The International Dimension of Scholarly Journals PDF

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The international dimension of scholarly journals
Article in Prospects · June 1988

DOI: 10.1007/BF02195523
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prOSpeCtt PERIODICALS
vol. xviii. NO. 2,1988 (eel C O L L E C T I O N E D / SE|I
Landmarks 151
VIEWPOINTS/CONTROVERSIES
T h e metamorphoses of the term'pedagogy' Francine Best 157
Comparative education: towards a basic theory Carlos E. Olivera 167
OPEN FILE
Distance education (II): From plans to realities
Indonesia: Universitas Terbuka Setijadi 189
T h e external degree programme at the University of Zambia
Richard M . C. Siaciwena 199
Poland: the Radio and Television University for Teachers
Eugenia Potulicka 207
China: its distance higher-education system Zhao Yuhui 217
France: the National Centre for Distance Teaching
Dominique Lecourt 229
T h e Al-Quds Open University project Walid Kamhawi 239
A year in the life of an Open University student in the United
Kingdom Nazira Ismail 249
TRENDS AND CASES

The international dimension of scholarly journals Philip G. Altbach 261
Laboratory schools for early preparation for the teaching profession
in the U S S R Yulia N. Vyunkova and Leonid I. Ruvinsky 271
Reviews
Profiles of educators: Alexander Sutherland Neill (1883-1973)
Jean-François Saffange 283
Book reviews: C. Birzéa; N. V. Varghese 290
ISSN 0033-1538
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Landmarks
Identity crisis or examination of conscience?
The two articles that open this issue express, each in its own way, a sort
of uneasiness in what may be called the 'educational sciences'. Francine
Best devotes her article to a diachronic survey of the successive diversions
of the term and concept of 'pedagogy' and 'pedagogical research' and
their subsequent marginalization, albeit unfounded in her view in favour
of the term 'research in education'. Carlos E . Olivera goes further.
Recalling Jean Piaget, as does Francine Best, he considers that 'in the
view of the professional social scientists, there is no such thing as a
science of education'. In particular, comparative education at present is
still far from constituting a veritable science, beginning with its defi-
nition, the nature and limits of itsfieldof action. When one thinks of the
dozens of congresses and conferences that are devoted to it and to the
hundreds of papers that are presented in its name, there is much food
for thought—and for controversy.
A simple semantic quarrel? Secondary historic interest? Identity crisis
or examination of conscience? In any case, both authors are motivated
by a serious epistemological concern, to clarify concepts and give exact
nomenclature. It may well be that such radical bringing into question of
concepts has rarely been presented in so few pages. And if they call for
responses of the same quality, Prospects is ready to examine and publish
them.
In current debates of this type—and which concern the very future of
research in education—it is evident that specialized reviews with an
international readership have a particular responsibility basically
because of their frequent periodicity and immediate accessibility.
Concerning the number, the nature, the impact and the difficulties of these
periodicals, the reader will find Philip G. Altbach's article of particular
interest. The author synthesizes discussion which took place in Rio
de Janeiro in the context of the World Congress of Comparative Edu-
cation (6—IO July 1987). It brought together some twenty editors of
specialized reviews from all regions of the world. The necessity, the
growing number and the publication of such journals in a greater
number of languages no longer escape anyone's notice.
Prospects, Vol. XVIII, N o . 2, 1988

Landmarks
Distance education: from theory to practice
The preceding issue analysed fundamental theoretical themes concerning

any distance-education system. What is going on in terms of practice?
The complementary Open File that appears in this issue shows that if the
system is well understood, accepted and, here and there, institutionalized,
its implementation is not unproblematic. These problems are recognized
and analysed here by our authors with a remarkable unanimity in their
self-criticism and evaluation. Clearly, and regardless of whether the
results are brilliant or mixed, the analysis of these difficulties is of direct
interest not only for institutions that have reached their 'cruising speed',
but above all for the countries that are considering hesitantly whether to
create instruction of this type. Anthony Kaye announces that the authors
in this second series of studies include a planner, a vice-rector, a dean, an
administrator, a professor of education, a programme planner and a
student. Looked at differently, one might say that the present Open
File examines the conception and practice of distance education in three
developing countries (China, Indonesia, Zambia), two developed
countries or three, if one includes the testimonial of Nazira Isamil
concerning her experience of the British Open University (France,
Poland, United Kingdom), and a project intended to cover a certain
number of Arab countries. In other words, the geographical sample of the
cases studied is quite broad and representative.
One problem remains, however: in which order should these seven
contributions be presented to the reader? By order of length offunctioning
of the institutions concerned? By geographic origin? By analogy and
thematic correspondence with the articles which appeared in the pre-
ceding issue? Without pretending in any way to show a preference, the
approach selected is a slightly didactic one. Indeed, a common charac-
teristic of the majority of the articles is, as was stated, the analysis of
difficulties encountered in the implementation of the experiences described
here. Hence, they are presented in decreasing order of difficulty encoun-
tered in terms of number or complexity, whether they be of a conceptual,
organizational or logistical order. The series concludes, on the one hand,
by the proposed Al-Quds Open University, which is not yet functioning
and which will take into account, one might hope, the lessons learned
from experiences that have preceded it and, on the other hand, by the
testimony of a typical client, the student, too frequently missing or
neglected in the literature concerning this type of innovation but whose
actual experience is precious for any decision-maker who cares to have
a global view of a system and who intends to perfect it.
In the preceding 'Landmarks', a peaceful revolution concerning the
emergence and affirmation of distance education on the margin of
Landmarks
traditional instruction was mentioned. By confronting the theoretical

texts in Prospects No. 65 with experiences and projects of this issue,
one notices that in spite of a number of outstanding successes of this
type of education, both in terms of conception and its implementation,
there is still much to be done before it acquires its patents of nobility
definitively. One thing is clear, however, across all the studies, which is
that the cost-benefit and the cost-efficiency of such a system make it a
serious alternative in any economic and educational context. One might
take for proof and for invitation, this declaration by a Chinese minister
of education quoted opportunely by Zhao Yuhui:
Experience has proved that, in a country like China, with a vast territory, a
large population and a comparatively backward cultural, scientific and techno-
logical development, it is feasible to use the media of radio and television in
distance education so as to train more people in a shorter period of time and on
a large scale. It is also a good method of improving the general cultural and
scientific level of the whole nation with less manpower and fewer material
resources.
What is true for China, might possibly be true for countries that have
not yet instituted this type of instruction regardless of their size, their
needs and constraints. Prospects will return frequently to these questions
in the future.
Z.M.
VIEWPOINTS
CONTROVERSIES
The metamorphoses
of the term 'pedagogy'
Francine Best
Pedagogy is . . . both the science and the art of education. But as we must
choose one or the other—the [French] language being usually reluctant to
allow the same word to denote both an art and its corresponding science—I
would quite simply define pedagogy as the science of education. W h y a
science rather than an art? Because . . . the substance of pedagogy lies m u c h
less in the processes that it brings into play than in the theoretical reasoning
through which it discovers, evaluates and co-ordinates these processes.
Since this definition by Henri Marion appeared in the famous

Dictionnaire de pédagogie by Ferdinand Buisson (1887), the words
and concepts used in the field of pedagogy or rather (should I say
'or rather'?) in the educational sciences* have undergone a change
of meaning. Consulting encyclopedias, dictionaries or glossaries
under the headings 'pedagogy' or 'education' does not dispel the
confusion and ambiguity created b y the use of the word 'pedagogy'.
Moreover, in the last few years (1980-88), the word has often been
devalued, deflected from its original meaning or even discredited.
D o e s 'pedagogy' conflict with 'knowledge'? Is there, on the one
hand, knowledge to be conveyed and, on the other, methods of
conveying this information to children, adolescents, or young adults?
Is the 'pedagogue' the slave whose task it is to usher children forward
until they are ready for their private tutor, and hence to instruction,
or is he the adult h u m a n being w h o , having reflected on the state
of childhood and the knowledge within the grasp of mankind,
'escorts' the child towards knowledge and towards adulthood? In
Francine Best (France). A philosopher by training. Until January 1988, Director of

the Institut National de Recherche Pédagogique. Previously principal of two teacher-
training colleges (École Normale de la Manche and then École Normale du Calvados)
and lecturer in philosophy and educational sciences at the University of Caen. Her
publications include: Pour u n e pédagogie d e l'éveil,- L'adolescent dans la vie scolaire
and chapters in the Traité des sciences pédagogiques and the Dictionnaire mondial
de l'éducation.
* Editor's note: T h e author uses the French term 'sciences de l'éducation' translated into
English as 'educational sciences' to refer to the various disciplines studied in university
schools or colleges of education in English-speaking countries.

Francine Best
France (though this discussion concerns the whole of Europe) the

very term 'pedagogy' has been taken as the symbol, if not the
scapegoat, of the controversy between those w h o hold that schools
should concern themselves exclusively with instruction and those
w h o hold that schools should also have an educative role which
includes instruction but which also takes responsibility for the
conditions under which one learns and the civil, social and moral
aspects of education.1
However, if w e wish to go beyond sterile debate and consolidate
the efforts of those w h o are giving thought to the problems of edu-
cation in order to establish a branch of science, that of pedagogical
research, w e ought to look back over the recent history of the word
'pedagogy'.
T h e history of 'pedagogy', as a theoretical study of education and
instruction, is very closely linked to the history of teacher-training
colleges and, especially in France, to the training colleges for primary-
school teachers (écoles normales d'instituteurs et d'institutrices). These
colleges began teaching 'pedagogy' in 1883. However, the école
normale teachers—the teacher educators—were quick to feel the
need to distinguish between 'general pedagogy', that is, a systematic
succession of thoughts of a philosophical nature setting out 'peda-
gogical doctrines', dealing in turn with Plato, Montaigne, Rousseau,
Montessori. Fernere, Decroly, D e w e y , etc., and a 'specialized' or
'practical pedagogy' which would help future teachers teach a
particular given subject. T h u s w e speak of 'the pedagogy of math-
ematics', 'the pedagogy of reading', and 'the pedagogy of science',
all of which are based on the famous 'object lesson' (leçon de chose).
At the same time, a few universities established chairs in science
de l'éducation held by philosophers and respected sociologists2 such
as Durkheim. T h u s the distinction came about between the university
élite, w h o were concerned with the science of education, and the
primary-school teacher-training colleges which were responsible for
the practical, and yet theoretical, aspects, i.e. 'pedagogy'.
At the same time, child psychology became established as a fully
fledged h u m a n science. Piaget and Wallon's 'genetic psychology'
w o n the respect of m a n y 'pedagogues', especially after the Second
World W a r . Psychology had become a science! W h y , then, not m a k e
use of this nascent science as a rational and scientific basis for
'pedagogy'? A n d out of this mistaken use, which mixed the goal
assigned to education with knowledge of the person to be educated
and proficiency in the means of education, came the ill-conceived
and confused term 'psycho-pedagogy'. A n d so the word 'pedagogy'
underwent its first metamorphosis: it was reduced to being nothing
but the 'practical' or 'applied' consequence of a science in which it
The metamorphoses of the term 'pedagogy'
played no part, namely psychology. In this w a y , the word 'pedagogy'

gradually became used to denote the practice of primary-school
teachers, w h o (without any derogatory connotations until the 1960s)
were referred to as 'pedagogues'. Indeed the concern was m o r e
with the action of educating or teaching than with hypothesizing
about this action or with studying the foundations on which it rested.
However, warnings were given by Piaget himself:
One must understand what is meant here. Modern 'pedagogy' is by no
means a product of child psychology in the same way that technological
progress in industry developed step by step as a direct result of scientific
discoveries. [Modern methods of education] are not the work of one single
person who deduced a theory of pyscho-pedagogy from a particular special-
ized study.8
Similarly, Wallon distinguished between his work on educational

policy and his research on psychology, even though the former m a y ,
where the educational and careers guidance of the pupils is concerned,
have m a d e use of the means for knowing children possibly offered
by psychology.4
In the 1950s and 1960s, universities in France, too, set up research
departments or chairs in 'psycho-pedagogy'. However, at the same
time, philosophers began to raise objections,5 saying that this word
'psycho-pedagogy' was both ill-conceived and rested on shaky foun-
dations. T h e y held that a study of the aims and principles of education
could not be based on the results of psychological research, no
matter h o w scientific it might be. Furthermore, they argued that
psychology could be seen neither as a n o r m for h o w teachers should
act nor as an adequate explanation of educational phenomena.
After editing the Traité des sciences pédagogiques (1971) with
Maurice Debesse, Gaston Mialaret wanted to rid 'pedagogy' of its
ambiguous, a-scientific implications and thus borrowed the term
'sciences de l'éducation' from Switzerland where a chair existed at the
University of Geneva. This certainly clarified the issue of its scien-
tific status and m a d e education an object of knowledge. That
Mialaret chose the plural form 'sciences' is of great significance,
implying that the 'educational sciences' were no more than a single
branch of the social sciences which already enjoyed a measure of
academic renown. T h e educational sciences consisted of the psy-
chology of education, the sociology of education, the history of
education, and so on. This n e w view, however, diverged from the
definition, favoured by Marion and Buisson—'Pedagogy . . . is the
science of education'—and, moreover, it had the disadvantage of
isolating the term 'pedagogy', originally attached to European tra-
dition, stripping it of nearly all its original meaning and Balkanizing,
Francine Best
so to speak, knowledge about education. So far as their status was

concerned, however, the educational 'sciences' stood to gain obvious
advantages by defining their scope of activity and the methods they
used, and by being associated with well-established scientific disci-
plines. A s part of the same trend, developmental psychology,
cognitive psychology, the sociology of education, the history of
education and the psycho-sociology of education established them-
selves as autonomous scientificfields,attached m o r e to the h u m a n
and social sciences than to a specificfieldlike 'the sciences of edu-
cation'. Moreover, in order to receive recognition as a science 'in
its o w n right', each of thesefieldsm a d e an effort to consolidate its
autonomy. Pedagogical research, despite the names of the European
institutes where such research was carried out, became 'research into
education' following the example of (and as a translation of?) 'edu-
cational research'.
Parallel to this involuntary marginalisation of the term and concept
of 'pedagogy', there was a tendency in the 1970s for pedagogy to
become synonymous with psycho-sociology, or even with the
'dynamics' of small groups.
These trends led to another major metamorphosis for the word
'pedagogy': non-directive teaching, inspired by American psycho-
sociological thinking (Rogers),6 was m a d e out to be, and taken as,
the whole of 'pedagogy'. W h a t in reality was only one theory of
pedagogy, i.e. non-directive teaching, was raised to the status of a
doctrine.
With ideas and concepts in such a state, philosophy lecturers7 at
teacher-training colleges in France strove to clarify, identify and
classify. N o t wanting to see discarded a rational and systematic
study on education, on childhood and its significance and on the
transfer and acquisition of knowledge, they founded the philosophy
of education. Psychology, be it genetic or cognitive:, was seen as a
scientific corpus and an independentfieldof research quite separate
from the philosophy of education. T h e sociology of education was
also seen as an independent branch, but to a lesser extent, since the
historical link between sociology, philosophy and pedagogy remained
strong.
W e should not underestimate the impact of this confusion between
one theory of pedagogy (non-directive education) and 'pedagogy'
per se, because it was precisely this confusion that led, in 1984, to
renewed and heated debate on education and knowledge. T h e desire
to 'sink' 'pedagogy' for good and all, in the n a m e of knowledge, by
deliberately confusing it with non-directive education, became even
more embittered and weighed heavily on educational research. W a s
this debate particular to France, where such issues have always,
and rightly, aroused great interest? Perhaps s but its ramifications

were of great consequence since it was claimed that instead of being
the sole science of education, 'pedagogy' was nothing more than
intuition, affect, a compilation of interpersonal relations, running
the risk of obscurantism w h e n , in truth, it was, or was trying to be,
quite the opposite.
W a s this the final metamorphosis of the word and concept of
'pedagogy'? Not at all. Confronted by the confusions and ambiguities,
briefly described above, which arose between 1969 and 1980, French
educational researchers coined a n e w term for the study of the
relationship between pupils, teachers and the various branches of
knowledge grouped into educational subjects. This n e w word
'didactics', borrowed from the G e r m a n educational term 'Didaktik?,
denotes our understanding of the relationship between the content
that is taught, those w h o are taught and the teacher. That this term
is used in the plural form only, emphasizes that the particular
content of each individual subject is equally as important as the w a y
in which the subject is presented. W h a t is meant by the didactics of
a subject? It is the study of the transmission of information (know-
ledge and k n o w - h o w ) constituting a coherent and properly formed
whole. 8 However, the term 'transmission', unless, quite rightly, it is
seen as a general aim of didactics, is misleading because, to a large
extent, it pays too little attention to the person as a cognitive and
active being.
All didactics are based on the triad of cognitive psychology, the
epistemology of the subject in question and the content to be taught.
This basic triad, and especially the cognitive psychological element,
shows that education in schools is aimed at enabling the child to
acquire knowledge by constructing it for himself. Within the frame-
work of didactics, cognitive psychology reveals the processes of the
person w h o is learning.9 In fact, it was because didactics were of a
m u c h more scientific nature that they took over from the 'specialized
pedagogy' of previous years. T h e understanding of the learning
and teaching processes gained a lot from this and w e can therefore
hardly regret this change. W e are nevertheless forced to admit that,
once again, pedagogy lost one of its component parts, namely prac-
tical knowledge and the putting into practice of the processes of
conveying information.
T h u s , on the one hand, 'general pedagogy' has n o w become the
philosophy, the sociology or the social psychology of education. O n
the other hand, 'specialized pedagogy' has become didactics. A n d ,
beyond that, the sociology of education, the history of education
and cognitive psychology have established themselves as quasi-
autonomous scientific fields. These different fields, to which w e
Francine Best
ought to add 'psycho-sociology', can be subsumed under the term

'sciences de l'éducation'. But in this series of individual segments (no
doubt epistemologically justified) of the study of education and of
the knowledge needed for that study, what has become of the term
'pedagogy'? H a v e w e lost it along the way? H a s it been rendered
useless? Certainly not, because w e still need a generic term under
which w e can group the totality of the scientificfieldsw e have just
mentioned. W e still need an all-embracing knowledge capable of
clarifying and improving upon decisions and actions demanded by
education, because educational phenomena can only be studied in
the context of very real educational situations, especially the school
situation. T h e term 'pedagogy' seems to us to be needed in order to
designate this very specific contact with the reality of the classroom
or school situation.
It is pedagogical research that is giving, or restoring, life and a
future to 'pedagogy'. For, although it is true that w h e n pedagogy is
just a diffuse set of, to a greater or lesser extent, unpremeditated and
even generous ideas and actions, it can no longer be regarded as a
scientificfield,it is still, nevertheless, a useful, indeed a necessary,
field in so far as its very intentionality gives rise to research. But if
this research is based upon social scientific methods (and h o w could
it be otherwise?) related to each individual subject (psychology,
sociology, history, didactics), it cannot at the same time totally merge
with the social sciences. T h e subjects that it studies are m u c h too
complex to allow this. W e can then, in this context, speak of pluri-
disciplinary or even interdisciplinary research. For example, a study
on the effect of introducing a microprocessor into a primary-school
class cannot be carried out without reference to various other aspects,
for example a study of the interaction between children and s o m e -
thing technical; a study of the interaction between children them-
selves (social psychology); a study of the mental processes which
c o m e to the fore (cognitive psychology); a study of the relationship
between the content presented in the software, the use which the
teacher and which the pupil makes of it (didactics); a study of the
perception of this technical object by society as a whole and by
educational circles (sociology); and an understanding of technical
developments (contemporary history).
This complexity, that the researcher tackles with tools taken from
the social sciences, inevitably raises the questions of progress and of
what to do. Should microprocessors be more widely available in
schools, and if so, h o w ?
Is it not true to say, and the descriptive, explanatory studies out-
lined above seem to support this, that the answer to these two ques-
tions lies in 'pedagogy', a notion which itself was derived from
research of m a n y different kinds which have nevertheless been

combined into a n e w type of knowledge? W e can speak of peda-
gogical research if, on the one hand, through this w e arrive at a
synthesis of questions duly analysed and turned into research
projects, or if, on the other hand, the results of this research can
clarify the action taken by the decision-makersj teaching staff, and
those responsible for the education system at all levels. T h e specific
characteristics of pedagogical research are that it is synoptic and
productive of results.
Pedagogical research, however, can also be used as a generic
term for research on, in and for education. B y research on education,
w e m e a n the study of systemic groups formed by an education
system, an educational establishment or a region, district or area of
educational priority. This also includes an understanding of the
pupils themselves, their peer group, their social and cultural environ-
ment, their performance at school and their living and learning
conditions. All this information is necessary if w e wish to understand
and take appropriate action.
Regarding research in education, one of the specific features,
and by no means the least important, of pedagogical research is that
it is carried out to a large extent by means of experiments in the
classroom in primary schools and lower and higher secondary schools.
T h e French Institut National de Recherche Pédagogique has for a
long time been carrying out methodical scientific research, working
in close co-operation with teaching staff w h o then more or less
become researchers themselves, obeying the demands of scientific
method. It should be noted that w e are in no w a y talking about
'applied' research, that is trying out, with a view to applying them,
educational theories thought u p by some researcher. Research
theories are elaborated, stated and verified by team-work with the
teachers engaged in a given form of research, and the same goes for
the relevance of the educational activities introduced. In particular,
so far as didactics is concerned, no serious researcher would dream
of working without the co-operation of one or more teachers. T h e
term 'research in education' takes on its full meaning w h e n it refers
to this type of research, which has a positive and indisputable effect
on the action and training of teachers. This being the case, h o w can
w e define this particular effect and this specific characteristic of
research except by calling it 'pedagogy'?
If w e accept didactics, on the one hand as an autonomous scien-
tific field and the 'educational sciences' {sciences de l'éducation), on
the other, as a totally differentfield,then w e must find a third term
or concept to integrate the two. T h e word 'pedagogy' exists. T h e
expression 'pedagogical research' also exists, and is more widely
Francine Best
recognized. So w h y can w e not use these terms to denote, in a

comprehensive w a y , all pedagogical research whether relating to
didactics, the social sciences, which are concerned with education,
statistics, the 'educational sciences', or the philosophy of education?
Partly because w e in France, in fact, have a national centre for
pedagogical research (the Institut National de Recherche Pédago-
gique), which enables university research from all areas of the country
to be brought together, and partly because this institution itself
carries out a considerable amount of research into several scientific
fields, pedagogical research includes both didactics and the 'edu-
cational sciences' related to the social sciences and to the history of
education. O n e single institution divided into different research
departments makes the functioning of the scientific disciplines on
which the research is based easy and also makes it easy for individual
research programmes to be brought together. In the present cir-
cumstances, where the trend is towards decentralization, it m a y seem
paradoxical to m a k e a plea for 'national' institutes of pedagogical
research whose task would be to support and bring together uni-
versity research on education.
Moving n o w to the European level, w efindthat the terms 'peda-
gogy' and 'pedagogical research' still hold a place of honour not only
in French-speaking countries (e.g. French-speaking Switzerland or
Belgium, where 'pedagogy' is the subject of constant interest) but
also in the G e r m a n Democratic Republic, in the Federal Republic
of G e r m a n y , in Poland, in Italy and elsewhere. Moreover, translators,
such as those at the Council of Europe or Unesco, are not mistaken
w h e n they translate the accepted English phrase 'educational research'
by 'recherche pédagogique'.
However, is the validity of the word and the concept of'pedagogy'
just a translation matter? Yes and no. Yes, because w e are going
through a transitionary period where terms and concepts relating
to education are wavering, re-establishing themselves, fragmenting
and re-forming. T h e epistemology of pedagogical research thus still
has to be carried out. N o , since the concept of 'pedagogy' is a very
well-defined, specific concept. It is indeed a h u m a n and social science
albeit more geared towards action.
Europe boasts a very rich tradition as far as pedagogical research
is concerned, and it can more than hold its o w n w h e n pitted against
the very varied and numerous, but also very isolated and fragmented,
research programmes in education, carried out in the English-
speaking world. Pedagogy provides the originality behind a strong
European m o v e m e n t for the heads of pedagogical research institutions
and pedagogical researchers to meet, talk to one another and give
one another support. Moreover, pedagogical research provides an
important link between the different parts of Europe. It is truly a

pan-European term. Piaget noted this in 1969 10 and our institutions
confirm it today: the Academies of Pedagogical Sciences (in the
G e r m a n Democratic Republic, Hungary, and the Soviet Union, to
cite only three well-known examples) are important research insti-
tutions, and institutions for pedagogical research (as found in Poland
and Czechoslovakia) play an important role in exchanges between
European education systems, researchers and teachers. Countries
like the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y , for example, which have
institutions or university departments devoted to 'pedagogy' or
'didactics', k n o w h o w important it is to build a European network
of national institutions capable of bringing together the different
strands of research.
Finally, the word 'pedagogy' reminds us of a concern that was
exercising those responsible for educational policy at the beginning
of the century but which is tending to disappear a m o n g all the dif-
ferent reforms brought about the speed of social and technological
development. This is the concern with the pedagogical management
of schools and education systems. A real education policy cannot
ignore the intrinsic problems of 'pedagogy', such as h o w to convey
knowledge, democracy in schools, school life, the h u m a n side of
learning, the status of schoolchildren, etc.
Relying on pedagogical research should become the golden rule for
decision-makers. Instead of constant chopping and changing,
imposing reform after reform on the education system—this includes
both reforms of content and of structure (e.g. middle schools)—the
chief effect of which is to lower teachers' morale, decision-makers
should look carefully at the various and valuable contributions m a d e
by pedagogical research in both Europe as a whole and in individual
European countries. Pedagogical research is, above all, working for
the future, researching, defining, explaining, predicting, forecasting
and discovering—working for education, to improve the education
system as a whole.
As w e understand it, pedagogical research means virtually the
same as the well-known phrase 'research in education'. Pedagogical
research includes both those fields of education which are directly
connected with the social and h u m a n sciences (psychology, sociology,
economy, psycho-sociology) and the history and philosophy of
education and didactics. Retaining the term and the concept of
'pedagogy', in strict epistemological fashion, means keeping the door
wide open for pluridisciplinary or interdisciplinary research or
specialized research in such fields as n e w technology for use in
schools or in specialized areas of particular social importance such as
technical and vocational education. But it goes even further than
Francine Best
that: pedagogical research seems to us to be more all-embracing,

m o r e forward-thinking and better adapted to specific aims than
'research in education' or 'educational research'. However, the fact
that pedagogical research has a larger practical element does not,
as w e have already shown, detract from its scientific nature, provided
that the research methods are carefully chosen and strictly applied.
Rather than clarifying particular educational problems, peda-
gogical research and pedagogy are m o r e concerned with taking part in
a process of social evolution which will lead to the progress of edu-
cation systems and of the m e n and w o m e n involved in teaching and
the education system, in order that children and young people can
have the chance to shape their o w n future. S o , despite the different
meanings of the word 'pedagogy' that I have mentioned here,
'pedagogy' and 'pedagogical research' still have a great deal to
offer. •
Notes
i. V . Isambert Jamati gives an excellent explanation of the historical and social aspects of
this dispute in the Revue française de pédagogie (Institut National de Recherche Pédago-
gique (INRP)), N o . 73, 1985, pp. 57-63.
2. See J. Gautherin's forthcoming article in Reime française de pédagogie ( I N R P ) .
3. J. Piaget, Psychologie et pédagogie, pp. 211-13, Paris, Denoël, 1969.
4. Hommage à Henri Wallon—Special issue of Vers l'éducation nouvelle, journal published
by the Centre d'Entrainement aux Méthodes d'Éducation Active.
5. J. Leif and F . Best, La formation des maîtres, Paris, Éditions Nathan, 1965; and in
the 1978 regulations laying d o w n the role and activity of philosophy teachers in teacher-
training colleges.
6. See L . Brunelle, Qu'est-ce que la non-directivité ?, Paris, Delagrave, 1973.
7. Teachers of philosophy (such as J. Hebrard, A . M . Charrier), drawn into the shaping
of a philosophical teaching on education by J. Leif and F . Best, are too numerous to be
quoted here.
8. J. Piaget speaks of 'the didactics of mathematics' in Piaget, op. cit., p. 68.
9. F . Best, Proceedings of the symposium o n les problèmes de l'élève à l'école élémentaire,
École Normale d u Calvados, 22-23 N o v e m b e r 1985.
xo. Piaget, op. cit., p p . 69 et sq.
Comparative education:
towards a basic theory
Carlos E . Olivera
Comparative education, as afieldof study worthy of scholarly pursuit,

enjoyed a considerable degree of theoretical consensus a m o n g its
practitioners until the middle of this century. Seen at a distance, the
differences between Kandel, H a n s , Schneider, etc., look very slight
indeed: after all, in their different ways they were all trying to give sub-
stance to Sadler's remark, about the context of the school—historical,
social, cultural—being more important than what happened inside it
for the understanding of national systems of education. However,
parallel to this effort of thought, a mass of factual information was
being collected and systematized—through reports, yearbooks,
encyclopedias, and the work of the Geneva International Office of
Education. A n d in the post-war years, w h e n this detailed infor-
mation came under scrutiny by, or under the influence of, a n e w
generation of social scientists professing conflicting theories, the
original consensus all but disappeared.
At present, except for a desire to share information across the
frontiers, it is difficult to say what it is that all those claiming interest
in Comparative Education have in c o m m o n . T h e list of papers
presented to the last two World Congresses of Comparative E d u -
cation Societies (Paris, 1984; Rio de Janeiro, 1987: over 350 papers
in all) is in this sense very revealing.
Only a minority (19 per cent in Paris, 26 per cent in Rio) are
genuinely comparative studies, dealing either with worldwide edu-
cational problems or with specific issues studied in two or m o r e
countries. Another 13-17 per cent attach themselves to problems of
theory, epistemology or methodology. O n the other hand, about
Carlos E . Olivera (Argentina). Consultant with the Higher Education Planning Office
and with the Ministry of Education, Costa Rica. Former Vice-Rector in charge of
Planning and former Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature at the National
University, Heredia, Costa Rica. Former Unesco educational planning expert (Somalia,
Central America). Consultant with the International Institute for Educational Planning
(HEP). Founding President of the Institute for Social Cybernetics Applied to Planning
(ICSAP), Costa Rica. Author of several works on educational planning and adminis-
tration and on comparative education.

Carlos E. Olivera
half of the papers (45 per cent in Rio) are case-studies, which do no
more than describe and sometimes analyse a system, a historical
process, an innovation or a special national situation. N o t only
is there n o comparison here, but they m a k e n o attempt to draw any
conclusions or at least to suggest some hypothesis which could be
useful in other contexts. T h e n , a sizeable n u m b e r (7 per cent in Rio)
propose some reflections on education or describe some innovation
in a general w a y , without reference to any concrete situation ('Edu-
cation, the C o m m u n i t y and School Co-operatives'; ' A Software
Toolkit for Teaching Science'; 'Computers and Equity'). Finally,
a few papers do not even deal with education at all ('Computers as a
M e a n s of Self-expression'; 'Brazil, Egypt and India: Crisis of
Development'). It must be noted that the organizers of the Congresses
did not feel entitled to refuse any of these papers, since there seem
to be no accepted criteria to define what is and what is not compara-
tive education.
This confusing situation is routinely ascribed to a crisis of meth-
odology. T h e preceding analysis tends to show, however, that it is
not so. T h e confusion runs m u c h more deeply, at the level of the
object to be studied. A comparative discipline, as distinct from the
use of comparison in any discipline, is that which applies the c o m -
parative approach, not to two or more 'objects', but to two or more
sets of scientifically obtained knowledge about comparable objects.
Those sets must have been previously built along similar theoretical
models. Its 'raw material', so to speak, consists of such sets of
knowledge, that is, patterns of relationships, expressed as far as
possible in mathematical terms, a m o n g similar components found
in each of the objects under study.
In the case of comparative education, those sets of knowledge bear
on educational situations, call them systems, problems, or whatever.
It is these situations that have to be scientifically studied before
comparative education becomes possible. I submit that most of the
discussions carried out under the n a m e of comparative education
really belong to the general realm of educational science:1 such
discussions are in fact centred not on h o w to compare several edu-
cational situations, but on h o w to study each of the situations to be
compared. T h u s the roots of the confusion will not be found at the
level of comparative education; they must be looked for in the field
of the 'science of education' as such.
That is w h y , in this article, I shall try to show that w e need at
least a broad agreement on (a) what is the meaning of'education' as a
field of study and (b) what is the scientific status and the structure
of the 'knowledge about education', before w e attempt (c) to clarify
the place and the scope of comparative education within that area of
Comparative education: towards a basic theory I
knowledge. O n all three points I shall take a definite stand, as a

possible basis for further discussions tending to that agreement.
'Education' as afieldof study
This is not the place to reopen the age-old arguments about the
innumerable meanings of'education'. A s an objective reality, a set of
observable activities apt to be studied in a scientific w a y , education
is usually characterized as a specific social process (or rather an
extremely complex plurality of processes) carried out mainly within
an equally specific social sub-system which, although also very
complex, can be m o r e easily discerned.
Unfortunately, in the social sciences, most of the time the meaning
of 'system' is not m a d e explicit. T h e word itself tends to evoke
the central concept of the general systems theory; but almost always
it is used in the traditional sense (a whole m a d e u p of parts and of
relations between parts). However, the systemic nature of education
in today's world cannot be accommodated within this traditional
definition: for in such terms, 'a nation's network of formal education
turns out to be primarily conceived of in terms of administrative
government control and of the coordination of parts (subsystems)
into a whole' (Schriewer and Harney, 1987).
O n the contrary, in a deeper analysis, it is the very emergence of
that government control as an essentially social function that needs
to be explained in thefirstplace: thus, a socio-historical rather than
an administrative concept of system is required. Such an analysis is
provided by the general systems theory, which 'replaces this model
with one that focuses on the difference between the system and its
environment' (Schriewer and Harney, 1987). A s applied to social
systems and in particular to education, this n e w model has important
implications.
It meansfirstof all that education, as any 'open' system, maintains
complex relationships with the other subsystems and with society as a
whole. These subsystems provide it with most inputs (though a
critical one, the teachers, is self-generated). T h e y d e m a n d and expect
from it certain outputs, which constitute education's 'function' in
society. T h e y also condition its processes, both factually and by
means of explicit rules. Secondly, this means that in order to be
taken as a subject of study, 'education' must be analytically dis-
tinguished from the rest of the social systems. In other words, it is
necessary to trace its boundaries across that m a z e of relationships,
so that the specificity of each system is respected. This is a crucial
170 Carlos E. Olivera
problem, as demonstrated by the bewildering variety of subjects in

the papers mentioned above.
T h e delimitation of the system of education as a subsystem of the
social complex can be attained through analysis of history and
present-day societies.
F r o m the standpoint of history, and to put it very succinctly: edu-
cation as a specific social system in charge of a particular function
differs from other systems in that it is not 'natural'; it was deliber-
ately created by m a n . Before anyone had any thoughts on sociology,
economy or politics, social distinctions existed; production and
consumption of goods existed; power relationships existed, and so on.
O n the other hand, there was no education until someone started to
think about it, unless w e equate education to spontaneous socialization
or to imitative apprenticeship, as some authors' sweeping statements
seem to imply. 2 Intentionality is an essential trait of education. Most,
if not all writers of philosophical and pedagogical treatises, consider
the goals of education to be the core of their definitions. Goals are
obviously normative rather than descriptive. Therefore, some kind of
formality (or 'institutionalization') is also essential: the very n a m e
'education' supposes that there is someone socially recognized as
educator, someone w h o is educated, and some established relationship
between the two.
Although not spontaneous, then, education and educational insti-
tutions existed long before education systems. T h e most visible of
such institutions, schools, began with the invention of writing.
Until very recently, however, they were part of other social systems
(religion, kinship, politics, production, commerce, perhaps even
'science' in the G r a e c o - R o m a n world); and so were other educational
institutions, like the training of noblemen in medieval times. O n the
other hand, these institutions could scarcely be called 'social', as they
reached only small segments of the population. T h e y had in c o m -
m o n , however, a certain community of 'selected meanings', to use
L u h m a n n ' s (1982) terminology. Even if ascribed to different social
systems, teachers and pupils could, and little by little did, c o m m u n i -
cate a m o n g themselves, on a c o m m o n ground of ideas and interests
that were not shared by m e m b e r s of other social groups.
In the Western world, the decisive steps towards the emergence of
a specific and autonomous (not 'independent') education system were
taken in the last two centuries. In each country at its o w n pace,
education became differentiated from the systems of religion and
kinship, mainly at the initial prodding of the political system, and
then also of the economic one. T h e rationale for this differentiation
was provided by the theories that had slowly been developed mostly
(but not exclusively) a m o n g those working in education, through a
Comparative education: towards a basic theory
'selective focusing of interactive and communicative processes'—in

plain words, through the sharing of their reflections o n their o w n
activity. A n d the main mechanism, according to L u h m a n n , w a s
'inclusion', a concept that Schriewer and Harney (1987, p p . 207-8)
explain in these terms:
This process [the emergence of education systems] found its major starting
point in the already existing differentiation of complementary roles, that is,
above all, the differentiation between service roles (such as teachers) and
service-receiving roles (such as pupils).3 A n d it was carried through . . . by
making universal the service-receiving roles in particular. This process is
called 'inclusion'. . . . In place of a structured hierarchy of unequal sub-
systems based on social classes, the primary scheme of societal organisation
[was] n o w in principle the equal access of everybody to every subsystem, as
voter, patient, plaintiff, pupil, etc.
T h u s w e have the key to the solution of the 'crucial problem'

alluded to a few paragraphs back. A s the s a m e authors conclude:
Therefore, 'inclusion' and the 'selective focusing of interactive and communi-
cative processes on special societal functions' are the decisive features
necessary for theoretically defining 'educational system' and 'system forma-
tion', not the historically context-bound features of administrative stan-
dardisation or organisational co-ordination.
A s a result of this process of differentiation, in every m o d e r n society

there is a specific system, responsible to all the others and to society
at large for the newly generalized educational function. It is easy to
identify, because it is formalized and nearly always institutionalized,
though not all the institutions belong to the administrative system of
education nor take the form of schools. This system seeks its o w n
ends (different from those of the other systems, even if the latter m a y
have contributed to their formulation) through a diversity of pro-
cesses and employing a variety of m e a n s . But these m e a n s and pro-
cesses are also, for the most part, exclusive to education: structures
and courses of study, instructional methods and techniques, teaching
materials, lessons and examinations, s o m e kind of training of the
educators, a special calendar, a n d so o n . 4 Its actors (givers or
receivers of the system's services) have also their particular and often
conflicting sets of ends and m e a n s ; so thatfinallythe system possesses
an internal dynamics of its o w n , which can a n d often does b e c o m e
out of tune with that of the society as a whole or of the other social
systems with which it exchanges inputs and outputs.
W i t h all these distinctive features (and m a n y others could be
added) it m a y seem strange that there should be r o o m for such
confusions as those that started this discussion. This anomaly is
probably rooted, I think, in the contemporary tendency to use the
Carlos E. Olivera
social sciences, including education, for social criticism and social

reform. Since in the society to be 'reformed' everything has some-
thing to do with everything else, w e start with the particular disci-
pline w e k n o w (let us say, educational science) and end u p invading
other domains w e do not k n o w .
In our particularfield,this is very clearly the case with the pseudo-
concept of 'non-formal education': a mere n a m e that does not
refer to any identifiable reality or any real or conceptual system. It is
no m o r e than a paradoxical expression, m a d e u p so as to call our
attention to the educational repercussions of other social activities:
work, entertainment, sport—in fact, any interpersonal relationships.
However, such influences have different effects on each individual and
cannot be isolated from the inextricable complexity of interactions
usually called 'environment'; nor do they change the nature of sport,
work or entertainment so that they become 'education'. (Conversely,
nobody will deny the influence of school work on students' health;
but this is no reason to pronounce education a part of 'non-formal
health', or to annex it to medicine.)
T h e impact of m a n y systems' activities on the s u m total of each
individual's education is of course undeniable, if impossible to
evaluate separately; but this does not m e a n that those systems can be
annexed to education, as implied in the expression 'non-formal
education'. In fact, all attempts at 'correctly' redirecting such
activities (in the n a m e of an educational idealism suspiciously alike
to imperialism) end u p in some kind of formalization—for instance,
as 'lifelong education'. It should be recognized that those influences
belong by right to other social systems; and that education as a
system, though rightly concerned with their impact on its o w n
products, is only called to co-operate with their efforts at improve-
ment, not to absorb them into its o w n structures.
T o s u m up: education, as a sector of social life susceptible to
scientific attention, is a specific, intentionally created system, in
which equally specific processes take place¿ linked to but separate
from the other social systems and processes, and possessing a
dynamics of its o w n . It m a y or m a y not be co-extensive with the
administrative, government-controlled 'system' of education (the
school network). But in its evolution it depends at least as m u c h on
socio-historical laws of development as on governmental decisions.
It does not embrace the workings of non-education-minded systems
and institutions, however m u c h the latter m a y influence the sub-
jective results of education on individuals. But strictly within its
boundaries, it presents such a strongly intertwined configuration of
distinctive components that it deserves to be the proper field of
study of an autonomous discipline.
These partial conclusions m a y atfirstsight seem too obvious.

