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from a smaller number.
Thirteen rules that expire Students might hear this phrase as they first
1. When you multiply a number by ten, learn to subtract whole numbers. When students
just add a zero to the end of the number. are restricted to only the set of whole numbers,
This “rule” is often taught when students are subtracting a larger number from a smaller one
learning to multiply a whole number times results in a negative number, an integer that is
2
ten. However, this directive is not true when not in the set of whole numbers, so this rule is
multiplying decimals (e.g., 0.25 × 10 = 2.5, not true. Later, when students encounter applica-
0.250). Although this statement may reflect tion or word problems involving contexts that
a regular pattern that students identify with include integers, students learn that this “rule”
whole numbers, it is not generalizable to other is not true for all problems. For example, a gro-
types of numbers. Expiration date: Grade 5 cery store manager keeps the temperature of the
(5.NBT.2). produce section at 4 degrees Celsius, but this is
22 degrees too hot for the frozen food section.
3
2. Use keywords to solve word problems. What must the temperature be in the frozen
This approach is often taught throughout food section? In this case, the answer is a nega-
the elementary grades for a variety of word tive number, (4º – 22º = –18º). Expiration date:
problems. Using keywords often encourages Grade 7 (7.NS.1).
students to strip numbers from the problem
and use them to perform a computation 4. Addition and multiplication make
4
outside of the problem context (Clement and numbers bigger.
Bernhard 2005). Unfortunately, many key- When students begin learning about the
words are common English words that can operations of addition and multiplication,
be used in many different ways. Yet, a list of they are often given this rule as a means to
keywords is often given so that word problems develop a generalization relative to operation
can be translated into a symbolic, computa- sense. However, the rule has multiple counter-
tional form. Students are sometimes told that examples. Addition with zero does not create a
if they see the word altogether in the problem, sum larger than either addend. It is also untrue
5
they should always add the given numbers. when adding two negative numbers (e.g., –3 +
If they see left in the problem, they should –2 = –5), because –5 is less than both addends.
always subtract the numbers. But reducing In the case of the equation below, the product is
the meaning of an entire problem to a simple smaller than either factor.
MathType 1
scan for key words has inherent challenges. 1 1 1
For example, consider this problem: × =
4 3 12
John had 14 marbles in his left pocket. He This is also the case when one of the factors
had 37 marbles in his right pocket. How is a negative number and MathType 2 factor is
the other
many marbles did John have? 1
positive, such as –3 × 8= –24. Expiration date:
8 ÷ 4 = 2 or 4 ÷ 8 =
Grade 5 (5.NF.4 and 5.NBT.7) and2 again at
If students use keywords as suggested above, Grade 7 (7.NS.1 and 7.NS.2).
they will subtract without realizing that the MathType 3
problem context requires addition to solve. 5. Subtraction and division make
1 2 5
Keywords become particularly troublesome numbers smaller. ÷ =
when students begin to explore multistep word 4 5 heard
This rule is commonly 8 in grade 3: both
problems, because they must decide which subtraction and division will result in an
keywords work with which component of the MathType
answer that is smaller than at least4one of the
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www.nctm.org Vol. 21, No. 21 | teaching children mathematics • August 2014 21
numbers in the computation. When numbers 8. Multiply everything inside the
6
are positive whole numbers, decimals, or frac- parentheses by the number outside
tions, subtracting will result in a number that the parentheses.
