.26, 17.35.) For
Margery is busy writíng Ietters. example, the noun likelihood is derived from, and semantically related to, the
adjective likely. It is therefore not surprising that a construction associated
Worth and worthwhile, on the other hand, oceur both with and without
subjeet: with the adjeetive Is found with the corresponding noun:

It is seareely worth(while) (you/your) going home. It is likely that Joan will get married. [1]
Here worth(while) follows preparatory it, and the participle clause is an "'" {The likelihood is t,hat loan will get married. [21
extraposed subjeet (ef18.34). Other adjectives ofthis pattern are pointless the likelihood that Joan will get married [31
and useless (It's pointless buying so mueh food), and adjectives of Type But the assumption of eorrespondence eannot be automatie, for it may faíl in
[E2b(iíi)J (efl6. 72) also sometimes have this complementation: absurd, both direetions :
awkward,Jortunate, annoying, etc.
loan is likely to get married.

EIsewhere worth and worthwhile accompany an -ing participle elause ,.,., *Joan 's likelihood to get married

without subjeet, but with a passive meaning, comparable to tbat of the *It is likely of J oan's getting married.

infinitive elause in pattern [E5(v)] (ef16.80): ,.,., the likelihood of Joan's getting married

------_._.­
\"
í1'1
1,

COMPLEX
INTRANSITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
p.. H. MATIHEWS

1 Introduction
In sentences such as [1J:
[1J T..h~de..itgreen Ar;.R "C:~I<'íl.t·.\li' ,::N (,.
~

!he construct~oE..J~.QLª JJP~ that GCE:850ff describes as .9QM.f.LEX

JRANSITIV~. Ofthe elements in question,it and made are related a~Jn tQl<
~imple ,transitiv.e:
j
!
[2J They made it

','
YihiJe ir and green a!~_~late!la.s...in..a.simple_.!<QI1l!lar_sente,nce.:
,[3] lt is green '''' (.-;:.,',
( ,
<. !

~f the type that, following Lyons (l977:469ff), »:,e will call ASCRIPTIVE.
»út"' gréen- also ..s.tands.Jn..a..dir.ec,ueJª!.!9.!lsJ\.ÍIL !º~_'iii.~d.e! '''the object and
adjective exemplifying a single I2atteIILof .VERB COMll.EMe?~n:!\.rJ91'!.
This paUCIDl can be sajd .to..r:epresent.a I:JJ..S10,N (G e E: 850) ofJ~<;..simpler
transitiv!! ¡l.~J!~!?Jjp!¡y_e_tj!P..es.. ,- ,,' .._,­
IH~.~_s.f!iE~~'Ve can be fused with th~!!.~~!t!Y_e._(;l!:,r:\i~.also .P~ fused with
.theintransiti.xe1 Inseñteñces SUChas[4]: . - , .... , ...
.MI It turned green "

~construc~~~~~]y. .id.mtifkQ"yáth th.~! of l3J; in both examples the

l;;!}]