T h e y needed reiterating, however, for the scientific study of edu-
cation is not at present articulated in agreement with these features,
as w e shall see.
T h e science of education
It has become equally obvious that in most countries the social

function of education is considered today to be one of the most
important national activities. It has reached the size of the largest
'industry', and consumes the best part of national budgets. Neverthe-
less, as regards its scientific study, it finds itself in a paradoxical
situation. O n the one hand, it has attracted privileged attention from
practically all social sciences (sociology, economics, political sci-
ence, etc.); that is, from scientists w h o have little or n o personal in-
volvement in|teaching (except perhaps at the university level). O n the
other hand, it has great difficulty in finding a place in the academic
world as an autonomous discipline, built by those w h o practise it.
In fact, the best-known classifications of h u m a n and social sciences
completely overlook education. T o give a few examples, n o mention
of education can be found in Duverger's (1961) survey of the social
field or in Viet's (1965) list of disciplines influenced by structuralism,
or in Klausner's (1966) view of what constitutes the study of 'total
societies', nor even in Piaget's (1970) comprehensive analysis of the
various categories of these sciences, specially prepared for Unesco.
In the view of professional social scientists, there is no such thing as
a science of education.
Several reasons could be advanced to explain this curious situation.
First, as w e have seen, education as afieldof scientific study differs
from the object of other sciences in that it is an intentional, for-
malized creation of the h u m a n m i n d , not a naturally existing p h e n o m -
enon as in the other cases. T h u s the object of sociology, economics,
anthropology, political science, etc., is society as a whole, seen from
a different angle by each discipline; whereas the object of educational
science is a 'part' of society, a set of institutions which have to be
seen from every angle. H e n c e the difficulty of assigning it a definite
place in the general picture.
A second factor m a y be that the term 'pedagogy' is still widely
used to designate knowledge about education. O f course this Greek
word does not refer to a knowledge, but to an action, that of'leading'
children (boys, actually),firstto their teacher, later to learning as
such. F r o m that original meaning, pedagogy has always been gener-
Carlos E. Olivera
ally understood as consisting of ways of doing rather than of k n o w -

ledge, and as being directed towards children. A n d for m a n y
centuries nobody would have thought that such a lowly activity as
teaching children deserved m u c h serious consideration. Until
modern times, 'pedagogy' was a question of k n o w - h o w (at the most
of 'didactics' in Comenius' sense). 'Education' was a question of
attitude, of mystique, to which philosophy gave a meaning. Thinking
about education as such (not about teaching methods) was not the
affair of teachers (mere practitioners) but of philosophers and theo-
logians, then of politicians, then again of psychologists, sociologists,
economists, etc. Even n o w , an educator is not easily accepted as a
m e m b e r of the scientific community, unless he or she has had formal
training in some other social discipline.
Leaving aside other possible reasons,5 all this means that education
has in Western thinking no ancestry as a scientific discipline, and
therefore it is left out in the enumerations of the social sciences.
N o w a d a y s , of course, knowledge about education has attained in
m a n y cases the level of a science, thanks to a vast amount of empirical
research and significant theoretical advances. But a sort of uncon-
scious undervaluing still persists in m a n y quarters, as is evident for
instance in the low standing of education departments in Latin
American universities.
Be that as it m a y , the fact remains that most knowledge of a
scientific level about education has consisted, and to a large extent
still consists, of a heterogeneous collection of contributions coming
from philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, politics 'of edu-
cation'. Their authors, usually not personally involved in the edu-
cation system, naturally bring to these studies the bias of their
particular disciplines. T h e economist worries about the degree of
real abilities of the ' h u m a n resources' produced by education, and
tries to evaluate the cost of their acquisition; the sociologist wants to
k n o w whether education prepares people to adapt themselves to
their social environment, or perhaps to foster change and revolution;
the philosopher, from a wider perspective, inquires into the general
meaning and the goals of education, what such goals are and should
be in today's world.
All these contributions of the plural 'sciences of education' are
valuable and even indispensable; but they remain, so to speak, on
the fringes of education's specific features, those concerning the
day-to-day processes of growth and development, the interpersonal
relationships between educators and educated, and the corre-
sponding frame of institutional arrangements. This is only normal:
the analysis of such aspects would require, besides perhaps some
intellectual tools alien to these disciplines, working from inside the
educational framework. T h e situation of the psychologist, the psycho-

pedagogue or the psycho-sociologist is different, since they are often
included in the system's structures; nevertheless they also have their
limitations, for they lack the vital experience of daily trying to
educate through teaching.
In principle, then, only the educator is in a position to develop
the science of education (as sociology is developed by sociologists,
economics by economists or demography by demographers) with the
help of, but not subservient to, other social scientists. But on the
other hand, educators are not usually trained scientists, and anyway
the time-consuming requirements of their profession would not leave
them leisure to elaborate scientifically the data they gather in their
work.
Are w e then locked in a vicious circle? Is an autonomous science of
education no m o r e than a Utopian ideal? T h e answer to these ques-
tions should be a qualified 'no'. Given certain conditions, s o m e of
them already present and the others not too difficult to obtain, the
body of knowledge about education can become m u c h more than an
aggregate of heterogeneous pieces of learning, to attain the status of
a recognized social science in its o w n right.
T h e first condition is of course the existence of a clearly defined
object, a real and identifiable reality to study: the social system of
education as described above. T h e second is the availability of
appropriate methodologies: they are those c o m m o n to all social
sciences (and if there are still m a n y difficult problems in this field,
they are shared by all these sciences, and should not constitute a
particular obstacle to the science of education). T h e main drawback
w e have just evoked (who will be the educational scientists?) can also
be overcome, for instance through upgrading the training of teachers,
by offering postgraduate training and incentives for research to
experienced educators, by constituting interdisciplinary teams of
researchers led by educators, and so on: all things that are already
well under way, albeit still on a small scale and too isolated from
the main body of teachers and administrators.
T w o further conditions should also be fulfilled, one as a great
convenience, the other as a necessity. T h efirstcan be stated as a
problem of vocabulary, although it goes deeper than that: w e should
have a special n a m e for the body of knowledge about education, so
as to avoid ambiguities or misunderstandings. 'Pedagogy' is mis-
leading, and 'pedagogical sciences' even more so, as was shown above.
'Sciences of education' (plural) is most inappropriate: it obscures the
specificity of our discipline, referring primarily to the knowledge not
of education, but of society, economy, etc., as affected by education.
Even 'science of education' (singular) will not do: as w e have pointed
Carlos E. Olivera
out, the object to be scientifically studied is a complex institutional

reality, that in itself requires a plurality of disciplinary approaches.
A n d of course, simply to say 'education' is a semantic nonsense:
education is an activity, not knowledge—just as society is not
sociology, language is not linguistics, and animals are not zoology.
T o overcome this difficulty, according to Christensen (1984), there
is no better word than 'educology', proposed more than twenty years
ago by Steiner (1964). This word clearly designates all educational
knowledge, and nothing but that knowledge; it dispels the confusion
between education as such and what w e k n o w about it; and it covers
every type of valid knowledge, whether scientific or pragmatic,
acquired through any discipline. T h e word m a y initially look
strange, or even pedantic (just as 'sociology'—another Graeco-Latin
hybrid—did in its time); but it brings to educational science such
clarity and precision that it should be generally adopted. However,
this adoption is not an essential condition for the building of a true
science of education, so far as the scope of whatever expression is
used is clearly denned.
T h e last and very fundamental condition is that w e dispose of a
basic theoretical structure of the contents of 'educology', that is, of
the whole field of educational knowledge, into which every n e w
piece of research can find its place and be tested for congruence
with already existing knowledge.
This necessary overall model has of course been attempted m a n y
times by the authors of comprehensive manuals or treatises: for
instance, by Hubert (1950), by M . García H o z (i960), by Debesse
and Mialaret (1969-78) in their six-volume work, more recently by
García Garrido (1982), and by J. L . Castillejo in Nuevas perspectivas
en las ciencias de la educación ( N e w Prospects in Educational Sci-
ences—1983). Unfortunately, most of these authors take a symmetri-
cally opposite stand to that of social scientists. If the latter leave
education out of their picture, the former attempt to incorporate
the several social sciences within the boundaries of education (even
of 'pedagogy', in most cases), so that the confusion offieldspersists.
T h e result is not really a structure, but rather a one-dimensional
listing of disciplines; so that knowledge about education can only
become an aggregate of thefindingsof m a n y disciplines, without any
focus, centre, or clear boundaries.
T h e one exception is the framework of educational sciences
devised by García Garrido (1982, p. 189). 6 His diagram shows the
educational process as a sort of focal point to which all disciplines
must be referred, instead of using as the first criterion for classi-
fication some abstract feature attributed to the different sciences
(more analytical or more synthetical, more general or more
specific, etc.). This difference is essential: the knowledge about

education should be organized around education as such, not on the
basis of a more or less arbitrary selection of pre-existing disciplines.
However, the author does not follow through this principle to its
logical end: nor could he, since the process of education is outlined
in his diagram as a closed system, with no indication concerning its
inputs and outputs. So,finally,the different 'sciences' are not grouped
according to the m o m e n t s of the educational process, but once again
after a highly questionable criterion (whether they are more or less
analytical or synthetical).
I submit that the only w a y of properly organizing knowledge
about education, taking into account the existing disciplines but not
breaking education into pieces to suit them, is to adopt a definitely
systemic approach. T o develop in full the implications of m y position
would require m u c h more than a few paragraphs in an article. H o w -
ever, with the help of a diagram (Fig. i), the main Unes of this
proposal can be m a d e sufficiently clear for a start.
T h e main feature is the clear distinction between the reality of
education, as a process that takes place in an open system immersed
in society as a whole, and the disciplines through which this reality
can be scientifically studied. Since society exists before education
(both logically and historically), Figure i recalls the disciplines that
have been evolved to deal with it (first column).
With the inputs that the education system receives from society
w e enter thefieldof educology. Such inputs include society's demands
and expectations in respect to education as well as the factual and
legal conditionings of its activity: all this can be studied by means
of the h u m a n and social disciplines, which in this case become
'applied' sciences.
These disciplines are also 'applied' w h e n used to study the socio-
logical, psychological, economic and other processes which take
place inside the educational world. T w o of these disciplines, phil-
osophy and history, occupy a special place (and cannot be called
'applied'), because they are on a higher plane than all the others
and are indispensable to integrate them and to give meaning to
their findings. A s for the others (the second column of Fig. i), the
knowledge obtained through them should be viewed as parts of
educology. T h u s , the study of the relations between the different
h u m a n groups acting inside the education system is not really
'sociology of education', or 'educational sociology' but rather 'socio-
logical educology': thefirstexpression refers to the role of education
in society, and the second would m e a n regarding education only as a
field of social relationships. Only the third denotes specifically the par-
ticular kind of social relations to which educational processes give rise.
Carlos E. Olivera
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But inside the education system there are, as w e have seen, m a n y

specific elements and relationships that are not to be found in
society at large, so that there is no social discipline able to deal with
them. T h e y are, however, an essential and distinctive subject-matter
of educology. Individually, they are the subjects of a n u m b e r of
theoretical and practical specialities (the third column of Figure i
gives an open list of them) which as a whole have still no accepted
n a m e . 7 O f course, their study requires the use of m a n y concepts
and theories belonging to the general and applied social disciplines;
but the reverse is also true, a fact too often neglected by social
scientists carrying out research in education.
Finally, the outputs of the educational processes are again the
field of the general social sciences (not of educology as such, though
the co-operation between the two should prove extremely useful).
In fact, the study of the impacts of education on society and on the
different social systems and functions is what could probably be
n a m e d sciences 'of education', as it is already the main focus of
those sciences w h e n dealing with education.
This classificatory diagram is of course still provisional, and
probably incomplete. Nevertheless, as it stands it represents a con-
siderable progress over previous ones. Besides, it isflexibleenough
to accommodate future findings of research and reflection. It could be
specially apt precisely to stimulate research, making it easier to
identify the weak points of present knowledge, and to offer a unifying
basis to theoretical reflection.
However, in this proposal comparative education has not been
mentioned. Let us see w h y .
T h e science of comparative education
Comparison is such an essential and spontaneous procedure of the

h u m a n mind that to m a n y people it becomes difficult to understand
what it is that characterizes 'comparative' disciplines. For instance,
w h e n Christensen (1984, p. 9) says that 'educology is the same as
comparative education (i.e. knowledge claims produced from c o m -
parisons)', he is mistaking the use of the comparative method in any
science for the specifically comparative approach of a 'comparative'
science. This is a very c o m m o n misconception, therefore a short
reminder of s o m e fundamental concepts will be appropriate here.
At the level of ' c o m m o n ' or pre-scientific knowledge, comparison
between objects, and therefore, the establishment of mental relation-
ships a m o n g them, lies at the very origin of concepts and ideas. A
Carlos E. Olivera
refined form of the same mental process is used at the scientific

level, whether for establishing definitions (which compare genus and
species, etc.), for measuring things and phenomena (by w a y of a
tertium comparationis, the unit of measure), or later, in order to
build ideal or real 'types', 'models', and so on. T h e systems concept
which gave rise to the general systems theory derivesfinallyfrom
comparison. It could even be said that the distinctions between
sciences are themselves the results of comparison (between their
objects, viewpoints, methods, etc.).
But if comparison as a method is universal, a 'comparative'
science only deserves this n a m e w h e n it carries comparison to a
higher level of abstraction, a 'comparison of comparisons' so to
speak. Particularly in social disciplines, the adjective 'comparative'
can only be used w h e n the comparison is applied to previously
elaborated sets of theoretical statements referring to realities of a
similar kind pertaining to discrete societal groups. 8 Such groups are
usually, but not necessarily, nations or countries. In any case, being
'discrete', they can always be approached as 'systems'. O n the other
hand, since each of those previous sets of knowledge is in itself
partially the result of comparison, what w e find in comparative
disciplines is a sort of second-degree use of the comparative method.
These are then the crucial differences: comparison is employed
not within one social group or system, but between two or more of
them; and what is compared are not the groups (systems) as such,
trait by trait or in their total and unique reality^ but the corresponding
abstract models or relational patterns, which m a k e comparison pos-
sible by transcending the uniqueness of individual systems.
W e can perceive n o w the epistemological role of comparative
education in the field of educology. T o put it very simply, the
social process of education, which everywhere tends to satisfy the
same basic need, nevertheless takes on different systemic forms and
is faced with different problems in each society or discrete societal
group. In each case, these forms and problems are studied and
analysed through a complex of disciplines pertaining either to edu-
cology or to the sciences 'of education', as w e have seen. T o a greater
or lesser degree, they all use the comparative method. T h e purpose
of such studies m a y be pragmatic (to solve the concrete educational
problems of that society) or strictly scientific (to reach valid gen-
eralizations concerning those forms and problems).
But beyond these particular studies based on different disciplines
it is possible to proceed to a higher level, in order to analyse the
diversity as such, such as the variations of an essentially similar
system, problem or situation under different conditions. In this case,
comparison is used in order to attain a general comprehension,
Comparative education: towards a basic theory 18
replacing the differences in their contexts, and so to find the 'laws

of diversity'. This is essentially what comparative education is about.
Several consequences of this characterization will help in better
establishing the originality of comparative education in the field of
educological science. For one thing, in the other disciplines the
activities of research are based as m u c h as possible onfirst-handdata;
comparative education instead extracts, or should be able to extract,
the bulk of its information from already existing data. Also, c o m -
parative education relies on a plurality of autonomous, supposedly
self-sufficient educational patterns, since such patterns correspond
to different societies and are not subject to others.9 In the other
educological disciplines, however, the patterns which eventually m a y
be compared are necessarily non-autonomous and incomplete, depen-
dent on larger educational or social patterns. A n d ,finally,the purpose
of research in the various disciplinary components of educology is to
find valid explanations as a basis for the solution of problems, or
generally for educational decision-making. Comparative education,
while not neglecting these 'practical' aspects, intends above all to
attain a deeper understanding of educational p h e n o m e n a , beyond
the differences arising from particular societal conditions. W h e n the
other educational sciences want to reach a similar level of universal
validity, they have to join comparative education.
N o w it can be seen w h y comparative education was not included
in our diagram of educological sciences (Fig. i). W e would have
required a third dimension in the diagram. Comparative education
represents in effect a higher epistemological level. Its approach to
truth covers all the particular objects of the disciplines mentioned
in the central section of the diagram. But strictly speaking, it does not
tackle any of them directly, for it is not interested in any single
educational situation, but in two or m o r e at the same time. In order
to manage several real objects simultaneously, each of these situations
must have been rendered manageable, that is, comparable, through
afirstlevel of abstraction.
Starting, therefore from a plurality of these abstract models, and
using its o w n theoretical and methodological tools, comparative
education produces its o w n second-degree data and reaches its o w n
conclusions, which can be of m a n y kinds: laws or quasi-laws, pro-
visional theories, confirmations or refutations of previous theories,
n e w hypotheses for future research and so forth. These products,
n o w of a truly comparative nature, m a y of course be used for action
on any of the systems originally studied; but above all they enlarge
and eventually modify the data and the conclusions of the specific
studies, and provide feed-back to individual disciplines.
This means a m o n g other things that individual case-studies do not
Carlos E. Olivera
belong to comparative education proper. T h e y constitute rather

what is sometimes k n o w n as cinternational education', in other
words, information on educational situations or problems such
as exist in other countries or other societal groups. This infor-
mation, whether limited to a single country or embracing the whole
community of nations, is of course indispensable to comparative
education, but only in the sense that the ground and the materials
are necessary to a building. T h e y are not the building itself, m u c h
less the architecture.
Furthermore, the so-called case-studies differ widely as to their
usefulness for comparative education. A series of co-ordinated studies
carried out in different countries on the same problem and using the
same analytical framework, or a collection of studies or essays on a
given subject to be presented together in a review, are very different
from individual pieces of research, which just might be used as
illustrations of particular problems, or from papers meant only to
assert a country's presence at an international meeting, if not merely
to diffuse an ideological point of view.
T h u s the world (as distinct from the science) of comparative
education can be visualized as a series of concentric circles: at the
centre, the comparative studies, the theory and methodology; then
the international information on educational matters and the dif-
ferent kinds of case-studies w e have just seen; and at the outer
fringe, the comparativist contributions to study and research on any
educological subject. Evidently, the boundaries between these circles
cannot be sharply defined. T h e general scheme, however, can be
very useful as a sort of large-scale m a p and to dispel m u c h confusion.
Moreover, all these precisions and distinctions can be understood
as relating to the epistemology of comparative education, not to the
concrete work of comparatists, not only because they work in close
relationship with other scholars inside and outside the sphere of
education, but also because it would be absurd for them just to sit
back and wait for other researchers to present them with a neat
package offirst-handmaterials all ready for comparison. T h e c o m -
paratist must in fact m o v e across all those circles. T h e logical
hierarchy of scientific levels coincides with neither the operational
steps of research nor a clear-cut distribution of researchers. T h e
danger, however, lies in becoming so engrossed in the first-level
operations that the higher purposes of comparison are all but
forgotten.
F r o m time to time it becomes necessary in every discipline to go

back to essentials and to restate the basic principles on which,
however elementary they m a y seem, the whole construction rests.
This is what I have tried to do in this article. Looking over the

main lines of the architecture right from the foundations, and fol-
lowing them to their logical culmination, it becomes comparatively
easy to locate the critical points in order to evaluate their relative
importance and to examine in detail h o w they can be attended to.
In the case of comparative education, this exercise has allowed us
to see that the present disarray of the discipline comes from the
neglect of its main lines, rather than from secondary dissensions
about methods. It would be idle to resume the methodological
discussions of the last twenty or thirty years, except of course w h e n
under the n a m e of methodology it was indeed the epistemology that
was at stake. A n d in fact the historical and cultural approaches of
the 1930s as well as the four-tiered scheme of Bereday, Holmes'
problems approach, etc., were more a question of epistemology than
of methodology, as is today the systemic approach. Furthermore,
the arguments for or against the use of quantitative or qualitative
methods and techniques are practically over; all researchers use
whatever mixture of methods they find useful in each case.
But the main point is that none of the epistemological and method-
ological positions w e have just recalled has a direct bearing on
comparative education. T h e y affect a more fundamental level, the
study of individual systems and problems of education, which is
logically previous to the use of comparison at the second degree of
abstraction typical of strictly comparative sciences. T h e concen-
tration on this kind of question shows that the main theoretical
problems lie in the general field of educational science rather than
in comparative education as such.
T h u s , so long as these are not sufficiently clarified, so long as a
broad agreement is not reached concerning the nature and the
status of what w e have called educology, the attention of comparatists
will probably continue to be diverted to these discussions instead
of to comparative studies as such. T h e preceding considerations m a y
have shown that the systems theory, if correctly transposed to the
social sciences and in particular to educology, offers probably the
only practicable way to such an agreement. •
Notes
1. For the English-speaking reader: the author uses the term 'educational sciences' and
'sciences of education' as a point of departure for this analysis. These terms are frequently
used in French as 'sciences de l'éducation' and refer to the various disciplines normally
studied in university schools or colleges of education.—Ed.
i84 Carlos E. Olivera
2. 'L'éducation a toujours existé. Elle est de tous les temps, de toutes les sociétés, de tous les
milieux...' This initial declaration of Dottrens and Mialaret (1969, p. 21), is contradicted
in the very next pages by the lofty ends attributed to the essence of education in the
several definitions cited by the authors (taken from Kant, Herbart, Kerschensteiner,
Renouvier, Durkheim, Huxley, Suchodolski, etc.) and which evidently cannot have been
'de tous les temps'.
3. T h e same distinction was an important feature in Müller (1957). T h e actual words used
were 'prestantes' (those w h o lend the service) and 'usuarios' (the receivers). For a summary
presentation of Muller's theory, see Olivera (19846, p p . 17-28).
4. These features do not belong exclusively to the school networks; under modified forms,
most of them can also be found in family education, religious instruction, professional
training, etc.
5. For these other reasons, and for a fuller explanation of those stated here, see Olivera
(1986, pp. 191-8).
6. I have discussed more fully this diagram, as well as Garcia Hoz's and Debesse-Mialaret's
presentations of 'pedagogical sciences', in Olivera (1986, pp. 207-13).
7. 'Pedagogy' would probably cover all these subjects, if it did not carry the implication of
being directed solely at children.
8. This expression is taken from Epstein (1984, p. 3).
9. Even the holders of the 'dependence theory' will recognize that, w h e n such dependence
exists, it affects society as a whole, not the specific education system. See Olivera (1985,
P- 255).
References
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(Unpublished paper.)
C O L O M , Antoni J. 1979. Sociología de la educación y teoría general de sistemas. Barcelona,
Oikos-Tau.
C R O Z I E R , M . ; F R I E D B E R G , E . 1977. L'acteur et le système. Paris, Éditions d u Seuil.
D E B E S S E , M . ; M I A L A R E T , G . (eds.). 1969-78. Traité des sciences pédagogiques. Paris, Presses
Universitaires de France. 6 vols.
. 1972. Pédagogie comparée. In: M . Debesse and G . Mialaret (eds.), Traité des sciences
pédagogiques, Vol. 3. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France.
D O T T R E N S , R . J M I A L A R E T , G . 1969. L e développement des sciences pédagogiques et leur état
actuel. In: M . Debesse and G . Mialaret (eds.), Traité des sciences pédagogiques, Vol. 1.
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D U V E R G E R , Maurice. 1961. Méthodes des sciences sociales. Paris, Presses Universitaires de
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E P S T E I N , Erwin H . 1984. Paradigmatic Interdependence in Comparative Education. Fifth
World Congress of Comparative Education Societies. Paris. (Unpublished paper.)
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H U B E R T , René. 1950. Traité de pédagogie générale. Paris.
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OPEN FILE
Distance education (II):

F r o m plans to realities
Indonesia:
Universitas Terbuka*
Setijadi
from which it will be difficult to expand rapidly.

Background A combination of factors like small size, small-
scale farming, insufficient agribusiness, low
Indonesia is n o w in the middle of its fourth level of education among farmers, and rela-
Five-Year Plan ( R E P E L I T A I V , 1984-89), but tively high population growth have contributed
it is also in an economic crisis due primarily to to this situation.
the drastic decline in oil prices, and the world Indonesia inherited the most backward edu-
economic slump. In 1986, Indonesia experi- cation system in South-East Asia from the
enced itsfirstbudget cuts in more than twenty Netherlands colonial government. In the early
years of economic progress. 1940s, before the Second World W a r started
Although considered successful in stemming in Asia, there were only a handful of schools
population growth, Indonesia still faces a rela- and a few colleges. M a n y of the schools and
tively high population growth-rate of more all of the colleges depended on Netherlands
than 2 per cent per a n n u m . With a population teachers. N o t m a n y Indonesians could afford
of 169 million this poses considerable problems to study. After independence the demand for
in creating employment. There is also the prob- more education became intense. Even during
lem of high underemployment rates, averaging thefive-yearwar of independence, n e w schools
about 42 per cent among the less educated in were established, in m a n y cases with only m a k e -
the rural areas, and 22 per cent among the shift facilities. Expansion of schools continued
educated in the urban areas. These tend to be at a faster rate after the war, and since the
persons w h o because of their illiteracy cannot economic conditions at the time did not support
be absorbed by the public or private sector. expansion, it was u p to local communities to
T h e economy is still overwhelmingly agri- build schools. After the building was completed,
cultural, and perhaps this is an asset at this the community could request that the school
stage, since one of the most successful develop- become a government school. T h e enrolment
ment efforts is Indonesia's achievement of self- increased only slightly. T h efirstFive-Year-
sufficiency in food. Yet, Indonesia's agriculture Plan was inaugurated in 1969 with practically
is considered to be nearly reaching a plateau no budget for primary schools.
Towards the end of thefirstFive-Year-Plan,
a windfall from increased oil prices was partly
Setijadi (Indonesia). Rector of the Universitas Terbuka directed to the improvement of access to primary
(Open University) of Indonesia. Has served as Chair- schools. During 1974 alone 52,000 primary-
man of the Educational Technology Department at the
Graduate School of the Teacher Training and Edu-
* This article was for the most part extracted from a
cation Institute, Jakarta. Former Director of the
national case-study prepared by the author for the
Educational and Cultural Research and Development
Regional Seminar on Distance Education, Bangkok,
Agency of the Ministry of Education and Culture of 26 November to 3 December 1986, sponsored by the
Indonesia. Has written a number of articles related to Asian Development Bank. N e w information has been
planning and distance education. added to bring the article up to date.

190 Setijadi
school teachers were appointed, and n e w schools university graduates, which could not be m e t
were built at a very rapid rate. Primary-school by regular universities. T h e participation rate
enrolment increased rapidly again. A special of the i8-to-25 age-group in higher education
Presidential Instruction ( I N P R E S ) P r o g r a m m e in Í983 w a s estimated at about 5 per cent, and
was inaugurated making huge funds available the target to be reached by the end of the fourth
for the rapid expansion of primary schools. Five-Year-Plan w a s 8.5 per cent. N o matter
There were almost n o shortages of primary- h o w great the investment in higher education
school teachers since there were enough teacher- had been, it was considered impossible to reach
training schools to produce those teachers. the target, primarily because it would take s o m e
T h e expansion of secondary and tertiary years before instructors could b e trained for
education, however, did produce problems of the tertiary institutions. It was also difficult to
teacher shortages. A t the secondary and tertiary find trainable persons w h o wanted to devote
levels, the few teacher-training institutions their careers at tertiary-level institutions, since
could not keep u p with the d e m a n d for m o r e the attraction of work in private corporations
teachers. Various crash programmes for sec- was very great. It w a s therefore necessary to
ondary-teacher training were developed to in- increase the participation rate at the tertiary
crease the n u m b e r of teachers at a faster rate. level without depending greatly o n academic
A t the tertiary level such programmes were staff. T h e second important role of Universitas
considered prohibitive. E v e n at the present Terbuka is therefore to train increasing n u m -
rate of university expansion, quality already bers of students in areas d e m a n d e d b y the
suffered. economic and cultural development of the
While primary and secondary schools grew country.
very quickly, tertiary-level institutions increased T h e rapid expansion of secondary schools
only at a marginal rate, making access for in- demanded m o r e and m o r e teachers which the
creased numbers of secondary-school graduates existing regular programmes could not meet.
to tertiary-level education increasingly more It was therefore decided in the late 1970s to
difficult. In 1986 there were about 82,000 places have short-term teacher training for secondary-
in government higher-education institutions for school teachers, with the intention of upgrading
m o r e than 486,000 applicants. T h e n u m b e r of their skills at a later stage. It was impossible to
applicants could be actually considerably higher, give those teachers further training at the
since only those w h o applied for government teacher-training institutions, because they could
entrance examinations were counted. T h e n u m - not be replaced. All the n e w teachers were
ber of graduates from senior high schools needed to teach in the n e w schools. T h e only
in 1986 w a s m o r e than 900,000. alternative was the upgrading of skills and
T h e rapid expansion of junior and senior sec- knowledge of teachers through distance edu-
ondary schools, and the low labour-absorption cation. In 1981 a distance-education project for
capacity of the economy have m a d e it necess- the upgrading of secondary-school teachers was
ary to increase the intake into higher edu- established, which later became part of the
cation. Private higher-education institutions Universitas Terbuka. This was to become the
d e m a n d e d high fees, while the government third objective of the Universitas Terbuka, that
higher-education institutions could only absorb is, upgrading secondary-school teachers w h o
about a third of the d e m a n d for higher edu- graduated from the short-term programmes, to
cation. It was therefore decided to establish an enable them to obtain the full teacher-training
open university. T h e Universitas Terbuka was degree.
thus created to provide better access to higher
education, especially for the recent graduates
of the senior high schools.
T h e economic expansion also needed m o r e
Indonesia: Universitas Terbuka ici
After the curriculum was agreed upon by the

T h e preparatory stage team, the team proposed individuals to write
the course materials. T h e designated professors'
T h e decision to launch the Universitas Terbuka consent was sought. T h efirsttask of the writers
came in late 1983, after government hesitation was to design the basic course outline ( B C O ) .
in establishing an unconventional university for O n the basis of the B C O , the materials were
fear of low-quality performance. In the m e a n - then subdivided into instruction modules.
time the continued demand for university places It took about six to nine months to complete
and the slow increase of intake at the regular the writing of a course; one month for review
universities m a d e postponement of the Uni- and revision, and another two weeks for pre-
versitas Terbuka impossible. T h e Preparatory paring the text for printing. At least half of
Committee of the Universitas Terbuka was all the courses were ready for delivery by
given only nine months to establish the U n i - the opening of the Universitas Terbuka on
versity. It was therefore decided to build the September 1984. T h e remaining half of the
simplest system of distance education possible, courses were sent to the post office at a later
which could be developed by using available date.
means. Applications to enter the university were
T h e system that was eventually decided upon overwhelming. About 270,000 persons applied.
was: (a) a uniform curriculum for everyone T h e plan to accept 25,000 students in the
taking the same programme; (b) use of the post first year of operation was later revised to
office as a delivery point for course materials, 65,000 by the government. Eventually about
and also as a bank for accepting fees from 60,000 students actually registered. T h e expec-
students; (c) use of existing government higher- tation was that m a n y of the registered students
education institutions as regional offices; (d) use were recent graduates from senior secondary
of word-processor-quality outputs as camera- schools, however, more than 75 per cent of the
ready text for printing; (e) use of the U n i - registered students were already employed. It
versity of Indonesia's computers and computer was not, therefore, possible to lessen demand by
programs to process registration and exam- recent graduates for university places.
inations; and (f) requesting nationally k n o w n
professors to write the course materials.
There was no time for experimentation with T h e instructional system
course materials and calibration of multiple-
choice examinations. Registration and examin- There were several media used to convey in-
ations were processed by the University of struction, but the most important media was
Indonesia's optical scanners and the results print. Print was selected because it was cheap,
recorded on their computer. T h e students had flexible and for most purposes adequate. With
to go to a designated post office for registration graphics and illustrations, powerful visuals
and for payment of fees and for course m a - could be created which could enhance learning.
terials and to receive the latter. Afterwards, Material in colour could also be used to attract
they had to confirm their registration at the attention; however, at this stage it was con-
regional office, receive further information about sidered too sophisticated and expensive to pro-
tutorials and examinations, and about h o w to duce. All contents of the course, as far as
study in a distance-education setting. possible, were to be in printed form. Other
T h e course materials were generally the work media were to be used as a complement to
of individuals, rather than teams. T h e team printed materials. Certain course contents such
approach was used only to develop the cur- as language pronunciation could only be de-
riculum. It was mostly taken from the existing livered through audio-cassettes. In such a case
government regulated m i n i m u m curriculum. the only alternative was to use the appropriate
192 Setijadi
media. Print was also quick to produce. T h e M o r e than 1,000 study groups were in exist-
short preparation time and limited resources ence, and since the Universitas Terbuka pro-
available m a d e print material the best choice. vided services to answer their questions b y
Audio-cassettes were also used extensively mail, s o m e inquiries have been m a d e on aca-
to provide variations to learning through print demic as well as administrative matters.
and to highlight important parts of the course Prior to the completion of students' h o m e
materials. Audio-cassettes were not expensive assignments and the semester examination they
to produce, therefore, they could be given to can attend tutorials. It was expected that tutorial
each student. However, not all courses could sessions would be used for helping students
benefit from audio presentations. overcome difficult parts of the course. Tutorial
After two years of operation the Universitas sessions were mostly unpopular and attended
Terbuka tried to introduce m o r e materials in only by about 10 per cent of the students
other media, especially for the transmission of registering for the course. T h e attendance rate
practical skills, such as practice teaching and at the beginning was high, more than 80 per
science laboratory skills. It remains to be seen cent, but after two years it dropped to the above
h o w these efforts will succeed in the future. level, except for certain courses or certain popu-
Beginning September 1986, a n e w operational lar tutors.
system was introduced. T h e main character- With the drop in popularity of tutorials there
istics of the n e w system were: all-year-round was a corresponding increase in the establish-
registration; students could take their choice of ment of study groups. S o m e students claimed
the courses offered; examinations were held that study groups were more effective in pro-
three times a year. T h e system became, there- viding assistance to the students than tutorials.
fore, m u c h more complicated. Before the n e w At any rate, study groups could have more
system was introduced, every student within frequent meetings and the meetings could be
the same study programme received the same held in their vicinity. M a n y students have to
course materials. After the n e w system was travel longer distances to reach less frequent
introduced, registration of and payment for tutorials.
courses had to b e administered and recorded Private tutorials with relatively high fees
separately for each student. A large computer were also established by enterprising university
had to be purchased to allow easy management graduates. Their fate depended very m u c h on
and recording of such a mass of data. their services and the fees they asked. S o m e
After the students received the course m a - private tutorials were successful, others did not
terials, they could begin to study. Universitas last long.
Terbuka encouraged them to form study groups It was difficult in m a n y places to find qualified
with fellow students living in their vicinity. It tutors. Even in places where there were uni-
was hoped that the study groups would encour- versities, not m a n y tutors could be found for
age learning and that difficult parts of the study certain courses. Training of tutors could not be
materials could be more easily understood. conducted regularly because of the high cost.
Survey results indicated that there were at A n attempt has been m a d e to conduct tutor
least two types of study group. Students in one training through self-instructional materials and
group studied on their o w n while another group voice communication. T h e results of this train-
hired a tutor to help students with under- ing have yet to be assessed.
standing their course materials. B y hiring their T h e best strategy seemed to be to rely m o r e
o w n tutors they could select better ones than on study groups, and assist these groups with
those provided b y the Universitas Terbuka. services for answering questions through the
T h e y could also ask tutors to go over examin- mail. There was a plan to provide study groups
: ation questions so that students would be better with additional reading materials, since the
prepared to take examinations. provincial libraries did not possess the rec-
Indonesia: Universitas Terbuka 193
o m m e n d e d reading materials. T h e plan was print. N o research has been conducted so far
temporarily shelved because of lack of funds. to confirm this legibility. A typesetting machine
was subsequently acquired which could accept
the computer's output and transform it into
Production and distribution the desired typeface and format. In this way no
retyping was necessary. T h e development of
Given the very short time for course prep- desktop publishing has m a d e the interface be-
aration, and given the possibilities of late re- tween computers and typesetting machine easier.
ception of assignments and repeated corrections Such a direct link has been found and used
of the assignments, it was decided to use word- between Apple Macintosh computers and the
processors. Apple 11+ compatible computers Linotype photo-typesetting machine, and today
were chosen because of price and availability. similar linkages with Apple II computers are
Maintenance was also an important consider- already available. Illustrations and graphics were
ation for using the Apple 11+ compatibles. For also m a d e easier with the increased graphics
the software, the WordStar was selected because capabilities of small computers.
at the time it was the most sophisticated and Course materials were packed and distrib-
suitable software available for the type of pub- uted to students by post. With the old system
lishing needed. In the early days of the Uni- students had to go to a certain post office to
versitas Terbuka (1983), word processors were obtain course materials and pay for them. In
still u n c o m m o n in Indonesia. Word-processor the n e w system the course materials were de-
training was easier than anticipated, though livered to their homes. If past experiences could
electric power was unreliable due to voltage be used for prediction, the fear was that about
surges and blackouts. 15 per cent of the materials would not reach
Typesetting was out of the question during the students. T h e reason given by the post office
the earlier days due to lack of time and no type- was that the addresses of the undelivered m a -
setting machine was available which was able terials were u n k n o w n . Since Indonesia has
to accept the computer's output. Letter-quality started to use a postal code, this precision might
printers were used to print the final camera- help locate student addresses. Students, living
ready copy for reproduction. In this way print- in rural or city slum areas were requested to
ing time was reduced to two weeks. Commercial contact the nearest post office before writing
printing shops were used to print the course their addresses. If no way could be found for
materials. easy delivery to a student's address, the use of
Since every student following the same pro- a post-office box was recommended.
g r a m m e received the same course materials, T h e services provided by the post office,
the printing benefited from the economy of which include the delivery of examination m a -
scale. At least 5,000 copies of each course were terials, were generally satisfactory. T h e security
printed. T h e size of the print materials followed precautions taken in relation to the distribution
the standard 21 X 2 8 c m format for the most of examination materials were adequate. So far,
efficient use of paper. Except for a multicolour no leakages of examination materials have been
cover, the content of the materials was printed reported.
in monochrome to reduce costs, since the T h e results of the n e w operational system for
government did not subsidize the cost of print- distribution, however, were below expectations,
ing. T h e price of the course materials, although mainly because it was highly centralized. Dis-
far below similar commercial textbooks, already tribution of course materials had to wait until
included royalties for course writers. registration was completely processed by the
A particular typeface was selected (Prestige central computer. This processing might re-
Pica 10) and spacing between lines was main- quire several weeks if a student m a d e mistakes
tained at 4 m m to produce the most legible infillingout the registration forms. Distribution
194 Setijadi
was consequently delayed by several weeks.

It already took two weeks for the post office Student needs
to deliver the registration forms from students and communication
living in remote areas to the university, and
another two weeks to deliver the course m a - Indonesia's communication needs are substan-
terials from the university to the students. O n tial. Thousands of islands spanning a very wide
the average students received their course m a - area have been integrated into one country and
terials two months after they took the completed one nation. T h e students of the Universitas
registration forms to the post office for delivery Terbuka live in all parts of the country. Students
to the university. at remote locations cannot be reached easily by
In August 1987, Universitas Terbuka started land transportation from the regional offices.
to decentralize its operational system. It be- Universitas Terbuka has urgent need for effec-
gan to separate distribution from registration. tive communication means in those regions.
Course materials m a y n o w be purchased in Sometimes n e w communication channels have
bookshops in certain cities and the regional to be established because the old channels are
offices. Registration is to be processed by the not adequate.
regional offices rather than by the central office All possible communication channels cur-
in Jakarta. Although the computer processing rently available to communicate inexpensively
of student data is still done by the central office with students and regional offices were used.
computer, delays in computer processing due Telex was used for urgent data transfer and
to mistakes m a d e by students should no longer administrative matters. T h e use of telex ser-
hinder registration and distribution. vices was limited because only about half of
This decentralization process is not of m u c h the regional offices had telex machines. It was
help to students living in remote areas, since not easy to set up telex machines at the regional
travel to the regional offices is expensive offices. Therefore, an attempt to use micro-
and time-consuming. For these students, the computer networks was tried out with some
centralized registration and distribution sys- success. In the future this type of electronic
tem is still the only course of action. However, communication m a y prove to be a relatively
this decentralization process has already helped inexpensive means of transferring all kinds of
about 90 per cent of the student population data, information and correspondence. T h e
to obtain course materials andfinishregistration problem of building the network was the low
without m u c h delay. quality of the telephone network. Although
Audio and video materials were broadcast Indonesia has an excellent domestic satellite
through government and private radio stations, system, the telephone land lines were already
and through the government's only television antiquated and full of noise interference.
station. Radio time could be provided in ac- In areas where telephone lines were excellent,
cordance with the needs. Television time was point-to-point communication using amplified
given only twice a month for twenty-five m i - telephone conversations was used for tutorials.
nutes each. Other times which could be used At one end the tutor talked from a microphone
were from early in the morning until 4.30 in attached to the telephone and at the other end
the afternoon, at which time the regular tele- students could receive clearly the voice of the
vision programmes started. T h e cost of broad- tutor through a loudspeaker. T h e students could
casting any courses beyond the twenty-five m i - talk back to the tutor using the same arrange-
nutes allocated each fortnight had to be borne ments. Telephones were of course used fre-
by the Universitas Terbuka. T h efinancialre- quently for transmitting urgent messages to
sources for more television broadcasts were not regional centres. T h e cost of long-distance tele-
yet available. phone calls is still expensive in Indonesia
compared to that in more developed countries.
Indonesia: Universitas Terbuka 195
A special rate was arranged for the point-

to-point tutorial telephone connection. Management
Since telephone costs are relatively high,
tutorials have also been conducted at a distance T w o alternatives were considered during the
through single side band (SSB) two-way radios. preparatory period. T h efirstalternative was
Trials of the system have almost been completed centralized control, in which everything, except
and there are plans to expand the S S B radio to tutorials would be controlled by a central office.
other places if the trials are successful. T h e second alternative was to have a central
Inexpensive media for communication are office control course development and examin-
newspapers and magazines. Press conferences ations only. Everything else (registration, rec-
could provide communication channels to reach ord-keeping, tutorials,financeand other admin-
students in a short time. Magazines provided istrative matters) would be controlled by re-
articles about the Universitas Terbuka and h o w gional offices or by participating universities.
the system worked. Newspapers and magazines It was decided to choose thefirstalternative,
were eager to print news and articles about because it was considered easier to implement
Universitas Terbuka because it increased their and control. With a short preparation time
circulation. With more than 100,000 students decentralization control was m u c h more diffi-
the Universitas Terbuka was a major market cult to implement. T h e eventual roles assigned
for the mass media. to the regional offices (there were thirty-two of
Indonesia has had a dosmetic satellite system them) were tutorials, some students services
for almost a decade, and telecommunications and supervising examinations. At first, some
are developing very rapidly. But since the tech- parts of the registration process were also as-
nology to use the full potentials of the satellite signed to the regional offices, such as checking
system was still underdeveloped, no extensive the accuracy of student identification cards. In
use of the satellite system for formal education the n e w system those functions were taken over
was m a d e . A recent effort by the government, by the central office, because for students living
with assistance from U S A I D , has tried to de- in remote areas it would be difficult to travel
velop an Indonesian distance education satellite to the regional office. In the n e w system, those
system ( S I S D I K S A T ) , with three c o m m u n i - functions were handled by mail; therefore, the
cation components: voice interaction, graphics students needed only to send registration forms
interaction and facsimile. back to the central office for processing.
After three years the graphics interaction and T h e tutorial and student-service functions
facsimile are still problematic. Apparently, the needed to be strengthened at the regional
telephone system, which forms an important offices; however, recruitment and training of
part of the network, was not appropriate for qualified staff were difficult. Indonesia lacked
the system. T h e Universitas Terbuka is at pre- skilled graduates for university staff. These
sent experimenting with microcomputers as an people were already employed or could c o m -
alternative for the graphics interaction. So far, m a n d employment in better paying jobs. All
results have been encouraging. the academic and most of the administrative
This example illustrates the problems Indo- staff of the regional offices were part-time. It
nesia is facing in using high-technology c o m - was therefore difficult to organize strong student
munication channels. In a few years computer service units.
networking will be simple, but only available T h e nature of the Universitas Terbuka or-
in large cities. Reaching rural areas, although ganization is a network of participating insti-
theoretically possible, is likely to meet with tutions. S o m e participating institutions were
unanticipated difficulties. serving Universitas Terbuka within the limits
of their major responsibilities. T h e post office
was an example of such an institution. Other
196 Setijadi
institutions had to go beyond their major re- centres were to have m u c h broader responsi-
sponsibilities to assist Universitas Terbuka. bilities. Registration and distribution of course
Such institutions were the mainstream univer- materials was partly decentralized.
sities, w h o had to give some of their staff and T h e interface between the central and the
facilities to help Universitas Terbuka function. regional offices became m u c h more important.
It was with the latter type of institutions that Student data at the regional office should con-
careful relationships were established. form to the data available at the central c o m -
T h e institutions involved in the operations puter. Ideally a computer network should be
of the Universitas Terbuka, aside from the established between the central and regional
central and the thirty-two regional offices, were offices. At this time, however, data are c o m -
the post office, the national television service, municated through the postal service.
the national and commercial radio stations, T h e training of staff at the regional offices
the telecommunications corporation, news- should receive special attention. Standard o p -
papers and magazines, regional libraries, the erating procedures should be established to
regional offices of the Ministry of Education avoid incompatibilities in the processing of
and Culture, the state universities and other registration data.
institutions. Special care should be given to the minority
Managing such a diverse network required of the student population living in remote areas.
frequent meetings and constant c o m m u n i - For them, access to a regional office is some-
cations between the central office and the times more difficult than access to the central
participating institutions. Informal agreements office in Jakarta. For those students, the u n -
were as important as formal ones. Since speed revised operating system, in which students
of decisions was crucial, special staff members register by mail at the central office, is still
were assigned to keep the communication chan- valid.
nels open.
T h e most important relationships were be-
tween the central office and the regional offices Lessons for the future
or between the Universitas Terbuka and the
participating universities. In these cases the W h a t have w e learned from the experience in
authority on some important matters, such as developing a large-scale distance-education pro-
the determination of w h o should be the officers ject in a developing country? First of all, w e do
of the regional office, rests with the rectors of not recommend a short preparatory phase.
the universities involved. Matters related to the Preparation for establishing a large-scale dis-
administration and operation of the regional tance-education institution should take at least
centres were also supervised by the rectors. two years. Planning, recruitment and training
Within very broad guidelines, the regional of staff, securing facilities and equipment, nego-
offices had enough autonomy to implement the tiations with future partners, securing the
guidelines in their region. With this autonomy budget will take quite some time. Forcing all
the regional offices were able to respond ad- these activities into a shorter period might have
equately to specific challenges in the operation adverse effects on the initial development of the
of the Universitas Terbuka in their respective institution.
regions. This autonomy has caused some prob- T h e courses should mostly be delivered
lems of consistency between national directives through print unless one has a very large
and regional implementation; however, those budget. Course writers should be hired on a
problems are minor in comparison to the contract basis from other institutions. This
benefits the regional autonomy has brought. solution gives us more opportunity to hire
With further decentralization of the operation better course writers, and the institution is not
system, beginning in August 1987, the regional burdened by excess staff. Audio should be used
Indonesia: Universitas
to complement print. Audio-visual media can

be a powerful means of delivering course m a -
terials. Microcomputers should be used as
word processors to speed u p the process of
course preparation for printing. Output can be
improved by using laser printers and p u b -
lishing software. Registration and distribution
should be decentralized and too m u c h reliance
on high-powered microcomputers or main-
frames should be avoided, unless the electric
power supply and the maintenance of the
computers are reliable.
Operating a distance-education programmein
a large developing country is very difficult if
modern communication means are absent. A
microcomputer network should be available for
easy transfer of data. Otherwise full decentra-
lization of administration is necessary. •
The external degree
programme at the
University of Zambia
Richard M . C . Siaciwena
University of Zambia enrolled itsfirstexternal

Background students. T h e model of distance teaching was
adopted from the University of N e w England,
During the pre-independence period in Zambia Australia. O n e unique characteristic of the N e w
opportunities for education and training for England model is the integration of distance-
indigenous Africans were inadequate. Conse- teaching activities into normal teaching func-
quently the severe shortage of high-level tions of teaching departments.
manpower constituted a major constraint on This article describes the aims of the external
the country's development during the post- degree programme at the University of Zambia
independence period as the country's economic and the courses available to external students.
and industrial activities expanded rapidly. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages
This shortage meant that Zambians with fewer of integrating the external degree programme
formal qualifications had to be recruited to fill into the academic functions of a conventional
vacant posts, particularly in the public service. university. Particular attention is given to the
On-the-job training was a necessity. A more discussion of issues and problems associated
realistic and permanent solution was the ex- with the organizational structure and admin-
pansion of higher education in the country. istrative system. It is shown in the article that
Accordingly, in March 1963 the n e w Zambian factors external to the teaching institution have
Government appointed a Commission chaired also conditioned the administration, operation
by the late Sir John Lockwood, a former Vice- and functioning of the external degree pro-
Chancellor of the University of London, to g r a m m e .
assess the feasibility of a university in Zambia. It is argued that an alternative model is not
T h e Lockwood Report recommended, a m o n g practicable at present. However, there is need
other things, the introduction of correspon- to introduce changes in order to improve the
dence education at the n e w university. T h u s teaching system and the overall performance of
in March 1967, a year after its creation, the the external degree programme.
It should be emphasized that to highlight the
issues and problems affecting the external de-
gree programme at the University of Zambia
Richard M . C . Siaciwena (Zambia). Currently pre-
is not to condemn the system. T h e intention is
paring a Ph.D. in distance education at the University
to provide a framework for assessing the suit-
College, Cardiff (United Kingdom). Former Head of
the Department of Correspondence Studies at the
ability of the N e w England and other imported
University of Zambia, as well as lecturer/course advisermodels of distance teaching in Africa.
in the same department.