is smaller than at least one of the numbers As students are developing the foundational
MathType 1However, if the
involved in the computation. skills linked to order of operations, they are often
MathType 1
1 1 1two negative numbers,
subtraction involves told to first perform multiplication on the num-
× =1 1 1
students may 4notice 3 12×a contradiction
= (e.g., –5 – bers (terms) within the parentheses. This holds
7
(– 8) = 3). In division,4 the3 rule
12 is true if the num- true only when the numbers or variables inside
bers are positive whole numbers,
MathType 2 for example: the parentheses are being added or subtracted,
MathType 2 because the distributive property is being used,
1
8 ÷ 4 = 2 or 4 ÷ 8 = 1 for example, 3(5 + 4) = 3 × 5 + 3 × 4. The rule is
8 ÷ 4 = 2 or 4 2÷ 8 = untrue when multiplication or division occurs
2
However, if the numbers you are dividing are in the parentheses, for example, 2 (4 × 9) ≠
fractions, the quotient MathType 3
may be larger: 2 × 4 × 2 × 9. The 4 and the 9 are not two separate
8
MathType 3
1 2 5 terms, because they are not separated by a plus
÷ = 1 2 5 or minus sign. This error may not emerge in
4 5 ÷ 8 =
4 5 8 situations when students encounter terms that
This is also the case when dividing two nega- do not involve the distributive property or when
MathType 4
tive factors: (e.g., –9 ÷ –3 MathType= 3). Expiration4 dates: students use the distributive property without
Grade 6 (6.NS.1) and 1 again at Grade 7 (7.NS.1 the element of terms. The confusion seems to be
1
9
and 7.NS.2c). 2MathType 1 an interaction between students’ partial under-
2
1 1 1 standing of terms and their partial understand-
6. You always × MathType
=1
4 divide
3 12the larger number ing of the distributive property—which may not
MathType 5
by the smaller
1 1 1 number. MathType 5 be revealed unless both are present. Expiration
× = 1 1
This rule4 may 3 12 be true÷ when 2 =1 students
÷
1 begin to date: Grade 5 (5.OA.1).
2MathType 4 2=2
learn their basic facts for2 whole-number 4 divi-
MathType 2
sion and the computations are 1 contextu-
not 9. Improper fractions should always be
8 ÷ 4 1= 21or 4 ÷ 8 =
10
ally based.8 ÷ 4 But,
= 2 or for
4 ÷ 8 example,
= if 2the problem written as a mixed number.
2 1
7
states that Kate has 2 cookies to divide among When students are first learning about fractions,
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herself and two friends,
MathType MathType
3 then the 3 portion for they are often taught to always change improper
each person
1 2 is5 2 ÷ 3. Similarly, it is possible to
÷ = 1 2 5
fractions to mixed numbers, perhaps so they
4 5 8 in
have a problem ÷ which= one number might be can better visualize how many wholes and parts
4 5 8
a fraction: the number represents. This rule can certainly
11
MathType 4
help students understand that positive mixed
1 MathType 4
Jayne has of a pizza and wants to share it numbers can represent a value greater than one
2
1
with her brother. What portion of the whole whole, but it can be troublesome when students
pizza will each get?25
MathType are working within a specific mathematical con-
1 1 text or real-world situation that requires them
÷2 =
In this case, the
2 computation
4
MathTypeis as
5 follows: to use improper fractions. This frequently first
occurs when students begin using improper
1 1 1
÷2 = fractions to compute and again when students
7 2 4 later learn about the slope of a line and must
Expiration date: Grade 5 (5.NF.3 and 5.NF.7). represent the slope as the rise/run, which is
1 sometimes appropriately and usefully expressed
7. Two negatives make 7 a positive. as an improper fraction. Expiration dates:
Typically taught when students learn about Grade 5 (5.NF.1) and again in Grade 7 (7.RP.2).
multiplication and division of integers, rule 7 is
to help them determine the sign of the product 10. The number you say first in counting
or quotient. However, this rule does not always is always less than the number that
hold true for addition and subtraction of inte- comes next.
gers, such as in –5 + (–3) = –8. Expiration date: In the early development of number, students
Grade 7 (7.NS.1). are regularly encouraged to think that number
MathType 3
TABLE 1 Some commonly used
1 2 language
÷ =
5 “expires ” and should be replaced with more appropriate alternatives.
4 5 8
Using the phrase reducing fractions Use simplifying fractions. The language of reducing gives students the
incorrect impression that the fraction is getting smaller or being reduced
in size.
Asking how shapes are similar when Ask, How are these shapes the same? How are the shapes different? Using
children are comparing a set of shapes the word similar in these situations can eventually confuse students about
the mathematical meaning of similar, which will be introduced in middle
school and relates to geometric figures.
Reading the equal sign as makes, for Read the equation 2 + 2 = 4 as Two plus two equals or is the same
example, saying, Two plus two makes as four. The language makes encourages the misconception that the
four for 2 + 2 = 4 equal sign is an action or an operation rather than representative of
a relationship.