~
:~
:~ ENGLISH GRAMMAR
verb is described as copularor, in the terminology of GCE:820f, as taking
'intensive' complementation. But neither description is quite appropriate to
1
~
both cases. In the~ptive sentence there i} indeed no mor.~. than.~p'YhL
1,
~
..2!.'&@!!!ffiMical !i.P.~, betwe~ the adjective and its subject~ plainly this
¡;elation to il (are d).J!? that wav we are dealing with two kern..el.p~QlS, th.~
~
~ is not true of [4], whose verb, TURN, has its own specific meaning. lf turned
íI"
is a full verb it must then be the govemor of green, as made is in (1); in that
~ sense there is cornplernentatjon. But we express nothing by assigning such
¡
{ a complernentation to the copula. A solution is to c1ass I4] as a COMPLBX
! II'!.TMNSITIVE, i!L~on§_trJ!<;!i.º!L being an extension of th~simple
Jm.ransiÚlLe..: ......_­
~ the ~!I!pJex ln.~~-ªE!sitive. Of the relationships shown..in..f1g .?--,.~~t.!!~.~~~_'!
i I5] It turned
j precisely as that of (1) is extended from that of [2).
!¡
2 Fused constructions
Let us take our cue from GCE's referenee to 'fusion'.lo the simpl~L
.,="nfu~~~._~~~~~,!~~ ),t1!.e. c.<>.nst!V!f1ion.consis.ts..o(a..singJULeAicJ~.tQI.(l!!gde),
which in a dependency ana~is has both the subject and the object as its
dependents or, to adapt G CE's term, has both a subjeet and an oJ?k<;:t as.i!t
complementation. lnJhaL~s..e. (;2) has a _.K.1U~~~_~ruetion (Lyons
i977), .w!.1jc.h ...cannot.J;¡J:Lr.~s:!~C.!l.9.. J!Un,Q.(,!<_e!~mentary relationships of
p.t:.e.diC{!JJQJ'kSo too has the simple intransitive (5], vi1ih'i'depeii.oenfori;"or
forming the complementation of, tumed. So too has the simple aseriptive
[3]; its predicator, on the analysis ofLyons and others, is the adjective green.
One reason for relatlng the subject to the adjective is that the elements are
jointly subject to selectional restrictions. A reason for not relating either to
the copula is that the latter stands aside (rom these restrictions. adding none
ofitsown.
In a fused construction the pattem ls neither strictly kernel nor
straightforwardly non-kemel.lnJhe",gmplex transitive [!lL\:1oth1t..a.n41~.Y.
.are again direct ~cngents of made; these relatio~_elQ~ the
words in FigJ....bx direC;1~l;:taI.~_úla.~~I~Q"ª-ª!l9..blle¡)..!.Ün&.2.1úward frol'l:Lthe
~d,,\
''(aJ\¿,;;-
Fig 1 - _---'-'----­
[4 2 ]
P. H. Matthew$
'p~ed!,?~~!. So is green {arc el.. this too being supported by selectional
restrictions. We are therefore dealing with a single clause, rooted in made,
of which each word is a distinct element. But green js a1so..a.predicator in.
fuur::te.rm...claus.e.inf.QmQ.rating both..tM_~tu:e.!;::t~[ID.J.r~J.l.s.itiY.!:: ..!l.!lj}h~ two­
.tenn a~.-· ..... ... -_.­
In Fig 1 we have diagrammed what any grammarian will propose,
provided that his terminology, or his notational apparatus, allow him to say
it. I!ut similar reasonjng applies to the construction which we have called
;'\
it turned green
\aÁbJ
Fig2
.to ir (arc..c)_is.again.as..in,the..ascripJj'y'~, and needs no further cornment. But
the final element is clearly suJ;¡iect to ru19jtional res!r!!=l~ºI}~. 'tl.!!!:!.TlJ..R:.I!!.!_
im~~tº-~.. ~it~~r:..A"U!Qj~.9.!.iY_I!:...9U~.. !!!l~*~!!!ed noun (He turned pink, He
turned king's eVidence); i\..Q~~~!1.!lined phrase is exCiúded (He turned a!rog),
\ !,tDle~s..the p~e~~i.!,!0rl~lJ.9rtn is ~~j:ºñi[qiireif\i:te" tümed ¡nto a frog). ~'.i!tt
.G-º-1h!: exdusi(m is abgolule: one cannot even say He went into a criminal.
f '[he adjeqtive is also Iimlted to specific collocations. For example, one can
say It turned sour or Ir went sour, but it is harder to accept Ir grew sour.
1j Conversely, one can say He grew o/d, but not He went o/d. On that evidence