200 Richard M . C. Siaciwena
withdrawn because teaching schools and de-

Aims of the external partments have felt that their courses cannot be
degree programme taught adequately by distance-teaching methods.
This was, for example, one of the main reasons
Zambia's manpower needs determined, to a for withdrawing law courses from the external
great extent, the aims of the University of degree programme.
Zambia in general and the external degree Significantly, in 1981, the University of
programme in particular. T h e external degree Zambia Senate suspended all third- and fourth-
programme was to serve the dual purpose of year-level courses as a means of reducing
contributing to the supply of high-level m a n - distance-learning courses to manageable levels
power in the country and catering for the edu- vis-à-vis the administrative and material pro-
cational needs of m a n y capable adults w h o left duction capacity of the Department of Corre-
the formal school system before higher edu- spondence Studies. This reduction has nar-
cation facilities were available in the country rowed the external students' course choice and
but w h o cannot attend the University full-time has meant that they cannot graduate without
due tofinancial,occupational or family con- transferring to full-time study for their third-
straints. and fourth-year-level courses. It has also led to
It was particularly seen as a means of up- over-subscription of m a n y courses as the total
grading teachers for the secondary-school sec- external student enrolment rose from 152
tor. At present the external degree programme in 1967 to 675 in 1985/86.
can be justified, among other reasons, on the
grounds that places for full-time students are
scarce and the University of Zambia is experi- The teaching system
encing a shortage of residential accommodation.
As is the case with the University of N e w
England, the external degree programme at the
Academic programmes and courses University of Zambia is founded and operates
on the principle of the equality of standards
U p to the early 1970s the University of Zambia between internal and external students. A s a
offered courses leading to the award of six means of achieving this equality, both groups
différent degrees (including B.Sc.) and a post- are taught and examined by the same regular
graduate certificate in education ( P G C E ) to teaching staff. A n d since admission require-
external students. Since the mid-1970s there ments, courses and examinations are the same
has been a reduction in the number of degree for both groups of students they are expected
programmes and courses available by corre- to attain the same standard of academic per-
spondence. formance and qualify for the same degree.
At present only courses leading to the award T h e teaching system is based mainly on
of the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Bachelor of Arts printed materials. Study materials are sent at
with Education (B.A. with Ed.) and Diploma in intervals specified by lecturers but largely
Adult Education are available to external determined by the production process. Study
students. T h e total number of courses for materials are written or prepared by individual
external students has therefore dropped from 60 lecturers on an annual basis. Face-to-face
in 1972 to 24 in the 1986/87 academic year. teaching is provided during the residential
T h e staff shortage and, in the case of the school held once a year, normally at the end of
B.Sc. degree the cost of providing laboratory- the first term, for a period of two weeks.
based courses to external students, were factors Residential schools are an integral part of the
in the withdrawal of courses from the external teaching system and therefore attendance at
degree programme. S o m e courses have been these schools is mandatory. Students w h o fail to
The external degree programme at the University of Zambia 201
attend residential schools are withdrawn from functions. All teaching and examining are the
the programme. responsibility of the regular teaching staff. T h e
Assignments are an important aspect of the Department of Correspondence Studies is
teaching system. In m a n y courses students are merely an administrative unit that co-ordinates
required to obtain supplementary books and and administers all courses offered to external
other reading materials for their written students.
assignments. For this purpose the Department This organizational arrangement has the
of Correspondence Studies provides external advantage of relieving teaching departments
students with information and documents to and staff of the extra administrative burden
enable them to buy books from the university associated with the external degree programme.
bookshop and to borrow books from the uni- It also allows for the maximization of equality of
versity library. treatment of internal and external students and
In order to gain full course credits, external equality of academic standards. This is crucial
students normally take examinations at the end to the credibility, recognition, and acceptance
of each academic year. Admission into the of qualifications obtained by distance study. A s
examinations is by fulfilment of specified re- Rumble and Keegan (1982) have shown this is
quirements such as submission of the required an issue about which even large-scale, auton-
number of assignments and attendance at the omous distance-teaching institutions, are con-
residential school. cerned.
T h e issue of credibility or legitimacy is of
great importance in developing countries where
Factors correspondence education is largely regarded as
affecting the administration second-rate and second-choice education cater-
of the programme ing for those w h o 'failed* to m a k e their way in
the formal school system. At the University
of Zambia there has always been some obvi-
T h e organizational and administrative infra- ous prejudice against correspondence teaching
structure of any distance-teaching system should a m o n g certain academics. It can be argued that
be designed to ensure the production of high- an alternative model would help reinforce these
quality materials and provide for their efficient prejudices and m a k e it difficult to recruit
distribution. This is of crucial importance for lecturers of high calibre for the external degree
the external degree programme at the Univer- programme.
sity of Zambia whose teaching system heavily T h e present organizational structure has the
relies on printed materials. There are, however, advantage of providing for flexibility and
factors that m a k e it difficult for the external convenience to both internal and external
degree programme to achieve its optimum students. They can transfer from full-time to
operational efficiency as discussed below. correspondence study and vice versa without
losing their academic course credits. T h e sys-
tem has been particularly beneficial to a n u m b e r
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS of students w h o can only remain on campus as
full-time students for one or two courses and
A s indicated above the University of Zambia w h o can complete their degree b y corre-
adopted the Australian N e w England integrated spondence.
model of distance teaching, which requires the Cost reduction and cost effectiveness are
same lecturers to teach both internal and major concerns of perhaps all distance-teaching
external students. O n e distinct characteristic of systems. In this respect the distance-teaching
its organizational structure is the separation of model at the University of Zambia represents a
teaching responsibilities from administrative reduction of costs; no extra salaries or allow-
202 Richard M . C. Siaciviena
anees are paid to the teaching staff as correspon- ments. It requires that more assignments must
dence teaching is a contractual obligation for all be set to m a k e up for the lack of regular contact
lecturers. with students and this creates a very heavy
T h e existence of the administrative Depart- marking load. T h e over-heavy load placed on
ment of Correspondence Studies provides a correspondence teaching staff arising from
coherent structure of distance-teaching activi- understaffing evidently affects the preparation
ties carried out by different departments in the and quality of study materials and the rate
university. This gives the external degree at which assignments are marked. O n the other
programme a fair amount of visibility among the hand it is true that if lecture notes are not
University of Zambia's academic functions. well written and students' written work is not
Notwithstanding the above and other ad- given detailed comments, no effective teaching
vantages, there are problems associated with can take place.
the present organizational set-up. T h e system Another problem relating to staffing is lack
gives individual lecturers almost absolute inde- of continuity in correspondence teaching. S o m e
pendence in deciding the content, structure or teaching departments 'find it necessary (as a
format and style of their study materials. Ideally, means of easing the burden of correspondence
this has an advantage of exposing students to a teaching on lecturers) to rotate teaching assign-
variety of study materials as opposed to ments from time to time. T h u s correspondence
stereotyped materials. courses are periodically handed to lecturers
But correspondence teaching requires special with no correspondence teaching experience
skills which can be gained from experience. at all.
However, most of the lecturers involved in
correspondence teaching are comparatively
young Zambians, with relatively little experi- ADMINISTRATIVE ISSUES
ence of university teaching and no prior experi-
ence or training in adult or correspondence T h e administrative problems associated with
teaching. A s a result most of the study m a - the external degree programme at the Univer-
terials are mere reproductions of book chapters sity of Zambia emanate from the organizational
and journal articles without clear instructions structure and relate to administrative controls
on h o w to use them. and procedures. T h e Department of Corre-
Understaffing negatively affects the external spondence Studies has no administrative control
degree programme at the University of Zambia. over its course writers and teachers, and can
T h e university has been experiencing difficulties exercise no sanctions on them for failure to
in recruiting and retaining both Zambian and meet the required or expected standard of
expatriate teaching staff. Teaching departments performance in correspondence teaching. It has
therefore tend to use the available staff for difficulty in establishing its authority over the
internal teaching as a matter of practical lecturing staff w h o are inclined to regard
priority. T h e shortage of staff in teaching directives, requests and instructions from the
departments has tended to increase the staff/ Department of Correspondence Studies as
student ratio as lecturers are responsible for carrying less weight than those given by their
large numbers of internal students as well. teaching departments, relating to internal
Correspondence teaching is, perhaps of necess- teaching.
ity, regarded by lecturers as an extra burden T h e Department of Correspondence Studies'
incidental to the immediately pressing job of loss of administrative autonomy in 1975 has
teaching internal students. also had an effect on the administration of
Correspondence teaching necessarily requires the external degree programme at the Uni-
more time and effort (than internal teaching) versity of Zambia. Prior to 1975 the Director of
to prepare study materials and mark assign- Correspondence Studies was responsible to the
T h e external degree programme at the University of Zambia 203
Vice-chancellor. H e was guided by a Senate also needs a pool of technical staff to service
Committee on Correspondence Studies. and repair these machines.
W h e n , in 1975, the Department of Corre- Despite the remarkable industrial develop-
spondence Studies was allied with three other ment that has taken place particularly during
Departments in the n e w Centre for Continuing thefirstten years of independence in Zambia,
Education, the Senate Committee on Corre- the country is largely underdeveloped in terms
spondence Studies was replaced by a Pro- of technology. It still relies greatly on foreign
fessional Committee comprising all teaching sources for the supply of industrial and printinlf
staff. It has been observed that teaching staff do equipment and office machines, which is its eg
not find it useful to raise issues through this determined by a number of factors including
Committee as it reports to the Centre for foreign exchange which is scarce in developing
Continuing Education Board of Studies where countries.
they are not represented. They prefer to raise For this and other reasons, it has not been
issues on correspondence studies through their easy for the University of Zambia to acquire
departments and schools. most of the printing and office machinery that
Since 1975, the Director of the Centre for it requires. Since 1979, the Department of
Continuing Education represents the Depart- Correspondence Studies has been printing its
ment of Correspondence Studies on the materials on two Gestetner duplicating m a -
Academic Board and in the Senate. This has chines which constantly break d o w n due to
lengthened the bureaucratic procedures through excessive use. Thus the department's printing
which matters relating to the external degree capacity is extremely limited; a problem that
programme are referred to the university's top largely contributed to the suspension of the
policy- and decision-making bodies. There is external degree programme in the 1981/82
also a question of whether the Director of the academic year.
Centre for Continuing Education can always
speak knowledgeably on behalf on the Depart-
ment of Correspondence Studies. COMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE
Another disadvantage of the Department of
Correspondence Studies being in the Centre for For a country to operate an effective distance-
Continuing Education is that its allocation of teaching system, it ought to have a well-
financial resources is inevitably considered in developed communication infrastructure. A s
relation to other departments. This has in the the postal system in Zambia relies largely on
past led to underfunding as the unique require- road transport for the conveyance of mail, the
ments of the external degree programme are state of the country's roads is crucial to the
blurred by the competing needs of the three operation of the external degree programme.
other departments of the Centre for Continuing It is worth noting in this respect that according
Education. to government statistics the total length of
roads in 1983 was 37,000 kilometres of which
only 15.4 per cent were tarred (bitumen). T h e
PRINTING TECHNOLOGY majority of the roads were either gravel or
unclassified, which means that they are not
Printing technology has historically been an 'all-weather' roads and m a y therefore be i m -
indispensable prerequisite and major determi- passable by motor vehicles during the rainy
nant of the development of distance education months. This (and the sheer geographical size
the world over. A s a print-based system, the of the country) means that the postal system is
external degree programme at the University lengthy or slow particularly in rural areas.
of Zambia requires an adequate supply of T h e availability of postal services is related
printing machines and printing requisites. It to the communication infrastructure. There has
204 Richard Ai. C. Siaciwena
been a remarkable increase in the number of the Ministry of General Educational Broad-
post offices and postal agencies in Zambia casting Services.
since 1971. For example the number of postal Another limitation of radio in Zambia is
agencies increased from 49 in 1971 to 198 that radio reception in some remote parts of the
in 1982. However, because of the country's country where a substantial number of external
geographical size (753,000 k m 2 ) and its dis- students live is not good enough. Also radio
persed population there are m a n y people in the receivers are not very cheap, and batteries
rural areas w h o are not adequately served by the (necessary in rural areas) are not always easily
postal system. Most of the University of available.
Zambia's external students in rural areas have Television cannot be relied upon to support
to travel long distances to get to the nearest the external degree programme because of the
post office or postal agency. cost of television use compared to the number
It is widely recognized and recommended of students involved. Even if the numbers
by m a n y distance educators that the limitations justified the use of television, the system is not
associated with and arising from the use of widespread enough to be of any use to some
printed materials can and should be made u p external students in remote parts of the country.
for by other media such as the telephone, Also television sets are very expensive.
radio and television. T h e importance of the T h e constraints on the use of communication
telephone in counselling and tutoring in dis- media outlined above imply that the University
tance education has been highlighted by Bates of Zambia's external students do not receive as
(1982, p . 12) w h o has stated that 'if distance m u c h support as distance learners in developed
education systems wish to provide a wide countries do. It has also meant that external
range of courses to students w h o are often students are not given adequate support for
scattered or isolated, telephone tuition is the them to perform on an equal basis with internal
only practical way of providing two-way inter- students. This problem is compounded by the
active tutorials'. fact that external students cannot easily get
In Zambia, as in m a n y developing countries, prescribed books and other supplementary
the telephone system is not developed to the reading materials particularly outside the Uni-
level at which it can be relied upon to provide versity. Local libraries, by virtue of the popu-
an effective counselling and support system to lations they are intended to serve, do not
distance learners. There has been, in fact, a traditionally stock university-level books. Simi-
decline in the number of public call offices in the larly, the few bookshops in the country do not
country over the years. T h e majority of the cater for the academic needs of the University
external students, therefore, have no easy access of Zambia's students.
to a telephone. T h e few w h o might be lucky to
have access to one m a y experience the problems
of poor line quality and the high cost of Suggestions
telephone use. for improving the system
Perhaps no other country in Africa has used
radio for educational purposes as m u c h as M a n y distance-education systems in Africa and
Zambia has done since independence. However, other parts of the Third World m a y face the
the country's radio station has a limited kind of problems outlined above largely due to
number of wavelengths. There is therefore a these countries' state of underdevelopment. In
shortage of air time. At present, radio time this section various suggestions are put forward
allocated for educational programmes is largely for dealing with such problems.
used for primary-school support, where the A major organizational problem identified
need is greatest. T h e University of Zambia is above relates to staff shortage and the conse-
only allocated a tiny proportion of radio time by quent burden correspondence teaching imposes
The external degree programme at the University of Zambia 205
on the few lecturers w h o have to teach both This implies the need to produce carefully
internal and external students. O n e possible sol- written and well-printed materials that m a y be
ution is to adopt the system of the University of used over a specified period of time. In the
Queensland (Australia) in which lecturers are particular case of the University of Zambia this
recruited specifically for correspondence teach- would solve a n u m b e r of problems.
ing. This does not seem to be practicable at Primarily, it would save the lecturers from
present in m a n y Third World countries. There preparing study materials every year. They
are always problems of staff recruitment arising would remain with an easier task of setting
from the general shortage of educated m a n - assignment questions and prodiving supplemen-
power particularly in African countries. There tary reading sheets w h e n necessary.
is also the problem of prejudice against cor- Secondly, carefully developed and well-
respondence teaching, mentioned earlier in the printed study materials would not only help in
article. creating and/or sustaining students' motivation
At the University of Zambia for example but would also reduce the cost of answering
there has been a shift of emphasis from the students' queries about missing pages, unclear
arts and social sciences (which are offered to instructions, or difficulties in reading the m a -
external students) to science and technology as terials associated with style and language.
evidenced by the establishment of n e w schools Thirdly, since materials would be for long-
and re-arrangement of enrolment quotas in term use, they would have to be produced in
favour of science-based programmes in response large quantities and stockpiled. This would
to the country's manpower needs. It would be not only reduce the production costs but would
unrealistic to expect the University of Zambia also enable the Department of Correspondence
to be able to recruit lecturers exclusively for Studies to send materials to individual students
correspondence teaching w h e n it cannot cater upon enrolment. At present, study materials
adequately for the current staffing needs of are produced after all the students have been
existing programmes. enrolled and, given the production problems,
T h e shortage of staff would perhaps be solved the first study units are sometimes not sent
by recruiting graduate teaching assistants and/or until the end of thefirstterm or the beginning
part-time lecturers in numbers directly related of the second term. This shortens the academic
to the correspondence teaching needs of depart- year for external students and affects their
ments. It is of course easier and cheaper to motivation, especially the n e w ones w h o are
employ this category of staff than recruiting always anxious to begin a university course.
full-time staff. T h e graduate teaching assistant Fourthly, if materials were available to the
or part-time staff would, as is the case with students immediately upon enrolment it would
internal teaching in some departments, assist the help minimize the effect of the problems associ-
regular teaching staff in marking assignments ated with the postal system. Fifthly, given the
and would work under their close supervision. current shortage of prescribed texbooks affect-
T h e recruitment of graduate teaching assist- ing all categories of students at the University
ants or part-time lecturers would, however, not of Zambia, the production of carefully designed
automatically lead to the improvement in the study materials would be used as a substitute
quality of study materials, another issue of for some course textbooks.
great concern. A n introduction of a system However, some lecturers m a y resent the idea
similar to course teams being practised by of course teams and all that it implies, such as
m a n y distance-teaching institutions, including having their work being edited by non-subject
Deakin University in Australia, is more likely specialists. T h e y m a y also argue that study
to solve the problems associated with the sys- materials need updating every year. It is, there-
tem of leaving the entire process of materials fore, of great importance that teaching staff
preparation to the individual lecturers. are m a d e to accept any proposed changes in the
206 Richard M . C. Siaciwena
I system of study material preparation. This m a y K I N G S L E Y , P. Correspondence Teaching: A Discussion

be achieved through seminars and workshops Paper. (HSS/5/19/1/79O
UNIVERSITY O F Z A M B I A . Annual Reports (for 1982, 1984
and by 'experimenting' with a few courses. and 1985). Lusaka, University of Zambia.
As shown above, there are advantages in . Report of the Senate Committee on Correspondence
having an autonomous department adminis- Studies. (Unpublished report.) (SEN/80/FO/34.)
. D E P A R T M E N T O F C O R R E S P O N D E N C E STUDIES. Annual
tering external degree courses as is still the case
Reports (for 1970-72 and 1986). Lusaka, University of
at the University of N e w England, Australia.
Zambia.
However, despite the disadvantages of locating Z A M B I A C E N T R A L STATISTICS OFFICE. Country Profile:
the Department of Correspondence Studies in Zambia 198s. Lusaka, Government Printer, 1986.
the Centre for Continuing Education (at the
University of Zambia) it would be jeopardizing
the concept and status of continuing education
as a whole in the University if the Department
of Correspondence Studies reverted to its full
autonomous status at this point in the develop-
ment of the University of Zambia. T h e solution,
for the m o m e n t , seems to lie in the identification
of areas in which the Department of Corre-
spondence Studies can be given more admin-
istrative autonomy for it to operate more
efficiently. •
References
B A T E S , T . 1982. Trends in the Use of Audio-Visual Media
in Distance Education Systems. In: J. Daniel, M . Stroud
and J. R . Thompson (eds.), Learning at a Distance,
pp. 8-15, Edmonton, Alberta, Athabasca University/
International Council for Correspondence Education.
R U M B L E , G . ; K E E G A N , A . 1982. General Characteristics of
the Distance Teaching Universities. In: G . Rumble and
K . Harry (eds.), The Distance Teaching Universities,
pp. 204-23, London, Croom Helm.
Bibliography
E R D O S , R . The Administration of Correspondence Studies.
In: L . O . Edstrom, R . Erdos and R . Prosser (eds.),
Mass Education. Uppsala, Dag Hammarskjöld Foun-
dation, 1970.
M W A N A K A T W E , J. M . The Growth of Education in Zambia
Since Independence, rev. ed. Lusaka, Oxford University
Press, 1974.
K A U N D A , M . M . Degree and Diploma Courses in Corre-
spondence Education. Paper read at the Dag H a m -
marskjöld Foundation, Eighth International Confer-
ence, 1967.
Poland: the Radio
and Television University
for Teachers
Eugenia Potulicka
tasks include imbuing teachers with appropriate

T h e origins and objectives attitudes, and facilitating self-creative processes
of the Radio in a rapidly changing world. Another task is
and Television University providing up-to-date general and specialized
knowledge about the subject being taught, as a
T h e Radio and Television University for foundation for acquisition of methodological
Teachers (Nauczycielski Uniwersytet Radiowo- skills. T h e main point in this respect is to
Telewizyjny—NURT) has been broadcasting indicate ways and means of putting knowledge
its programmes since 1974. Despite its n a m e , across in the language of practice. T h e remain-
the 'University' is not a school of higher edu- ing task consists in providing information about
cation with the right to award post-secondary n e w aspects of the school system's curriculum
diplomas and titles. N U R T is a didactic re- and organization, in order that teachers are able
search unit of the Institute of Teacher Training to learn about new methods, n e w organizational
(Instytut Ksztalcenia Nauczycieli—IKN) in forms and ways of modernizing teaching and
Warsaw. It is active in the field of in-service educational work in the school (Puszczewicz
education and training of teachers, while initial and Plazewski, 1987).
teacher training is the domain of universities, N U R T conducts thematic courses falling into
higher schools of education and post-secondary three categories: general culture, educational
teachers' colleges. Post-secondary institutions psychology and specialist (subject methodology,
provide both intramural and extramural courses, or h o w to teach a given subject).
the latter being followed by working teachers In-service training has not been obligatory
for the purpose of raising their professional for teachers since 1981, but a positive incentive
qualifications and obtaining a Master's degree. for continuous education has been introduced.
In their most recent formulation, N U R T ' s U p o n completion of N U R T ' s subject method-
ology course (equivalent to other subject meth-
odology studies conducted by I K N ) , and after
Eugenia Potulicka (Poland). Assistant Professor at having passed afinalexamination, teachers are
the Institute of Pedagogy, Adam Mickiewicz University entitled to apply for professional specialization
in Poznan where she conducts lectures and seminars degrees. There are more and more programmes
on comparative education. Author of several publi-
of a specialized nature, a category that was not
cations on teaching essay-writing to extramural students
provided in thefirstphase of N U R T ' s activities.
and various aspects of how the British Open University
functions, as well as a book entitled Uniwersytecka
Their objective is cto increase knowledge of a
edukaja zdalna w krajach zachodnich (University specialized field leading to mastery of the
Distance Education in Western Countries). teacher's profession' (Puszczewicz, 1985e, 1986).

208 Eugenia Potulicka
According to N U R T ' s founders, it provides articles addressed to researchers of the insti-

teachers with the greatest opportunity, among tution.
those currently available in Poland, for benefit- At the teachers' request, a series of printed
ing from various programmes and others forms lectures and radio and television programmes on
of in-service training (Puszczewicz, 1985e). the subject 'Preparing for the Reception of
Artistic, Educational and Scientific Broadcasts'
was also produced. Its purpose is to prepare
Elements and functions children and young people, as well as teachers
themselves.
of N U R T ' s teaching system
T h e declared purpose of N U R T radio lec-
tures is to encourage listeners to delve inde-
N U R T ' s teaching system is a multi-media sys- pendently into the specialized literature, and to
tem. T h e guide-books deserve first mention stimulate discussion between teachers in their
a m o n g the various printed materials. Their o w n environments. Dialogue, in the form of
functions being self-evident, I shall not dwell conversations or discussions, is used as a way
on them, adding only that the guide-books also of compensating for the lack of non-verbal
contain methodological instructions about learn- means of expression. In order to prepare radio
ing in the N U R T system (see Nowacki, 1979). listeners for effective reception, they are m a d e
O n the other hand, it is probably worth drawing aware of the need to resist the habit of treating
attention to the broadcast notes, whose basic radio as an entertainment m e d i u m and to m a s -
objective consists in guiding the teacher's re- ter the ability to listen in isolation from the
ception of the programme. Hence they include immediate environment (Zaczynski, 1977).
proposed activities to be carried out before the In choosing ways and means of presenting
broadcast. For example, there are descriptions television programmes, it is assumed that their
of situations that will be presented, with in- objective is to stimulate teachers to change their
structions to take decisions appropriate for methods. Real problems are taken as the point
analogous circumstances, descriptions of dia- of departure. Selection of the form and means
logue between people taking part infilmin- of expression is dictated by the programme
sertions, activity descriptions or highlighted content—the situations, facts and phenomena
quotations from proposed readings, which act being dealt with. In view of the fact that the
as mottos or slogans (Puszczewicz, 1985a, programmes are broadcast throughout Poland,
19856). All this stimulates reflection about the important social problems, such as manifes-
subject matter of the broadcast. tations of social pathology among children and
Lecture texts are also printed for every radio young people, are taken into consideration.
and television broadcast. These written texts Great importance is attached to revealing the
are considerably more extensive than what is negative aspects of educational and social reality.
broadcast, and can be viewed as lecture notes It is not advisable to give teachers cook-book
for a given series of programmes. They m a y be recipes for behaviour; rather they should be
used as introductory material, when read before shown h o w to approach their tasks creatively.
the broadcast, for more detailed study of what T h e programmes are intended to be uncon-
was heard on the radio or television, or for ventional, provoking thought, discussion and
repetition and consolidation of the information. action (Puszczewicz, 1985e).
They close with questions and problems for Given that television is a mass m e d i u m , its
self-testing and self-evaluating by the listener, declared function is integration of educational
and with proposed further reading. action aimed at teachers, as well as at society as
Almost all material printed for N U R T a whole.
listeners is contained in the bi-weekly Oswiata Content for audio-visual programmes is
i Wychozoanie. T h e same periodical also contains chosen to be pictorial in nature and requiring
Poland: the Radio and Television University for Teachers 209
dynamic, visual presentation and intensification they often present concrete situations, as met
of the effect by making the material lively. It is with in their work by various categories of
assumed that television can be used as an art educators. This partially replaces direct obser-
form, especially with its dramatic potential, vation of such situations in the course of visits
which can give the picture a specific dynamic to various establishments employing educators.
quality that seizes the viewer's imagination. M a n y programmes are instructional in nature,
W a y s of presenting the content that provide an to provide methodological assistance. T h e y
emotional experience are used more frequently. show model solutions in a given sphere of
This helps to establish individual contact with activity, constituting a sort of ready-made pat-
the viewer, which m a y result in an authentic tern for application in practice, but they also
intellectual and emotional commitment to in- show average solutions. Attention is paid to
troducing innovations in practice. T h e purely ways of accomplishing basic tasks set out in
theoretical lecture, presented only in verbal school curricula, and also to difficulties that
form, is rejected (Puszczewicz, 1984c). m a y arise in connection with n e w curriculum
Generally speaking, the television programme undertakings (Polish primary schools have a
commentary fulfils two functions: it directs c o m m o n educational programme). Attempts are
observation of the programme's pictorial aspect, m a d e to show a broad range of teacher working
and it facilitates verbalization, by explaining methods, and as yet unknown educational aids.
the pictorial part of the programme. T h e most Model lessons or parts of lessons are commented
effective commentary is considered to be one on by specialists. Extra-curricular activities are
that most facilitates verbalization of pictorial also shown. Educational psychology pro-
content, at the same time ensuring an appro- grammes provide a special forum for exchang-
priate level of involvement by the learner ing experiences in the resolution of educational
(Puszczewicz, 19846). situations, particularly difficult ones. In ad-
dition to exemplary pedagogical approaches,
A s part of an audio-visual programme, the
typical behaviour and examples of poor work
written word can be used to formulate gen-
are also shown. B . Puszczewicz of the N U R T
eralizations and conclusions, explain pictorial
Unit at I K N has written: 'Let us m o v e away
content, present difficult concepts, set out de-
from idyllic and faultlessly rehearsed "genre
pendencies, etc.
scenes" . . . in favour of presenting school
W h e n deciding about forms and means of reality with its full dramatic expression'
presenting television programmes, it is also (Puszczewicz, 19850"). T o fulfil this goal, tele-
necessary to pay attention to overcoming the vision coverage is being brought into the broad-
potential difficulties of educational television. casts more and more frequently.
For example, the picture m a y not say every-
thing, or it m a y say too m u c h , or a fragment of T h e last component of N U R T ' s educational
'reality' m a y be false as portrayed. Television system is face-to-face teaching at consultation
programmes sometimes elicit only a small in- centres organized by I K N regional branches.
tellectual effort on the part of the viewer, w h o T h e tasks of these centres include permanent
is accustomed to passive reception. T h u s there tours of duty by specialists in individual sub-
is a danger of superficial treatment of complex jects, w h o dispense individual and collective
subject matter (Puszczewicz, 1984a). consultation. Conferences are organized during
In the training of teachers, television pro- school holidays (for instance, two meetings for
grammes are a practical exemplification of basic a total of thirty days for teachers raising
theoretical and methodological problems, con- their professional qualifications through subject
stituting a specific type of theoretical and prac- methodology courses). In the course of such
tical education (Puszczewicz, 1985c). meetings, practical and methodological exer-
In accordance with assumptions about cises are provided and seminars are held. T h e
N U R T ' s television broadcasts as set out above, purpose of the seminars is to discuss the most
210 Eugenia Pottilicka
complex problems encompassed by the cur- out w h y m a n y teachers used only the printed
riculum. Participation in seminars is compul- texts (Nowacki, 1982). I presume this was the
sory and determines the right to sit the exam- case because the examination consisted in test-
inations (Puszczewicz, 1984c). Sometimes the ing the teachers' knowledge. Tests of the ability
teachers are given written assignments as well. to conduct a lesson would probably result in
better utilization of instructional television pro-
grammes.
Actual functions of N U R T In the case of reception of radio and television
broadcasts, data are available from studies con-
N U R T ' s activities generate considerable contro- ducted by Polish Radio and Television's Centre
versy among teachers and academics. Unfor- for Public Opinion Research and Programme
tunately, recent years have not seen any sys- Studies (Osrodek Badania Opinii Publicznej i
tematic studies that would make it possible to Studiow Programowych—OBOiSP). These stu-
establish N U R T ' s shortcomings. T h e views of dies covered a random sample of 3,899 teachers
teachers, w h o are the most affected, rarely reach from primary and academic secondary schools
the producers (Puszczewicz and Plazewski, in 1985, with comparison with analogous
1987). Most of the studies reported on below data from 1974. T h e results are shown in
were conducted during thefirstperiod of Table 1.
N U R T ' s activities, in 1974-76. At that time, T h e results show a drop in reception of both
some teachers were required to take an exam- types of programmes, which is particularly
ination on the institution's programme. large in the case of radio broadcasts, but there
In preparing for this examination, many is no answer to the question as to w h y this
listeners to the Primary Mathematics Teaching happened. I suspect that one of the reasons was
Course used only the printed texts of lectures, that in-service training through N U R T ceased
which they evaluated highly: 66 per cent to be obligatory. T h e above results remain silent
(«=601) of respondents stated that they read on the question of frequency of tuning in to
these texts fairly systematically. Unfortunately, broadcasts. Surveys of this subject in the
not all those wishing to subscribe to Oswiata i pre-1976 period yielded highly divergent data.
Wychowanie could do so. T h e percentage of respondents w h o claimed to
T h e heavy use of printed texts comes as no take systematic or almost systematic advantage
surprise, given that fairly radical changes were of radio and television broadcasts ranged from
m a d e to the mathematics curriculum of Polish 6-7 per cent among extramural students at
primary schools, and only one published book universities and in one-year I K N subject meth-
on the subject was available. T h e Primary odology courses, to 9-19 per cent among those
Mathematics Teaching Course was intended to enrolled in the Primary Mathematics Teaching
prepare for implementation of the n e w pro- Course, and right up to 60-80 per cent among
g r a m m e . Nevertheless, it was important to find teachers preparing for the qualification examin-
T A B L E I. Percentages of teachers taking advantage of N U R T radio and television broadcasts
Academic
secondary
All teachers Primary teachers teachers
Programme
type 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 198s
Radio 41 22 43 22 63 22
Television 48 45 51 48 40 37
Source: Puszczewicz and Plazewski,1987.
ation equivalent to post-secondary professional cation programmes in all types of teacher edu-
studies (Nowacki, 1982). T h e authors do not cation at universities and post-secondary schools
satisfactorily explain the more regular reception of education, that is, education science, psy-
of broadcasts by certain groups of teachers. chology, philosophy and political science (how-
W e do not have m u c h information about ever, the teachers referred to in this part of the
participation in face-to-face teaching at consul- article were not students of these schools). T h e
tation centres. Obligatory collective consul- average marks in the various subjects were as
tations were attended by 82 per cent of par- follows (the lowest pass mark amounting to 3.0,
ticipants in subject methodology courses, while and the highest possible mark to 5.0): education
13 per cent took advantage of individual conscience—4.03, psychology—3.94, political sci-
sultations. ence—3.82, philosophy—3.77.
Teachers enrolled in the Primary M a t h e m - Knowledge mastery levels were studied
atics Teaching Course were required to send among two groups of teachers by means of
in solutions to a series of problems. Correct tests. According to data for thefirstgroup, only
solutions to at least 50 per cent of the problems the level of knowledge in education science was
were required. Quite a few teachers, from 11 to 'satisfactory', while in psychology it was 'not
25 per cent for individual series of problems, fully satisfactory'. In the second group, only
did not send solutions in at all. Moreover, a 28 per cent achieved a 3.0 mark in education
substantial proportion (23-53 P e r cent) did not science. T h e remaining marks in this subject,
solve the problems independently (Nowacki, and all the marks in psychology and philosophy,
1982). were unsatisfactory (Nowacki, 1982).
O n the basis of the study results presented T h e author does not comment on the quali-
above, utilization of the various components of tative disparity in evaluating the knowledge
N U R T ' s teaching system can be approximately mastery of N U R T listeners by two measure-
ordered as follows: collective consultations, solv- ment methods, which differ as to accuracy.
ing problems at h o m e , printed texts, television However, he does state, on the basis of a selec-
and radio broadcasts. So at the top of the list tive analysis of examination documentation,
w e find those components whose utilization was that the level of mastery of knowledge stipulated
obligatory for teachers, these being also the most in the programme was satisfactory (3.0).
traditional components. Utilization of individ- In closing this description of results achieved
ual components of the British O p e n University's by N U R T listeners, it should be pointed out
teaching system is quite similar (Gallagher, that the academic programme was also mastered
1977; Potulicka, 1981), except that at the O p e n by vocational teachers and instructors, some of
University even better use is m a d e of textbooks. w h o m did not have a complete secondary edu-
N U R T ' s personnel do not have an adequate cation. This gives rise to the following basic
understanding of h o w to use the educational question: was the programme of that period
opportunities offered by that institution. designed most appropriately from the point of
view of the needs of the teachers it was to
serve? It would seem that the institution's
T h e level subsequent evolution towards better concord-
of knowledge mastered by teachers ance with the practical needs of the profession
shows that appropriate conclusions were drawn
In the years 1973/74 and 1975/76,45,790 teach- from N U R T ' sfirst'lesson'.
ers were registered as N U R T listeners. O f
these, 23.6 per cent did not sit the examinations,
and of the 76.4 per cent w h o did, 0.4 per cent
did not pass. At that time, N U R T lectures
were given in subjects appearing in higher edu-
T A B L E 2. Teachers' opinions on the influence of N U R T television programmes

on their knowledge and skills (percentages)
Viewership
Larger than Smaller than

Category of answer average average
Consolidation and broadening of professional knowledge

—especially theoretical 18
Assistance in acquiring skills and understanding methods useful
in school work 47 70
Source: Puszczewicz and Plazewski, 1987.
presentation accepted by all authors responsible

Teachers' assessments for texts for a given series of lectures. Teachers
of N U R T ' s methods pointed out terminological inconsistencies and
excessive fragmentation of material at the cost
Data from a survey conducted by O B O P i S P of its cohesion. S o m e texts were too theoretical,
in 1985 are set out in Table 2. written in difficult language and lacking prac-
T h e results shown in Table 2 already point to tical applications. Reservations were also ex-
the conclusion that N U R T ' s shift towards pro- pressed about the graphic presentation of the
grammes that are better related to the practical material, because of its small print and u n -
needs of the profession is an appropriate step. interesting appearance. However, it was rare
Studies from the earlier period showed that for the assessment of the quality of printed
teachers selected those radio or television broad- materials to be generally negative.
casts that could help them concretely and im- W h e n expressing themselves about the most
mediately in their work (Market-Depta, 1977; effective forms of radio broadcasts, 53 per cent
Nowacki, 1982). This hypothesis is confirmed of respondents («=523) named the monologue
by an analysis of the lecture series that were connected with other means of expression,
most popular with teachers in the later period 38 per cent the panel discussion, and only 9 per
of N U R T ' s activities, and of the character of cent thought the talk by a single lecturer to be
the programmes included in these series. T h e most effective. Negative features of the broad-
most popular series were 'Educational Situ- cast were evaluated as follows (Nowacki, 1982):
ations' and 'Psychologists Talk to Educators' Lectures delivered too quickly and without
in the psychology of education category, and sound effects or other means of expression
Trimary Teaching Course' and 'Teaching of that would facilitate content understand-
Mathematics' in the specialized subject method- ing—67 per cent.
ology category (Puszczewicz and Plazewski, Lack of linkage between theory and prac-
1987). Teacher methodologists and research- tice—22 per cent.
teaching staff of I K N regional branches also Lack of examples to render the expressed
proposed more broadcasts designed to provide thoughts more concrete—16 per cent.
teachers with methodological counselling. Over-generalization and unclear formulation of
Studies of teachers' opinions about the thoughts—12 per cent.
methods applied by N U R T are very fragmen- Insufficient exposition of the main thesis—7 per
tary and heterogeneous. Criticisms of the quality cent.
of printed materials were the result of the Absence of transparent structure in the lec-
absence of a uniform concept of the overall ture—3 per cent.
Poland: the R a d i o a n d Television University for Teachers 213
Having lectures delivered by professional O n the basis of their analysis of surveyed

readers, as was done in the initial period of teacher responses, Puczczewicz and Plazewski
N U R T ' s activities, turned out to be a fail- (1987) drew up the following enumeration of
ure. Faultless reading does not allow for fea- positive features of N U R T ' s television broad-
tures that only the author can contribute, it casts. T h e programmes stimulate viewers to
makes the lecture somewhat unnatural, and self-education. Their point of departure is real
probably divests it of certain emotional aspects problems rather than theory. T h e content and
(Zaczynski, 1977). form of the transmission are related to teachers'
As the most effective form of television lec- experiences. T h e authors manage to arouse
ture, 48 per cent of teachers named the dis- interest and to show problem situations. H o w -
dussion, 22 per cent the dialogue and 13 per ever, they do not limit themselves exclusively
cent the monologue. Viewers prefer to hear to real school situations in their actual and
different views on a given subject than to be complete unfolding. They take into consider-
presented with a single standpoint. T h e former ation current topics in the given subject. T h e
type of programme is more comprehensible and picture is accompanied by a carefully adapted
the imparted information is remembered better commentary to guide the viewer. Authors strive
(Nowacki, 1982; Puszczewicz, 1985e). as m u c h as possible for synthesis of word and
S o m e 65 per cent of viewers (w=6oi) of image, giving preference to entertaining forms,
programmes about teaching mathematics at the but also using purely methodical forms. T h e
primary level valued most highly the presen- broadcasts are credible.
tation of models ready for application in class. Methodological errors in N U R T lectures are
As positive features, school principals named shown in Table 3.
presenting practising teachers w h o would indi- Teacher opinions about face-to-face teaching
cate h o w to apply the imparted material to were mostly positive. For example, 46 per cent
school practice, illustrating lectures with sample («=523) of participants of subject methodology
solutions, and showing examples related to courses considered collective consultations to
teachers' problems. They valued discussions be very useful, while 14 per cent saw them as
that stimulated further reading, and staged contributing very little to in-service training.
lectures. Sessions were willingly attended by 64 per cent
T A B L E 3. Ranking of methodological errors in N U R T lectures in the light of teacher expressions of opinion
Type of error Radio TV
N o t stating the objective at the beginning of the lecture