Indicating that a number divides Say that a number divides another number a whole number of times or
evenly into another number that it divides without a remainder.
Plugging a number into an expression Use substitute values for an unknown.
or equation
Using top number and bottom num- Students should see a fraction as one number, not two separate numbers.
ber to describe the numerator and Use the words numerator and denominator when discussing the different
denominator of a fraction, respectively parts of a fraction.
relationships are fixed. For example, the rela- 12. Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.
tionship between 3 and 8 is always the same. To This phrase is typically taught when students
determine the relationship between two num- begin solving numerical expressions involv-
bers, the numbers must implicitly represent a ing multiple operations, with this mnemonic
count made by using the same unit. But when serving as a way of remembering the order of
units are different, these relationships change. operations. Three issues arise with the appli-
For example, three dozen eggs is more than eight cation of this rule. First, students incorrectly
eggs, and three feet is more than eight inches. believe that they should always do multipli-
Expiration date: Grade 2 (2.MD.2). cation before division, and addition before
subtraction, because of the order in which they
11. The longer the number, the larger appear in the mnemonic PEMDAS (Linchevski
the number. and Livneh 1999). Second, the order is not as
The length of a number, when working with strict as students are led to believe. For example,
whole numbers that differ in the number of in the expression 32 – 4(2 + 7) + 8 ÷ 4, students
digits, does indicate this relationship or mag- have options as to where they might start. In
nitude. However, it is particularly troublesome this case, they may first simplify the 2 + 7 in the
to apply this rule to decimals (e.g., thinking that grouping symbol, simplify 32, or divide before
0.273 is larger than 0.6), a misconception noted doing any other computation—all without
by Desmet, Grégoire, and Mussolin (2010). affecting the outcome. Third, the P in PEMDAS
Expiration date: Grade 4 (4.NF.7). suggests that parentheses are first, rather than
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cates that the two quantities on either side of grade as they had previously—are being required
it represent the same amount. It is not a signal to teach mathematics content that differs from
prompting the answer through an announce- what they taught in the past. As teachers are
ment to “do something” (Falkner, Levi, and planning how to teach according to new stan-
Carpenter 1999; Kieran 1981). In an equation, dards, now is a critical point to think about the
students may see an equal sign that expresses rules that should or should not be taught and the
the relationship but cannot be interpreted as vocabulary that should or should not be used in
Find the answer. For example, in the equations an effort to teach in ways that do not “expire.”
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below, the equal sign provides no indication of
an answer. Expiration date: Grade 1 (1.OA.7). RE F ERE NC E S
Boaler, Jo. 2008. What’s Math Got to Do with
6=□+4 It? Helping Children Learn to Love their Most
3 + x = 5 + 2x Hated Subject—and Why It’s Important for
America. New York: Viking.
Clement, Lisa, and Jamal Bernhard. 2005. “A
Expired language Problem-Solving Alternative to Using Key
In addition to helping students avoid the thir- Words.” Mathematics Teaching in the Middle
teen rules that expire, we must also pay close School 10 (7): 360–65.
attention to the mathematical language we use Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI).
as teachers and that we allow our students to 2010. Common Core State Standards for
use. The language we use to discuss mathemat- Mathematics. Washington, DC: National
ics (see table 1) may carry with it connotations Governors Association Center for Best
that result in misconceptions or misuses by Practices and the Council of Chief State
students, many of which relate to the Thirteen School Officers. http://www.corestandards
Rules That Expire listed above. Using accurate .org/wp-content/uploads/Math_Standards.pdf
and precise vocabulary (which aligns closely Desmet, Laetitia, Jacques Grégoire, and
with SMP 6) is an important part of developing Christophe Mussolin. 2010. “Developmental
student understanding that supports student Changes in the Comparison of Decimal
learning and withstands the need for complexity Fractions.” Learning and Instruction 20 (6):
as students progress through the grades. 521–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016
/j.learninstruc.2009.07.004
No expiration date Falkner, Karen P., Linda Levi, and Thomas P.
One characteristic of the Common Core State Carpenter. 1999. “Children’s Understanding
Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM) (CCSSI of Equality: A Foundation for Algebra.”
2010) is to have fewer, but deeper, more rigor- Teaching Children Mathematics 6 (February):
ous standards at each grade—and to have less 56–60.