j we may establish a relationship of dependency between green and tumed
(arc b). The verb too can then be related to the subject (arc a).
1 !E.. pgth o~2!am~ thefe is one terro. ir. lVhich is a..9~de~~..!~..~t\1
.the.ascripti'le anCITlie..'le.tbal.k~m~1 (Fig 1, ares b and d; Fig 2, ares a and c).
The fusion is then effected by a further link (Fig 1, arc e; Fig 2, are b) in
which ond of the two predicators. een is ineo orat~.a~_ ª
d~RendenlO(th~ I re atlon that uirk an4...hl.~ COU~_~&!I.~s'-1
jn the case of th!: complex intransitille, hall{: app1ied the Iean 'int«=ns\v.e
.mmplementatio~gly describe 'he yaleru:::LQ(IU!.N. or ¡
.o.t'IllB.N..i.n..this.us.e..J!..uh~int~siY.e.int[ansitivx'. But the insight iñá;. !I
alsQ be extended to the complex. transitiye. In that spirit MAKE, or MAKE as
used in sentences such as W, might appropriatelL be described .. ~~._~.n_. i
\
"
.:,
l:
~ntensive transitive'.
..... •.. -.J
[43)
 1
.'
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
3 Distinctions between tbe complex intransitive and other,
partly similar, constructions
For a three-term construction, Fig 2. shows the maximum number of
interconnections, with each term related to each of the others. The mínimum
isone; thus for the ascriptive (3) we have adopted the structure shown i~
..:L. with !.l:!~.~E2.nd te~~I!l2!.!= t.l:lí!,n a.mar\o;e~, ºr..S1.!PP9.~!!}g.~lex:n.~!!~
~e.LCla.t:í9.D..~t:~!~.~~...t,~first an~.~.~..;'hir~ But this leaves five
other possibilities, which in theory might be realized. }ust as the second
element_<;;~.!}.p~ltmark(!r, ªs inEig 3•.KlJQQ.m'gºHhetº-i..r.¡;!.; i.n thatJ:~S¿:O.illY
ít is green
Fig3
..1he_ver.b. '\vQ1,lld_.be. a... predicatorr.w.ith.onl;')l..1he_.~y'!:>ject related 10 it. This
structure does not seem to be re.alized, at least not in a'way whíCh is -relevant
to our analysis . .A...se.con.d_possibil~iuhatJ:mly the verb a!!~ ..~~~¡;tiY~L
¿njgl:!!.~~_rel!l.~q; in that ca~e bot~redicato!S_w-ºyld..I;>.~. impersonal.-,v.Uh..
lh~.su~ject a me!~.m~ce-filler. This structure might conceivably be suggested
for exampÍes·Süch as [6]:
[6] It got mistier
with a so-called 'ambient' it. But although it may indeed be ambient with
respect to mistier, it need not follow that it is ambient with respect to got.
In the remaining cases no element is a marker; but there are only two,
instead of three, interconnections. Ir there wem no link betw-"IlJhe subject
.~..YMh..(Ejg 2, are a), the verb1tSelf would agajn be imper.s.m!ª-~. I~
transformational terms, its surface subject would be derived by raising
(Postal 1974) from a subordinate adjectival clause. lf th!3'ewere no
'intensiye' lipk between the first and second predicators (F!g 2., arWJU.,<
verb would be a simple intransitive, taking just t~_S)lbject as its
complementation; th~on of tbe adjec1i..Y.tL..\'L~ then be
'@üMrn-~0n[7], forexample: ---.... -.._.~
Él He arrived saber :;; J (~ é c,c L. f ~ . "2 f
grammars do not establish an intensive, or copular, use of A,RIUVB. Finally,
[44]
P. H. Marrhew$
if the ascri.Q!ive li!!...k wer~.~2.ken íEiK...bJ!~~ f)...!hHº"j!.<i~~ment woulº-no
longer bJ<.a predica.!Q.~.lt¡HQle w.Quldin~te.a.d.b~ADVJllq!t~.¡;" as in {8):
(8) He ran fa~t
There is no doubt that the intensive construction is distinct from the
adverbial, and that sober in [7] is at least more circumstantial than green in
It turned green. But the subject-verb relation is more problematic, in that a
raising transformation has been proposed for one, at least, of the G C E 's
intensive verbs. Let us therefore take that distinction first.
3.1
Ofthe twenty or so 'most common' intensive verbs (GCE:82.1), SEEM and
APPEAR particularly lend themselves to transformational analysis. On the