Lack of a leading thought in the lecturer's exposition
T o o m u c h imparted information
Visual side of lecture does not illustrate content
Failing to explain difficult terminology
Lecture delivered too rapidly
Lecture read out
Insufficient voice modulation
Insufficient reference to previous related subjects
Poor legibility of graphic materials
Absence of s u m m a r y of information presented in the lecture
Absence of questions for self-testing by viewers
Absence of bibliographic references for further, m o r e detailed reading
on the topics presented
Source: Nowacki, 1982.

of respondents. They stated that such meetings For teachers participating in one-year subject
increased their knowledge, gave them good methodology courses, it is intended to provide
ideas about h o w to organize their independent obligatory face-to-face teaching at consultation
work at h o m e , and provided them with the centres, in the course of which they would
opportunity of sharing experiences. Teachers participate in laboratory exercises, method-
preparing for qualification examinations were ological exercises in the form of parts of lessons,
also willing to travel to seminars. They felt that and other similar activities. However, I K N has
direct contact can never be replaced by a not yet worked out an organizational structure
textbook. for the whole of Poland for the conduct of such
In this respect, there is one more point that studies. Moreover, introduction of this form
must be mentioned. W h e n teachers were asked of professional in-service training, and convinc-
whether they prefered live lectures or N U R T ing teachers to take advantage of it are still
lectures, most answered that they would rather slow and one-sided processes. There are still
have direct contact with the lecturer. This too few participants in N U R T ' s subject meth-
opinion was particularly predominant among odology courses w h o go on to acquire quali-
teachers taking extramural courses at univer- fication degrees (Puszczewicz, 1986).
sities, but also a m o n g participants in subject
methodology courses organized by N U R T and N U R T ' s founders believe that thought should
I K N (Nowacki, 1982). be given to the creation of an institutional form
that would bring together a team of people
directing all educational activities for radio
Trends to modify and television. This might be a Radio and Tele-
N U R T ' s teaching system vision Institute or a Distance Education Insti-
tute. T h e y have a vision of an open radio-
Changes in the w a y N U R T works are the and-television university with programmes that
result, a m o n g other things, of consideration of would be sufficiently varied and rich to fulfil
opinions about the institution's activities hith- the functions of social education in the broadest
erto. Further changes are being m a d e especially sense (Puszczewicz, 1985/, 1986).
in radio and television broadcasts. T h e authors Such a proposal does in fact require thorough
will endow them with a journalistic character consideration. N U R T ' s experience hitherto has
in its various forms: reports, talks, discussions, revealed m a n y difficulties in its co-operation
panel meetings with outstanding scientists, with other institutions, including both post-
specialists and interesting people representing secondary schools and its o w n regional I K N
various professions. Since popularity has been centres. W h a t is more, in this author's opinion
achieved by television programmes, in which these difficulties were not related to programme
educational situations are dramatically played preparation, but rather to programme reception.
by actors, and sometimes staged in a deliber- This once again confirms the law, well k n o w n
ately caricatural manner, there are more and in the history of educational innovation, that
more television broadcasts whose form meets it is easier to create a single institution than to
the criteria of televised entertainment. Such set u p co-operation among existing insti-
forms cannot be applied in a lecture hall. This tutions. But on the other hand as Brown (1980)
change in form of audio-visual presentation in says:
the direction of journalism and televised enter-
tainment would also seem to be connected with Even if the B B C O p e n University Production D e -
the fact that O B O P i S P studies do not reveal partment, together with a national transmission net-
what percentage of the overall Polish viewership work, were given to another country, this would not
consists of teachers (Puszczewicz and Plazewski, be a guarantee that this n e w country would be able
to use intensive educational broadcasting successfully
1987).
as a part of a distance-learning system. Unless the
support system existed within that country—or could . 1985e. N U R T ' s Television Programme Concepts in
be rapidly established—the expectations would prob- the Light of its Aims in the Years 1985/86. Oswiata i
ably not be matched by the results. Wychowanie, N o . 15.
. 1985/. Television Education—The Reality and the
In activities it has run so far, N U R T showed Future. Oswiata i Wychowanie, N o . 19.
itself to be most effective w h e n it was necessary . 1986. N U R T ' s Subject Methodology Courses as a
to prepare teachers for the application of n e w Component of Teachers' Professional Qualification D e -
grees. Oswiata i Wychowanie, N o . 4.
educational curriculums. But its experience P U S Z C Z E W I C Z , B . ; P L A Z E W S K I , Z . 1987. Range, Viewership
does show that there is a large and varied Size and Popularity of N U R T ' s Television Programmes
potential for using distance education for con- in the Years 198^85. Oswiata i Wychowanie, N o . 4.
tinuous learning by teachers. B Z A C Z Y N S K I , W . 1977. O n the Specific Characteristics of
Lecturing by Radio. Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny, N o . 2.
References
All articles, with the exception of those by D. H. Brovm and
M. Gallagher, are in Polish.
B R O W N , D . H . 1980. Educational Broadcasting: Two Lessons
from the Open University Experience, Milton Keynes,
Open University. (Presented at the Pacific Telecom-
munication Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii.)
G A L L A G H E R , M . 1977. Broadcasting and the Open Uni-
versity Student, Milton Keynes, Open University.
M A R K E T - D E P T A J. 1977. T h e Radio and Television
University for Teachers in the Light of Teacher
Expressions of Opinion. Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny, N o . 3.
NowACKi, J. 1979. Methods Applicable to Learning in
the N U R T System. Oswiata i Wychowanie, N o . 13.
. 1982. The Radio and Television University for
Teachers. Warsaw, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedago-
giczne.
POTULICKA, E . 1981. Radio and Television Broadcasts in
the Open University Education System. Dydaktyka
Szkoly Wyzszej, N o . 4.
PTJSZCZEWIEZ, B . 1984a. O n the Functions of Television in
an Age of Educational Change. Oswiata i Wychowanie,
N o . 8.
. 19846. Selected Theoretical and Practical Topics in
the Formulation of Didactic Audio-visual Communi-
cation. Oswiata i Wychowanie, N o . 12.
. 1984c. N U R T in the Years 1984-90—Continuity
and Evolution. Oswiata i Wychowanie, N o . r3.
. 1985a. From the Life of a School Class, or About
N U R T ' s Television Programmes (in the Tsychologists
Talk to Educators' series). Oswiata i Wychowanie,
No. 4.
. 19856. Educational Situations Shown on Television
by N U R T in the Year 1984/85. Oswiata i Wychowanie,
N o . 6.
. 1985c. The Radio and Television University for
Teachers in the School Year 1985/86. Oswiata i
Wychowanie, N o . 11.
. 1985a. O n the Role and Function of the Radio
and Television University for Teachers. N U R T ' s Or-
ganizational and Programme Assumptions for the School
Year 1985/86. Oswiata i Wychowanie, N o . 13.
China: its distance
higher-education system
Zhao Yuhui
China's distance higher education is run on a they came into being. During the period
special system, one which uses radio and tele- from i960 to 1966, more than 8,000 students
vision as its main media to deliver teaching graduated from the Beijing Television Uni-
programmes. T h e system is formed by radio versity and over 50,000 studentsfinishedsingle-
and television universities at the central and course studies through its teaching programmes.
local levels which have m a d e it possible for M o s t of them went o n to m a k e valuable contri-
more than 2 million people to receive higher butions to industrial and agricultural enter-
education over the past eight years. Radio and prises or to cultural and educational institutes.
television programmes are broadcast nationally T h e television universities of other places were
by Central China Television ( C C T V ) via its all equally successful. Unfortunately, this newly
microwave network and by local radio and emerging initiative was interrupted by the
television stations all over the country. Tele- 'Cultural Revolution' (1966-76).
vision teaching programmes are also trans- Since 1976, China has entered a n e w his-
mitted by China Education Television ( C E T V ) torical period. T h e socialist modernization proj-
via satellite covering China's vast territory of ect (the modernization of industry, agriculture,
9.6 million k m 2 . Taking into account the n u m - national defence and science and technology)
ber of students and their geographical distri- calls for a large number of trained people.
bution, China's radio and television university Although the general level of primary and
is not only the largest institute of higher edu- secondary education in China was higher than
cation in China, but also the greatest distance- in most developing countries, admission of
teaching university in the world. students to higher education institutes was
relatively limited. In 1975, the enrolment rate
in China's higher education was less than 2 per
Origins and development cent, whereas in ninety-two other developing
countries the rate was over 4 per cent. T h e
China was one of thefirstcountries to use radio number of college and university students con-
and television for higher-educational purposes. stituted a mere 0.7 per cent of China's adults
During the early 1960s, soon after television above the age of 25. T h e number of qualified
broadcasting began to develop in China, the technicians and engineers accounted for only
first television universities ( T V U s ) were founded 2.5 per cent of the country's work-force in
in the capital, Beijing, and other principal state-owned enterprises and institutes. B y 1990,
cities to meet the demand for adult education. China's total work-force is expected to reach
These n e w types of universities were well re- 105 million, of which 4.7 per cent should be
ceived and showed great potential as soon as composed of technical and engineering per-
sonnel. In the industrial and transportation
sphere, at least 2.9 million n e w technicians and
engineers must be trained. B y 1990, 4.3 million
Zhao Yuhui (China). Dean of Studies, the Central secondary and vocational schoolteachers will
Radio and Television University of China, Beijing.

2l8 Zhao Yuhui
be required to be college or university gradu- plan forceast a rapid development for radio and
ates, which means some 3.5 million n e w teachers television universities in China.
must be trained. Such a huge task of training In the development of China's T V U system,
so m a n y qualified people cannot be fulfilled by a turning point came in 1986, during which
relying solely on conventional colleges and uni- year three important changes took place in the
versities within a limited time-scale. entrance examination, the target students and
Since T V U s need fewer funds and can train the delivery system. F r o m 1979 to 1985, the
more people in a shorter period of time, the entrance examination had been held by the
State Council approved a report, jointly sub- C R T V U . A s of 1986, T V U applicants must
mitted by the Ministry of Education, the M i n - pass a national entrance examination held by
istry of Broadcasting and other ministries the State Education Commission for all adult
concerned, on the founding of a national radio higher-education institutes including T V U s ,
and television university in February 1978. correspondence colleges and evening schools
After a year's preparation, the Central Radio attached to conventional colleges and univer-
and Television University ( C R T V U ) was set sities. It was in 1986 that T V U s began to enrol
up in Beijing. After that, a system of higher fresh secondary-school graduates in addition to
education through radio and television was in-service adults and young school-leavers. In
formed by the C R T V U , 28 provincial radio October of the same year, T V U teaching pro-
and television universities ( P T V U s ) , 279 pre- grammes began to be transmitted by satellite
fectural/civic branch schools and 625 district/ every evening from 4.50 to 11 p . m . Forty-nine
county work stations. P T V U s were established teaching hours of transmission time was thus
in provinces, municipalities and autonomous added to thirty-three teaching hours per week
regions; branch schools in towns, cities and by the C C T V microwave network. All these
prefectural areas; and work stations in districts changes have provided n e w opportunities for
of cities and counties of rural areas. There are T V U s to develop and expand.
two kinds of work stations: those organized by
the county and district offices for small work
units; and those organized by particular indus- Organizational structure
tries (called system work stations) such as, the
railways and the bureau of light industry. (All
Radio and television universities are run at
industrial concerns are state-run and admin-
five levels, corresponding to the organization
istered by an appropriate bureau.)
of China's system of national and regional
T h e enrolment of these radio and television governments. T h e C R T V U , at the highest
universities over the last eight years has level, is under the direct leadership of the State
totalled 1,291,833, and 590,941 students have Education Commission (formerly called the
graduated. T h e number of registered students Ministry of Education). T h e P T V U s , at the
in 1986 was 604,437 constituting one-third second level, are under the auspices of prov-
of the country's higher-education institute incial governments. Their branch schools, at
students. T h e achievements have w o n the radio the third level, c o m e under profectural/civic
and television universities a nationwide repu- governments. W o r k stations, at the fourth level,
tation and have attracted the attention of the are run either by district/county education
Chinese Government. A s a result, the sixth bureaux or by a particular industry. T h e teach-
Five-year Plan for National Economic and ing and learning classes (usually called tele-
Social Development (1981-85) stated, 'There vision classes), at the lowest level, work directly
will be considerable expansion of higher edu- with T V U students. There are four kinds of
cation through radio, television, correspondence television classes: (a) classes run by local govern-
and evening courses. Students taking these ment bureaux (a bureau, here, means a depart-
courses will number 1.5 million by 1985'. This ment of local government with responsibility
China: its distance higher-education system 219
leading
guiding
F I G . 1. Structure of the distance higher-education system
for education, or industry or similar); (b) classes Responsibilities shared by T V U s atfivelevels

run by large factories and mines; (c) classes are as follows:
run jointly by medium-sized or small work T h e C R T V U : (a) makes long-term plans for the
units; and (d) classes run by local T V U s at development of the T V U system and yearly
various levels to cater for fresh secondary-school plans for admission; (b) guides teaching ad-
graduates or for young school-leavers waiting ministration of P T V U s and co-ordinates aca-
to be assigned jobs. T h e kind of television demic work shared by more than one P T V U ;
classes for young school-leavers are also run (c) makes teaching plans to be carried
by large state-owned enterprises. out nationally and produces programmes to
T h e C R T V U controls unified admission be broadcast nationwide; (d) develops and
standards, teaching plan, academic level and publishes printed teaching materials, and
examination criteria. It is the national centre produces and distributes audio- and video-
of teaching administration, programme pro- cassettes for courses offered nationally; (e) pre-
duction, course delivery and distance-education pares unified entrance and end-of-semester
research. examination papers and marking standards;
220 Zhao Yuhui
(f) organizes training for teachers, admin- Television classes: (a) administer teaching and
istrative staff and technicians of the national learning classes; (b) draw u p time-tables for
T V U system; and (g) conduct distance- every term; (c) organize viewing and listening
education research and exchanges experiences of teaching programmes, tutoring, laboratory
with similar institutes at h o m e and abroad. work andfieldstudies; (d) encourage students
T h e P T V U s : (a) guide teaching administration to take part in physical training and rec-
of their branch schools, system work stations reational activities outside class; and (e) main-
and television classes directly attached to tain contact with work units from which the
them; (b) organize the implementation of students come.
the teaching plans m a d e by the C R T V U , China's radio and television universities at five
and m a k e teaching plans for courses offered levels share their responsibilities on the basis
provincially; (c) produce and transmit teach- of balancing centralization and decentralization
ing programmes for regional use; (d) de- with the C R T V U as their centre. Along with
velop and publish printed teaching materials, the development of the T V U system, the n u m -
and produce and distribute audio- and video- ber of its staff has been increasing (see Table 1).
cassettes for courses offered provincially;
(e) organize entrance and end-of-semester
examinations and the marking of examin- Courses of study
ation papers; (f) admit students and issue and use of media
diplomas/certificates; (g) train teachers, ad-
ministrative staff and technicians of regional T h e courses presented to registered students
T V U s ; and (h) conduct distance-education are all at undergraduate level. There are other
research and exchange experiences with each courses for continuing education and secondary
other. vocational education available for short-term
Branch schools: (a) guide teaching adminis- training.
tration of work stations and television classes In the past eight years of its existence, the
directly attached to them; (b) implement C R T V U has offered 150 courses in the subject
teaching plans m a d e b y the C R T V U and areas of mathematics, physics, chemistry, bi-
P T V U ; (c) organize the subscription and ology, mechanical engineering, electronic engin-
distribution of teaching materials; (d) conduct eering, chemical engineering, civil engineering,
examinations and tests; (e) admit and register economics, accounting, statistics,finance,bank-
students, and keep their study records; (f) e m - ing, industrial management, commercial m a n -
ploy tutors and train them; and (g) oversee agement, archives management, journalism,
tutorials, laboratory work andfieldstudies. law, library science and Chinese language
W o r k stations: (a) organize television classes and literature, etc. In addition to courses
and guide their management; (b) organize offered b y the C R T V U , P T V U s and their
tutorials, laboratory work andfieldstudies; branch schools offer their o w n courses follow-
and (c) distribute teaching materials. ing an overall pre-established teaching plan to
T A B L E I . Evolution of T V U staff n u m b e r s
Staff 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Full-time
teachers 3,871 5.54° 6,480 10,101 n,475 «.732 11,229 I3.I44
Part-time
teachers 12,039 14,804 15,521 18,700 25*237 30.285 15.795 21,618
co-ordinate their outputs at the three levels. are also in use in some courses to make u p for
W o r k stations and television classes m a y or- insufficient transmission time and to provide
ganize special courses to suit the needs of work more convenient access for distance learners.
units. T h e Shanghai Television University once Over 1 million audio-visual copies of teaching
offered courses specializing in medicine, and materials are produced and duplicated each year.
the Heilongjiang Provincial Television Univer- Printed teaching materials are available to
sity offered its o w n courses to train personnel supplement radio/television programmes for all
needed in agriculture. In 1986, eight provin- courses. These materials are divided into three
cial T V U s offered courses specializing in the types: course books, reference books and study
English language to train secondary-school guides. Most of the course books, introduced
English teachers and other English-language or compiled by the C R T V U , are more or less
workers needed in tourism and foreign trade. the same as the textbooks used in conventional
In 1987, the total number of courses offered colleges and universities. Reference books and
by T V U s at different levels amounted to more study guides are compiled by radio/television
than 400 with the possibility of 81 specialities. presenters with the help of T V U teachers at
A T V U student must obtain no less than 60 per C R T V U and P T V U s . Over the past eight
cent of his/her total credits by courses offered years, more than 400 printed books totalling
by the C R T V U (Table 2). 40 million copies have been published by the
T h e T V U courses are multimedia, consisting C R T V U Publishing House. These books can
of radio, television and printed materials. T h e be bought at the shops of the national book
proportion of television programmes for science retailers, N e w China Bookstores (Xinhua S h u
and engineering courses is greater than that of Dian).
other media, whereas radio used to be the main At present, radio and television teaching pro-
m e d i u m for social-science courses. Since the grammes are, to a large extent, a direct tran-
satellite transmission of T V U programmes be- scription of conventional university classroom
gan in 1986, their social-science courses have teaching. Presenters are chosen from key uni-
increased greatly. Audio- and video-cassettes versities all over China. In its initial stage, it is
T A B L E 2. N u m b e r and chronology of subjects offered
Subject N u m b e r of specialities First offered in:
Mechanical engineering 19 1979

Electronic engineering 14 I979
Chemical engineering 16 1982
Civil engineering 15 1984
Accounting 2 1983
Statistics I 1983
Banking 2 1983
Finance I983
Management I983
Personnel management I986
Chinese I982
Applied Chinese 1985
Basic training for cadres I984
Law I984
Mathematics I979
Physics 1980
Chemistry 1979
English 1986
Biology 1979
222 Zhao Yuhui
necessary for T V U s to adopt textbooks used tem. A m o n g them, the production centre of
in conventional universities and to choose aca- the C R T V U is the largest and best equipped
demics with a sound university teaching back- as a World Bank loan project. Another nine
ground as presenters, so that a high standard of P T V U production centres in principal cities
tuition can be guaranteed. These two measures are better equipped than the rest. T h e T V U
have proved to be effective. However, this system plans to produce all its radio and tele-
teaching pattern is bound to be changed. vision programmes in its o w n production centres
The concept of a multi-media teaching pack- within a few years.
age has been introduced to China's T V U teach- The transmission of radio and television
ers. T h e package is composed of integrated teaching programmes is arranged as shown in
radio/television programmes, course books and Table 3.
study guides. Distance-teaching printed m a - Although radio and television programmes
terials suitable for radio and television presen- are supplemented with printed teaching m a -
tation are being prepared. M o r e imaginative terials, face-to-face tuition is also available to
use of radio and television is being studied and students. Tutoring is necessary for two reasons:
the type of programmes have been produced (a) presenters of radio and television pro-
on a trial basis. This implies a change in the grammes cannot answer students' questions
role of radio and television. A prerequisite for directly and no immediate feedback for the
the change lies in the need to increase the presenters to adjust their teaching, (b) Regis-
teaching function of print. It takes time for tered students are organized into television
the T V U system to replace its existing courses classes, listening to and watching programmes
with the n e w multi-media ones. together. Television image and radio sound
U p to 1983, radio and television teaching m a y not b e clear for technical or other
programmes were produced by the Central reasons.
People's Radio Station and Central China Tele- Tutors work full-time or part-time. In 1986
vision. Since then, more and more audio-visual the number of full-time tutors was 13,1445
teaching programmes have been produced by and part-time tutors 21,618, w h o consisted of
the C R T V U and P T V U s . There are more than teachers, researchers and technicians invited
forty production centres within the T V U sys- from conventional universities, research insti-
T A B L E 3. Organization of programmes and their transmission
Area
Broadcasting organization Media used broadcast to Time available
C C T V (courses offered by C R T V U ) Microwave Nationwide 33 teaching hours

per week*
(8.30-11.30 a . m . ;
1.30-4.10 p . m . )
C E T V (courses offered by CRTVU) Satellite Nationwide 49 teaching hours
per week
(4.50-11.00 p . m . )
Provincial and civic radio/television Radio and television Regionally Varies locally
stations (courses offered by
C R T V U and P T V U s )
Branch schools, Work stations and Audio-visual equipment,
television classes audio- and video-
cassettes
i. One teaching hour lasts 50 minutes for a radio/television programme.

tutes and large enterprises. Besides tuition, tu- teaching weeks in each semester plus two weeks
tors are also responsible for correcting students' for revision and examinations. A credit system
homework and directing their self-study. In is used upon one credit for every eighteen
some television classes, tutors teach courses hours of teaching and learning. A total of no
organized by their branch schools or by their less than 160 credits are required for a two-
work units to meet local needs. For science year degree diploma, and 240 for a three-year
and engineering courses, tutors help to organ- degree diploma. T h e degrees are equal to those
ize practical laboratory work and other activi- awarded by conventional two- or three-year
ties aimed at putting theory into practice. colleges. Students w h o are successful in the
Practical laboratory work used to be done examinations obtain credits. T h e y are then
at conventional universities or research insti- awarded certificates or diplomas according to
tutes during public and school holidays or at the credits they have accumulated.
other times when the laboratories were not in
use. Along with the setting u p of T V U ' s o w n
laboratories, more and more laboratory work Categories of students
has been done in the T V U ' s study centres and modes of learning
where there is a laboratory, an audio-visual lab
and a small library. A s a World Bank project, T h e T V U s ' target students are in-service adults,
eighty-five study centres of this kind have been secondary-school graduates and young school-
established. In order to enable students in leavers waiting to be assigned jobs. T h e in-
remote areas to carry out experimental work, service adults aged about 30 are enrolled ac-
physics, chemistry, mechanics and electronics cording to training plans drawn u p by their
experiment kits have been designed, and some respective work units, after which admission is
of them have been put to use in large numbers. granted to those w h o pass the national entrance
For laboratory-based courses, students can- examination held by the State Education C o m -
not obtain their credits until they have c o m - mission for adult higher education. Secondary-
pleted the required practical experiments to school graduates are admitted by national en-
their tutors' satisfaction. There is some flexi- trance examination for conventional universities
bility in the number of experiments which and colleges. In this respect, T V U s are re-
students are required to carry out, as conditions garded as a n e w type of conventional univer-
vary from place to place. Students having sity. T h e T V U system began to enrol second-
access to better-equipped laboratories m a y per- ary-school graduates in 1986. Y o u n g people
form more experiments than those w h o have waiting for jobs must pass the adult entrance
no well-equipped laboratory at their disposal. examination before admission. T h e numbers of
However, they must complete the required this type of student have kept increasing since
m i n i m u m of experiments, without which they T V U s were open to them.
cannot graduate or be awarded diplomas. T h e above-mentioned three types of students
Engineering majors have to go to factories are called registered students w h o enjoy a for-
to gain practical experiences during their va- mal status as students of the T V U . These
cations, and they complete a project before students are all organized into television classes
graduation. Social science majors have to con- and taken care of by a class manager and
ductfieldstudies, and prepare a report of their several tutors. There is still another type of
findings. Through the above activities, students student w h o does not take the entrance exam-
are expected to cultivate their ability to study ination and w h o studies on a self-instructional
by themselves and work independently. basis. These students are called 'free viewers
T h e period of schooling is two or three years and listeners'. These students increased so rap-
for registered full-time students. There are two idly in number that it was hard for the T V U
semesters per year with a total of eighteen system to cater for them. In 1985, the State
224 Zhao Yuhui
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Education Commission decided to stop receiv- Students' progress is assessed, in the main,
ing free viewers and listeners for a period of by examinations at the end of each semester.
time, during which those w h o had begun learn- Examinations are set centrally but organized
ing were registered and organized into study locally, and are held on the same date thoughout
groups. T h e remaining free viewers and listeners the country. T h e standards and conduct of the
from 1979 to 1985 are allowed to be issued exams are strictly safeguarded. A dropout sys-
diplomas or single-course certificates if they tem is adopted for in-service adult students w h o
take and pass thefinalexaminations. study full-time. These students must go back
In-service adult students can study full-time, to their original work units if they fail two
part-time or during their spare time depending end-of-semester exams in any one semester, or
on the amount of time they are allowed by the three exams in different semesters. T h e y m a y
work units from which they come. Secondary- go on to become spare-time students taking a
school graduates all study full-time, whereas single course if this is approved by the leader-
young school-leavers can choose their o w n ship of their work unit. T h e drop-out system is
modes of study. Full-time students must finish also applicable to other kinds of full-time
their studies in two or three years according to students w h o study all subjects.
different speciality teaching plans. Part-time After graduation, in-service students are re-
students must finish their degree courses in cognized as having equivalent status to that
three to six years, and spare-time students are of conventional college graduates and, where
allowed to accumulate credits over ten years. necessary, they are assigned n e w jobs in their
T h e number of undergraduate students varies original work units to suit both their newly
from year to year with the m i n i m u m 97,502 and acquired speciality and the needs of the unit.
the m a x i m u m 673,634, not counting free viewers They receive the same salary as conventional
and listeners, the total number of w h o m has college graduates. As to the other two categories
been estimated at about 1 million. Over the of students (secondary-school graduates and
past eight years, 590,941 students have finished young school-leavers), they will be found e m -
all-subject courses and graduated with diplo- ployment according to their study records by
mas, and 618,742 students have completed one- the local employment departments. A consider-
subject courses and have been awarded cer- ably great number of this kind of T V U graduate
tificates. become secondary-school teachers after gradu-
In-service adult students include workers, ation. W h e n they are assigned a n e w job, they
teachers, technicians, military and civil ser- will be treated equally as conventional college
vants, etc. T h e occupations of students vary graduates.
according to different specialities and modes of
study. O f those specializing in science and en-
gineering, workers and technicians form the Financial resources
majority, while more teachers and civil servants and cost-effectiveness
attend courses specializing in social science.
Relatively more full-time students are workers, T h e T V U system's budget comes from a variety
and more part-time and spare-time students of sources. T h e C R T V U is administered and
are teachers. Full-time students are released funded by the State Education Commission
from work and continue to receive full wages with the C C T V and C E T V being responsible
as well as free medical care and other welfare for television transmission costs. It also receives
benefits. However, they are not given pro- financial support from ministries which ask the
duction bonuses and other work-related ben- C R T V U to help train personnel needed by
efits. Part-time students are given the equiv- them.
alent of one to three working days off a week P T V U s are under the auspices of provincial
and enjoy full pay. governments, and their branch schools under
226 Zhao Yuhui
prefectural or civic governments. Funds for Experience has proved that, in a country like China,
T V U s are part of the educational budget of with a vast territory, a large population and a c o m -
governments at various levels. T h e amount of paratively backward cultural, scientific and techno-
logical development, it is feasible to use the media
budget varies from place to place because of
of radio and television in distance education so as to
the unbalanced economic development in dif- train more people in a shorter period of time and on
ferent parts of the country. a large scale. It is also a good method of improving
District/county work stations are funded by the general cultural and scientific level of the whole
education bureaux of local governments, and nation with less manpower and fewer material
system work stations are financially supported resources.
by their respective systems (such as railways,
O n the same occasion, the Minister of Broad-
posts and telecommunications, industrial and
casting said:
commercial concerns, etc.). Various kinds of
T h e radio and television university has opened a
work stations have different budgets because of
new channel of developing another means of higher
varied conditions.
education and is a method of running universities,
Television classes run by work units get which is welcomed by the masses. It can train more
financial support from factories, shops, govern- people w h o can be used for the modernization project
ment bureaux, which send students to be of the country in a faster and more economical way.
trained at T V U s , and television classes run by
T V U s at various levels to cater for secondary-
school graduates are aided by governments at Achievements, limitations
corresponding levels. Each student receives half and needed improvements
the amount of money provided by the govern-
ment for a conventional university student. T h e China's radio-and-television university system
other kind of television classes composed of has m a d e great strides in less than ten years.
young school-leavers can be financially sup- Courses offered at all levels have been increasing
ported by certain work units which will employ year by year. Enrolled all-subject students have
graduates from these classes. totalled over 1 million, and all-subject graduates
In general, T V U students are free from have amounted to more than 500,000. In addition
tuition fees except free viewers and listeners a little less than 500,000 one-subject students
w h o have to pay for registration and exam- are enrolled, and still another 500,000 one-
inations. However, all students must pay for subject graduates have been turned out. T h e
their o w n study expenses, such as printed teach- number of T V U undergraduates has helped to
ing materials and stationery. increase the ratio of students in China's higher-
It has been estimated that on average one- education institutes from 0.7 per cent in 1975
third of the cost can be saved to produce to 4 per cent in 1987 of adults aged over 25.
a T V U graduate w h o studies full-time and A large number of T V U graduates have be-
continues to receive full wages; two-thirds can come technicians and engineers w h o are badly
be saved to turn out a part-time graduate. This needed in the industry, transport and so forth.
estimation has been proved true by a cost Thousands of all-subject and one-subject gradu-
analysis project done by the Liaoning Provincial ates have been assigned to be secondary-school
Television University in north-eastern China. teachers w h o have been most welcomed as
T h e development and cost effectiveness of qualified staff. In 1986, the number of gradu-
radio and television university system have ates majoring in economics and management
been positively aknowledged by the govern- amounted to more than 200,000 which is
ment leaders. At the graduation ceremony held 1.2 times the number of those graduated from
by the C R T V U for thefirstgroup of graduates conventional colleges and universities over the
on 29 June 1982, the Chinese Minister of thirty-nine years since the founding of the
Education pointed out: People's Republic.
China: its distance nil ter-éducation system
Courses specializing in politics, law, econ- 21.6 per cent of the total); 180 are doing
omics, management, journalism and library research and technical work (44.2 per cent);
science have helped to improve the irrational 19 are teachers (4.7 per cent) and 127 are doing
curricular arrangement in higher education due other work (29.4 per cent). 148 of the 407 have
to historical reasons. T h e T V U s have m a d e it
m a d e valuable contributions to design, research
possible for more secondary-school graduates and technical innovation.
to receive higher education, and have provided W h a t has been described applies to T V U
a second chance for young school-leavers to graduates all over the country. T h e T V U
enter a university. T h e enrolment ratio of sec- system has m a d e remarkable strides in the past
ondary-school graduates in Chinese higher- eight years of its operation. Nevertheless, there
education institutes has increased from less are certain educational and administrative
than 2 per cent in 1975 to more than 20 per problems to be overcome, such as the limited
cent in 1987. transmission time for television; improper use
T h e ratio between the first intake and the of media; inconvenient viewing and listening
first graduate is 100 to 69, the drop-out rate for part-time study, delayed distribution of
is 31 per cent, which has varied from 25 to printed teaching materials, a too large student
35 per cent over the years since then. It has study load, insufficient provision of experimen-
been generally acknowledged by part-time tu- tal work, shortage of qualified staff for research
tors from conventional universities that the on distance education, and so on. In April 1986,
level of T V U graduates is about the same as the presidents of the C R T V U and P T V U s held
that of conventional college graduates. In- a conference in H a n g z h o u to s u m u p experi-
service T V U graduates have m a d e valuable ences of operating T V U s in China and to
contributions after they returned to their orig- discuss the n e w situation confronting the T V U
inal work units. T h e other two types of gradu- system. T h e y came to the conclusion that
ates have been welcomed and praised b y people China's T V U system had entered a n e w stage
from all walks of life. of development and that it had to be reformed
S o m e 60 per cent of over 4,000 students in order to meet the needs of China's political
majoring in science and engineering a m o n g the and economic reform project. A year later,
first intake of the Shanghai Television Univer- the presidents m e t again in Beijing for further
sity obtained average marks of 80 per cent in discussions on h o w to reform the T V U system.
the four compulsory courses of the final s e m - S o m e ideas concerning proposed improvements
ester. O f the average marks of all courses, the were agreed at the conference.
24 graduates, w h o came from Shanghai R e - First of all, the system has to be m a d e more
search Institute of Semiconductor Elements, open and flexible for training a variety of
obtained 82.7 per cent as the lowest, and qualified personnel needed for economic devel-
96 per cent as the highest. Their average marks opment in various parts of the country. In
in mathematics, physics and chemistry were all addition to undergraduate level, other levels
over 85 per cent. O n e of the students passed of education must be developed, including
the entrance examination for an M . A . degree secondary vocational education, graduate edu-
course at Tongji University, one of the key cation and continuing education. Degree courses
universities in China. Another graduate of and non-degree courses should be offered at the
Beijing Television University went on to study same time. Teaching arrangements should be
for a P h . D . degree in the computer faculty of m a d e convenient to spare-time students, as this
Vanderbilt University in the United States. category of students will increase steadily in
A study of 407 graduates carried out by years to c o m e .
Changzhou Branch School of Jiangsu Provin- Secondly, the study load of undergraduates
cial Television University shows that 88 have is to be lightened by offering more optional
been promoted to cadre level (making u p courses and fewer compulsory courses, and
228 Zhao Yuhui
teaching hours should be limited to eighteen on evaluation formula, cost analysis and the
a week as the m a x i m u m for all-subject students fundamental theory of distance education.
w h o study full-time, and to eight for part-time These projects are planned to be finished
students. As a break with the long tradition of before 1990.
'book-learning', the applied nature of T V U
degrees should be increased, and T V U students China's radio and television universities were
should be encouraged to put what they have initiated at the beginning of the 1960s, sus-
learned into practice. Teaching activities re- pended for ten years and resumed at the end
lated to practice, such as experimental work, of the 1970s. China's T V U system was formed
field study and graduation projects, should be at the beginning of the 1980s, and it entered a
organized in a more effective way. new stage of development in 1986. In the 1990s,
Thirdly, a committee in charge of overall two out of five university students will be
planning of T V U teaching materials is to be enrolled in T V U s . T h e Chinese Government
set u p soon by the C R T V U . T h e committee has attached great importance to the develop-
will be composed of members from the C R T V U , ment of radio and television universities. Zhao
the P T V U s and conventional colleges and uni- Ziyang, premier of the State Council, said
versities. B y 1990, about sixty n e w types of in 1983:
multi-media course will be developed jointly
Television universities are a valuable form of edu-
by the C R T V U and P T V U s , the teaching
cation. S o m e 92,000 students graduated last year.
materials of which will be characteristic of Those w h o passed the examinations were awarded dip-
distance teaching and convenient for self- lomas. T h e levels of graduates are satisfactory. T h e
instruction. In principle, printed teaching development of television universities is suitable for
materials will form the core of these new types China as it is an effective way of training more people
of course, and radio and television teaching at lower cost in a shorter period of t i m e . . . . It is very
hours will be reduced. T h e lesson format of difficult for conventional universities to increase
direct transcription of classroom teaching is to admission by tens of thousands within one year.
be changed, and the use of radio and television But 92,000 students graduated from the television
is expected to be more imaginative. universities last year.
Fourthly, the training of T V U system staff With the progress of China's modernization
is an urgent task. Teachers, technicians and process and the development of telecommu-
administrative staff members will be trained in nications and space exploration, the T V U
different groups on a large scale. S o m e of the system will have ample opportunity to expand.
training will be carried out by Chinese experts Looking ahead, China's radio and television
within the C R T V U and P T V U s , some will be universities will play an increasingly greater
conducted by foreign experts in China and role in higher education as well as in the
others will take place abroad. T h e training national economy and social development. •
centre of the C R T V U is being set up and will
soon be in use.
Last of all, research on distance education
should be strengthened. Otherwise, the T V U
system cannot operate well. Research centres
have been set u p in the C R T V U and some
P T V U s . A national association aimed at re-
search o n higher education by radio and
television is being prepared. A tracer study
based on random sampling of T V U graduates
is being conducted throughout the T V U sys-
tem. Three major research projects have begun
France:
the National Centre
for Distance Teaching
Dominique Lecourt
T h efirstpublic institution for distance teaching more than 220,000 students enrolled. Figure 1
(or 'correspondence courses', as they were shows the progression in the number of enrol-
called), which since 1986 has been known as the ments since 1965.
Centre National d'Enseignement à Distance This steady, marked increase in enrolments
(National Centre for Distance Teaching— is due essentially to the admission of adult
C N E D ) , was established in France by a decree students (aged 18 and over). Extrapolating
dated 2 December 1939—with the aim of m a k - from earlier years, w e estimate that adults
ing up, as far as possible, for the disturbances or account for 85 per cent of the total number of
even interruptions to children's schooling caused enrolments for the period 1986/87, that is,
by evacuation during the Second World W a r . 188,000 (including 12,000 financed by the
Youngsters from Alsace and Lorraine were 'official 1 per cent' firms have to spend on
consequently the first to benefit. further training). This means that the 33,000
At the end of the war the service was con- or so students of school age (under 18) rep-
tinued for young people w h o had good reasons resent only 15 per cent of the total number.
for not attending educational establishments,
not only the sick and disabled but also those
w h o had had to leave school early in order to Administrative structure
earn a living. B y 1950 most of the students
enrolled were in the last category. T h e present structure, under the Ministry of
Education, of this public institution reflects the
changes that have taken place. Distance teach-
Enrolments ing, which was for a long time provided by a
single facility located at Vanves, on the out-
In 1950 approximately 8,300 students were skirts of Paris, is n o w in the hands of seven
enrolled at the centre; since the early 1980s the centres spread throughout the country: at
200,000 mark has been exceeded; and there are Vanves, Lyons, Rouen, Toulouse, Lille, Gre-
noble and Rennes, the Rennes centre being the
latest one (opened in 1983). Each of these
centres, which are all national in scope, has
Dominique Lecourt (France). University Professor, been assigned a particular range of subject-
Chief Education Officer and Director of the Centre matter. Table 1 shows the instruction provided
National d'Enseignement à Distance (CNED) from
by each centre.
December 1985 to December 1987. Author of several
works on epistemology, history of science, social B y a decree dated 26 February 1986 the
problems. operations of the seven centres are co-ordinated