evidence of sentences such as [9]:
(2) It seemed that they were...&~e~
_}U~na.IlJral lo establish an underlying ~~:::ct~~:
...
J~ sI!.hey were green]~ seemed
.irlY!hÍ!:;!.tE.w~4)srelate(L!1ot to they J~.Q,9.green indh!iÓ1,lally, but to the
y.:i!ole. ascri2tive kernel:..!'rom the same structure a sentence such as [10):
[10] They seemed to be green
can then be derived by further transformations of subject raising and
infinitive formation. Froro the structure reaJized by [Io],...lI'le..are n3tllcall:i,
~m~ed to derive the comple~_~transiti~eú.!ll:
[u) They seemed gre~
by a further transformation deleting the copuía.
For SEEM the rules deriving [10] and [u] would both be optional. But for
other verbs, such as TURN or GO, We could make them obligatory: so, It
turned green could be the only realization of an underlying sUr was greenls
turned, the 'ambient' Ir got misrier - [6] aboye - a realization of, say,
s[mistier]s gor,and so on. If the obligatory rules were then restricted to the
copula, we would also ensure that any other form of embedded structure
(g[he /eft]s turned or g[he kissed her]s grew) was filtered out. By such means a
treatment which is widely accepted for SEEM, and for which the evidence is
at first compelling, could be extended, if it were thought appropriate, to the
entire intensive intransitive class.
There are good reasons for not thinking it appropriate. In a sentence such
as [12.]:
[12] Harry got drunk
Qn~J.s.llQÍ..l!.i.~ply talking of a_~ate tha~ res.!ll!!;<!tI!..s.?.!~o t~a~.. ~~rry. :v.:::s
(45)
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
drunk', or 'Harry's drunkenness happened'). Nor is Harrya mere theme or
t';l¡;fc' ('Á~-to-Karry;'Qrun¡¿ennéSs-l1ippened to him'), 't!l&..11tbject ¡S1
potentia1l;t-at-l~st-;-al'Ml~tgh-ge!~~&.9run_~ :was.soID!:1hi!!iL~hat JI a!.l}'. did,.
The--verb 'may'accordíñ-gly take a 'subject adjunct' (O CE :466]): thus I
delibera te/y got drunk or He foo(lsh/y turned traitor. It may also supply the
complement of a conative verb (1 did try to get drunk), may appear in the
imperative (Don't get drunk !), and so on. For sorne collocations this
potentíality is doubtless harder to realize (compare He delibera te/y turned
SMELL the construction of [131 may be more acceptable (Ir smells ro me as if
b/ue with He delibera te/y turned nasty, or He tried ro grow o/der with He tried
dinner is ready), but the blending remains. With PEEL a non-tactile sense is
ro grow farter); but that is precisely the case for subjects and predicators
possible (Ir fee/s Iike/y), but is less established than the broader senses of
generally. lt is this semantic role that justifies the first link shown in Fig 2,
LOOK. or SOUNO (compare Ir /ooks like/y. II sounds like/y). It is in this case
which an impersonal structure, as in (b):
that my judgment is least secure: would one say, for example, It fee/s (or Ir
(b) s[Harry was drunkls got
would relegate to the surface.
If (b) is wrong for Harry got drunk, a transformationalist should consider
more carefully whether a similar structure is correct for Harry seemed drunk.
Let us assume that it is correct for the construction with a that-clause (It
seemed that Harry was dhmk); for SEEM and APPEAR a c1ausal complement
does form one possibility, Let us also accept that SBBM has a constant sense
e
in all its constructions, But for other 'current' intensives (G E: 820 f) the
evidence is more complexo With SOUNO a that-clause can be forced: for
example, if a dative is inserted (lt sounds ro me that (hey aren't coming), There
is also an impersonal construction with as if:
[131 It sounds as ifthey were green
which might be thought to derive from the same source. The construction
of [13] is also acceptable witb LOOK. (lt /ooks as ifthey aren't coming). But
between it and the complex intransitive we can find clear disparities in
meaning, In [13] the judgment is based on indirect clues: what 'sounds', or
appears from audible information, is indeed the whole proposition 'they
were green', But in the complex intransitive [14]:
[141 They sound drunk
it is based on sounds that they are making, For that reason it is harder 10
make sense of They sound green. Likewise They [ook drunk means that they,
from their appearance, are so, But in It loob as ifthey are drunk the speaker
does not even imply that he has seen them. (Compare Prom what you say, it
/ooks as if rhey are drunk.) Ir we wanted a complex source, it would be
tempting 10 relate [14] not 10 the impersonal [13], with raising, but rather to
the personal [Is1:
[IS] They sound as ¡fthey are drunk
with the second they deleted,
[46]
P. H. Marthews
Personal and impersonal are often hard to separate, as Palmer (1972) and
before him Bolinger(l96la) have shown. Ofthis group ofintensives, TASTE
and 5MBLL are the most restricted in meaning, and it is with these that the
impersonal construction, as in [91 and [131, is least acceptable, With TASTE
neither seems likely: Ir rasres to me that the soup is sa/ty, It tastes to me as if
they are sweer, If the second example can be interpreted, it is by virtue of a
blending with the personal construction (compare It tasres as ifit ...). With
fee/s to me) as if they were green? With SOUNO and LOOK. the general sense
is well established, as in [131 or Ir sounds likely; but there is still a sensory
meaning, as in [14] and [Isl. which inhibits the pure impersonal with that.
With SEEM and APPEAR we are at the end of the continuum, both having
general senses only. Hence the construction of[91, alongside the impersonal
with as if (Ir seems as if they were green). Hence, perhaps, the infinitive
construction of [101; with SOUNO and the others this too is awkward (They
/ooked ro have arrived, Or Ir tastes ro me to be sweer). But it does not follow that
the semantical1y general They seem drunk differs in syntax from the
specifically sensory They sound drunk or They smell drunk. We can even force
an active interp.retation of the subject: thus They tried lO appear drunk, or I
deliberare/y seemed irrftated.
3,2
As [11], with SEEM, Hes on a gradience between personal and impersonal, so
there are others which raise problems in distinguishing intensive from
adverbial and circumstantial constructions. For there is no criterion which
is both sufficient and necessary.
The obvious step is to t.e§t for simpler transforms. Thus J9r [12], Har!.l.~
qrunk, ~e can comp~j¡e.J>imple a~ve Harry was dru!l~
TRANSFORM in that, firstIy, it is a a d secondly, the predicator
-ORUNK. has,not a tq~ sense. s no intraiiSIuvetrans[óriñ
~stiiis~se of G BI is oot ~ble, Nor has 4, r tumeirg,:é-;;¡,
an intransitive transform It turned, since this involves a different sense oC
TURN. Ir there~~ an ascriptive transform but n9.-Wn~itive! the
mult
Jhird....eí.eDlen t be a complementi. so [41 and [12] must be complex
intransitive. Ir there is neither transform it MA y be complement. but the
col~ of verb and adjective mjgbt rCaSaña be classed as idiomatic:
Thus The roses have run wild has no transform The roses ve , iiOr-áoes
it strictly match The rOSes are wild. But WILO is at least an adiecti~
must stand in sorne relationship to the verb; therefore R UN WILO is right1y
.' chml'dw-rresult"intensive e
-- -"._--.g, . . . . " ..... . _ - - - _•. ..­
~ ~
(O E). ---­
[471
 ENOLISH ORAMMAR P. H. Matthews