230 Dominique Lecourt
Enrolments
250,000
220,000 —
200,000
150,000 —
113,000
100,000 - i 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
I I
1965/66 1970/71 1975/76 1980/81 1985/86
FIG. 1. Progression in the number of enrolments at the C N E D since 1965
by a central office situated in Paris and placed

under the authority of a Chief Education T h e teaching system
Officer.
T h e administrative and technical staff of Teaching is mainly by mail. Written courses,
the institution number about 1,000. Instruc- which m a y or m a y not require the students to
tion is provided by 5,200 teachers, comprising refer to commercially available textbooks or
3,200 part-timers whose main employment is other works, are generally sent to them three or
elsewhere, 1,900 teachers assigned by education four times a year. Written exercises (from ten
offices to 'rehabilitation' posts reserved for sick tofifteenper subject) are set, and are marked
or disabled teachers and about 100 distance- as soon as they are sent back.
teaching specialists, w h o are recruited on the For several years n o w audio-cassettes have
basis of their professional record and act as been used in language courses; over the past
tutors at the centres. two years video-cassettes have served as ad-
Course-writers represent about 10 per cent ditional aids for some courses in languages and
of the total number of staff. In some disciplines the physical and experimental sciences. A s will
the majority of the course-writers are teachers be seen further on, the n e w communication
on temporary contracts w h o contribute ap- media, in particular information technology,
proved skills to the C N E D . are expected to add to the multimedia character
of the teaching provided.
N o student counselling system exists at the
France: the National Centre for Distance Teaching 231
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C N E D ; whenever the practical content of a official curricula prescribed by the Ministry of

field of study makes it necessary, however (for Education. The C N E D decides whether a pupil
example, in technological subjects, art and is fit to m o v e up to a higher grade, but it does
physical and sports education) meetings are not award diplomas: pupils sit the lower- and
organized for groups of students. Most of upper-secondary-level school-leaving examin-
these groups meet in schools, but they may on ations along with pupils enrolled in ordinary
occasion meet at regional educational-documen- schools.
tation centres or on other premises belonging to N o w , however, w e also take all pupils w h o
a department of the Ministry of Education. wish, with the agreement of the principal of
It should be added that two branches of the their school, to receive back-up courses or
C N E D , one in Fort-de-France (Martinique) additional instruction, together with all pupils
and the other in Ajaccio (Corsica), organize w h o want to learn a modern language that is
meetings and circulate information and docu- not taught at their school.
mentation concerning the activities of the Since 1987 pupils whose parents feel that
parent institution. they need extra tuition in a particular basic
Such information is also provided through subject have been able to take s u m m e r courses,
a network of'information offices' established in in July and August, and have their work
a large number of cities and staffed by one or marked by qualified teachers.
two C N E D teachers once or twice a week. Contrary to a still all too widely held view,
These offices m a y be housed in a youth however, the C N E D is not just a huge school.
information centre, an educational documen- For more than twenty years n o w w e have been
tation centre, a university, etc. sought out by an ever-growing number of
adults, w h o currently account for 85 per cent of
our total student population. T h e reason for
Types of instruction provided this is that distance teaching is a flexible,
inexpensive w a y of enabling anyone w h o so
It m a y be said that one distinctive and indeed desires to follow a course of instruction at his
well-nigh singular feature of the C N E D , w h e n o w n pace in order to obtain a qualification, sit
compared with similar institutions abroad, is an examination or simply update his knowledge.
that it makes the benefits of distance teaching Figure 2 shows that approximately half
available to everyone. (45 per cent) of the students w h o enrol at the
By tradition and in keeping with our primary C N E D do so either to prepare for a competitive
function w e look after the needs of school-age state examination for teachers (agrégation,
children unable to attend school, such as: sick secondary-school teacher's certificate ( C A P E S ) ,
or disabled children; young athletes or artists primary-school teachers' college (ENI), etc.) or
whose timetable does not allow them to attend for administrative personnel, or to prepare for
courses regularly; and the children of fair- courses of secondary education (upper-second-
ground workers and boatmen, w h o should not ary, liberal, technical and the short course of
have to suffer interruptions in the course of secondary education).
their studies on account of the itinerant lives of Higher education (higher certificate of vo-
their parents. W e also provide continuous cational training ( B T S ) , diploma of general
assistance to French children w h o enrol for university education ( D E U G ) , courses in bio-
our courses while attending French schools technology, etc.) and vocational training (cer-
abroad. tificates of vocational training, preparation for
The nature of the teaching w e provide for paramedical occupations, etc.) account for
children is determined by agreement between nearly a quarter of total enrolments. T h e
the C N E D and schools. In all cases the edu- C N E D also offers courses of instruction by
cation provided is strictly in line with the subject (31,000 enrolments for various instruc-
Competitive state
examinations 4 0 , 0 0 0
Instructional
units 3 1 , 0 0 0
Secondary
education 57,000
Higher
education 25,000
Elementary
education 5,500
Languages 17,500 Vocational

training 2 3 , 0 0 0
INTEC and
INALCO 22,000
FIG. 2. Breakdown of enrolments by type of instruction, June 1987
tional units in 1987) and numerous courses of C N E D is making a major contribution to the
language teaching (17,500 enrolments). Finally, in-service training of teachers.
22,000 students are enrolled on the basis of Figure 3 shows the number of instances of
agreements concluded with two training insti- technology-related instruction provided for
tutions, the National Institute of Economic and students of secondary or post-secondary level
Accounting Techniques ( I N T E C ) and, to a in fields likely to contribute to a firm's de-
lesser extent, the National Institute of Oriental velopment.
Languages and Civilizations ( I N A L C O ) . During the period from July 1986 to
The courses provided by the C N E D are of June 1987, for instance, the C N E D provided
every kind, from elementary to higher edu- some 19,850 courses of instruction. T h e centre,
cation, and our prospectus lists several hundred which traditionally meets a strong demand for
types of instruction at every level, enabling us training in management and accountancy, also
to meet increasingly varied needs. provides training in the n e w technologies
W h a t is more, m a n y company managers now (biotechnology, computers, etc.) and in industry
consider distance teaching to be a tool of the and commerce.
future. Whether the aim is to improve the Note that in Figure 3 course supply
general training of stafF, as a long-term aim, preparation for competitive examinations for
or to give an immediate boost to productivity teachers who have completed the full course of
distance teaching presents the advantage of secondary education plus three or four years'
enabling everyone to undergo training without further training in scientific subjects and
taking time off from work; in addition, by courses in applied languages (for industry,
permuting various combinations of modules it science, commerce, etc.) have been entered
allows the instructional materials to be adjusted under the corresponding headings.
to specific requirements and provides an objec- Furthermore, the results achieved by the
tive means of monitoring each student's prog- C N E D in the recruitment examination for the
ress. S o m e of these reasons explain w h y the Ministry of Education are outstanding. In 1986,
Management and accountancy 9,600
Automation 2 5 0
Biotechnology 350
Electrical engineering 9 0 0
Teachers' examinations
Computers 1,000 Science sections 3,250
Commerce 1,200
Electronics 1,300
Applied languages 2,000
F I G . 3. C N E D course supply (fields determined by project) number of enrolments, June 1987
for instance, 24.6 per cent of our students w h o Three periods can be distinguished: the post-
sat for the agrégation examination and 21.22 per war period, when there was an urgent need to
cent of those w h o sat for the C A P E S (second- fill in the gaps caused by starting work at an
ary-school teacher's certificate) were successful; early age, at a time w h e n secondary edu-
in 1986 51.6 per cent of successful candidates cation—not to mention university studies—were
for the recruitment examination for depart- still a minority preserve; the ensuing period, of
mental education inspectors ( I D E N ) , and marked economic growth, w h e n redeployment
68.8 per cent of successful candidates for the and professional advancement became over-
recruitment examination for guidance coun- riding concerns; and lastly the 'crisis' period,
sellors were C N E D students. when it became evident that there was a cor-
relation between qualifications and employment
and that needs were becoming diversified and
T h e changing clientele when the education system proved to be ill-
suited to the aspirations of some young people,
T h e increasingly extensive use m a d e by adults w h o consequently found themselves excluded
of distance teaching still remains to be analysed, from it and were directly faced with u n -
and purely quantitative measurements will not employment.
suffice here. T h e characteristics of this third period are
T h e studies available to us reveal that the highly conducive to the development of distance
social composition of this adult student popu- teaching, since it is a method of instruction
lation has radically changed over the years. that allows individuals, firms and government
N e w reasons for enrolling have emerged as a departments alike to avoid the drawbacks, and
result of developments in the country's econ- sometimes the risks, associated with a continu-
omic situation and changes in the actual ous period of training, which by definition
operation and image of the education system entails the temporary cessation of work. If
and in its existing or potential relationship designed on a modular basis this method, with
with the employment market. no increase in the initial investment, also
makes it possible to put together on request a C A P E S , agrégation) and, as w e have seen, out-
personalized course of instruction geared to the standing results have been achieved. N o uni-
individual student's requirements and pace of versity can vie with it in this sphere. Further-
learning. more, at the request of the Ministry of E d u -
For all those w h o did not manage to adapt to cation, the C N E D has become involved in
the 'conventional' forms of schooling it estab- in-service teacher training and in 1988 is offer-
lishes new relations with learning, restoring its ing courses to prepare students for internal
attraction and stimulating the desire for instruc- competitive examinations in the Ministry of
tion. Lastly, unlike oral methods of teaching, it Education.
enables the cost of education to decrease as the By agreement with the Ministry of Foreign
number of students increases, since amortiz- Affairs the C N E D has developed a course model
ation of the initial investment is a function of the for foreign teachers w h o wish to be trained in
number of students. distance-teaching methods so as to use them in
Availing itself of its considerable logistic their o w n countries. In 1987, for instance, ten
capability and its accumulated k n o w - h o w , the teachers of French from Argentina spent two
C N E D has begun to make the organizational months in our centres. At the end of their stay
adjustments needed to meet the requirements they took in hand the upgrading of teachers of
arising out of this situation. T o illustrate, French in Argentina, using distance-teaching
besides continuing with its tradition of pre- methods. Several other governments have
paring students for the competitive state re- shown an interest in similar schemes.
cruitment examinations by means of regularly
updated courses strictly conforming to official
curricula it offers students upgrading modules The introduction
tailored to their requirements. T o take another of n e w technologies
example: the courses for the higher certificate
of vocational training (BTS) can be followed at a But the recent considerable interest in distance
pace dictated by the school year or by units, as teaching o n the part of public authorities and
decided by the student, w h o can thus spread his firms, especially in Europe, is based on a
or her work load over a longer period. Students different, a technological, reason.
can enrol for a large number of general instruc- H o w can w e fail to be aware that the n e w
tional units, which can be put together to order. means of storing and disseminating information
By and large, enrolments are on an individual are opening u p new prospects for this type of
basis or under an agreement concluded be- teaching? Its effectiveness seems bound to be
tween the centre and a specific firm, three enhanced as a result of speedier c o m m u n i -
examples being the agreements concluded by cations, the rapid updating of content and, in
the C N E D with the French National Railways particular, the interactive potential of the
( S N C F ) , Air France and the industrial group different media.
VALEO. This is an obvious fact, but it should not
W h a t holds good for firms also holds good for exert too m u c h fascination over decision-
government departments. T h e centre has con- makers. Technological utopianism and indeed
cluded agreements with the Ministry of Defence 'technopolitan' terrorism threaten. At m y
for its civilian personnel, the Ministry of Social prompting, the C N E D as a whole has started to
Affairs, the Ministry of Justice and others. give careful thought to ways of coping with the
Teacher training deserves special mention. highly complex problems about to be generated
The C N E D is universally acknowledged to have by a development that is in fact ineluctable.
demonstrated its ability to prepare students for These problems are of several kinds.
competitive state examinations (entrance exam-
inations for primary-teacher training colleges,
Dominique Lecourt
banks, serving as an additional aid in its

EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS courses (at present, one on biotechnologies and
another on economic sciences and techniques)
These all derive from the truth of the m a x i m and to its use in selection tests for enrolment,
that communicating is not the same as teaching particularly in modern languages. Soon the
and informing is not the same as instructing. message function will be used for real-time or
T h e use of the new media will therefore need recorded communication between teachers and
to be tailored in each case to a strictly defined students in connection with the marking of
educational purpose. A n institution providing exercises.
distance teaching needs to work out a genuine However, the teleprocessing facility is already
strategy for using the media that allows for the being fully utilized for information purposes,
specific characteristics of the subject taught and enrolments, checking up on marks, etc.
of the clientele. It will then be possible to avoid Another example is the use of video-cassettes,
a repetition of the setbacks sometimes oc- which are not suitable for general use but are
casioned in the still recent past by the introduc- particularly valuable for two areas of teaching:
tion of audio-visual educational aids. (a) language teaching in which the educational
Conversely, attractive technologies should goal is clearly denned as a simulation ot
not be tacked on to a set of k n o w n and reputedly the 'total-immersion' method (the centre has
sacrosanct educational methods. T h e subject- been offering audio-cassettes for this purpose
matter also needs to be redefined in the light since 1987); and (b) science-and-technology
of the strategy adopted and the combination teaching in which video-cassettes can be used
of media used. for the purpose of describing experimental
In practical terms this calls for close co- procedures and technical equipment, a function
operation between educationists and media that can also be fulfilled by the use of slides and
practitioners. A n e w m o d e of production audio-cassettes.
must be introduced and n e w relations estab-
lished—between professionals w h o have neither
the same culture nor the same requirements. THE PROBLEM OF COST
I shall n o w illustrate these precepts with a
few brief examples. It is a well-known fact that The use of some media for a course of instruc-
information technology has been an unex- tion considerably adds to the initial cost, which
pectedly widespread success in France. T h e is then usually amortized only over a period of
encouragement given by the public authorities between two and five years—and provided that
to the domestic use of the Minitel (viewdata) several thousand students follow the course.
service has started a vogue whose existence, Furthermore, the cost of using a teleprocessing
while opinions of its worth m a y vary owing to service, as w e all k n o w , can be quite prohibitive.
the different uses to which the service is put,
can hardly be denied. But no matter h o w
remarkable the tool it cannot at the present The C N E D ' s future prospects:
time be used for teaching on any scale, not only new courses
because of the cost of using it but also because
the size and structure of the page display The problems cannot be solved unless they are
severely limit the messages that can be ex- dealt with properly as part of an overall strategy
changed. keyed to the fact that distance teaching is
T h e C N E D , which in 1987 installed its entering a phase of industrialization.
o w n teleprocessing network, has undertaken to T h e European Communities' invitation to
respect these limitations, its educational use tender for the C O M E T T Programme prompted
being restricted to the consultation of data the C N E D to take a number of measures to
France: the National for Distance Teaching 237
formulate and apply such a strategy. N e w types cation of a set of interactive booklets whose
of courses for adults have been developed or function is to transmit structured scientific
considered, and all these courses (of advanced content.
training) have a major technological component. T h e following phase consists in the use of
T h e methods used can be applied to all types various additional media, each of which has a
of vocational training for adults. In years to specific function in accordance with the prin-
come such training is bound to benefit from ciples set out above. At each stage of production
the spinoff from the experiments currently each of these media is submitted to the edu-
being carried out. cational team for approval. But the process of
T h e object of this overall strategy is to pro- designing I M M P s does not stop there: a m e c h -
vide very rapidly, on request, what I would anism needs to be introduced whereby the
call 'integrated multimedia modular packages' reactions of the students can be taken into
( I M M P s ) . T h e primary condition for success account and the product can be constantly
is of course that a searching analysis be m a d e improved.
of training requirements. Such an analysis pre- T h e biotechnology courses of the Rennes
supposes a policy based on the idea of partner- centre of the C N E D were designed in accord-
ship in two regards, in regard to: (a) outlets, ance with the methods outlined above, in
since it is the market for a training service that collaboration with the University of Rennes,
will determine the profitability of the invest- the National Institute for Research in Agronomy
ment; and (b) to the introduction of n e w ( I N R A ) , the Compiègne University College of
courses. M a n y technologies are developed in Technology and other institutions.
enterprises, which are sometimes practically the N e w courses are currently being prepared in
only ones to have professional experience of the fields of immuno-haematology, 'natural'
them, though such experience is sought by organic chemistry, industrial robotics, etc.
others and needs only to be put into a form in T h e C N E D is thus forging ahead into the
which it can be communicated. This is w h y industrial age of distance teaching, taking ac-
the C N E D in Rennes designed its new bio- count of n e w economic and social factors and
technology course with the assistance of the availing itself of the new communication tech-
farm-produce sector. T h e Vanves centre, simi- nologies but without in any way lowering the
larly, enlisted the support of the Centre for standard of its instruction, whose effectiveness
Advanced Industrial Studies (CESI) for the is, on the contrary, thereby being improved. •
training of qualified engineers.
T h e introduction of each proposed course
should thus be preceded by a survey whose
accuracy and effectiveness hinge on the in- Bibliography
dispensable contribution of electronic data- BouRDONCLE, R . L e public et les résultats des enseigne-
processing. O n the basis of the survey a co- ments de promotion sociale au Ministère de l'Éducation
Nationale [The Public and the Results of 'Social-
ordinator may then collaborate with the teachers advancement' Courses at the Ministry of Education].
involved in the organization of each of the Paris, Université Paris V René Descartes, 1983. ( U n -
modules making u p the multimedia course, published P h . D . thesis.)
arrange the transfer of content to the technical B R A S S A R D , M . Groupe de réflexion sur les missions et le
services and receive and interpret users' reac- développement du CNEC [Group Set U p to Consider
the Role and Examine the Development of the C N E C
tions. A science officer is designated by a uni- (National Centre for Learning by Correspondence
versity (or by one of the institutions involved) Course)]. Consolidated report, March 1984. (Mimeo.)
to select the educational team to be respon- B R A S S A R D , U . Étude sur les besoins et les attentes des adultes
sible for design and educational follow-up. vis-à-vis de la formation par correspondance [Study on
T h e co-ordinator and the science officer sub- Adult Needs and Expectations in Respect of Corre-
spondence Courses]. A T E C O report prepared under
sequently collaborate on the editing for publi- the direction of U . Brassard, March 1985.
C N E D . Publics, contenus et médias de l'enseignement à

distance [Distance Teaching—Target Groups, Content
and Media]. Proceedings of a seminar organized by
the C N E D under the auspices of the Ministère de la
Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur and of the
École Nationale Supérieure de Création Industrielle.
Paris, C N E D . (In press.)
. CENTRE D'ENSEIGNEMENT D E V A N V E S . Connaissance
de l'enseignement à distance [All about Distance Teach-
ing]. Paris, C N E D . 1987.
. C E N T R E I N F F O . L'enseignement à distance dans le
développement de ¡a formation professionnelle continue et
de la promotion sociale [The Place of Distance Teaching
in the Upgrading of Lifelong Vocational Training and
of 'Social Advancement']. Proceedings of a seminar
organized by the C N E D and the I N F F O Centre, 1987.
(In press.)
D E M A Y , M . J V I N C E N T , S.; P A G N E Y , B . Le CNTE de 1939
à nos jours [The C N T E (The National Centre for
Distance Teaching) from 1939 to the Present Day].
1978. (Mimeo.)
F R A N C E . M I N I S T R Y O F E D U C A T I O N . Plaquette de présenta-
tion des préparations [Course Prospectus]. Paris, Minis-
tère de l'Éducation Nationale, 1987.
L E C O U R T , D . Actions et perspectives du C N E D . [Oper-
ations and Prospects of the C N E D ] . Bulletin de VIDA TE,
N o . 23, M a y 1986, p p . 21-3.
L E H N I S C H , J.-P. L'enseignement à distance [Distance Teach-
ing]. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1983.
(Que sais-jeî series, N o . 1893.)
P A U L I N , S. Enseignement à distance et formation profes-
sionnelle continue en France, Grande-Bretagne et RFA
[Distance Teaching and Lifelong Vocational Training
in France, the United K i n g d o m and the Federal
Republic of Germany]. Paris, 1979.
R E N N A R D , M . Technologie de l'information et formation à
distance: l'état de la question et les perspectives de déve-
loppement en France [Information Technology and Dis-
tance Teaching: State of the Art, and Prospects for
Future Development in France]. Lyons, C E R E P C o m -
munication, September 1986.
The Al-Quds
O p e n University project
Walid Kamhawi
Al-Quds* O p e n University ( Q O U ) , intends to

establish itself as a pioneering type of edu- Supply and demand
cational institution, which will provide oppor- in higher education
tunities in higher education and training for
the m a x i m u m number of Palestinian, Jordanian Over the last three decades, the Arab world has
and other Arab m e n and w o m e n , through witnessed a remarkable process of expansion in
techniques of distance learning. Q O U will education generally and higher education in
endeavour, therefore, to evolve close ties of particular. T h e number of universities and
co-operation with universities and institutions other institutions of higher education has risen
of higher learning in the occupied territories substantially; so has the capacity of such insti-
and in Arab countries; it will also try to contrib- tutions to offer places to a larger number of
ute to the improvement of the quality of edu- applicants. But the most striking aspect of this
cation, by making it more relevant to the needs expansion in general education, has been the
of development and by employing the latest in exceptional increase in the number of students
educational technology and programming. from both sexes and various classes aspiring to
In this article, w e shall try to present a higher education and possessing the qualifi-
description of the planning of Q O U and the cations permitting them to do so. Total higher
problems concomitant with its implementation. education enrolments for the whole region
W e shall also touch upon the rationale behind are expected to increase nearly fivefold from
the choice of educational media and the plan- 1.3 million in 1980 to 6.2 million students by
ning and design of the courses. Finally, w e the year 2000. T h e percentage of female
shall also touch on the need to collaborate with students' enrolment to total students is pro-
other conventional educational institutions. jected to increase from 32.3 per cent in 1980
to 36.5 per cent by the year 2000 (Osman, 1983).
Nevertheless, the existing facilities have been
unable to cope with the increasing demand for
higher education, managing to offer places only
to a small percentage of qualified applicants
( Q O U , 1986a). T o be able to meet the in-
creasing demands on higher education. There
Walid K a m h a w i (born in Palestine). President of the should be at least 155 universities in the region,
Al-Quds Open University. Former Governor, Arab representing an increase of around 100 n e w
Fund for Social and Economic Development. Former universities by the year 2000 (Osman, 1983).
Chairman, Palestine National Fund. Former President, As part of the Arab world, Palestinians have
Family Planning and Protection Society, Nablus. For- also benefited from this educational expansion.
mer Assistant General Secretary, The Federation of As one of the major findings of the feasibility
Arab Physicians. Former President, the Jordan Medical
Council. Author of several books on family planning
and on Palestine. * Al-Quds is the Arabic n a m e for Jerusalem.—Ed.

240 Walid Kamhazoi
study undertaken by Unesco in collaboration T A B L E I. Distribution of Palestinians

with the Palestinian National F u n d and the among Arab and other countries, 1986
Arab F u n d for Economic and Social Develop-
ment, which was completed in 1980, was that Area or country
of residence Population %
a progressively increasing percentage of Pales-
tinian high-school graduates striving for higher
West Bank 933 217 17.4
education will be unable to find places in Gaza Strip
533 « 3 9-9
conventional universities either in the occupied Israel 683 921 12.7
territories or elsewhere (Unesco, 1980a). Conse- Jordan 1 359 707 25-3
quently, a large number of such students end Syrian Arab Republic 261 739 4-9
up without being able to acquire the qualifi- Other Arab states 1 232 012 23.0
Other states 366 628 6.8
cations necessary to guarantee employment.
TOTAL 5 370 337 100
There is a constantly growing need for higher
education among the Palestinian people which Source: Q O U , 1986a.
has to be seen within a political and d e m o -
graphic context shaped by the problem of the
occupied territories and that of the wide disper- places, will widen so m u c h that by the end of
sion of the Palestinians ( Q O U , 1986a). the century, an entire generation of young
Palestinians are scattered all over the world, people m a y be deprived of the chance to receive
as minority groups in some countries or as large any higher education at all. In the academic
communities in others. M a n y sought refuge in year 1984/85, 11,053 Palestinian secondary-
Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic school graduates on the West Bank and in the
and other Arab states. S o m e left for Europe, Gaza Strip alone applied for admission to the
the Americas, Canada and Australia (Unesco, six existing universities in the occupied terri-
1980e). A proportion of the Palestinian popu- tories, where only 5,176 of them were admitted
lation were allowed to settle, live and work in ( Q O U , 1986a). This phenomenon is not only
the two neighbouring countries where their apparent on the West Bank of Jordan, but in
children have had good schooling. However, the Gaza Strip, Israel, Jordan, and in m a n y
the majority of the Palestinian people reside other Arab countries as well. In Jordan, out
in countries or live under political and socio- of 30,595 students w h o have passed the General
economic systems where opportunities for both Secondary Examination (Tawjihi) in the aca-
secondary and higher education are quite lim- demic year 1984/85, 6,618 have been able to
ited. This is particularly true for the 40 per cent find places in local universities and 11,633 were
of the Palestinian population w h o remain on enrolled in community colleges, leaving over
the occupied West Bank of Jordan, in the Gaza 10,000 students without access to higher edu-
Strip and in Israel itself and w h o have struggled cation. A few sought higher education abroad
hard to create chances for their children to ( Q O U , 1986a). A s for the Palestinians living in
receive reasonable education at all levels. Table 1 Israel, more than 5,000 students succeed in the
shows estimates of the distribution of the Pales- Secondary Examination (Bagarout) annually, of
tinian population in the various countries. w h o m only about 500 are able to find places
in Israeli universities. Access to higher edu-
T h e rate of growth of the Palestinian popu-
cational institutions in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
lation is around 4.6 per cent annually, which is
and other Arab countries is not always easy for
one of the highest in the world; their numbers
Palestinians, and a large proportion of Pales-
estimated in 1986 to be about 5,370,337, will rise
tinian students are unable to obtain higher
to 8,804,783 by the year 2000 ( Q O U , 1986a).
education ( Q O U , 1986a).
In view of this rate of growth, the gap between
places available at higher-education levels and After the 1967 war, Palestinians began to set
the number of students seeking such university up their o w n autonomous universities. N o w
T h e Al-Quds Open University project 241
there are six of them: five on the West Bank university of the conventional type is almost
and one in the Gaza Strip. These universities, inconceivable. T h e need for such a n e w and
during their short period of existence, have different type of institution of higher education
demonstrated a satisfactory academic standard attains an even greater degree of urgency, as
and performance. However, all these univer- it will be able to offer accessibility to higher
sities suffer serious limitations in their day- education to thousands of Palestinian and Arab
to-day functioning and in their ability to plan students, and spread throughout different Arab
ahead due to political and military constraints countries ( Q O U , 1986a). Q O U has studied
(Graham-Brown, 1984; Roberts et al., 1985). various distance/open learning systems e m -
ployed at different learning institutions. Al-
Quds O p e n University is unique, in that it
Q O U ' s target population disseminates relevant educational material for
the specific developmental and cultural needs
Those students w h o wish and can pursue higher of the Palestinian people, w h o are scattered in
education but fail to do so because of the short- different countries and are subject to the dif-
age of available places created by high demand ferent laws of each country. Q O U could not
for education and low supply of places, as simply copy any of the existing models of open
mentioned earlier, as well as the demand back- learning systems, because, under normal con-
log built u p over the past years, constitute a ditions, other open universities serve people
major part of al-Quds O p e n University's target within one country under one political and
population. Another important target group are socio-economic system facing similar circum-
those persons already in employment w h o wish stances. Q O U will have to generate its o w n
to pursue vocational or other types of higher experience to succeed in responding to such
education relevant to their immediate occu- diverse needs. This institution will take into
pational needs. Within this latter target group, account the potential flow of Palestinian and
teachers represent a priority and a large section. Arab students into higher education in the next
Palestinians living in scattered locations away decade. It will beflexiblein its m o d e of oper-
from higher education facilities and those living ation compared with the conventional system
in camps form another part of the target popu- requiring students to be in residence for a
lation to be served by al-Quds O p e n U n i - specified period of time and take courses of
versity. Q O U estimates the number of students instruction in accordance with a particular time
w h o will enrol at Q O U in the academic schedule. Through Q O U ' s broad and flexible
year 1988/89 from the West Bank and the Gaza admission policy and its greatflexibilitywith
Strip only to be around 13,000 students. respect to content, level and specialization of
courses, it would be singularly suited to serve
the educational needs of the Palestinian and
T h e need for a n e w system Arab people, w h o are deprived of satisfactory
educational opportunities. Q O U will enable
of higher education
students to take their courses at their o w n pace
and within their o w n economic, social and
There is, therefore, a specific need for an cultural environment. T h e y will have the right
academic institution, capable of serving the to enrol in anyfieldof study offered by Q O U ,
Palestinian population. Within the framework pertinent to their ambitions, interests and abili-
of occupational and physical fragmentation ties. S o m e students will register for full-time
facing the Palestinian people, distance teaching study; others for part-time study. S o m e students
has, b y its nature, the power to transcend will pursue courses to accumulate credits for
boundaries and restrictions as well as to reach a degree; others can enrol for a course to satisfy
dispersed Palestinian students living in environ- a certain interest or a specific need (Unesco,
ments such as the camps in which setting u p a
242 Walid Kamhawi
1980a). Providing education and training to all and audio-cassettes and training kits in ad-
these groups and individuals and to those dition to teaching technology and applied
already in employment w h o are free to proceed science. Such an interface will certainly assist
in education at their o w n pace, will not only in effecting technology transfer.
lead to an improvement in their o w n lives but Contributing to the democratization of higher
will also supply manpower which can contribute education in Arab society, since by employing
greatly to the advancement and the welfare of the system of distance learning, Q O U will
Palestinian and Arab society. T h e accomplish- make higher learning and training accessible
ment of this task awaits the establishment of a to the less fortunate a m o n g the socially and
highly distinctive type of academic institution, economically disadvantaged groups.
and the adoption of a totally n e w concept of Providing general education and training to the
teaching and disseminating knowledge. This community at large through the provision of
institution will also contribute to the reduction life-long education and training to everyone
of the brain-drain, the homogeneity of edu- willing to improve his abilities and knowledge.
cation and to the unification of the scientific Improving the quality of higher education
and technical language in Arab higher edu- through the inter-disciplinary and multi-
cation. Such an institution will have to be media approach in the design and production
conceptually different to employ different aims of educational programmes and materials and
and aspirations. This is precisely w h y al-Quds by making it more relevant to the develop-
O p e n University is, in our view, such an ab- mental needs of the Palestinian community.
solute necessity, for the education and future Developing and strengthening national feeling,
welfare of both Palestinian and Arab adult sense of belonging and culture of the Pales-
learners and their societies ( Q O U , 1986a). tinian people in particular and the Arab
people in general.
Q O U ' s objectives
The organization of Q O U
T h e only system of learning that has the po-
tential of responding to most of the needs and In order to be able to fulfil its multi-faceted role
problems of Palestinian and Arab higher edu- and develop as a major institute of higher
cation is an open learning system which employs education in the Arab world, al-Quds Open
the technique of distance learning. This is University, due to start classes in the latter part
especially true in light of the institution's basic of 1988, is developing an organizational and
objectives, namely: administrative structure capable of handling its
Providing the opportunity for the largest n u m - complex operations efficiently and smoothly.
ber of Palestinian and other Arab m e n and Such a structure will have to ensure that the
w o m e n to obtain higher education and train- university can perform the role of both a cen-
ing through employing the technique of dis- tralized institution, represented by its head-
tance learning. quarters performing the academic, technical and
Developing Palestinian and Arab manpower by productive functions of Q O U , and a decen-
designing a variety of educational and train- tralized series of area and regional offices to
ing programmes in middle technology to which local study centres are attached. Q O U
train students in thefieldsof modern tech- will be centralized in terms of its policies and
nology. its programmes, decentralized in terms of
Enhancing the employment of modern tech- the implementation and execution of its pro-
nology in Palestinian and Arab society by grammes, allowing considerable administrative
employing the state-of-art in educational flexibility in the execution of these tasks. T h e
technology such as micro-computers, video- headquarters, situated in A m m a n (Jordan) will,
The Al-Quds Open University project 243
in addition to general management, undertake: Engineers on the West Bank says that in 1985,
(a) the design and production of the educational 31 per cent of its members were unemployed
materials and training programmes; (b) the ( M E E D , 1986). This phenomenon also exists
delivery of educational materials to the area in other professional areas such as medicine,
offices; (c) the design of tests and examin- pharmacology and law. Apart from meeting
ations; and (d) the awarding of degrees and the manpower needs of the Palestinian c o m -
diplomas. T h e regional and the area offices munity in selecting the programmes, rather than
co-ordinate the work between the headquarters following other universities' programmes, Q O U
and the local study centres where students have will also place emphasis on the national identity
easy access to tutors, libraries and other facili- and heritage of the Palestinian people. Nowhere
ties. T h e local study centres will be established today are Palestinians trained in accordance
in cities, towns, villages and refugee camps in with a curriculum of their o w n design, and
order to maximize interaction between students nowhere does academic training of Palestinians
and tutors and between students themselves. concern itself with their national identity and
Such an arrangement enables the student to be heritage (Kamhawi, 1980). T h u s , Q O U will
physically in touch with his institution. Q O U offer courses of instruction in various domains
will establish such study centres in the occupied of knowledge pertinent to the skilled manpower
territories, as well as in other Arab countries. needs of Palestinian society and Arab society as
In addition to the study centres Q O U will a whole. Q O U programmes will contribute to
organize s u m m e r schools and week-end sessions, the emergence of a culturally sensitive person
thus providing face-to-face contacts, chances technically competent in performing the tasks
for carrying out experimental work, workshops, which will be assigned to him. At the same time,
and arranging discussion groups and specialized he will be conscious of the problems of his
seminars. society, share its aspirations and will be properly
motivated and fully committed to the objectives
of Palestinian and Arab development. Al-Quds
Academic programmes O p e n University, in combination with core
offered by Q O U curriculum courses such as Arabic and English
languages, cultural orientation, basic computer
technology, and other foundation courses, will
Together with the increase in demand for
offer courses leading to specific Bachelor's de-
higher education witnessed in the Arab world
grees and diplomas in the following pro-
in general and a m o n g Palestinians in particular,
grammes.
a shift towards the skilled-technical and science-
based occupations has accompanied this de-
m a n d . For the region as a whole, science-based
studies accounted in 1978 for only 37 per cent TECHNOLOGY AND APPLIED SCIENCES
of higher-education enrolments, while the non-
scientific areas took u p the remaining 63 per This programme will cover the basic principles
cent. This is very unsatisfactory, as the structure of modern technology and sciences, including
of manpower needs would require almost the fields of electronics, solar energy and informa-
complete reversal of these ratios by increasing tics. T h e emphasis throughout this programme
enrolments in the science-based subjects to will be on adapting theory and application to the
more than 60 per cent of total enrolments. T h e local developmental needs of society and stress-
present situation has resulted in serious prob- ing the practical aspect.
lems in employment with an acute shortage in
the scientific and technological areas co-existing
with growing unemployment of graduates in
other areas (Osman, 1983). T h e Association of
244 Walid Kamhawi
H O M E A N D FAMILY DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION

AND IN-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING
T h e family as a cohesive and productive unit of
society is the primary objective of this pro- This programme will aim at the improvement
gramme. It will provide, therefore, education of the quality of education, educators and edu-
and training in all skills relevant to the manage- cational standards throughout the different
ment and maintenance of a good h o m e , as well cycles of schooling, particularly through better
as the knowledge of handicrafts and h o m e and more relevant teacher-training programmes.
industries and the skills needed for the edu- Almost 10,000 teachers are involved at various
cation, health and welfare of all members of levels of general education in the occupied
the family, in particular the children. Thus, the territories alone; they come from different back-
h o m e will become an income-generating unit grounds and are at different levels. This pro-
which will contribute to the national income gramme will provide them with the training
and to the nation's development. and education aimed at improving their per-
formance and consequently raise the level of
general education.
LAND A N D RURAL DEVELOPMENT T h e emphasis in designing the above pro-
grammes for Q O U is to integrate and incorpor-
This programme is intended to.ensure a better ate theory and practice in the courses of in-
utilization of land, and the development of struction to make them more applicable and
rural communities. It will include, therefore, more significant to the specific developmental
education and training in the variousfieldsof needs of the society. Q O U will not increase the
agriculture and rural development with par- level of unemployment in the economy by
ticular emphasis on small-scale projects in farm graduating students w h o seek employment. It
management, animal husbandry, agricultural will, on the other hand, encourage and facili-
development and the like. This programme will tate self-employment by incorporating prac-
thus encourage Palestinian students to adhere tical courses which requires the implementation
to their land and utilize it efficiently and effec- of small-scale projects. Q O U will try to fund
tively. T h e programme will thus also help in these projects and help in their implementation.
reverse the rural-urban exodus and develop
rural areas.
The multi-media approach
in distance education at Q O U
M A N A G E M E N T A N D THE L A W
Aiming as it does to take education to the
This programme is designed to equip students student, rather than asking the student to at-
with basic knowledge and competencies to tend regular classes on a university campus,
promote their potential enterpreneurial and Q O U will employ a variety of teaching m a -
managerial talents to enable them to start up terials and utilize a variety of means of delivery.
small businesses on their o w n , or to improve the Specially prepared written materials in the form
management of existingfirmswhere they would of course units, briefs or text-books carry the
be employed. bulk of the course to the student and constitute
a major medium of instruction. This course
unit material is structured and organized on the
principles of a tutorial dialogue between tutor
and student, even though the student remains
a silent partner. T h e course will be specially
The Al-Quds Open University project 245
designed by Q O U for the h o m e student, and packs. Television sets, video- and audio-cassette
will carry as m u c h as possible of the infor- recorders together with the various relevant
mation and experiences from which he is to cassettes will be available at the local study
learn. Q O U will also make use of television centres to provide the opportunity for students,
and radio broadcasts, and audio-visual materials w h o have n o access to them, to utilize them.
including audio- and video-cassettes. T h e m a - Q O U has also agreed with other Palestinian
jority of the population in the occupied terri- universities to collaborate at various levels to
tories, in Jordan and in other Arab countries provide some local facilities such as libraries,
o w n radios, tape-recorders and, to a lesser workshops, laboratories and computer services
extent, television sets, which makes it easy for for its students. Q O U will also co-operate with
Q O U to make use of television and radio other educational institutions for the joint use
broadcasts as well as producing audio-cassettes. of premises, or even staff w h o will help in
Video-cassette recorders are still not so widely outlining the curricula for Q O U . Al-Quds O p e n
owned in the region, which prevents Q O U University will also collaborate with other uni-
from mass-producing video-cassettes except versities in setting formulas for credit transfer
those which will be available in the study centres whereby students of other universities and/or
for students' use. Q O U has recently come to community colleges can transfer to Q O U and
an agreement with Television, Radio and Cin- be given credits for their courses, and vice versa.
e m a Production Ltd (a newly established Jor-
danian company well-equipped for television,
cinema and radio production) for the use their Problems confronting Q O U
facilities in order to produce the required audio-
visual aids for supplementing the printed m a - D u e to the pioneering character of the insti-
terial. Q O U will also employ h o m e experiment tution and the n e w method of disseminating
kits for students taking science-and-technology knowledge which the university will employ,
courses, which will allow them to engage in namely, distance learning, Q O U , like any n e w
experimental work in their o w n homes and educational institution, m a y face some admin-
allow them to generate their o w n data which istrative, academic and operational problems.
can then be deployed in their course-based Q O U might face some reluctance to acknow-
assignment work. Q O U will also be incorpor- ledge and recognize its contribution during its
ating microcomputers within its education first year of operation. However, due to the
system and is considering the use of satellites enormous efforts Q O U makes to produce rel-
in open learning systems ( Q O U , 1986e). Q O U , evant high-quality educational material and due
like any open university, will also allow per- to the employment of the multi-media approach
sonal interaction between the students them- in distance education, it will hopefully gain the
selves and other individuals involved in the respect and recognition of other universities
teaching and learning process through the re- and institutions in the Arab states. A s a result,
gional officies and the local study centres. Q O U the university will do its best to secure the
aspires to make its characteristic trademark, accredition and recognition of its diplomas so
excellence in the standards of its educational that its graduates will be employed on the same
materials and relevance of these materials to the basis as the graduates of other institutions in the
needs of the students and of the community. region, and because recognition is essential if
Q O U will form a different structure of deliv- those graduates are to pursue graduate edu-
ery system to suit its distinctive situation. It cation, should they so choose, in the region or
will partly rely on mail in delivering the printed elsewhere. Since the language of instruction at
material to its students, and will utilize local Q O U will be Arabic, Q O U will free itself from
study centres and regional and area offices the reliance on expatriate teachers, foreign
where students can collect their o w n study models and materials. In order for Q O U to
246 Walid Kamhawi
satisfy this purpose, it will try to publish all its T h e university will be open not only to Pales-
instructional material in Arabic. This will not tinian people but to other interested Arabs as
only help in contributing to the unification of well. A wider range of age-groups, a wider
the Arabic language, but will also contribute range of social groups and a significantly larger
greatly in eliminating the cultural alienation of relative number of socially and economically
its Palestinian and other Arab students by underprivileged persons will be permitted to
inculcating in them confidence in their societies study than is traditional in universities. T h e
and in their o w n cultural heritage. This is not design of the learning material by Q O U will
an easy task for Q O U since there is no central then have to take into consideration the relative
authority responsible for unifying the Arabic differences in the socio-economic, political and
language in the Arab region especially where educational factors in each Arab country. A
technical and scientific terminology is concerned course in agriculture or economics, or in any
(Kamhawi, 1986), and since there are very few other subject area, will have to account for the
Arab universities w h o have fully extended the variations in those factors. This will, in due
use of Arabic as the sole language of instruction course, entail designing different versions of
in all subjects. However, Q O U will try its best the same text to suit this differentiation, which
to overcome this obstacle in order to preserve adds an extra burden to the process of designing
and revive the Palestinian and Arab cultural the relevant learning material. Q O U will have
heritage. to beflexiblein outlining the curriculum and
Since Q O U is thefirstinstitution of higher content of the learning materials and be con-
education of this form in the region, and since scious in the design of learning materials for
Q O U will not copy any existing model of an independent study by incorporating clearly for-
open university because of its unique nature, it mulated learning objectives, self-assessment
will have to generate its experience as well as its devices, student activities and the provision of
o w n original educational material, print and feedback from students to tutors and vice versa,
audio-visual. Q O U is facing difficulty in re- while taking into account existing variations.
cruiting staff experienced in course writing or Fortunately for Q O U , it already has before it
course and material design w h o have experience rich worldwide experience in both distance
or knowledge in distance-learning systems. teaching, and the employment of technology in
D u e to the uniqueness of Q O U , which is education and training. Such experience as has
primarily the wide dispersion of its target popu- been developed in countries such as Australia,
lation, and due to the somewhat difficult c o m - Canada, China, Federal Republic of Germany,
munication systems and networks between these Japan, Spain, Thailand, the United Kingdom
countries, al-Quds O p e n University m a y face and others, will certainly lend itself to the
problems in distributing its printed material. building up of Q O U .
Therefore, Q O U , as mentioned earlier, will
place emphasis on a highly centralized and
well-organized headquarters, together with ex- Collaboration
tremeflexibilityat the regional and local levels, with other universities
in order to cope with local situations and and institutions in the region
difficulties as they m a y arise. Q O U might also
face problems concerning the censorship of its A n ambitious project such as al-Quds O p e n
material in the occupied territories and Gaza University, designed to serve generation after
Strip. Moreover, members of the target popu- generation of Palestinians and other Arab adult
lation have varied educational backgrounds and learners will need the strongest and most effec-
learning patterns. There is no single target tive form of commitment on the part of national,
population to be served, but a variety of popu- regional, and international organizations if it
lations facing somewhat different circumstances. is to realize its goals and achieve its educational
The Al-Quds Open
purposes. All those concerned with education

for the Palestinians and with rebuilding the
Palestinian entity and reviving its culture, are References
called upon to offer technical orfinancialsup- A W C S C (THE ASSOCIATION OF W O M E N COMMITTEES FOR
port, or even advice. With such a variety of SOCIAL W O R K ) . 1985. Women in Emergency Situations:
means at its disposal, Q O U can play a unique Palestinian Women Under Occupation. Jerusalem,
role in education and community development, AWCSC.
G R A H A M - B R O W N , S. 1984. Education Repression and Lib-
for both the Palestinians and other Arabs. A s
eration: Palestinians. London, World University Ser-
well as helping to meet the constantly growing vice (U.K.).
demand for higher education and specialized K A M H A W I , Walid. 1980. Plans and Prospects for a Palestine
training, it can also contribute to the improve- Open University. The Role of the University in Extension
ment of the standards of education throughout Education. Beirut, American University of Beirut.
. 1986. Working Paper Presented at a Seminar on
the Arab world. A n essential function of any
Higher Education at a Distance With Emphasis on the
open university, and Q O U is no exception in Proposed Arabian Gulf Open University. Bahrain.
this regard, is the production of high-quality M E E D . 1986. International Labour Organization Report
teaching and training material. This al-Quds Highlights West Bank Unemployment. Middle East
O p e n University can best achieve by tapping the Economic Digest (MEED) (Liesel Graz, Geneva),
June.
huge resources of Arab educationists, scholars,
O S M A N , O . 1983. Perspectives of the Development of the
researchers, scientists and technologists w h o University in the Arab Region from the Present to
live and work in the Arab world, as well as year 2000. Paris, Unesco.
those w h o have m a d e their careers and settled QOU (JÄMI 'AT A L - Q U D S A L - M A F T O H A / A L - Q U D S O P E N
abroad. Material produced in this fashion can UNIVERSITY). 1986a. Darüratun wafanya wa-qawmiya
fl ufqin jadldin li-al-ta' Urn al 'alt [A N e w Horizon in
be exchanged or m a d e available in other ways
Arab Higher Education]. A m m a n , Q O U . (In Arabic,
to other Arab institutions of higher education. abstract in English.)
As has been mentioned earlier, Q O U will col- . 1986e. Al-Tälibu fl jämi 'ät al-ta 'allum al maftüh
laborate with other universities in the region to [The Student in Open Learning Universities]. A m m a n ,
use their libraries, laboratories, workshops and Q O U . (In Arabic, abstract in English.)
R O B E R T S , A . ; J O E R G E N S E N , B . ; N E W M A N , F. 1985. Academic
computer services. It will also co-operate with
Freedom under Israeli Military Occupation. London,
other universities in developing formulas for World University Service (U.K.)/International C o m -
credit transfer. T h e economic side of Q O U ' s mission of Jurists. (Report of Mission of Inquiry into
role can be more highly appreciated w h e n w e Higher Education in the West Bank and Gaza.)
take into account the huge savings which can UNBSCO. 1980a. Palestine Open University Feasibility
Study. Part I: General Report. Paris, Unesco. (Re-
be m a d e by reducing the numbers of Arab
stricted distribution.)
students w h o are forced to seek higher edu- . 19806. Palestine Open University, Feasibility Study.
cation abroad. In the development of al-Quds Part II. Paris, Unesco. (Restricted distribution.)
O p e n University, it should be clear that the
role of Q O U is to complement existing facili-
ties for higher education and not in any way
to be a substitute for them.
T h e need is so great, and the sense of urgency

is so powerful, that only by doing our utmost,
can the challenge of the future be positively met.
A n d it is to this challenge that Q O U has
aspired to anticipate and to be a positive re-
sponse ( Q O U , 1986a). •
A year in the life of an
O p e n University student
in the United Kingdom
Nazira Ismail
O n e of the first questions any prospective

student asks is, 'Will I be able to cope intellectu- Preparing to study
ally?' All or most institutions of higher edu-
cation in the United Kingdom require academic T h e O U works on the basis offirstcome, first
entry qualifications, but with the O p e n Uni- served. I applied in early March 1983 for study
versity ( O U ) there are none. However the O U in 1984.1 was lucky because by April 19831 had
has the same status as all the other publicly been offered a place as an initially registered
funded universities in the United Kingdom. It student on the course of m y choice even though
was set u p in 1969 by Royal Charter and is m a n y applicants were refused that year.
funded by the Department of Education and O n the undergraduate programme a student
Science. At present, it has three programmes of starts off with a foundation-level full-credit
study: undergraduate, continuing education, course(s). T h e m a x i m u m number of courses
and postgraduate. It began teaching in 1971 on that a student can take in any one year is two
the first of these programmes. T h e under- full-credit courses. Each course requires be-
graduate programme is subsidized by the tween ten andfifteenhours of study each week.
government. T h e only way to find out whether Six full credits are needed for a B . A . degree
one can cope is to try, and there is nothing to and eight for the B . A . (Hons.) degree.
lose by trying except the initial registration fee. Once the student has applied, the O U gives
T h e reason I wanted to study was to prove to all the help possible. Information is sent to all
myself that I could gain a degree; that I was n e w students on what preparatory courses are
capable of intellectual study and yet I was available. These courses are not obligatory, but
worried that the opposite might prove to be they do help if the student has not done any
the case. studying since leaving school. S o m e of the
This article is based on m y experience of two preparatory materials are prepared by the O U
foundation courses: the Arts foundation course itself; for example, allfirst-yearT101 students
(A101) and 'Living with Technology' (T101). receive a preparatory package to help them
develop study skills that are typical of the range
of subjects covered by that course. S o m e
preparatory materials are prepared by other
institutions, but linked to O U foundation
courses, for example, the National Extension
College runs correspondence courses in arts,
Nazira Ismail (Uganda). Lives in the United Kingdom
social sciences and science. Information on
and has been studying part-time with the Open Uni-
versity since 1984.
relevant local evening classes is also sent. S o m e