If there is a simple intransitive but no ascriptive trans.r2ffil-,-._~~~, nevertheless.on~."canI1Q!~~y,.fºr_~.!ªmple,.lfil_§'il!!.1!Ied cha.ir.m.q.f1-<compare.H~

cóñSffiiClióñ-iñü'St;]:ie: ¡j"dve(J2íaI"YlÍus, trivialIy, He ran ¡iuiékly has no staye<! chairman Q.r1f"§Jj¿_r¿~,c.!!ªirmªl1) or It srays obvious that .. , (compare It
ascriptive t¡:ansfo~ He was quickly; less trivially, He travelled light does not seemsobvious that ... or It remainsobvious that ...). With REMAIN it is hard
match He was /ight. But what if we find both? rlJg.J!QQª~t.ill ..ha..$..ªlJ, to find any; but at least the intransitive exists {He remained) and their senses
ascri,Etive _~ran~f~r:r!lJ.~eYI1J..e.r:~_,~@~, ,~.. .§.mL!1!a.Y-.J?~_a...,~.?~plement ..?! can be related. Wth BECOMB that evidence too is lacking. He. became drunk
circumstantja.l.,lik~,/iilelltjn"The.y-.sJoQd.. silen.t., ,ªytlb.~~j~"!llso.the simpler can be distinguish-ed(roñi1lie:asgiptiY,.<;:,1!.g .!:!!.{l..u7ntl1k "onlyJ?;~iiui~..s from
jts resultative meaning. . ,. .-._,-
.intr.an~1t.i'{~ fb.ily.stQPf!; so still ~ight be anadver~, like sileniTy"i'ñ-fiieystood
silent/y. Since there is no distinct form srilly, the latter is hard to rule out. For This merging has ied grammarians to treat the constructions together.
It shone white we can compare the formally adjectivallt shone brighr; again But we can do this only by assimi)ating BE to the mode) of verb
there are both transforms (Ir shone, Ir was white). But It shone brighr is c10se complementation (as in GCE), not by assimilating TURN and so on to the
in meaning to the formaUy adverbial Ir shone brighr/y; could white be an model of a copula ..l"ike...the.cp.mplex.!r"ªn§it.i'y~,nl_e comple}\..imrap.~W"~..i~.
adverb, in default of, or as the commoner altemative to, whirely? Blending .ayoor ca~~idate.f.<?!,.Y'-!l~.LI!l!!.~!Jlt~I!.Q~-ª_.~~rnell!tructllr~·
may aIso be found in idioms. For example, it is fruitless to ask if doggo is an
adjective or an adverb in He is Iying doggo. .
For the circumstantial case both transforms are necessary: thus [7], He
arriúiid sober, has the tr¡¡ñiiíorms·¡'¡úli-¡'¡ved and"He wa§S'óbe;: Wewóülifiliso
ixpeétthilÜhe"vero·a:ñd·ildjectT,.;e-shouId befree'Oi' collocationaI restrictions:
so He arrived sober, He left sober, He Jeft satisjied, He arrived satisfied. and so
on. But it is very hard to say when such a requirement ís meto One does not
say, for example, They stood noisy or They sroodpeacefuJ; on that evidence
They stood si/ent might be classed as complex intransitive. But neither is one
likely to say They arrived noisy, or They arrived kind. Is that too a matter of
collocational restrictions, so that [7] is also intensive? Or is it merely that
NOISY and KIND are ill suÍted 10 this construction7 At this point jt is
tempting to distinguish degrees of circumstantiality. The extreme case
would be represented by such sentences as [16]:
[16] They stood there, exhausted
(Iikewise They have arrived, quite sober), where the adjective and verb are
marked as separate. B.eside [16] the construction in [7] is less. clearly
r circumstantial; in They stood si/ent or They stoodfidgering it is perhaps even
~ less so. But this last might stilJ be seen as less intensive than, for example,
¡ They stood amazed. Likewis.e They feJl exhausted is less clearly intensi ve than
1 They fell sick, since it involves no special sense of FALL.
f
~:
lrÓl!' p1lI1riH\mD ~ amires: f0tr *eompi'ex trlmSi'ti've. fu Tliey'fbuntlliim
guilry there is a special sense OfPIND, as ofMAKE in They mode it green. In
TIw!y rrun Jú;m JOber tbat: ÍoS DO spcci¡l SCD'SII: of)l'E'ET~ by tba.t \cS.\ ~ is.
more eircumsumlial. BUl onc la unlikely lO say, for eumple, They me' hlm
meditative.

4
Finally, there is an obvious gradience between the coxnP-1ex intransitive ~nct
the simple ascriptj~. With TURN 01' GROW there are~-selecÜonal
restrictions, as we have seen. With SBJ,lli or SIhV tney are far fewer;

[48J
M

\
~._.'
.'