250 Naztra Ismail
of these classes are to build u p students' study

skills, others are again geared towards the The academic year
course for which the student is enrolled.
Admissions counsellors are also available at the I have not dealt with everything that a student
regional centre to w h o m students can talk if feels and goes through in a year, but only with
they are uncertain about undertaking a degree what I regard as the important aspects. This is
course with the O U , or have any problems partly due to the fact that learning is a personal
that are not covered by the materials sent to experience, and I can only go by m y o w n
them. T h e University has divided the country experience, and partly because students on
into thirteen O p e n University regions and foundation courses are of mixed ability. S o m e
each region has a regional centre. These have not done any studying since leaving
centres are responsible for the appointment of school, others probably work in that particular
part-time tutors and tutor-counsellors, allo- subject-area, for example teachers w h o teach
cation of students to tutors, hiring of local study the subject and sometimes have prior knowl-
centres, arrangements for s u m m e r schools. In edge. So, each student's experience will be
short they are responsible for co-ordinating all different in m a n y respects. In m y account I have
the activities between students, tutors and the tried to concentrate on the main preoccupation
main campus in each given region. B y late that would be c o m m o n to most students as they
October/early November, allfirst-yearstudents go through the year. Table i summarizes the
have received their first mauling of course main activities during the academic year.
materials. T h e y also receive the Student Hand-
book. This handbook is in two parts. T h e first
part gives all the information a student requires T h efirstmonth
about the O U system. Just about every query
a student m a y have is answered in this booklet;
All students have received theirfirstmailing by
for example, h o w work is assessed, arrange-
now. Academic work begins in thefirstweek
ments for the final examination, conditional
of February. This is when students really
registration, withdrawal from a course, fees
andfinancialassistance, and so forth. Part II of T A B L E I. O p e n University academic year1
the booklet is very m u c h geared to preparing
a student for study. This booklet suggests ways
Month Activity
of organizing study time, practising note-
taking from television and radio, developing
reading skills and summarizing main points, February Academic year begins, including tutorials
and broadcasts
say, from a newspaper article, asking a friend or March First T M A a / C M A 3 due
partner to set you an essay. Above all, Part II (eight T M A s on full-credit course,
contained other students' experiences and it four on half-credit course)
was reassuring to k n o w that I was not the only April Final registration forfirst-yearstudents
one w h o felt nervous and that the O U was May Conditional registration
July/August Attendance at summer school for one
aware of the feelings of first-year students. week—no tutorials—information about
T h o u g h the real academic work does not begin Examinations received
until February, one becomes aware of what is September Tutorials begin again—final T M A due
expected of the student and one can be prepared October Examinations
for it. December Results notified together with following
year's course allocation
1. A detailed calendar of the academic year can be seen in the

Open University Student Handbook.
2. TMA=tutor-marked assignment.
3. CMA=computer-marked assignment.
A year in the life of an Open University student in the United Kingdom 251
find out whether the time they have allocated is

enough, or whether the way they have organ- Course texts
ized their study is going to work. S o m e students
prefer to work in the early hours, others in the T h e course texts are extremely well designed.
evening. S o m e students work shift hours and They are not too thick and there is a large
so the time set aside for study varies from week margin on one side of the page for students to
to week. It entirely depends on the student make brief notes. T h e cover of each unit is
when he or she can make time. I had decided beautifully illustrated giving an idea of what
to spend two hours each evening Mondays to that particular unit covers. It motivates the
Fridays, and five hours on Sunday mornings, student into opening the unit even if it is just
making a total offifteenhours. I soon found out to have a brief look. Nearly all the units are of
that this was not working. It took m e at least the same A 4 size. T h e package that comes in the
thirty to forty minutes each evening to settle first mailing seems overwhelming and w h e n
down. Often I was just mentally exhausted and first opened can lead to a feeling of despair.
found myself reading the same page over and However, the material is divided u p into units
over again and making no sense of it. I was or blocks of manageable size. A unit is one
very easily distracted. For example, if there week's academic work and a block is about
were any slight noise I would lose m y concen- three or four weeks' work. A s long as one
tration. I also found that it took m u c h effort to learns to take a unit at a time it is not difficult
sit down to study every evening. N o w I spend because each unit/block will guide one gently.
about three hours each evening between T h e course texts are written clearly and are
M o n d a y and Wednesday and aboutfivehours directed at the reader. They use little technical
on Sunday. This gives m e a break from the jargon, and where this is unavoidable n e w and
course materials and I feel refreshed when I do technical terms are clearly explained. T o begin
study, but, of course, there are days when I do with it seems like a lot of reading and hard
fall behind and then it means working four work, but because of the way it is written and
evenings a week and perhaps even on Saturdays. organized learning is m a d e interesting and
M y family also had to be trained and disci- enjoyable. It almost feels as if the tutor is there
plined. It took a lot of adjusting, not only for with m e . I oftenfindmyself talking to the units.
m e , but for them as well. They were encourag- Nodding m y head w h e n I agree, shaking when
ing when I applied, but n o w I needed support I disagree, asking questions like ' W h a t do you
particularly from m y hubsand. They no longer m e a n by such and such?' I realize there are
wait for m e to do the cooking or washing or any no answers but it helps in m y note-taking.
other housework. I too had to learn h o w to blot
Each unit begins with an introduction giving
out other distractions, to ignore what was
the aims and objectives of that particular unit,
happening in the other room, to stop m y mind
and is divided u p into sections. At the end of
from wandering. It took a lot of time and
each section, the main points are summarized.
patience, and sometimes shouting, to make
There are also self-assessment questions (SAQs)
them understand that I did not wish to be
for each section for testing one's knowledge.
disturbed. But it is through practice that one
Answers are given at the back of the unit.
learns to adjust one's lifestyle to make time for
Units also contain diagrams, photographs and
the O p e n University.
prints of paintings which help break u p the
monotony of reading. Included with the course
texts also are notes on study skills. These
notes are very m u c h geared to the course
and help the student to acquire the necessary
skills, for example, reading graphs, numeracy
skills, drawing multicausal diagrams. So even
252 Nazira Ismail
though the student m a y not be prepared prior to watching/listening to the broadcast and
beforehand, the skills required to cope with an exercise to be done after the broadcast. T h e
the material are included. O n e important piece Technology foundation course did not have
of paper that a student receives is the 'Broad- any broadcast notes but the course texts often
cast and Assignment Calendar'. This lists the referred to the broadcasts. Though the broad-
units to be studied week by week, the times casts are interesting and enjoyable I did not feel
of television and radio broadcasts, and above I was learning from them. So by June in m y
all the cut-off dates for assignments. Printed first foundation course I had given u p on
material is alsoflexiblecompared with the other broadcasts and on the second foundation course
media like radio or television because it can be I only watched the veryfirstbroadcast. I felt
taken anywhere, for example, to work, in the that m y time was better spent on the printed
garden, on the train, whereas with the other units. However, that is not the experience of
media, the student is stuck in one place. all students. Most watch/listen to broadcasts
partly because they feel if they were not relevant
the University would not go to the trouble of
Television and radio making them. O n e student friend uses broad-
casts as a guide especially if he is falling behind;
Most students that I have met watch or listen he watches the broadcasts to let him k n o w
to the broadcasts associated with the course. what sections of the units he should really
However, the problem with both television and concentrate on.
radio is the transmission times; they are either
early in the morning or late at night. Quite a few
of the students record the programmes so that Audio-vision
they can watch or listen to them w h e n it suits
them. It is also possible to watch the television In the Technology foundation course, the
programmes at study centres. This is useful course team had prepared audio-visual packages,
for students w h o do not have the means of where students were asked to look at some
recording them. For those w h o have a video particular diagrams or statistics and listen to the
and audio facility the O U also has an audio- commentary associated with them on the
and video-cassette lending service from which audio-cassette. Most of these packages were
students can request copies of programmes. exercises where students were asked to stop
T o begin with I used to watch and listen to the cassette, do an exercise, and then go back
the broadcasts regularly. However after about to the cassette. Next to printed texts, I enjoyed
four months I began to wonder what purpose working with the audio-visual packages because
they actually served. Most of the information I felt the tutor was there with m e guiding
required was in the printed texts. T h e broad- m y work. Again, as in the printed texts, the
casts were informative and sometimes relevant commentary is directed at the listener, spoken
but not absolutely necessary. They more or less clearly in a relaxed and informal manner.
reiterated what was contained in the printed
texts. S o m e of the television programmes are
interesting and enjoyable especially if they are Tutorials and tutor-counsellors
filmed on location. Depending on the message
the course team is trying to convey, the location February is also the month when tutorials
can be anywhere in the world and in that sense begin. T h e y are held at study centres once a
it helps one to visualize what is being discussed week on foundation courses but less frequently
in the texts. T h e Arts foundation course had on second- and third-level courses. Study
broadcast notes associated with each radio and centres are just rooms hired by the University
television programme which had to be read in a local college or polytechnic, with chairs
round a large table and a black- or whiteboard. nology, thefirstfew pages of one of the blocks
O n e of the rooms m a y have a television screen had to be substituted with an updated version,
with a video-recorder for students to watch the and the supplementary materials provided the
television programmes. There is nothing special updated information. Often this happens be-
about them: it is just somewhere for students to cause students in previous years have had
get together with their tutor. Again like the difficulty with that particular block, or some-
broadcasts, it is not essential to attend tutorials. times the time allocated by the course team for
However, this is the chance to meet other study is not sufficient. A n y mistakes or errors
students, to discuss any points or difficulties in the course units are also mentioned. Assign-
with the tutor, and to exchange experiences ments are also part of the supplementary
with other students. It is possible to make new material because these change from year to year.
friends and this helps take away the feeling of Information on anything of relevance to the
learning in isolation. Most of us exchanged course that is happening in the outside world,
telephone numbers so that if any of us needed for example, exhibitions, lectures, etc., is also
help w e could ring each other. Tutorials in included. So even though the main texts and
general are informal discussion sessions. Both broadcasts for the course itself m a y have been
of m y tutors prepared timetables for tutorials prepared six or seven years previously, the
but these are not rigid. Often students have course team try to keep them up to date through
problems with particular units, in which case the use of supplementary materials.
the tutor assists them. Tutor-marked assign-
ments are discussed, especially if all students
have m a d e the same mistake. Tutor-counsellors March
are extremely helpful. Most of them work full-
time in other institutions and part-time for Around late February/early M a r c h the as-
the O U . In thefirstyear, students have a tutor-
signments begin. There are two types of
counsellor, but in the following years the tutorassignments: the computer-marked assign-
changes depending on the course, while the ments ( C M A s ) and tutor-marked assignments
counsellor stays the same throughout the ( T M A s ) . O n a full-credit equivalent course
student's time with the O U . A n y problem the there are approximately eight T M A s and four
student has is nearly always sorted out by the on a half-credit equivalent course. (All foun-
tutor-counsellor, for example, being excused dation courses are full-credit equivalent.) In the
from S u m m e r School, inability to meet assign-
Arts foundation course there were no C M A s .
ment deadlines, difficulties with parts of the C M A s are m a d e u p of multiple-choice ques-
course, and so forth. tions, each with a choice of answers from which
T h e tutor-counsellor becomes one's first the correct one has to be selected. It might
point of contact with the University and, apart seem easy because the answers are given but
from S u m m e r School, the only face-to-face particular attention must be paid to h o w the
contact one has with the University. It is not question is worded, or one can be caught out on
only at tutorials that tutor-counsellors are tiny details. It is no use playing a guessing game
available; one can also ring them at h o m e or because what matters is the method used to get
work. the answer.
T M A s are marked by the tutor and are
essay-type questions. Usually T M A s are dis-
Supplementary materials cussed at tutorials and the tutor gives some sort
of guidance. M o r e often the guidance is about
With each mailing there is always supplemen- what the tutor does not want to read in your
tary material. This usually mentions any essay. Early in the course the T M A s ate short
changes to the course: for example, in Tech- essays of about 500 to 700 words; by the end of
254 Nazira Ismail
the course one has to produce essays of around mostly due to knowing that whatever I write
2,500 to 3,000 words. Tutors prefer type- will be assessed and often criticized. O n e has
written scripts, though this is not always to be careful in one's choice of words. S o m e -
possible for students. Guidance is generally times I know what I want to say but cannot find
given by the course team and the tutor on h o w the right words to say it, especially as I want
scripts should be written. Most tutors like to m y work to be original, not just paraphrased
see T M A scripts that are organized, starting from the units. Part of the problem is that one
with an introductory paragraph, followed by a cannot write as one speaks. All the advantages
few paragraphs on the main points, andfinallya of using facial expressions or speech inflexions
paragraph concluding the assignment. T h e are lost; one has to rely totally on the written
important thing about T M A s are the tutor's word.
comments and advice to the student. It is Apart from having to cope with the T M A
important to pay attention to the comments in and the academic work, students also receive
order to be aware of one's weaknesses and the summer-school preference form asking for
where exactly one is going wrong. Most tutors' a decision on which summer school they want
comments are friendly and start by encouraging to attend. There is usually a choice of three
the student and then gently informing him of different locations and six to eight different
points missed and his weaknesses. Copies of weeks to chose from. Plenty of time is allowed
the T M A form are also sent to the tutor- tofillin this form, but one has to give about six
counsellor and to the main campus where all to eight different choices, in order of preference.
the records on students are kept. Apart from
the comments on the T M A form, the tutor
also comments on the script itself, often asking April
questions like 'Yes, but what conclusions do you
draw from those two points?'
Forfirst-yearstudents it is n o w time to decide
C M A s and T M A s are assessed and count whether or not to continue. T h e y have had
towards the overall course result and therefore three months' experience of what the rest of
they are compulsory. It is possible to miss an the year is going to be like. For various reasons
assignment or two, but this means working m a n y do drop out. T h e option of dropping out
really hard on the rest of the assignments to at this stage without losing fees paid beyond
get a pass mark on continuous assessment. In the first three months of the course is only
the Technology foundation course I dropped available in the first year. Y o u can drop out
two assignments, which prompted m y tutor to in future years but then you lose whatever fee
ask h o w serious I was about the course. It also you have paid. T h e majority decide to become
m a d e m e realize that to get a pass mark not only finally registered students, which means paying
did I have to do all the rest of the assignments thefinalcourse fee. It is possible to pay on an
but I had to try to get the best marks possible instalment basis rather than in a lump s u m .
on each one. In 1986 the course fee for a full-credit course
T h e problem with assignments is that they was £152. This year it stands at £158. In ad-
are the only w a y of communicating with the dition, the summer-school fee for 1986 was £99.
University. Just as it is important for the course
team to get the message through to students at a
distance, it is equally important for students to May
have the same ability to communicate precisely
and succinctly in writing. It should not be In about m i d - M a y , the University sends out
difficult if one has paid attention to all the notes forms to students asking them to register for the
on study skills but nevertheless I a m always following year's courses. This is called 'con-
rather apprehensive and nervous. This is ditional registration' because it is conditional
upon the examination result. In most conven- decided to drop out of the course. It meant
tional universities students are offered a 'pack- losing a whole year and the course fee before
aged' degree, that is, they have to do certain I could resume studying. O n e advantage of
subjects/courses to get a degree. With the O U , the O U system is being able to drop out and
the student decides which courses he wants to to come back later after a break. T h e second
study and h o w to 'package' his degree. It is up advantage, I think, is that having done two
to the student to decide which courses are best foundation courses I can choose courses from
suited to his needs. Information about all course profiles of two or more faculties rather
undergraduate courses is sent together with the than just one.
conditional-registration form. Currently there Having said that, I n o w find that soon I will
are about 130 courses in the undergraduate have to make a decision about whether I a m
programme. going for an Arts-based degree, or a Tech-
It is difficult to decide on future courses nology-based degree, or a mixture of both.
when one has only been in the system for about W h e n I started, I just wanted to prove I could
four months and is just learning to get to grips do it; n o w I want a degree that is useful to m e
with the course currently being studied. and to do that, I feel I must have some sort of
However, up to the end of October, there is an coherent pattern in m y course choice.
opportunity to change one's mind. M y tutor-
counsellor suggested that I should go for a
second-level Arts course, but I did not feel June
confident enough to take a second-level course.
I also felt he was biased and was persuading m e There are two things that will have become
to take Arts courses just because he was an apparent by n o w . T h efirstis that everything
Arts tutor. I also wanted to k n o w whether I was is mass-produced and for just about everything
any good at subjects other than Arts. I opted there is a form to be filled in. If there is no form
for a second foundation course in Social it cannot be important. All administrative
Science (D102). (It is the University's current arrangements are handled by a computer and
policy that undergraduate students do two unless one rings the University and actually
foundation courses.) In 1985 w h e n I started the speaks to someone, one could justifiably believe
Social Science foundation course I realized I had that there are no people there—just one big
m a d e the wrong choice. Part of the problem computer! T h e whole system is geared towards
was that, for m e , it meant repeating some of the mass production. O n e feels like a number
study skills I had already acquired with the rather than an individual in the system. I doubt
Arts foundation course. T h e other problem whether there are any academics in the O U
was the course itself: I found it too generalized w h o k n o w their students unless he or she is also
and based very m u c h on abstract theories. a part-time m e m b e r of staff, and yet they are the
There was another problem too: in m y first ones w h o decide what will be taught. This is
year I had a tutor-counsellor, but this year probably one criticism of the O U . H o w do they
I only had a tutor and I found the transition really k n o w what students want or need to
from a tutor-counsellor to a tutor difficult. learn?
I felt the tutor was not really interested in m e .
T h e second thing is that anything of import-
But that was not the tutor's fault, it was m y
ance has a deadline. Registration has a deadline,
fault. T h e tutor's job is to teach the course
assignments have cut-off dates, summer-school
and if I have any problems then I should
arrangements have a deadline, conditional
approach m y counsellor. I did not have any
registration has a deadline. Life in the O U
problems as such; it was just that I had got
is one big deadline!
used to the attention I had received from m y
previous tutor-counsellor. In April 1985, I I find that round about June the excitement
has worn off. In the winter months it isfineto
256 Nazira Ismail
be indoors studying but during the s u m m e r it able to make friends, what the rooms and the
gets just that little bit more difficult to actually food will be like. It can be distressing if one
want to pick up a unit and study. I often ask has never been away from h o m e on one's own.
myself w h y I a m doing it. Does it matter if I do However, once there, all that is forgotten.
not have a degree? It takes at least six years to Usually there is no time to think, let alone
gain it and at the end of it, what? However, I worry. I find s u m m e r schools hard work but
also try to think in positive terms. If I have come great fun. But I also find coming back h o m e
this far, I can do it. It is best to take a year at a and having to deal with more mundane things
time rather than look too far into the future. in life difficult.
There is also an O p e n University Students
Organization ( O U S A ) with local branches in
July/August every region. I a m not quite sure what exactly
its objectives are but it does arrange ice-
It is obligatory on all foundation courses to breaker parties and s u m m e r schools. It is
attend s u m m e r school for one week. The main also involved in arranging campaigns against
object of the s u m m e r school is to enable one to financial cuts faced by the University and
put into practice what one has so far studied, fund-raising. I personally have not bothered to
for example, discussions of techniques used by find out anything about it nor do I have the
different painters (A101) or laboratory work in time to get involved in its activities.
T101. S u m m e r school also gives experience of
working in groups—up to n o w most us have
been studying in isolation. It gives one a chance September
to share experiences with other students w h o
come from different parts of the country During July and August there are no tutorials,
and from all walks of life—from an officer partly because of s u m m e r schools and partly
in the Royal Air Force to a van driver. because m a n y tutors and students are on
T h e only c o m m o n thing between students is the holiday. In September tutorials begin again
course. S o m e of us end up becoming the best of and the pace changes. It becomes more hectic.
friends. It also gives one an insight into what it isT h e whole course is coming together. In the
like to be a student in a conventional university. early assignments students are being assessed
O n e good thing about s u m m e r schools is that on individual disciplines or subjects of the
there are no other distractions from h o m e or course, for example, history or philosophy.
work. It is just the student and course work. N o w the assignments are more interdisciplinary.
T h e pace is extremely fast. T h e day begins All the different disciplines are being brought
at 9.15 a . m . and ends at 9 p . m . Usually the together. B y n o w there are only about six
work associated with the course finishes at weeks before the exam. B y the third week in
6.15 p . m . and after the evening meal there are September all academic work is completed and
optional sessions. These optional sessions could about three weeks remain for revision. In the
be lectures on a special topic or a revision of Technology course, some of the students set u p
difficulties associated with particular aspects of a self-help group to revise together and help
the course, for example, chemistry or numeracy. each other. I personally had to work even harder
There are at least three or four optional to make sure I passed the exam because I had
sessions each evening to choose from. B y the just managed to get a pass mark on continuous
end of the week I a m exhausted. assessment. This was mostly because I had
I usually feel anxious about going to s u m m e r dropped two T M A s and four C M A s , which
school. This is due to not knowing what to lowered m y overall grade.
expect. I often worry about what the other
students will be like, whether or not I will be
the exam the following year if they fail pro-

October vided they meet the requirements for a resit.
Mid-October, and the exams begin. Infor-

mation on what date and at what time exams December
will take place is sent to the students in M a y
together with the conditional-registration docu- Before one even knows the course result, the
ments. Around August students receive a following year's course material has arrived.
computer-produced letter giving the address of They certainly do not waste time! Just before
the examination centre and what facilities are Christmas one receives the result (again c o m -
available there, for example, car parking, puter-printed) together with an accept/decline
cafeteria, and so forth. This letter also includes form for the course that has been allocated
details of the T M A and C M A scores held on and a request for payment of fees. I often w o n -
the student's computer file at the time the der h o w I would have reacted to this letter had
letter is produced. This is important because it said 'fail' because it seems so matter of fact.
the grades shown on this letter will be used to It is not exactly a letter of congratulations or of
work out the overall course grade. Students are sympathy, it is more like a statement. Perhaps
also asked to take with them some valid form it just goes to show h o w impersonal the system
of identification bearing their signature in order can be.
to identify themselves to the invigilator.
T h e three-hour examination paper is usually
divided into two or three parts. In Technology, Some general points
thefirstpart was a computer-marked examin-
ation—just like a C M A where all the questions Having done two courses I feel more confident
have to be answered. T h e second part was on and sure of myself. I no longer accept decisions
numeracy with a choice of six questions of or anything else without questioning them. I
which three have to be answered. T h e third a m more prepared to speak u p for myself.
part again had six questions, of which three Above all, I think it has m a d e m e a more
had to be answered. These questions dealt with interesting person. It is too early to tell whether
more complex issues involving technology and studying with the O U is going to make a
they were more essay-type questions. But one difference to m y career. Untill I get a degree I
is not expected to write extensive prose answers; a m still at a proving stage.
short sentences covering the main points will It is not possible for m e to compare the O U
do. In general, the majority of the students system with a conventional university system
w h o have done the work will pass but it is also because I have not been to a conventional
possible to fail. Students have to pass both university, nor would I have been accepted as
continuous assessment and the exam, although a student without some sort of prior qualifi-
the exam is given more weighting. U p to n o w cations. That is one of the best things about
students are used to doing T M A s and C M A s , the O p e n University. It is open to all.
assignment questions that students k n o w be- A question often put to m e is: 'If you had a
forehand, in their o w n time, using any source chance of studying through evening classes or
of help they like. With exams no help is weekend classes at a local university campus
available. They are supervised and there is only would you be prepared to study that way rather
limited time available and that is what makes it than study through the O U system?' I a m
so difficult to cope with them, even though not sure whether in the United K i n g d o m there
there is a session at summer school on h o w to are universities w h o accept students having no
cope and usually one of the tutorials will be prior qualifications for part-time evening classes
devoted to practising for it. Students can resit at degree level. Even if there were, it would
258 Nazira Ismail
entirely depend on the course materials. If cheap because it is subsidized by the Govern-
going to evening classes meant that I would ment though there are m a n y students w h o find
have the same material as that used by full- it hard to pay. So a degree from the O U
time students then the answer would be c no'. is recognized as equivalent to one from a
T h e reason for this is that most books used by conventional university. Most O U students, I
full-time students in conventional universities think, have an advantage over students from
are designed to be used in conjunction with a conventional universities because not only have
tutor face-to-face. O n e of the problems with they got a degree but experience of being in
textbooks is that they do not help students full-time employment. It also shows their c o m -
learn because they are not designed with mitment to work and to studying.
prompts like S A Q s . S o m e of the books are also T h e biggest problem for students, I think,
very m u c h out of date. A friend w h o went is the time constraint. Most students are in
to evening classes on computing often had to full-time employment with a h o m e and family,
tell the tutor that things had changed and what and no matter h o w well organized and disci-
he (the tutor) was teaching was n o w out of date. plined a student is, unforeseen circumstances
T h e O U course materials, on the other hand, (for example, illness) can sometimes force a
are specially designed for study at a distance. student to fall behind and then it is so difficult
With any two books on related subjects one to catch up. T h e important thing to understand
often finds that one book will overlap to a about the O U system is that the onus is on
certain extent with the other. In O U course the student. N o one pushes or persuades
materials, all the repetition/overlap is taken out. students to study, it is their decision entirely.
T h e materials deal with what the student needs
to know. Often m a n y textbooks are difficult
to understand, and one needs a tutor to help
decipher them. With the O U there is no such
problem because the course materials are writ-
ten in plain English, and what cannot be
conveyed in writing will be conveyed using
other media or a combination of media (for
example, radio, television, audio-vision, c o m -
puter-assisted learning, and so forth). There is
also an additional problem with evening classes,
especially for remote students: they have to
travel to the nearest university or polytechnic.
In m y case, the most convenient would be
London and that isfiftymiles away! T h e O U ,
in that sense, comes to the student.
After gaining two full credits, it is also poss-
ible for students to transfer from the O U to
a full-time conventional university. Most uni-
versities in the United Kingdom n o w recognize
O U studies as equivalent to those taken in con-
ventional universities. M a n y students w h o m I
know, especially on the Technology foundation
course, have either all or part of the fees paid
by their employers. For employers it makes
sense because they do not have to give their
work-force time off to study. It is also reasonably
TRENDS AND CASES
z
T h e international
dimension of scholarly
journals
Philip. G . Altbach
Scholarly journals are the primary means of thefieldof education, and particularly on p u b -
communicating knowledge in most fields.1 lications in the field of comparative and inter-
There are about 100,000 scientific and schol- national education. However, the points m a d e
arly journals in the world today, reflecting a here are relevant to virtually all academic and
substantial financial investment as well as the scholarly journals in the social sciences and
core of a worldwide network of communications. humanities, and to some extent in the sciences
Even with advent of data bases and microfiches, and technology as well.
the traditional scholarly journal remains at the While most scholarly journals are published
centre of the scientific communication system. for national academic communities and have
B y using technological innovations in printing little circulation outside the country in which
and distribution, journals can be m a d e more they are published, the minority of inter-
efficient and cost effective. Their role, at least nationally circulated publications dominate the
for the forseeable future, is assured. Scholarly knowledge network and are of primary i m -
journals face some special problems and chal- portance. T h e research trends and orientations
lenges in a period characterized by economic of the international journals are reflected in
constraints, rapid technological change and an the other journals, which frequently translate ar-
increasing internationalization of knowledge. It ticles. Scholarship and research are increasingly
is important to understand the ways in which international in scope, and knowledge created
journals serve their readers and h o w they in one country is quickly circulated worldwide.
function. Understanding scholarly journals is There is a hierarchy of publications, with the
important not only for those responsible for internationally circulated journals at the top.
them—editors and publishers—but also for the There are centres and peripheries in the
broader community of readers and writers w h o world of journals. T h e publications that are
rely on the journals for communication. This issued in the major industrialized nations tend
article focuses mainly on scholarly journals in to have the highest prestige and greatest in-
fluence. T h u s , the world of journals is unequal,
and a recognition of these inequalities is necess-
ary. Journals published in the major industri-
Philip G . Altbach (United States of America). Pro- alized nations and in the main world languages
fessor and Director of the Comparative Education (especially English, French and Spanish) are
Center, State University of New York at Buffalo.
the most widely circulated and have the highest
He is editor of the Comparative Education Review.
prestige and most influence. Journals published
His most recent book is T h e Knowledge Context:
Comparative Perspectives on the Distribution of
in English have a particularly important role
Knowledge. at the present time, as English serves as the

2Ó2 Philip. G.Altbach
major international language of scholarly c o m - lation, sometimes because the language in

munications. It is likely that half, or more, of which they are published is not widely k n o w n
the world's scholarly journals are in English. outside the country of publication and some-
Journals published in the United States or the times because of lack of access to markets
United K i n g d o m can rely on a large domestic overseas.
market for both circulation and as a source of
manuscripts. These journals also have direct
links with the dominant scientific communities. Language
It must be kept in mind that the larger pro-
portion of the world's expenditures for research While most nations claim scholarly journals
and development is spent in a few key indus- published in their national languages, journals
trialized nations. T h e norms and values of the published in English dominate the international
academic communities of the major industri- knowledge network. This gives the English-
alized nations tend to dominate the decision- language journals a powerful position. In c o m -
making of the journals and authors outside the parative and international education, virtually
metropolitan centres must generally conform to all of the internationally circulated publications
the norms of scholarship of the centres if they are in English. Prospects, published by Unesco
wish to be published. These large internationally in seven language editions, is the major excep-
circulated publications are the most widely cited tion to this rule, and as such it has a particularly
and thus are the most influential. Third World important role. A few journals, such as the
academic institutions sometimes insist that their International Review of Education published by
professors publish abroad in order to be pro- the Unesco Institute of Education in H a m b u r g ,
moted and authors themselves frequently will Higher Education in Europe (Unesco/CEPES)
bypass their o w n journals to publish abroad and Canadian and International Education p u b -
since they want the increased prestige and lish bilingually or trilingually. T h e dominance
value a wider audience. of English has several causes and a n u m b e r of
Despite the existence of the metropolitan implications. T h e large academic communities
centres and their powerful role, there has been in the United States, the United K i n g d o m ,
impressive development in several important Canada, India and Australasia account for a
parts of the world. T h e emergence of Latin significant market for journals and also the
America, for example, as a large academic c o m - most important community of scholars in the
munity with its o w n journals and publishers field. In addition, the very large library market
has meant that there are n o w a n u m b e r of schol- in the English-speaking countries is a key
arly journals in Spanish. T h e Revista latino- factor, since academic libraries are a m o n g the
americana de educación, published in Mexico, most important purchasers of journals.
is a key publisher of educational research from English has become the most c o m m o n l y used
Latin America. India has been called the 're- language for international scholarly discourse
search superpower' of the Third World and and it is the most frequently used second
there are a n u m b e r of scholarly journals p u b - language. Such key Third World nations as
lished in India. Indian scholars produce a India, Kenya and Nigeria, which have active
considerable amount of research.2 A half-dozen academic communities and journals of their
additional journals in the field of education o w n , publish mainly in English. It has recently
publish research and scholarship. While most been estimated, for example, that 70 million
Indian academic journals are in English, there people in India speak English, making India
has been some development of publications in the second largest English-speaking nation in
India's various languages as well. There are, of the world. French is also an important inter-
course, m a n y scholarly journals throughout the national m e d i u m of scholarship and publication,
world which seldom see international circu- but its influence is limited largely to France,
The international dimension of scholarly journals 263
Belgium and the former colonies of these two velop a national academic community, particu-
nations. For Latin America, Spanish is the larly in Third World nations.
dominant language of scholarly journals, but T h e bulk of translation in most areas of
frequently key research findings appear in education and the social sciences is from English
English first and are then translated into other to a myriad of other languages. There is rela-
languages. tively little translation in the other direction.
In thefieldof comparative and international This further increases the dominance of the
education, the large majority of the inter- English-language publications, since they be-
nationally circulated journals appear in English. come k n o w n , through the translation process,
There is one journal in French and one in in other non-metropolitan languages. T h e pat-
Spanish. There are several journals in Chinese, terns of scholarship and the research paradigms
but their circulation is limited almost exclus- exemplified in these journals gain an audience
ively to the People's Republic of China. There in other languages while the English-language
are two journals in G e r m a n , one published in publications do not benefit from a diversity of
the Federal Republic of Germany and one in perspectives. T h e English-language journals can
the G e r m a n Democratic Republic, and one control what gets translated since they control
journal in Russian (devoted to comparative the granting of permission. T h e current pattern
higher education and published in Poland with of publication by language reflects global in-
a Spanish translation issued in Cuba). In equalities and is a factor of considerable i m -
English, the journals focusing significantly on portance in the international distribution of
comparative and international education include knowledge.
Comparative Education Review, Compare, Com-
parative Education, International Review of Edu-
cation (which also publishes articles in French The economics of journals
and G e r m a n ) , Canadian and International Edu-
cation (which also accepts articles in French), Scholarly journals cost m o n e y to produce. T h e y
European Journal of Education and in the field are, in a sense, small enterprises which collect
of comparative higher education, Higher Edu- funds for subscriptions and other fees and
cation. spend for editing, printing and distribution.
Because English is the key language of schol- Frequently, journals are precariously financed
arship, this gives journals in English consider- and this creates problems and sometimes makes
able influence and also significant problems. it impossible for a publication to continue.
M a n y authors whose native language is not Indeed, the survival rate for scholarly journals
English submit manuscripts and the problems is fairly low. Scholarly journals in education
of editing are considerable, particularly since and the social sciences are financed in a variety
most journals do not have staff capable of such of ways. In the Third World, most journals are
editing. Further, the journals are dominated by sponsored by academic or governmental insti-
the research paradigms of the major English- tutions, which bear the major costs of the
speaking academic communities, and those publications. T h e journals are in such cases
writing with different perspectives sometimes frequently sold at subsidized prices. In the
find it difficult to gain acceptance by the major Western industrialized nations there is consider-
international publications. M a n y authors prefer able diversity in terms of the financing of
to publish in English in the hope of obtaining journals. In m a n y cases, private publishers are
a wider audience and greater recognition. This responsible for scholarly journals and expect
preference works to the disadvantage of p u b - them to earn a profit. Other journals are spon-
lications with only national circulation. Authors sored by scholarly organizations which fre-
and editors must balance the importance of quently provide a subsidy for publication. A
international circulation with the need to de- smaller n u m b e r are published b y academic,
264 Philip. G.
'. Altbach
research or governmental organizations which from their journal publications and even where
provide a subsidy. In the Eastern European payment is provided, it is symbolic. If scholarly
nations, scholarly journals are almost exclus- journals are operated efficiently and without
ively published by academic or governmental significant payment for the labour involved,
organizations, which have responsibility for they can fairly easily survive financially.
financing. This insulates t h e m to s o m e extent T h e key to the survival of scholarly journals
fromfiscalproblems and often permits them to in most contexts is the academic library market.
charge modest subscription fees, but it also Journals typically charge libraries m o r e for
frequently links them closely to the perspectives subscriptions than individual scholars, arguing
of sponsoring agencies. that library copies are used b y m a n y readers.
In recent years, large private-sector p u b - In this sense, libraries are providing a subsidy
lishers have gone into the journal 'business'. to the academic journals. For most Western
T h e y see that academic journals can be the journals in the social sciences, libraries consti-
source of profit and that journals, in m a n y tute the bulk of the buyers and without them,
ways, are less risky than book publishing since the journals would not survive. If journals out-
once a journal is established, it can produce a side of the major industrial nations can gain
steady income. While these publishers take the access to the North American and Western
financial risk of journal publication, they fre- European library markets, they will have en-
quently charge very high prices for subscrip- sured their financial survival. Libraries face
tions, effectively eliminating the individual serious problems. Budgets have been con-
scholar from the market. H i g h prices are par- strained in recent years. There has been a
ticularly difficult for Third W o r l d libraries and proliferation of scholarly journals and typically
individuals and as a result of the corporate library budgets have shifted from book pur-
economics of journals, m a n y Third World chases to journal subscriptions. Librarians are
scholars are effectively denied access to key n o w quite careful about adding n e w journals
publications. S o m e of these publishers, such and there is considerable competition a m o n g
as Pergamon, Carfax and Butterworths (United academic journals.
K i n g d o m ) , Elsevier and Kluwer (Netherlands) T h e circulation of scholarly journals is typi-
and Sage (United States) o w n large numbers cally low, even for influential internationally
of journals and frequently charge high prices circulated publications. In the field of c o m -
for subscriptions, targeting the library markets parative and international education, m a n y of
in the industrialized nations for income. It has the journals have 1,000 or fewer subscribers.
been estimated by American publishers that a T h e larger journals have several thousand sub-
journal with a circulation of around 800 can scribers, although a journal like Prospects, with
earn a profit and will be o n solid financial several language editions, has a larger cir-
ground. culation. It is also the case that several national
T h e economics of journal publishing will, journals have relatively large circulations: one
of course, differ from country to country de- of the Chinese comparative education publi-
pending on labour and composition and printing cations has m o r e than 5,000 subscribers, and
costs, but there are significant similarities. A c a - a Yugoslav educational journal also prints
demic journals are like cottage industries: they 5,000 copies. T h e circulation of a journal does
require little capital, are labour-intensive, and not, however, necessarily determine its fiscal
frequently provide little if any remuneration health. A combination of subscription price,
for those involved. Typically, journal editors, subsidies, the proportion of sales to libraries
w h o are at the heart of the enterprise, receive and of course the cost of production of the
no remuneration for their work. While the journal all determine h o w a journal survives in
norms of payment to authors and evaluators an increasingly competitive marketplace.
differ, most scholarly authors earn nothing Journals in education and the social sciences
have not adopted trie practice of cpage charges' technologies. T h e computer also permits more
which are increasingly c o m m o n in North cost-effective record keeping, publicity c a m -
American and Western European scientific and paigns, and fulfilment (subscriptions and the
medical publications, although the publications like), but journals without access to computers
sponsored by the American Sociological Associ- m a y find themselves at a growing disadvantage.
ation in the United States n o w charge a fee for O n the other hand, journals in countries with
processing any manuscript that is submitted low labour costs m a y be able to continue to
for publication. 'Page charges' are levied to function effectively without technological inno-
defray the cost of publication and can amount vations.
to significant amounts of money. It is assumed T h e decision on whether to use the n e w
that government agencies and foundations, technologies is frequently a difficult one. Even
which sponsor m u c h of the scientific research where computers and their sophisticated soft-
done in the United States, allocate funds for ware are readily available, some uses m a y be
such charges, but these n e w charges are a worthwhile, such as in-house desktop typo-
burden to individual authors, and especially graphic composition. In some instances, h o w -
those from outside the métropole w h o do not ever, it might be more cost effective to contract
have access to research budgets. While m a n y for outside composition services. Laser-printers
of the journals will waive the charges in m a n y are capable of major help to journals in terms
cases, the advent of page charges is a n e w and of producing high-quality composed material,
difficult aspect of the culture of scientific but they might be too expensive or too sophis-
publication. ticated for particular journals. In short, the
Scholarly journals which control their costs, choice of innovations is complex and should be
which have access to library markets and which based on the particular needs of specific journals.
have circulations in excess of 800 copies can It is especially difficult in countries such as
survive in a competitive market. Careful atten- India or Brazil, where the most sophisticated
tion to the fiscal aspects of journal publishing technologies are available side by side with
is necessary, however, in an era of rapid change traditional printing and typesetting mechan-
andfiscalconstraints. isms. In such countries, choices must be based
on a careful analysis of the costs involved, both
in the long and short terms.
T h e challenge Computer-based technological innovations
of the n e w technologies permit a journal to be a virtually self-contained
and independent enterprise. With the exception
N e w technological innovations have had a major of printing, most aspects of journal production
impact on scholarly journals. These changes and development can be done in an editorial
create both problems and opportunities and office by using micro-computers, desktop p u b -
directly affect the international distribution of lishing software, and computer-based record-
knowledge. While computer-assisted c o m p o - keeping programs. Articles can be 'typeset'
sition can significantly reduce the cost of pro- using desktop publishing software, subscriber
duction for journals with small circulations and financial records can be maintained and
which have access to desktop publishing appar- manuscripts can be tracked through the use
atus and therefore permit journals with limited of relatively inexpensive computers. T h e n e w
audiences to survivefinancially,another inno- technologies are ideally suited for scholarly
vation—the photocopying machine—may have journals that do not require a great deal of
a negative effect. Further, m a n y journals, par- computer power. In addition, in the indus-
ticularly in the Third World, do not have access trialized nations, the cost of computer-based
to computers and sophisticated software and publishing aids has dropped significantly in
m a y be jeopardized in some instances by n e w recent years.
266 Philip. G. Altbach
Printing has also become more economical international journals or in which there are
and easier for academic journals, and here fiscal restrictions, but in the long run the entire
photo-offset printing, which is by n o w diffused journal network is jeopardized by photocopying.
throughout the world and is no longer a m o n - T h e growth of data bases is another key
opoly of the industrialized nations, makes 'short technological development that has implications
run' journal printing fairly inexpensive. C o m - for academic journals as well as for scholarship
puter-generated typeset material can be inex- generally. O n the one hand, data bases such as
pensively photographed and printed. While it the E R I C System in the United States or that
is seldom economically practical for journals to of the International Bureau of Education in
have their o w n printing machinery, obtaining Geneva (Unesco) permit the user fairly easy
suitable printers is not too difficult in most access to a very large amount of data. T h e
countries. contents of journals can be placed into data
Several other aspects of the n e w technology bases and thus m a d e more readily available to
are more problematical for scholarly journals. scholars. Journals that are included in data
T h e most serious threat to scholarly publishing bases can become better k n o w n . O n the other
is the widespread use of photocopying m a - hand, data bases are only as good as the material
chines. Photocopying means that individual put into them. They are without exception
users m a y obtain inexpensive copies of journal controlled by the industrialized nations and
articles or entire issues of journals and need not they frequently omit important work that comes
purchase them from the publisher. O n e library from the Third World or from peripheral
copy m a y serve m a n y users in terms of photo- nations. This means that in some ways the
copying. M a n y countries have grappled with data bases reinforce the centralization of knowl-
the problem of unauthorized photocopying and edge. In somefields,data bases are expensive
there is at present no real solution. Several to use. Further, they require costly and complex
industrialized nations have attempted to create equipment to gain access, equipment that is
mechanisms that would charge users for photo- manufactured in the industrialized nations. In
copying and provide publishers with the funds short, data bases can widen access to knowledge
collected. T h e Copyright Clearance Center by making it easier to obtain while at the same
( C C C ) in the United States is an example of time centralizing the control of information.
this trend, but it is not as yet fully effective. In Journals are beginning to experiment with
Sweden, book publishers are provided with n e w formats that use contemporary tech-
funds by the government based on the use of nologies. In the United States, a number of
books in libraries. But unauthorized photo- journals in technological and medical sciences
copying is widespread throughout the world are published 'on line' so that they are i m -
and it poses a serious threat to journals as well mediately accessible by using computer net-
as to book publishers. Indeed, the threat is works. This not only permits quick circulation
probably greatest to scholarly journals since of knowledge but circumvents the entire process
they have limited circulation and depend on of traditional printing and distribution. ' O n
each subscriber. Copyright laws have been line' journals are limited tofieldsin which very
changed to reflecting the n e w reprographic quick dissemination of research results is very
techniques, but it is fair to say that legal pro- important, such as the health sciences, and at
tections have not kept abreast of technological present such journals are expensive. However,
innovations. Photocopying is available in vir- the n e w technologies exist and are being further
tually all countries, and Third World nations developed. Issues of access, of editorial control
have frequently been lax about enforcing legal and dissemination are involved with this inno-
limits. Relatively unrestricted photocopying vation. In the field of comparative education,
m a y benefit individual scholars, particularly in one journal is currently produced on microfiche
countries which do not have easy access to only, the Journal of International and Compara-
The international of scholarly journals
live Education recently established by an enter-

prising Spanish publisher in Barcelona. This Third World difficulties
journal is published three times a year on micro-
fiche. This format permits the journal to publish Scholarly journals published in the Third World
up to 1,000 pages of text a year without serious face special problems. Perhaps the most i m -
financial problems. T h e journal not only p u b - portant is that they function in a worldwide
lishes articles (in three languages—English, network which is dominated by the publications
French and Spanish) but also n e w laws relating of the industrialized nations which have the
to education from different countries and it best access to the large library markets in the
has the capability to publish other material as Western nations, which can compete for the
well. It is necessary, of course, to have a micro- most prestigious authors and which have the
fiche reader to read this journal, and this is a most extensive international circulation. Third
problem for m a n y Third World scholars and World journals tend to be newer and they must
libraries, where such readers do not exist or struggle for acceptance in an increasingly c o m -
are in very short supply. T h e latest techno- petitive market. T h e fact is that no journal
logical innovation, the C D - R O M disc, which published in the Third World has a wide inter-
uses laser compact-disc technology, m a y also national circulation or influence in thefieldof
have major implications for scholarly journals comparative and international education. It is
in the coming decade. C D - R O M technology unlikely that Third World representation is
is beginning to be widely used for biblio- m u c h more significant in other fields in edu-
graphical purposes in the United States. cation. It is also true that scholarship by Third
T h e n e w technologies affect journals in m a n y World authors published in Third World
ways and will increase in importance in the journals is not widely cited in the international
coming period. They are a mixed blessing for literature. This is dramatically true for India,
scholarly journals. O n the one hand, they per- where there are at least thirty journals in the
mit in the industrialized nations considerable field of education, mostly published in English
cost savings and in fact allow journals with and a large community of scholars and re-
limited circulation to survive. But for the Third searchers. Indian scholarship is not widely rec-
World, the n e w technologies create as m a n y ognized outside India despite its relevance to
problems as they solve. Access both to the the situations in other Third World nations.
technologies and to the products of technology In a few instances, Third World publications
is often difficult. Control over hardware, soft- have an important regional role and this is
ware, and the products themselves is in the perhaps an opening wedge for a wider inter-
hands of the industrialized nations and is fre- national presence. T h e West African Journal of
quently beyond thefinancialand technological Education, the Caribbean Journal of Education,
capacities of m a n y Third World nations. In the Bulletin of the Unesco Regional Office for
some instances, such as desktop publishing, Education in Asia and the Pacific and the Revista
the n e w technologies can decentralize the knowl- Latinoamericana de educación all serve important
edge-distribution network. But in other re- roles in their regions. It is important for Third
spects, knowledge becomes more centralized. World journals to pay special attention to
Data bases, for example, are powerful instru- increasing their circulation outside their h o m e
ments which are controlled by the industrialized countries through publicity, interchanges of
nations. publications and a heightened consciousness of
the importance of journals published in other
Third World countries. K e y Third World
authors w h o have access to journals in the
industrialized nations must begin to choose
their o w n journals. A n d scholars from the in-
268 Philip. G. Altbach
dustrialized nations w h o do research in the World countries, such as Mexico, India or

Third World have a special responsibility to China, can support both national and regional/
publish the results of their research in the international publications. In regions like South-
region in which it was carried out. A s Third East Asia or French-speaking Africa, it is pos-
World journals begin to publish the very best sible for several nations to organize a regional
international scholarship, they will obtain wider journal, although regional enterprises of all
recognition. kinds have not been successful. However, Edu-
Third World journals face difficult logistical cafrica published in English and French by the
and production problems. If journals wish to Unesco Regional Office for Africa is promising.
compete in the international marketplace of China has, for example, recently established an
ideas, they must be of international quality in English-language journal, China Educational
terms of content. While standards of production Sciences, to bring Chinese scholarship in edu-
do not necessarily need to be comparable to cation to a wider international audience. Several
publications from the industrialized nations, of the established Indian journals, such as the
the quality of printing and paper, as well as of Journal of Higher Education or the Journal of
editing, must be of acceptable standard. Paper, Indian Education, could focus more attention on
for example, must conform to international building an international market.
standards of durability. Such paper is frequently T h e odds against a major Third World
difficult to obtain and it is expensive. Editing impact on scholarship in education through
a journal is a complex process and editorial journals are considerable. It is difficult to break
talent is often rare in the Third World. Yet, into the Western library market. It is similarly
careful attention must be paid to editing, to difficult to get listed in the major bibliographical
appropriate use of language and, most import- and citation networks such as the E R I C Sys-
ant, to the choice of articles. Professionalism tems of the Social Science Citation Index.
is a key to the editing of a scholarly journal. These networks are controlled by the indus-
Production problems are frequently difficult. trialized nations and mainly serve the needs of
Each of the journals mentioned above is cur- scholars and researchers in these countries. It
rently publishing late, as each is beset by a will also be difficult to break with the habits of
variety of production and logistical difficulties. decades of looking to the industrialized nations
T h e West African Journal of Education, re- for scholarly leadership and to assume that
flecting Nigeria's current economic problems, Third World journals can provide similar lead-
has not appeared for several years. Authors will ership. Third World academic institutions and
not remain loyal to journals that do not appear authors have a special responsibility to recog-
on time and subscriptions will inevitably lapse. nize indigenous publications as legitimate and
It is difficult for a journal to maintain its prestigious. High standards of quality, both
influence and even to survive under such cir- in intellectual and production terms, must be
cumstances. maintained as well. Yet, the challenges are not
It might be relevant for Third World nations impossible and the goal of ensuring appropriate
to identify several key journals to focus on a recognition for Third World scholarship and
regional and international audience and other Third World publications is very important.
journals to stress a national community. T h e
national journals can be in indigenous languages Scholarly journals are important enterprises.
and focus on issues relevant mainly to local T h e y do not consume large budgets and are
circumstances. T h e regional publications will labour intensive. T h e y are also the primary
need to be in a language used internationally means of knowledge-dissemination in education
and will need to pay more attention to issues and the social sciences. Despite the significant
relevant to a wider audience and to inter- technological breakthroughs of recent year.;, the
national standards of scholarship. Larger Third traditional journal will remain at the centre of
the dissemination process. Technological inno- functioning for education in Latin America,
vations in production are taking place, but the were discussed. Understanding problems m a y
basic format of scholarly journals will remain prepare the w a y to finding solutions. Those
without basic alteration. Academic institutions, responsible for keeping the dissemination sys-
libraries, and individual scholars need to under- tem working are the natural group to suggest
stand both the intricacies of scholarly journals innovative solutions.
and their key role in the academic world. Those This is a time of rapid change for scholarly
responsible for funding higher education and journals. Technological innovations have been
research need especially to be aware of the significant and further change can be expected.
network of knowledge dissemination. It is not There is increased competition for both top-
enough to provide funds for research. T h e quality authors and for circulation in a context
means of communicating the results of research of proliferating journals. T h e n e w data bases
must also be taken into consideration. and photocopying technologies also threaten
T h e international context of knowledge dis- the journals. Yet, they are the cornerstone of a
semination is also of primary importance, and complex knowledge-distribution network and
here too journals play a key role. Knowledge is because of this they will survive and some
increasingly international and, in thefieldof will prosper. T h e challenge for those respon-
education, research and innovations in one sible for journals and those w h o make use
country m a y be quite relevant elsewhere. There of them—virtually the entire academic c o m -
must be means of disseminating information munity—is to understand h o w to m a k e the
worldwide. In the field of comparative and journal system more equal, more responsible
international education, there are at present to the needs of scholars worldwide, and h o w
perhaps a dozen journals that have an inter- to ensure their growth and survival. •
national mission and significant circulation
worldwide. Yet, the bulk of these publications
are based in the industrialized nations and fea-
ture scholars from these nations as their authors.
T h e context of global inequality plays a role Notes
in scholarly publication just as it does in world 1 This article reflects discussions between twenty edi-
trade. T h e logic of inequality is strong, but at tors of scholarly journals in education, held as part of
least in scholarship one can hope for a more the Sixth World Congress of Comparative Education,
idealistic approach, particularly since there are Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 6-10 July 1987. T h e workshop
of journal editors was organized by Philip G . Altbach,
few large economic influences at play.
Editor of the Comparative Education Review and
T h e fact that twenty journal editors at the Zaghloul Morsy, Editor of Prospects. T h e responsi-
Sixth World Congress of Comparative E d u - bility for this article rests entirely with the author.
2 T h e Journal of Indian Education has published the
cation were able to pinpoint problems and dis- papers o n academic journals presented at the Sixth
cuss possible solutions is a significant step World Congress of Comparative Education.
forward. So far, there has been little conscious-
ness of the international responsibilities of
journal editors or of the problems faced by
scholarly publications in m a n y countries. T h e
editors recognized that they have great re-
sponsibility for knowledge dissemination. They
also recognized the hierarchy of knowledge that
exists and discussed ways of increasing access.
Possibilities of regional co-operation and of
the use of 'alternative' networks such as the
R E D U C bibliographic system, which is n o w
Laboratory schools
for early preparation
for the teaching profession
in the U S S R
Yulia N . Vyunkova and Leonid I. Ruvinsky
O n e can hardly overestimate the work done by breaks n e w ground in a wide-ranging quest for
laboratory schools both for the development of progressive ideas.
educational research as a whole and for the ulti- T h e Laboratory of Teacher-Training Prob-
mate improvement of the entire school system. lems of the Research Institute of General E d u -
These laboratory schools are particularly i m - cation of the U S S R A c a d e m y of Pedagogical
portant: their aim is not so m u c h to improve edu- Sciences has set up such a laboratory school in
cational practice on the basis of what has already M o s c o w Secondary School N o . 1139 in order
been scientifically defined and established (in to investigate the problem of giving vocational
respect of educational content, methods and guidance to school pupils w h o intend to become
means) but rather to organize education in a teachers while teaching them in specialized
way that goes beyond established practice and teacher-training classes.
Pupils are strongly influenced in their choice
of teaching as a career by the teaching staff at
Yulia N . Vyunkova (USSR). Researcher at the the school: the professional standards of the
Laboratory of Teacher-Training Problems of the Re- teachers, their social qualities and solidarity,
search Institute of General Education of the USSR their ideological purposefulness, their skill at
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. She has participated interpersonal relations, and their ability to or-
in a research project headed by L. V. Zankov entitled ganize the educational process both smoothly
'Teaching and Development in the Primary School' and efficiently. T h e high regard in which the
and in the experiment on 'Psychological Service at
teachers hold creative educational work, their
School'. She is the author of over thirty works of
research.
standards of conduct and the w a y of life of
the teaching staff have a significant impact on
Leonid I. Ruvinsky (USSR). Professor and Director the educational environment of the school in
of the Laboratory of Teacher-Training Problems of the which the pupils m a k e an informed decision to
Research Institute of General Education of the USSR become teachers.
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. He is the author
W e see vocational guidance in school as a
of ten books and over a hundred works of research on
process
education and self-education dealing, in particular, with
of preparing for a well-grounded choice
the training of willpower and the development of moral of a future occupation; it entails the acquisition
qualities. Some of his works have been translated into of a certain amount of basic psychological and
English, French, Spanish and other languages. pedagogical knowledge which is essential in
Prospects, Vol. iVIII,

X N o . 2, 1988
272 Yulia N. Vyunkova and Leonid I. Ruvinsky
order to bring out an existing aptitude, and a groups, they independently prepare and con-
certain amount of experience of work with chil- duct educational activities in junior classes
dren. Training for the teaching profession dur- (talks, discussions, political education sessions,
ing the years of schooling (in teacher-training and so forth), and they also give one or two
classes, teacher-training groups at teaching and lessons, or at least parts of a lesson, on their
production complexes, optional courses, and so o w n . During the s u m m e r they work in kinder-
forth) has its advantages and it benefits from gartens, pioneer camps, work-and-recreation
a n u m b e r of particularly favourable circum- camps, or in self-governing bodies, and so forth.
stances. First, it takes place at a time w h e n O u r laboratory works o n the theoretical
the young people concernedfirstfeel the need foundations of teacher training, including vo-
to m a k e their o w n choice as to their future life cational guidance at each stage of the school-
and occupation. Second, for pupils w h o show college-school link-up, so as to ensure that
some inclination towards the teaching pro- vocational guidance for the teaching profession
fession there is an opportunity in the school to is continued and is given as part of the training
test whether their interest is substantial and of specialists since it is a fundamental aspect
well founded and to apply their abilities in of the general principles and approaches for
practice by working as leaders of Octobrist or improving the training of future teachers. This
Pioneer groups, by helping backward pupils, is the purpose of giving long-term vocational
by participating in various educational under- guidance which is provided for under the basic
takings, by conducting extracurricular study guidelines of the reform of higher education
groups, social work, and so forth. T h e school n o w being undertaken in the Soviet Union.
pupils engaged in this work receive qualified
assistance from their teacher w h o makes his or
her o w n appraisal of their performance. T h e development
T h e entire teaching staff play an active part of the personality
in studying the problem along with the research for the teaching profession
workers: some teachers act as experimenters,
working out solutions for various theoretical T h e vocational guidance of school pupils for
problems as well as being engaged on practical the teaching profession is part of the vocational-
tasks; others act as tutor-guides and arrange for practical approach which is fundamental to the
pupils in their classes to undertake teaching theoretical conception of the teacher-training
practice, helping to bring out their teaching laboratory. T h e formation of the personality
abilities; still others take part in out-of-class for the teaching profession is an active process
work with pupils. Mention must also be m a d e in which positive motivation and a blending of
of the special group k n o w n as the 'Friends of basic occupational knowledge and skills with a
the teacher-training class' which consists of personal outlook on life is of decisive import-
university and college students w h o are former ance. In terms of the theory of activity, the
pupils of the school. choice by the pupils of the teaching profession
During their training in psychology and is regarded as a process whereby an objective
pedagogy, members of the teacher-training takes shape, their activities as pupils being to
classes not only master the theoretical aspects a considerable extent directed towards the at-
of the subject-matter but also carry out various tainment of that objective.
kinds of practical work involving certain aspects W e have worked out an experimental variant
of the work of teachers; they compile testi- of the course syllabus 'Psychological and Peda-
monials for other pupils in the class, they give gogical Principles for Training Teachers' in
educational talks to junior pupils, they attend which the school pupils receive basic vocational
extra lessons on subjects related to their special- training in educational science and psychology,
ization, they help the teacher in extended-day including a grounding in teaching techniques.
Laboratory schools for early preparation for the teaching profession in the U S S R 273
They receive an introduction to the skills of two subjects from two different angles. For
the actor and the producer in the course entitled example, the topic 'The Art of H u m a n Contact'
'Speech Culture'. They make a separate study acquaints the pupils with the psychology of
of the methodology of work with Pioneers and effective communication: the ability to 'read'
Octobrists and, under the guidance of a tutor, and understand the m o o d of one's interlocutor
they prepare various related events which are from his eyes and facial expression, to learn
included in the school's work plan. h o w to 'go along with him', emotionally and
T h e vocational-practical principle presup- intellectually, or not. At the same time the
poses the unity of psychological and peda- pupils also acquire pedagogical knowledge: they
gogical training. In drawing u p our syllabus learn about various types of educational contact,
w e have sought to avoid any duplication of h o w to organize an effective learning situation,
higher educational courses in pedagogy and and so forth.
psychology. However, w e include the rudiments In our course, w e endeavour to put into
of these subjects in the syllabus, thereby en- practice as fully as possible the most important
abling the pupils to test the correctness of the didactic principle of the Soviet school, namely
approach adopted by them during their teaching the connection between theory and practice.
practice. T h e first parts of the course are aimed In some cases practices serves as the criterion
at strengthening the pupils' interest in work of truth. In other words it indicates whether
with children, enhancing their interest in the certain theoretical knowledge has been fully
profession, giving them a vocational ideal to understood and assimilated. For example, while
aim at by acquainting them with the work of studying the theme 'Educate yourself the
the best educationists. These are the topics pupils, at a theoretical level, analyse their
in 'The Place of Psychology and Pedagogics in individual ways of associating with their class-
Our Life' which contains sections devoted to mates and with junior pupils. In other cases,
the life and work of the prominent educationists by way of contrast, practice provides material
Nadezhda Krupskaya, A . S. Makarenko and from which certain theoretical conclusions can
V . A . Sukhomlinsky. be drawn, as w h e n the pupils observe certain
T h e next step, on the basis of their by n o w features of education given by particular parents,
established interest in the teaching profession, teachers and youth workers or reflect on certain
is to help pupils to develop their self-knowledge specially modelled situations (for example, vari-
and to organize their o w n self-education so as ous forms of educational contact). Finally, prac-
to develop their teaching abilities and further tical work helps to inculcate the essential teach-
their interest in practical educational activities. ing and learning skills which are laterfittedby
T h e subjects studied in this connection include the pupils into a theoretical framework whereby
the following: ' W h a t D o W e K n o w About fortuitous and intuitive discoveries can be in-
Alan and his Abilities?', 'Educate Yourself, corporated in their work.
'The Art of H u m a n Contact', 'The Intercon- T h e following is an example of h o w the
nections Between Education, Instruction and principle of the link between theory and prac-
Self-education'. tice is m a d e a reality. T h e subject entitled
T h e concluding part of the course deals with 'Every Child Matters' is a study of the age-
various aspects of the teacher's work and the related and individual characteristics of children.
pupils test their o w n aptitudes in their chosen In discussing the education of pre-school-age
profession. A m o n g the topics studied at this children w e suggested that our pupils use the
stage are: 'The A B C of Education', ' W o r k — T h e method of retrospective self-observation. T h e
Creator of the Personality', 'The Wise Power members of the teacher-training class recalled
of the Collective' and ' H o w to Prepare a Lesson'. their o w n pre-school years, and what games
T h e unity of psychological and pedagogical they had played. They brought to the class
training is covered in an approach to these their favourite childhood toys, drawings, photo-
graphs and h o m e movies and they also inter- became comfortable seats either on trains,
viewed their parents on the subject of their planes or ships. They 'visited' various countries,
early childhood. This led to a lively discussion met the 'inhabitants' w h o spoke to them through
on the influence of games and toys on the interpreters in French, G e r m a n or English. A s
psychological development of pre-school-age the voyage proceeded the young children were
children. For example, in talking about their asked to do a wide variety of things such as
childhood games some of the pupils r e m e m - singing a song, reciting poetry, solving riddles
bered that they were always cast in supporting and answering questions. Understandably, a
roles (such as servants or soldiers) whereas most enjoyable time was had by both the
others recalled that it was generally they them- organizers and the young participants.
selves w h o devised the games, choosing to be Finally, the members of the teacher-training
commanding officers, princesses, etc. T h e pupils class reviewed what they had learnt from the
also discussed some of the reasons w h y quarrels emotionally intimate material that had been
arise between children. They clearly r e m e m - discussed and from their observations of the
bered the occasions on which they themselves pre-school-age children and drew up a number
first learnt about such social problems. A s a of pedagogical recommendations to serve as
result of this there ensued a lively and spirited methodological guidelines for their comrades
discussion of the significance of role-playing in w h o would be doing s u m m e r vacation practical
child development. work in kindergartens.
It must be pointed out that such lessons, T h e age-specific and individual character-
which formulate and resolve certain problems istics of primary-school children were studied
in education, also bring u p a number of moral in a somewhat different way. After gaining
issues. It turned out that not all the pupils familiarity with some theoretical material the
had had a happy childhood. S o m e of them re- members of the teacher-training class took part
counted m a n y interesting things about them- in a laboratory experiment designed to deter-
selves and showed some objects dating from mine the readiness offirst-yearpupils for school
their early childhood which had been carefully attendance. In the course of the experiment
preserved by their parents. It was precisely they m a d e their o w n observations both of the
these pupils, as their classmates noticed, w h o teacher conducting the experiment and of the
were the best at school work, sport, music, etc. children being assessed. T h e y then observed
Others, on the contrary, had nothing at all the same first-year pupils in classroom con-
to tell; they could recall nothing of their in- ditions and in out-of-class activities. I then
tellectual contacts with their parents or with concluding lesson they discussed their o w n
other adults. Although such lessons are some- observations and conclusions. This approach
what unfeeling, it must be admitted that they m a d e the theoretical information on the indi-
are likely to help pupils, w h e n they later become vidual and age-specific characteristics of pri-
parents, to avoid certain errors in the upbring- mary-school children immediate, accessible and
ing of children which are attributable to the comprehensible and enabled the members of
ignorance or mental laziness of parents in their the teacher-training class to grasp the import-
role as educators. ance of the methods of studying children in a
In concluding their study of this subject, the school setting and to clarify the pedagogical ap-
pupils of the teacher-training class prepared a proaches to work with primary-school children.
role-playing game k n o w n as 'Voyage Around T h e examples considered above show that
the World' and later acted it out with pre- the main emphasis of our approach in the
school-age children. T h e latter 'travelled' all teacher-training class is on activity and inde-
over the world in various forms of transport pendence. However, the desired result in this
under the guidance of 'engine drivers', 'air work of creative collaboration with the pupils
hostesses' and 'captains'. Their classroom chairs is not achieved overnight. T h e membership of
teacher-training classes includes children from repeat. In order for pre-vocational teacher
different schools not all of w h o m are sufficiently training at school to be effective it is necessary
advanced or have the required psychological to improve the pupils' general development
preparedness for intensive contact with people. and to remedy the shortcomings of their per-
S o m e of them do not manifest a keen interest in sonalities. All this can be achieved only if the
cognitive activity and the acquisition of knowl- pupils themselves m a k e an effort and are
edge; others are unable to comprehend the assisted to take their o w n self-education in
meaning of their experience or draw conclusions hand. Moreover, the entire teaching system
from it; some have difficulty in grasping the needs to be changed and improved so that it
practical application of certain theoretical pro- provides optimum conditions in which the
positions whereas others are unwilling to m a k e pupils can learn and develop. It was precisely
the intellectual effort to discuss questions in a this that w e had in mind in setting u p our
searching and comprehensive way and merely laboratory school.
suggest the first idea that comes into their
heads. M a n y of them will not listen to the
person they are talking to or even heed what
' T h e Psychological
they themselves are saying; some of them are
unwilling to reason, to clarify what they think and Pedagogical Principles
or to conceptualize their feelings. W e have of Training School Pupils
observed weaknesses in their volitional regu- for the Choice
lators—the inability to mobilize themselves, to of the Teaching Profession'
carry a task they have begun through to an
effective result. There are instances of lack of T h e content of this course includes topics and
vigour, inarticulate and apathetic speech, in- information modules which enable the pupils
consistency in actions and decisions, the in- to understand and assess individual character-
ability to give instructions and m a k e a convincing istics and personality traits, and their develop-
defence of their o w n point of view, and so forth. ment. T h e experience of organizing the self-
In addition to shortcomings in terms of education of senior pupils has shown that such
general development, there are also clear in- subjects as 'Educate Yourself, 'Self-education
stances of inadequate personality development of the Teacher-to-be' and ' T h e Hygiene of M e n -
among those attending the teacher-training tal W o r k ' promote a positive attitude towards
classes, some of them showing low self-esteem, theoretical aspects of psychology and pedagogy
diffidence, reservedness, wariness and remote- and provide an effective basis for mastering
ness in their dealings with teachers and other them. These subjects give the pupils a ground-
adults. Others, on the contrary, are excess- ing in the intellectual aspects of teaching, on the
ively self-confident and arrogant. All these qualities of m i n d required and the methods of
behavioural characteristics are psychological de- mental activity. Great attention is paid, both
fence mechanisms and are to some extent due in formal teaching and in extracurricular ac-
to defects in their previous education. Unless tivities, to the development of intellectual abili-
they were revealed and overcome it would have ties. T h e pupils learn about methods of training
been difficult to achieve any kind of success the m e m o r y and increasing one's concentration,
in training the pupils for the teaching profession of intellectual self-education and they gain an
while still at school. T h e inherent shortcomings idea of the significance of the will and the
of Soviet education are n o w being overcome, character of the individual in teaching.
particularly the authoritarian nature of the
teacher-pupil relationship whereby the teacher T h e course also includes such issues as:
explains, demonstrates and drills the pupil h u m a n character and personality; temperament
whereas the latter has to memorize, listen and and types of higher nervous activity; basic
ways and means of developing willpower as a
276 Yulia N. Vyunkova Leonid I. Ruvinsky
personality trait; self-command as a means of major part of the teacher's work. W e place
training the will; purposefulness and the over- particular attention on the development of these
coming of difficulties as the chief means of edu- abilities in our pedagogical training activities
cating oneself to be a strong-willed personality; and in the course entitled 'Speech culture',
aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic abilities in using some of the approaches, forms and prin-
the teacher's work; the connection between ciples of the work of training groups. T h e aim
aesthetics and morals; the place of beauty in of these lessons is not only to remedy short-
h u m a n life; aesthetic education of the person- comings in the personality but also to provide
ality through art; aesthetic self-education. At the pupils with useful training for their future
the same time as studying these subjects the profession and with a grounding in teaching
pupils are expected to m a k e an experimental techniques, and to encourage self-education.
appraisal of their o w n personality. G r o u p activities are a particularly favourable
W e have used various psychological methods environment for the development of perceptual
such as the personality questionnaire (a specially abilities, of communication skills and of sen-
adapted variant of the Eysenck method), sory and intellectual potential: the pupils learn
G . Holland's method (vocational guidance), to observe, analyse, relate motives to actions,
tests of ability, attentiveness, m e m o r y , etc. T h e reflect on their o w n thoughts and feelings and
skills and knowledge acquired by the pupils simultaneously to think, speak and feel.
help them to regulate their o w n activity and Each class is divided into two groups for
behaviour and to inculcate professionally i m - training purposes. T h e governing principles of
portant qualities in themselves. In the course group activities are that the pupils should con-
of this work the pupils acquire the desire to centrate on what happens 'here' and ' n o w ' — o n
understand their o w n individual characteristics the understanding that what occurs in the group
and to be aware of the defence mechanisms of remains confidential—that they should directly
the personality, and they are motivated to assess address the person they are talking to (looking
themselves as future teachers. Self-education is him or her straight in the eyes), commenting
an individual process but it is always connected on the w a y in which the contact progresses,
with the individual's social activity in and for saying what they think about the other's de-
the collective. T h u s the pupils come to grasp meanour, and so forth. During these activities
the social nature of self-education, tackling such it becomes clear that the pupils find it difficult
tasks as: education and self-education of the to look directly into the eyes of their interlocutor,
personality in the collective; self-education as that they shun direct contact, they are embar-
the result of and pre-condition for an active rassed and passive, they are inordinately shy
education; the chief ways and means of self- and have to force themselves by a strong eifort
education; self-education through work; so- of will to speak out in public. Gradually, h o w -
ciety's basic demands on the teacher. ever, as they continue to carry out special
Pedagogical guidance for self-education i m - assignments on which they work together in a
plies awakening certain inner needs in senior g a m e situation which encourages inventiveness,
pupils through their responsible participation they gradually acquire the skills necessary to
in the life of the school collective and through master their emotional state, to participate in
the development of individual creative drives group discussions and to develop the personality
in the context of collective and social interaction. traits required for the teaching profession such
T h e pupil's collective itself is of enormous as concentration and self-control, imagination
importance in education since, by enhancing and self-discipline, reflection, empathy, c o m -
the effect of all the educational resources, it municational skills, and so forth.
creates optimum conditions for the individual W e use such methods as group discussion,
development of each of its members. drawings using a slide projector, role-playing
Organizing and communicating make u p a and non-verbal communication. T h e psycho-
logical techniques employed can be illustrated the pupils an idea of the elements of artistry
by citing the example of the subject entitled in the teacher's work. They gain skill in
'Pedagogical Contact' in which the well-known controlling themselves and the audience, master
training group methods were given a n e w ap- the rudiments of diction, and learn to project
plication and extension. T h e pupils, having their attention and to use appropriate inton-
been set the task of acting out a number of ation. By taking part in performances the pupils
instances of productive and unproductive c o m - learn h o w to conduct themselves 'in public', to
munication situations, worked out the subject- improvise, to go along with the opinion of the
matter and the texts of the dialogue, for group and to work creatively. These sessions
example 'Conversation with a Visitor to M o s c o w ' also give the pupils an enormous amount of m a -
(taking advantage of the presence at our school terial for their o w n individual self-improvement.
at that time of teacher-training class pupils Vocational self-education is a special aspect
from Leningrad). T h e questions and answers of the general self-education of the members of
elicited information on tourist attractions in the teacher-training class and it is one of the
M o s c o w and Leningrad. Other pupils followed most difficult. At the time w h e n theyfirstjoin
the logic of the discussion and observed the the class they take practically no interest in
participants in the experimental situation w h o textbooks on educational theory; the problem
exemplified stereotyped forms of behaviour. of promoting self-education, as an important
There followed a group discussion of what had part of their vocational self-education, is thus
taken place and the pupils, more or less of great importance. However, pupils have to be
unaided, worked out for themselves the require- specially introduced to the habit of reading
ments for productive communication. pedagogical literature.
T h e n another situation is acted out such as In studying theoretical material w e therefore
'Teacher and Pupil' or ' A Conversation Between give a great deal of attention to interesting
a Mother and her Daughter'. This dialogue educational research and tell the pupils about
exemplifies unproductive communication in the literature on the subject. A m o n g the most
which the participants are incompatible both popular books, which are read by most of them,
emotionally and intellectually. They speak with- are Pedagogical Poem by A . S. Makarenko, The
out hearing one another, each carrying on with World Lost and Returned and A Small Book
what he or she has to say, while not adequately about a Great Memory by A . R . Luriya, and
responding to the ideas, words and feelings of Man and Psychology by N . L . Kolomensky.
the other. During the group discussion that Another effective means of creating an interest
follows the pupils themselves formulate theor- in literature on education is to have the children
etical conclusions about the requirements for prepare talks on specific books. For example, in
productive and unproductive communication. studying the subject ' W h a t D o W e K n o w About
They identify such factors as 'sounding out' M a n and His Abilities?' the pupils prepared
the other person to test the degree of mutual reports on the book Educating through Optimism
understanding, looking for shared interests, giv- by A . V . Apraushev which is about teaching
ing and receiving information, sharing emotions, deaf-and-blind children at a children's h o m e
sharing interests in the discussion, the ability to in Zagorsk. Almost all pupils have read the
control the dialogue, to take the initiative in the book by Olga Skorokhodova, Candidate of
discussion or to pass the initiative on to the Pedagogical Sciences, w h o lost her sight w h e n
other speaker. These exercises provide a train- she was a child, entitled How I Perceive, Im-
ing in educational observation and imagination agine and Understand the Surrounding World.
and in identifying the requirements for e m - There was a notable upsurge of interest in
pathetic understanding and help to form these specialized literature after they had visited
skills which are so important to the teacher. a boarding school for deaf-blind-and-dumb
children. Reports on Welcome, Children by
T h e course entitled 'Speech culture' gives
S. A . Amonashvili and Talks with a Teacher productively, and they also provide training for
by L . V . Zankov increase the pupils' interest their operative m e m o r y . Moreover, group work
in the teaching profession. enables each pupil to assert his or her o w n
individuality and to gain self-confidence; as a
result, some of them emerge as leaders of the
T h e quest group with a greater confidence in their o w n
for active teaching methods abilities.
Such real-life playlets have another import-
A s w e have already pointed out, an important ant aspect: the teacher observes the pupils at
objective of teacher-training classes is to achieve work and gains an idea of their abilities, skills,
a general improvement in the education given personal inclinations, and so forth. These
in laboratory schools. O u r institute seeks out methods require a different kind of interrelation-
active methods of teaching and of democratizing ship between teacher and pupil based on mutual
the educational process as a vital means of understanding and collaboration between like-
creating a children's collective with a healthy minded people. A n innovative attitude on the
psychological climate which provides, for each part of the teacher w h o takes an interest in the
child, a secure environment in which unin- personality of the pupil, w h o is his main con-
hibited and harmonious development is ensured. cern, is highly effective in educational and
In the teacher-training classes, w e concen- remedial work with the members of the teacher-
trate particularly on methods of teaching which training class. Such games deal not only with
promote an innovative attitude a m o n g the topics specifically related to teacher training
pupils not only towards the obligations they are but also general education subjects such as
required to fulfil but also towards creative biology and history. In studying the subject
activities in order that they should feel them- ' A B C of Education' the pupils gained a famili-
selves to be actual participants in the task of arity with the educational methods and tech-
devising the teaching methods that are used. niques, in particular the explanatory method.
T h e teaching given is designed to strengthen T h e class was divided into three teams
their ability to exert influence and develop their each of which received an assignment: they
initiative and independence. O u r approach were offered ten concepts denoting h u m a n
involves setting tasks which require to be moral characteristics ('kindness'—responsive-
tackled in a non-standard manner. W e make ness, friendliness towards people; 'philisti-
use of such approaches as acting out real-life nism'—primitive instincts, limited range of
situations, debates and so forth. interests, narrow views, etc.), and were asked
T h e demands m a d e b y the problems that to choose one concept, work out a correspond-
occur in education can be considered by using ing theme and conduct a conversation explain-
role-playing games which simulate a real-life ing the concept in a situation which was as close
situation involving the teacher and taking the as possible to that actually prevailing in the
form of a lively competition in which the entire school. Talks on moral issues are used quite
group participates and the results are objec- regularly by teachers in their work. Similarly,
tively assessed. T h e approach adopted is a the pupils were required not only to elaborate
practical one. Such real-life 'playlets' provide on the thematic content, drawing on their
practice for certain abilities which are pro- personal experience, on historical and literary
fessionally important to future teachers and examples, but also to display a certain amount
reinforce their resources for tackling problems of creative artistry by thinking up original ways
in the school situation. Such forms of play of presenting the subject-matter and giving it
strengthen the ability of pupils to grasp a an emotional impact.
situation, to mobilize themselves, to apply T h e g a m e aroused great enthusiasm and gave
what they k n o w and to think dynamically and considerable scope to the pupils' creative
initiative. It turned out, however, that not all of T h e pupils are well aware of the importance of
them were able to work as a group even though such activities in reinforcing their social ex-
the success of the team depends on the creative perience: 'I think such games are useful. T h e y
participation of all its members. T h e organiz- develop our organizational skills and speed of
ational skills of the pupils varied as did their reaction as well as giving us a greater feeling
ability to affect the listeners indirectly, by of comradeship and enabling us to get to k n o w
means of suggestion. T h e subsequent analysis, one another better. Most important of all, they
in which the reasons for both successes and give us the joy of communication.' (Yelena S.)
failures were singled out, provided a stimulus 'After the game I thought differently about
to the vocational training of the pupils. m a n y of m y classmates. Apart from that, it
A similar treatment was given to the subject helped m e in m y teaching practice.' (Yu-
' H o w to Prepare a Lesson'. T h e pupils were lia Y . ) 'Such games help to unite the col-
given three proverbs: 'Perseverance wins', ' N o lective and create a healthy atmosphere in
pains, no gains', and ' O n e for all, all for one' the class. W e get to know the abilities and
and various methods (verbal exposition, dia- interests of our classmates. Such games develop
logue, discussion) were suggested as ways of organizational skills, attentiveness, friendliness,
elaborating on these themes. T h e class was a willingness to help others, and m a n y other
divided into groups and the pupils played things.' (Yevgeny S.)
the roles of leaders, designers, draughtsmen, F r o m the educational point of view, the
critics, etc. Each role has its o w n pedagogical experience of explaining and evaluating one's
significance since it corresponds to a particular o w n activities and those of others is of great
professional function of the teacher: the role of value. ' W e argued a lot, each of us suggesting
leader or assistant leader corresponds to the his or her o w n version without paying m u c h
functions of an organizer; the role of draughts- attention to anyone else.' (Zhenya S.) ' T h e
m a n and designer provides practice in the main trouble was that the members of the class
ability to transform general ideas into particular were reserved and had very little in c o m m o n .
individual solutions, a quality which is quite Unfortunately, the general attitude was "I don't
indispensable to the teacher; the role of want to do it and I won't". However, it might
compère develops the ability to communicate have been worse, as w e did find some points in
indirectly by suggestion. c o m m o n . ' (Zhanna A . ) 'I failed as a leader.
T h e culminating point of the game was I m a d e a mistake as the very beginning by
the performance by the groups, after which laying d o w n m y o w n rules and no concrete
the reviewers took the floor and gave their plan of action was chosen. Instead of a dis-
assessment of the content and the quality cussion on the topic of the proverb w e had an
of the performance. In conclusion, the leaders evaluation which used discussion as a method.'
s u m m e d u p and named a winner. N o less (Lena I.) It is clear from these statements that
important is the analysis of the successes and the pupils are well aware of their shortcomings.
failures of the game, Oksana T . , one of the Such understanding is a stage on the path to
participants, expressed her opinion as follows: vocational self-education.
Obviously the experience of one teacher does
I think that acting out real-life situations is very not solve the problem of bringing a n e w type of
important for the teacher-training class. I m a y be pupil into being. T h e quest for n e w methods to
wrong but I looked on the acting as a rehearsal for liven up the teaching process is led by teacher-
real life. . . . I think proverbs were a good choice as
experimenters w h o work in teacher-training
subject-matter because they are something w e can
classes under the guidance of our institute. For
all understand. This kind of acting requires a knowl-
edge of educational theory and psychology and, of
example, history and biology lessons include
course, speech training. In its way, the acting showed debates, role games and various forms of group
everything w e have been taught. work. Each pupil becomes in turn the teacher,
28o Yulia N. Vyunkova and Leonid I. Ruvinsky
the assistant teacher, the leader of a group and working together with teachers m a d e an i m -
the producer, or the consultant or teaching pression on them and aroused in them a keen
methods specialist. T h e pupils are actively interest in the thought processes and creativity
involved in organizing the teaching process. of adults.
In one teacher-training class a role game was Such lessons transform pupils: they lose their
played in the context of studying the Great inhibitions, become more independent and
October Socialist Revolution. T h e pupils were enterprising; in role-playing games there are no
given the chance of working out a plan for the silent and bashful onlookers and the relevance
uprising themselves and in the course of dis- of lessons in educational theory or speech
cussion the class assessed the objectivity and culture, which assist future teachers so greatly
correctness of particular opinions. by enabling them to be relaxed in front of their
T h e history teacher regularly sets assign- classmates and in front of teachers, is fully
ments in his class designed to develop the brought h o m e . A n e w type of relationship
productive aspects of the pupils' cognitive between teachers and pupils is also coming
activities, which are added to the store of pro- into being. A great confidence in, and a
fessional skills of these future teachers. A supportive attitude towards, the initiatives and
dramatized debate on the Peace of Brest (1918) potentialities of children make it possible u n -
between supporters of the views of Lenin, obtrusively to show what afinething it is to be a
Trotsky and the 'left-wing communists'; the teacher and to provide a true picture of the
'television link-up' between Western and Soviet joys and difficulties of the teaching profession.
historians on the significance of the October T h e restructuring of the education system,
Revolution; a 'press conference' on topical in the experience of the teachers of the labora-
political themes all help to mould a new type of tory school, corresponds to the main thrust of
pupil w h o is a partner in the task of devising the reform of secondary education in the U S S R .
teaching methods. Research workers take part in varied activities
T h e same approach is also adopted in biology aimed at improving the teaching process while
lessons. T h e teacher-experimenter develops the school serves as a forum for seminars,
n e w forms of seminar and arranges role games. papers are presented at teachers' meetings, dis-
O n e of these entitled 'Alcohol: Friend or Foe?' cussions are held on teaching methods and
turned out to be a surprise for the pupils of the explanations are given of the content and
teacher-training classes w h e n young teachers requirements of pre-college vocational training
from the school joined in the game. A team of for school pupils w h o wish to become teachers.
pupils argued that spirits were harmful to the O n e of the purposes of the teacher-training
h u m a n body and had a damaging effect on classes is the all-round development of the
the personality. However, the young teachers personality which includes a keener emotional
suggested a different approach, emphasizing the perception of the surrounding world. Tourism
importance of spirits in various branches of and amateur entertainment performances are of
economic activity: the production of medicines, particular importance in these classes. A tourist
perfumery, their use in optics, the manufacture group has been set u p in the school and is run
of synthetic materials, and so forth. T h e pupils' by members of the teacher-training class. Its
astonishment knew no bounds. They knew activities help the pupils to acquire vitally
about such things but they had been expecting important skills, experience in h u m a n contact
a stereotyped approach. This lesson was one and in helping each other. They regularly
they would long remember. They acquired a make trips in the M o s c o w region, the Caucasus
clear sense of h o w the laws of dialectics and and the Carpathian Mountains. After each trip
logic work and of the necessity of looking at the participants meet and frankly, but without
any phenomenon from a number of angles. recriminations, discuss all the good and bad
M o r e than that, however, this experience of aspects of the trip.
Laboratory schools for early preparation for the teaching profession in the U S S R
Amateur performances are also very import-

ant in the life of the teacher-training class.
T h e pupils prepare theme-related evening en-
tertainments such as ' A n Initiation for Pioneer
Leaders', ' N e w Year Holidays', 'Love is the
Starting-point', and so forth, which have enor-
m o u s educational and formative influence in
terms of vocational guidance and strengthening
the favourable disposition of the pupils towards
the teaching profession. T h e experience that
has been accumulated in the laboratory school
helps in the reformulation of a number of
important theoretical, organizational and peda-
gogical problems and sheds n e w light on, for
example: the age at which abilities for the
teaching profession first manifest themselves;
the main ways of developing them; the best
means of providing secondary-school pupils
with vocational guidance for the teaching
profession.
Experimental work in the laboratory school
helps to enhance the effectiveness of the entire
educational process in schools. T h e increased
responsibilities given to teachers, the in-flow of
creative talent, the change in the attitude
of members of the teaching staff towards
their pupil-colleagues and consequently the
general democratization of education, the
greater interest taken by parents in educational
matters, the creation in the school of an
atmosphere of mutual respect and innovation,
are all significant consequences of this ex-
periment. •
PROFILES OF E D U C A T O R S
Reviews ALEXANDER SUTHERLAND NEILL

(1883-1973)
T h e death of Alexander Sutherland Neill o n 23 Sep-

tember 1973 went almost unrecorded in the news-
papers, yet it marked the end of the saga of S u m m e r -
hill, his little school in Suffolk, England, and set the
seal on the disregard or even rejection of a m a n w h o
had c o m e to symbolize a decade of nonconformist
fervour.
A Radical Approach to Child Rearing (i960), a
best-seller in the 1960s, had m a d e Summerhill a
centre of avant-garde libertarian education and placed
Neill at the very heart of a heated educational contro-
versy. Even w h e n the most indignant protests and
accusations of child corruption were being voiced,
pupils and visitors flocked to this centre.
This somewhat disturbing enthusiasm met with
success, although oddly enough it failed to m a k e
Neill famous. Little is generally k n o w n of the daily
life of the school or of the fact that Summerhill is
above all the story of an educator's long-lasting dream,
i
a dream m a d e of generosity, vulnerability and naivety,
a dream with which all those involved in education
can identify.
THE PIONEER OF THE 1920S
W h e n he was discovered in the 1960s, Neill was very

soon classed as a disciple of Reich. T h e two m e n were
indeed very close, but it should not be forgotten
that the work of Neill mustfirstbe seen in terms of
exceptional educational longevity. W h e n he died at
the age of 90, Neill had spent most of his life in the
classroom: as pupil, as pupil-teacher with his father,
as teacher and then as headmaster. A n y influences
which exist thus go back m u c h earlier in the century.
Neill was hardly recognized for what he w a s , that
is, above all the last survivor of the N e w Education
movement which flourished at the turn of the cen-
tury. T i m e in any case had already taken its toll of
these adventurous years of education, leaving a trace
only of the leading figures and passing over the
extraordinary proliferation of research discoveries
and idealistic theories. F r o m this point of view, the
English-speaking branch, where Neill had found
his o w n special place, was by no means the least
flourishing.
It is not generally k n o w n that in 1920 he ran the
review New Era with the theosophist Beatrice Ensor,
thus becoming a close observer of a wide variety of
experiments and achievements and promoting the
spread of n e w ideas, not hesitating to act as an ardent
and more than partial propagandist. In those years,
N o . 2, 1988
Prospects, Vol. XVIII,
284 Reviews
Neill was already, in the words of Adolphe Fernere, In this school, however, lessons were optional. T h e
the 'enfant terrible of extremist educational ideas in children could play all day if they so wished, or do
England' (Fernere, 1922, p. 384). A reader of Freud, handicrafts in the workshop. T h e evenings were set
whose ideas he used skilfully to deride his colleagues, aside for dancing, theatre and entertainment. If it
a fierce adversary of Maria Montessori, already an had not been for the threat of the school being closed
eminent educational theorist, w h o m he accused of by the authorities, Neill would have placed no ban on
having an over-scientific and moralistic approach, sexual relations.
Neill sowed the seeds of controversy and provoked Friday evening was set aside for the general as-
' m u c h indignation and outrage' (Hemmings, 1972, sembly. During that meeting, which was chaired by
p. 57), until his ultimate exclusion from the review. an elected pupil, the children explained their prob-
N o r is it widely k n o w n that he attended the Calais blems and discussed them, working out their o w n
Congress, where he m e t Decroly, Fernere and all rules. In this assembly, Neill's vote, like that of the
the leading pioneers, leaving his mark as the author other adults, had no greater weight than that of a
of avant-garde works. pupil. This, says Neill, was the secret of the success
H e became better k n o w n after the First World of an educational technique learnt through contact
W a r through the success of hisfirstbook A Dominie's with H o m e r Lane.
Log (1915); but above all he liked to think of himself T h e originality, the provocation and success of the
as the spiritual son of H o m e r Lane, anotherfigureof founder's books were not always sufficient to protect
the English movement, the founder of the Little the school from the risk of closure. After the Second
C o m m o n w e a l t h , an establishment of young delin- World W a r , there was a dangerous decrease in the
quents run on the principle of self-government. number of pupils and the Summerhill Society had
H o m e r Lane, of American origin, had learned to be to be founded in order to save the school. T h e edu-
an educator in the United States at the George cation authorities never really accepted it. W h e n they
Junior Republic. Attacked for his practices, Lane went back on their decision to close the school, some,
put u p a clumsy defence and was forced to leave as H e m m i n g s (1972, p. 241) noted, interpreted this
England. Neill saw in him hisfirstmartyr. Reich was not so m u c h as a mark of recognition as a kind of
to be the second. tolerance of 'a mere relic'. Yet it was this same relic
which, several years later, was to prove too small to
SUMMERHILL take in all the pupils and visitors.
Neill opened hisfirstschool in 1922 during a journey THE LIBERTARIAN IMPULSE

through Europe, but he founded Summerhill, near
Leiston, in England, in 1924. T h e little school existed Neill was neither a scientist nor a researcher, perhaps
for decades without a change. Through some twenty a philosopher, but above all a dreamer and idealist.
books and countless articles, he related the daily life H e did not belong to one specific educational or
of the school, never missing an opportunity to pro- psychological school of thought and he never devel-
voke argument, repeatedly describing a place in oped a methodical, well-thought-out approach. His
which the adult had not imposed his will, a place for whole work was merely an extension of his o w n
play where total disorder reigned. personality. Although a prolific writer, what he wrote
A great deal of damage done was done to the school was often no more than outbursts of enthusiasm,
by the children: ' T h e wear and tear of materials in vehement assertions, anecdotes and indignant reac-
Summerhill is a natural process . . . and if a boy needs tions, but also, it must be admitted, it consisted of
a piece of metal for a boat keel, he will use m y over-simplified arguments. H e never troubled to
expensive tools if one of them happens to be about present his ideas in a logical sequence nor to ascertain
the right size' (1970, p p . 13, 34, 130).* Journalists if they corresponded to reality. A s Bates A m e s (1973,
called Summerhill the cdo-as-you-please school' p. 75) put it, 'Neill constructs a theory of h o w a
( H e m m i n g s , 1972, p . 140). M a n y of the visitors child thinks, and what he thinks the child needs, and
indeed saw the school as 'a Kaf kaesque universe with even w h e n that theory is refuted by all the objective
dilapidated and sometimes vandalized buildings' evidence, he still insists on treating children as if
(Vallotton, 1967, p. 9). Yet the school, with its they were as he imagined them to be.' In fact Neill,
wooden buildings, its large park and trees, seemed, unlike his contemporaries, never approached edu-
especially in s u m m e r , one of the most pleasant of cational problems in terms of needs but in terms of
places, a real country school such as Fernere dreamed rights. Even w h e n he borrowed the term of 'self-
of at the beginning of the century. regulation' from Reich, it was to say that it meant
'the right of a baby to live freely without outside
* The references to Neill's writings are indicated by the authority in things psychic and somatic' (1953, p. 42).
date of publication and page numbers, referring the This explains w h y the theories of the time were often
reader to the bibliography of Neill's works on page 289. distorted and were only used as a vehicle for his o w n
Reviews 285
ideas. Later in life, he was still surprised to have quenchable hatred of all religious teaching and any
written for years without having succeeded in clarify- imposition of values, whatever their form. His view
ing his beliefs and actions. of the traditional school with its system of corporal
'Freedom in a school is simply doing what you punishment, or the N e w School based on the C o u é
like so long as you do not spoil the peace of method, for example, added fuel to theflames,a n d
others'—that sums up the principle of freedom which if psychoanalysis was ever useful to h i m it was
prevailed at Summerhill. Its application in educational because it provided h i m with the means of dis-
terms is simple: 'in psychic health w e should impose secting it. Neill sought only to appeal to the child's
nothing and in learning w e should demand nothing' intelligence and spirit of decision. Beacause he was
(i953j P- I°3)- In fact, Neill's educational project not a subtle m a n , his observation of social reality
was complete by 1914 before he had ever read a single confirmed his view that any attempt at moralism
educational treatise: 'These bairns . . . have done what is motivated by a desire for domination. This aroused
they liked.... I k n o w that I have brought out all their his interest in Reich's studies on the psychic structure
innate goodness' (1915, pp. 151-2). All his books and of the masses shaped by sexual repression. It led to
articles are simply variations on this theme and his his refusal ever to transmit any value: 'I never
contacts were all used first and foremost to confirm attempt to get children to share m y beliefs or m y
that theme rather than enrich it. This principle is the prejudices' (1962, p . 224). 'I do not see what right
reflection of a true libertarian impulse which came teachers have to force children to adopt what they
straight from childhood. consider to be in good taste', he would often say. It
was a strangely contradictory approach by which
Neill glorified education while demonstrating its
THE RESOLUTE INDIVIDUALIST impossibility.
Neill did not emerge from childhood—one spent in For Neill, the world was black yet at the heart of
the shadow of Calvin—unscathed. H e was long to this blackness lay the inherent goodness of m a n . ' T h e
remember the moments of happiness spoilt by the general idea . . . is the conception that m a n is a
endless threat of divine retribution, the fear of sin, sinner by birth and that he must be trained to be
the fear of dying unshriven. This fear was inculcated good' (1926, p. 139). For Neill on the contrary, 'there
less by the church than by family life: ' W e were not is not, and never was, original sin' (1953, p. 42).
specifically taught religion; it was in the air . . . an Despite some cruel doubts, this faith in m a n was
atmosphere of negation of life' (1972, p. 44). In this never to leave him. It balked his attempt to return to
large family, between a distant mother and a father the ideas of Freud. That belief brought him near to
w h o had little esteem for h i m , the young Alexander Reich, for w h o m m a n was an 'honest creature,
did not seem to have found the love he needed, the hard-working, co-operative, affectionate'.
love he so successfully gave his o w n pupils.
This childhood turned him into a resolute indi- CHRISTIAN FEELINGS
vidualist. ' H e was the kind of fellow w h o would paint
his bicycle blue w h e n everyone else's was black' 'I a m a very religious person; what m a n brought up
(.Hemmings, 1972, p. 3). At school he was indeed a in Calvinist Scotland could fail to be?' Neill was
solitary child, a misfit, finding in this his stability, often to say. In fact his upbringing instilled in him
his strength and his weakness. H e sought to m a k e an exceptionally strong Christian sensitivity. O n two
his pupils into people w h o did not passively follow occasions Neill wished to become a parson. These
the crowd but were self-reliant, holding their o w n feelings were to colour his whole vision of the
opinions, capable of self-assertion. His need for world and his educational project. T h e y were already
independence was not without a certain taste for present in hisfirstbook w h e n , commenting o n
excess and provocation, laying the stakes on m a n : Nietzsche's ideas, he notes: 'If pity and kindness are
' T h e one thing that will save the people is individu- wrong, then wrong is right' (1975, p. 108). Neill
alism . . . your country needs you . . . to set it right', dreamt of a world governed by love, a love that
he said to each of his pupils in 1915 (1975, p p . 101, would establish universal harmony, a world re-
120). For the freedom which he offered his pupils flecting the message of Christ, the 'original' message,
aimed at nothing less than making them into people that which was perverted by the evangelists (1916,
w h o would live to serve others: ' W e want to turn p. 75). This world would c o m e w h e n m a n took time
out m e n and w o m e n w h o will rapidly join the con- to reflect on his o w n acts: 'I think that the foundation
ventional crowd and help it to reach better ideals' of true justice is self-analysis; . . . in m y Utopia, self-
(1920, p. 70). This is where education comes into examination will be the only examination that will
the picture: 'it must help a child to live its cosmic matter' (1975, pp. 145-6). This was the message
life fully, to live for others, for every h u m a n is which Neill found again in H o m e r Lane, w h o said
egocentric, selfish' (1920, p. 128). that each of us is the lover of all mankind and the
entire world. M a n is constrained to love. If he hates
Neill emerged from this childhood with an u n -
286 Reviews
he is expressing love in a negative way. Neill found children and I a m incapacitated for teaching' (1922,
in this the gospel which he had sought (1980, p. 44) p. 198).
and the experience of the Little Commonwealth was Nevertheless, Neill particularly took u p the ideas
a 'Christ-like experiment to encourage m e ' (1916, of traumatism and repression, terms which, w h e n
p . 53). It was this same message that Reich sought associated with that of childhood, could not fail to
to transmit and it is well k n o w n to what extent he acquire an immense power for all-embracing expla-
identified with Christ. nation. Neill shared the view of his colleagues:
T o quote Hameline (1985, p. 72), Neill throughout ' T h e neurotic is a person whose libido or life force
his life 'far from being an immoralist, conducted a is bottled u p . . . the boy w h o hates algebra and has to
constantly pastoral enterprise'. Beyond its disorder, work examples is getting no chance whatever [to
Summerhill was an eminently moral place. Neill had express himself]' (1920, p. 115). This view confirmed
several reasons for writing that his pupils lived 'as his belief that nature is good. Only education perverts
honestly and as humanely as any gospel band of it, that education of which Freud had just shown u p
Christians' (i939j P- 73). the contradictions.
W e can thus see h o w greatly this m a n w h o was Psychoanalysis makes it possible to reveal this true
accused of corrupting children was misunderstood. nature by extending the bounds of introspection,
Here, however, perhaps lies the reason for his which led Neill to say: 'I firmly believe that Freud's
difficulty in explaining his thoughts and acts, bearing discovery will have a greater influence on the evol-
as he did a message to which his contemporaries ution of humanity than any discovery of the last ten
seemed barely sensitive; obliged to seek ways of centuries' (1920, p . 141). Henceforth, a world
realizing it outside conventional moral principles; governed by love was possible. W a s Christ not the
tempted, in order to formulate his message, to use m a n of love, of charity and of justice because he
concepts which, taken out of context, only gave it an 'knew his o w n weakness' (1926, p. 171)? Throughout
illusion of scientific precision. Yet Neill had his place his life, Neill was to repeat that ' w e might trace all
a m o n g educators like Montessory, Ferriere and Cla- the futilities, all the stupidities of mankind, all the
parède. T h e y all placed their hopes in m a n and wars and crimes and injustices to man's ignorance of
education. All were in their o w n way libertarians. All, himself. Through self-knowledge, m a n regains that
according to Avanzini (1975, p p . 131-2), 'nurtured inner peace which heralds universal harmony: 'no
the same hope . . . that a just and generous world happy m a n ever disturbed a meeting or preached a
might be attained'. war or lynched a negro' (1962, p . 15).
Neill very soon ceased to read Freud. H e found
THE ATTRACTIONS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS the concept of m a n as presented through psycho-
analysis difficult to accept. H e never refused to speak
Neill endeavoured atfirstto base his libertarian of libido, but that libido was too m u c h threatened
educational approach on the contributions of psycho- by what Ferriere (1922, p. 220) had called the 'dark
analysis at the very time w h e n Freud's ideas were cave' for him not to yield, like m a n y others, to the
beginning to penetrate the world of education. A attractions of the Jungian 'life impulse' through
'fervant psychoanalyst' (Ferriere, 1922, p. 384), he which the basic goodness of h u m a n nature could
did not hesitate from 1920 onwards to give lectures unfurl, with all its promise for the future. 'Freud
on this theory, and two years later even undertook believes in original sin' (1920, p. 24). For Neill, the
the analysis of some of his pupils, on the strength life impulse very soon assumed the innocence of a
of having just read a few books and having had a 'desexualized libido' (Bigeault, 1978, p. 53) and his
number of more than singular psychological dis- 'theory of sexuality . . . although unbridled, has
cussions with H o m e r Lane. Psychoanalysis in its nothing erotic or roguish about it... it has the crystal
early stages left the door open to m a n y vagaries. In clarity of pure pleasure' (Mazure, 1980, p. 53). Neill
fact, Neill was always a dilettante in this field. simultaneously rejected the whole Freudian theory
T h e two books by Freud, the Interpretation of on the structure of the personality and was never to
Dreams and Psychopathology of Everyday Life, pro- admit the existence of the Oedipus complex. Reich
vided him with a key to his o w n behaviour and that did not contradict him.
of others. H e derived amusement from them but
above all saw them as a justification for his theory:
THE DOCTRINE OF INTEREST
' T h e teacher and the parson are m e n w h o hate
themselves so m u c h that they must always be preach- Neill also based his arguments on the doctrine of
ing. But through the mechanism of protection, they interest, a key concept in the educational theories of
see their faults in the other fellow and proceed to the time. Interest was the psychological basis of the
lead him to the binomial theorem or to salvation.' N e w Education movement. According to Ferriere
H e m a y then conclude, since he is in the process of (1922, p. 229), 'it is the lever which moves m o u n -
analysis: 'I cannot project m y faults on to a class of tains . . . the keystone of the Active School'. Neill
Reviews 287
proclaimed its virtues: 'interest is the only criterion' out being asked to, he would learn since it was in
(1922, p. 229). T h e similarity stops here, because his nature to do so. This was to become the principle
although for Fernere (1922, p. 230) 'only interest of free study. This natural harmonious development
which is capable of stimulating and sustaining effort took in all aspects of the child's personality.
deserves the n a m e of interest', for Neill the concept
was simple and devoid of ambiguity: ' W h e n a boy A DIFFERENT REALITY
makes a snowball, he is interested. . . . I don't care
It is a strange faculty that education has, to be able
what a child is doing in the w a y of creation, whether
to stimulate and encourage the development of such
he is making tables, porridge or sketches . . . or
a theory, charged with so m u c h nostalgia and so
snowballs . . . there is more true education in making
m a n y healing projects. O n e can see here all Neill's
a snowball than in listening to an hour's lecture on
passion and obstinacy, and especially his solitude,
grammar' (1920, p p . 13-14).
even though he w a s so deeply rooted in the edu-
There is no doubt that it was his forays into cational trends of the period, which he caricatured.
Freudian ideas which m a d e him so sure of himself. It is a theory which daily practical reality at S u m m e r -
Claparède had proposed merging interest and libido hill never succeeded in refuting. In fact, the project
in a single concept. Neill for his part merged the two was designed for uninhibited, self-regulated children,
approaches with easy assurance—the approach of the but the school never had occasion to take in such
psychoanalyst on the one hand and that of the edu- pupils. Life at Summerhill in fact fell far short of
cator on the other. ' T h e child's interest... is simply the picture painted of it by its headmaster.
what he can d o with all his infinite life energy'
Neill's project in its simplicity calls for a few
(1922, p. 229); 'interest is the life force of the whole
elementary reminders. W e k n o w , as Freud e m p h a -
personality' (1926, p. 152).
sized, that the child must learn to control his instincts
and adapt to his social environment and that edu-
T H E W A N I N G OF INTEREST cation must to a large extent teach h i m to do this.
T h e basic h u m a n experience is in fact the experience
F r o m the educational to the psychological, the circle of frustration. W e also k n o w that if the child is
gradually closes. ' T h e aim of education is to allow to develop a strong ego (which Neill sought to
emotional release so that there will be no bottling achieve), he needs to m a k e contact with personalities
up and no future neurosis, and this release comes capable both offirmnessand affection, w h o encourage
through interest' (1920, pp. 114-15). Henceforth the this subtle interplay of love and aggressivity through
teacher's work is simple: 'to find out where a child's which the ego is formed.
interest lies and to help him to live it out'; ' m y
Curiously enough, in this place—the school—from
pupils never go to a lesson, it takes such faith and
which theoretically he should be excluded, the adult
patience to realize that they are doing the right
plays a n important role, especially Neill, whose
thing' (1945* P- 145)-
open-mindedness, h u m a n w a r m t h , enthusiasm, o p -
It is not surprising in this context that Neill timism and h u m o u r were familiar to each pupil. T h e
demanded the withdrawal of the educator, through great freedom he granted his pupils and the trust
w h o m traumatism could occur. H e took u p here a he placed in them gained h i m even more respect in
theme in fashion at the time, that of the comrade- their eyes. Each pupil k n e w that, if necessary, Neill
teacher. Fernere himself did not fail to praise 'the readily took firm action and imposed prohibitions in
faculty of spontaneously formed social bodies . . . to order to protect the child and the group. Every
bring children after a period of anarchy . . . to pupil k n e w that he was the headmaster and could
establish order and discipline. . . . N o adult seeking resort to expulsion.
to impose his authority could ever obtain what the
spirit of the beehive achieves spontaneously' (Fer- Bruno Bettelheim (1972, p p . 103-4) was right
nere, 1950, p. 32). W h a t in Ferriere was primarily an w h e n he said :
appeal to a silent presence soon became in Neill Neill remains unaware of why the things he does work . . .
something like an appeal to regression. H e had, as he does not face the fact that all is due to how the pupils
Lane had moreover taught h i m , to be 'one of the identify with him. H e does not realize that Summerhill
works not because it is just the right setting in which to
boys'. It should be noted that Lane, on at least one raise children, but because it is nothing but an extension
occasion, joined in quite cheerfully with the children of his personality. Everything about it expresses Neill. . .
in damaging his o w n school. what he stands for and lives for. Everywhere there is the
T h u s ends this amazing balancing act between two powerful impact of his person . . . and sooner or later
theories which, once more after Rousseau, hold that most children come to identify with him, however reluc-
tantly. H e is simply one of the grandest m e n around.
nature is the best educator and reduce the educator
to the role of preserving nature's slow but sure work. A s M a u c o (1971, p . 154) points out, on account of
For Neill had n o doubt that, through successive the large n u m b e r of pupils, a 'group idea m a y emerge
interests, the child was moving towards good. With- and stimulate a tendency to identification'.
288 Reviews
It is certainly this ability to be present which children or adolescents could hardly be expected to
explains Neill's educational genius, and in this his control. There is n o doubt that thanks to Neill, this
experiment deserves consideration, even if there is a group life led to conclusions in which each could
singular lack of instruments by which to examine it. acquire a knowledge of himself and of others.
Without reservations, Neill certainly loved his p u - Perhaps Neill thus succeeded in bringing about
pils and stood by them. This w a s a hazardous inner peace. Vallotton (1976, p . 11) was indeed
undertaking which often m a d e trainee teachers an 'astonished at the truth and clarity in the pupil's
easy prey for groups of pupils. O n this point Neill looks and conversation'.
learnt from his experience. At the heyday of the That was his success. Free study was his failure.
appeal to regression and the theory that pupils should In fact he was never really interested in teaching as
be allowed to live out their interests, he faced the such. T h e methods were left to the discretion of
phenomenon of aggressivity and learned to hear the the teachers and were chiefly acknowledged to be
child's demands in all their ambiguity. H e learned traditional.
h o w to respond. For at Summerhill, relations m o v e d
rapidly towards therapeutic activity and the pupils
could have psychological discussions if they so BETWEEN DREAM AND REALITY
wished. Open-minded, observant, intuitive, playing Here, then, is Summerhill reduced to its h u m a n
on h u m o u r and the impact of the unexpected, Neill dimension, with all its richness on the one hand and
'draws the pupil out of a lie in which he has got its vulnerability and shortcomings on the other, for
lost' (Mannoni, 1970, pp. 11-12). Better still, it was there is n o lack of reservations on the subject. In
in everyday things, through a chance meeting, that the 1960s, there was m u c h questioning of the consist-
a word or a sentence could help the child. ency of Neill's thinking but also and above all of
Because he had this ability to be present, Neill the revolutionary significance of the project. O n
could recommend that the educational setting should this last point, Snyders (1974), for example, never
be reduced to a m i n i m u m . Prohibitions did of course doubted that a purely psychological approach to
exist and the child was faced with a set of rules, m a n y social problems, such silence from the teacher, such
of which were the result of group decisions. Their a breach between the school and the outside world,
existence did not fail to strike visitors. In that could only lead to the narrowest conservatism. These
respect, however, Neill pushed the limits back as reservations turned into rejection w h e n it was seen
far as possible. That did not m e a n , incidentally, that that the school existed primarily by taking in children
life at Summerhill was easy. Bettelheim (1972, whose social background meant that schooling was
pp. 108-9) noted: not a great concern, and above all because of the
charisma of its founder. This was a reality which
While such an educational setting imposes few specific Neill, too involved in explaining his educational
demands, though never trivial ones, it is really among the views, endeavouring to reconcile his beliefs and his
most demanding of educational institutions. Because such actions, would not have wished to admit, leaving the
a setting demands of the child that he develop a very critics to sweep away everything of value that the
high degree of self-respect; and with it true respect for venture had produced.
others. This is much harder to learn than how to auto-
matically get to class at 9 o'clock. This w a s the creation of a place where the child
felt loved, respected and understood. In his o w n way
F r o m this point of view, the self-government which and to some extent despite himself, Neill rehabili-
prevailed throughout the life of the school proved tated the educator, that controversial character on
to be a strong factor in personal development and the educational scene, which the fierce individualism
socialization. It was, in fact, one of the most valuable of our times has struck out of the educational treatises,
yet most neglected contributions of the N e w E d u - as if it still needed to be proved that educational
cation m o v e m e n t that Summerhill passed on to us. success depends largely on the personality of the
Neill never ceased to marvel at it. Throughout his teacher, his enthusiasm and commitment. There
life he saw his pupils daring to speak out, to express again, Neill passes on to us something of the 1920s,
opinions, to defend an idea, moving gradually from something of their invigorating eccentricity.
selfishness to co-operation, showing loyalty towards Strangely enough, however, it was by blindly fol-
the group, developing a high sense of justice. A s for lowing his o w n path that Neill sustained enthusiasm,
the role of adults and of Neill himself, n o one was and above all his o w n . Throughout his life, like Lane
ever taken in by this. A few mischievous remarks, and Reich, he had an immense admiration for
a few humorous comments, were often enough to Christ, and felt imbued with a mission. After the
guide the debate and Neill never hesitated to inter- Second World W a r , he even thought that Summerhill
vene more firmly in order to protect the group from was becoming the birthplace of a n e w civilization.
regression. After all, before becoming a harmonious H e also sustained enthusiasm in others. A t a time
unit, a group often experiences phenomena which w h e n all values were being questioned, there were
Reviews 289
m a n y w h o , unaware of the reality of the school, saw

in Summerhill an alternative which corresponded to
their hopes. Summerhill was, and will long remain, References
a mythical place where, at one time, a world of love
and harmony came into being. A V A N Z I N I , G . 1975. Immobilisme et novation dans l'éduca-
tion. Toulouse, Privat. 318 pp.
Jean-François S A F F A N G E
B A T E S - A M E S , L . 1972. In: Pour ou contre Summerhill
Director of the Bureau
[Summerhill: For and Against] (collective work). Paris,
d'Action Linguistique Française
Payot. 247 pp.
Tunis
BETTELHEIM, B . 1972. In: Pour ou contre Summerhill
[Summerhill: For and Against] (collective work). Paris,
Payot. 247 pp.
BIGEAULT, J. P. 1978. (In collaboration with G . Terrier.)
L'illusion psychanalytique en éducation. Paris, Presses
Bibliography of works Universitaires de France. 268 pp.
by Alexander Sutherland Neill FERRIÈRE, A . 1922. L'école active. Neuchâtel/Geneva,
Delachaux & Niestlé.
Educational works . 1950. L'autonomie des écoliers dans les communautés
1915 A Dominie's Log. London, Jenkins. 219 pp. d'enfants. Neuchâtel/Paris, Delachaux & Niestlé. 152 pp.
1916 A Dominie Dismissed. London, Jenkins. 233 pp. H A M E L I N E , D . 1985. Preface. Libres regards sur Sum-
1920 A Dominie in Doubt. London, Jenkins. 256 pp. merhill. L'œuvre pédagogique de A. S. Neill. Berne/
1922 A Dominie Abroad. London, Jenkins. 256 pp. Frankfurt/New York, Peter Lang.
1926 The Problem Child. London, Jenkins. 255 pp. H E M M I N G S , R . 1972. Fifty Years of Freedom. London,
1932 The Problem Parent. London, Jenkins. 256 pp. George Allen & Unwin. 218 pp.
1936 Is Scotland Educated? London, Routledge. 192 pp. M A N N O N I , M . 1970. Preface. Libres enfants de Sum-
1937 That Dreadful School. London, Jenkins. 156 pp. merhill. Paris, Maspero. 326 pp.
1939 The Problem Teacher. London, Jenkins. 192 pp. M A U C O , G . 1971. La paternité. Paris, Éditions Universi-
1945 Hearts Not Heads in the School. London, Jenkins. taires. 184 pp.
164 pp. M A Z O R E , J. 1980. Enfant à l'école, école (s) pour (V) en-
1949 The Problem Family. London, Jenkins. 158 pp. fant (s). Tournai, Castermann. 220 pp.
1953 The Free Child. London, Jenkins. 178 pp. M E D I C I , A . 1962. L'éducation nouvelle. Paris, Presses
1958 Wilhem Reich (in collaboration with P. Ritter). Universitaires de France. 125 pp.
N e w York, Ritter Press. SAFFANGE, J.-F. 1976. Neill et Lane. Bulletin Binet et
i960 A Radical Approach to Child Rearing. (Preface by Simon, N o . 553.
E. Fromm.) N e w York, Hart Publishing Co. Pub- . 1980. Neill, Neill, peau de mandarine. Bulletin
lished in the United Kingdom under the title: Binet et Simon, N o . 575.
Summerhill: A Radical Approach to Education. . 1985. In: Daniel Hameline (ed.). Libres regards sur
London, Gollancz, 1962. Summerhill. L'œuvre pédagogique de A. S. Neill. Berne/
1966 Freedom, Not Licence! N e w York, Hart Publishing Frankfurt/New York, Peter Lang. 216 pp.
Co. S N Y D E R S , G . 1973. Où vont les pédagogies non-directives?
1971 Children Rights. (In collaboration with L . Berg, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France. 317 pp.
P. Adams, M . Duane, et al.) London, Elek Books. V A I X O T T O N , M . 1976. Visites à Summerhill. Defense de la
248 pp. jeunesse scolaire. Paris. (Lettre d'information, N o . 48.)
1972 Neill, Neill, Orange Peel. N e w York, Hart Pub-
lishing Co.
1972 Preface in H . Snitzer: Today is for Children, Num-
bers Can Wait. N e w York, Macmillan.
Novels and children's stories

1919 Booming of Bunkie. London, Jenkins. 247 pp.
1920 Carroty Broon. London, Jenkins. 318 pp.
1924 A Dominie's Five. London, Jenkins. 256 pp.
1939 Last Man Alive. London, Jenkins. 255 pp.
290 Reviews
process embodied in a curriculum. For this purpose,

BOOK REVIEWS the authors review the latest developments in teach-
ing practice (systems approach, curriculum, tax-
o n o m y of educational goals, educational technology)
The Contents of Education
which the authors consider to be starting-points for
A Worldwide View of their Development
a methodology for developing educational contents.
from the Present to the Year 2000
This second part, over 100 pages long, provides a
S . R A S S E K H and G . V A I D E A N U synoptic overview, which helps us to take stock of a
Paris, Unesco, 1987, 297 pp. controversial issue, a n d is drafted in a straight-
forward style, steering clear of polemics and a m b i -
guities of language.
As its title indicates, Rassekh and Vaideanu's work T h e ten pages of the introduction to Part 1
is a contribution to the study of a major problem in encapsulate w h a t is probably the major m e t h o d -
education today and one that is often overlooked in ological assumption of the work, namely that, con-
specialist literature, namely, that of the contents of trary to the calls for the 'deschooling' of education,
education, a question regarded b y the authors as formal education remains and will remain the pivot
crucial for the general development of education a n d of educational action. T h e following quotation
educational institutions. (pp. 125-6), somewhat lengthy though it is, provides
Rassekh a n d Vaideanu's wide-ranging, well- the key to the debate:
documented book starts out from five case-studies
(China, H u n g a r y , the Netherlands, the Philippines Educational contents in the broad sense of the term
and the United States) o n predictable trends in the include both the contents of school (formal) and out-
of-school (non-formal) education and those of informal
contents of general education in the next two decades.
education (so-called parallel schooling). The information
This work was done at Unesco's request. It should be acquired outside school is a rapidly growing source of
m a d e clear from the outset, however, that the a p - knowledge; the volume of information gathered through
proach adopted b y the t w o authors w a s m o r e than films and television, newspapers, entertainment and so
merely to sift and analyse the data obtained b y the forth varies greatly from one individual to another; the
case-studies; their outlook is truly international and mass of data, images and impressions is built up inde-
multidimensional, covering various types of hitherto pendently of the school in accordance with the preferences
unpublicized experiences in the development of edu- or interests of young people, depending on the cultural
cational contents. level of the family, the local community, etc. It is seldom
analysed or made the subject of decision-making; in some
T h e book is in t w o parts. T h e first makes a n cases, this informationfillsgaps, particularly in astronomy,
exhaustive analysis of the complex issues facing the space exploration, modern technology, etc. Curriculum
world today, the invariable feature of which over the developers and teachers are not able to master the whole
past few decades seems to have been the 'crisis'. There range of educational content, nor can they be expected
are six m a i n issues, each dealt with systematically in to do so; on the other hand, it is increasingly incumbent
on them to take steps, within the organized educational
a separate chapter: population growth, economic
process (in and out of school), to ensure that the various
changes, socio-political changes, cultural changes and types of content are better integrated and that use—if
scientific progress, world problems and the internal only partial—is made of the aforementioned mass of data
dynamics of education systems. These are the issues and impressions, so large in quantitative terms. T h e extent
which the authors believe will have a direct impact on to which pupils are trained to seek out, select and interpret
the pattern a n d development of educational content. such information is both a criterion of educational success
This global analysis is justified b y the fact that and a factor in academic success. Rather than opposing
two types of education—formal and informal—we have
education cannot b e treated out of context, and that,
thought it more constructive to reconsider the role of the
consequently, what are termed 'educational contents' school which, by preparing pupils to deal with and
(knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, outlooks o n the integrate the culture and ideas present in the media and
world) are in reality the result of a host of converging daily life, could help to give unity to the spiritual lives of
factors. T h e school and curricula are accordingly the young people and to avoid 'spiritual alienation'.
focal point for a large n u m b e r of influences from
outside the school that m u s t be consolidated in the T h e first chapter in Part 2 deals with current devel-
form of contents to be learned. It m a y be noted in opments in educational contents. T h e authors review
this connection that the authors prefer to use the current discussions and speculate o n the general out-
w o r d 'contents' in the plural, for the very reason that look for formal education. A point to note in this
it suggests the plurality of factors involved as well as connection is that the school is not 'dead' or in
the interdependence of formal, non-formal and in- decline, but simply undergoing transformation.
formal education. In their exhaustive review of a particularly complex
T h e second part places m o r e emphasis o n teaching issue, the authors have sought to preserve the unity
as such, treating contents as a teaching-learning of a highly diversified subject. T h e y thus accomplish
Reviews 291
the notable feat of presenting to the reader, in clear O n e of the most interesting aspects of the book is
prose and in the space of fifty pages, some thirty probably the methodology proposed by the authors
different cases, and in doing so they succeed in illus- for syllabus development. This consists of an ana-
trating theoretical approaches with specific examples lytical grid which is not confined, as in other meth-
and in clarifying different and often conflicting odologies, to listing in part or in full the sources of
schools of thought. contents. T h e proposed model comprises a multi-
O n e of the particularly remarkable features of the dimensional analysis of each type of content as well
work is in fact the authors' constant concern to give as a linkage between the aims and sequences of the
examples that will enable the reader to form a precise teaching/learning process.
opinion about the distinctive characteristics of current Finally, in the last chapter, the authors introduce a
developments in educational content. O f particular novel element : educational innovation. Before drawing
significance are the diversity of the national systems their conclusions, they dwell o n the role of research
from which the examples are taken as well as the in the discovery and design of n e w contents. Par-
range of current experiments and projects described. ticular attention is paid to the obstacles to be over-
It is not possible here to s u m u p all the problems c o m e and the machinery to be set u p to improve
raised by these experiments or to c o m m e n t o n them communication between researchers, decision-makers
individually. O n e tendency strongly emphasized by and teachers. Special mention is also m a d e of the
Rassekh and Vaideanu in their analysis m a y be noted, role of Unesco as a 'crossroads for exchange in
however, and that is the emergence of n e w subjects education'.
in school curricula. B y and large, these n e w curricular Rassekh and Vaideanu's work is the fruit of lengthy
components have been introduced, as it were, in re- research and study, based o n sound international
sponse to the demands of the contemporary world: experience. Drawing o n abundant sources of infor-
they include environmental education, the defence mation, the authors provide us with what amounts
and promotion of peace, population education, n u - to a consolidated, targeted review of research o n edu-
trition education, modern domestic economy, health cational contents. Educational practitioners, students
education, education relating to agriculture and ani- in educational sciences, researchers and decision-
mal husbandry, the teaching of h u m a n rights, etc. makers and educators of all kinds will find in this
T h e next chapter deals with 'future prospects'. work food for thought, the answers to some of then-
After reviewing and taking stock of current problems, questions, and a standing invitation to improve and
the authors seek n e w avenues and even outline a build o n their o w n experience.
methodology adapted to predictable trends. Without César B E R Z É A
going into detail, w e m a y note that in their view Bucharest
the strategies favoured by researchers fall into three (Romania)
categories. These are conservatism, a strategy marked
excessive caution, and educational radicalism:
The Economics of Inequality in Education
T h e responses or strategies to which new educational
developments (or, more precisely, the new contents) have Jandhyala B . G . T I L A K
given rise are broadly threefold. T h e essentially conserva- N e w Delhi, Sage Publications
tive systems have initiated a limited modernization pro-
cess, based on the traditional contents of mathematics, 1987, 197 P P .
physics, history, etc. T h e authors of curricula reflecting
this strategy point out that the new contents are already In the 1960s and 1970s economists of education both
inherent in various forms in the ultimate goals or the in India and abroad were focusing more of then-
substance of traditional contents; thus, it is claimed that, attention o n estimations of rates of return to edu-
by modernizing the subject-matter of traditional disci- cation. Consequently, a good portion of the current
plines such as physics, biology, history and geography,
the new demands have been satisfactorily met. This con- literature o n economics of education is directly or
servative approach is condemned by many critics. indirectly concerned with such analysis. T h e book
At the oppositive extreme, one encounters a kind of under review also belongs to the same tradition and
educational radicalism. T h e proponents of this strategy hence an addition to the burgeoning literature. H o w -
contend that the authorities should abandon traditional ever, the novelty of this study lies in the application
content forthwith and develop a new curriculum. . . . In of this methodology, perhaps for the first time in
addition to the conservative and the radical approaches, India, the analysis of intergroup inequalities between
there is also a middle way, which, while it might be said sexes and between castes.
to be excessively cautious, undoubtedly refects a certain
realism: its aim is to achieve what is possible in current T h e book is divided into nine chapters (including
socio-political circumstances. Whatever the reasons for an introduction and a conclusion). T h efirstfive
their existence, the gaps between countries seem fairly chapters which include: (a) a review of the literature
large and backwardness in some cases assumes alarming in the area of inquiry; (b) an introduction to the data
proportions [pp. 185-6, 187]. source and sampling procedure; (c) a critical appraisal
292 Reviews
of the internal rates of return methodology; (d) an children to private schools which are fee-charging.
analysis of inequalities in educational development T h e quality of education provided in the former is
in India; provide a very good background for very poor and the drop-out rate is high. Very few
the study. T h e remaining three chapters, which I pupils from these streams get into higher education,
consider as the core chapters of the book, are devoted which is almost a pre-condition for entry into the
to testing each of the following hypotheses: (a) re- high-wage sector. In other words, backward castes in
turns to education accrue differently to different India get access to 'cheap' education and end u p
groups and unfavourably to weaker sections of the with lower-paid jobs. T h e government gives ad-
population (Chapter 6); (b) the distribution of h u m a n ditional subsidies for the education of the backward
capital formation is biased against the weaker sections castes which pushes d o w n the cost of their education.
(Chapter 7); and (c) weaker sections are subject to Therefore, the higher return to education of the
labour-market discrimination in employment and backward castes is explained, as the author does, in
wages (Chapter 8). These hypotheses are tested on a terms of low costs of their education rather than their
sample of 1,000 m e m b e r s of the work-force of West higher earnings. That is h o w higher returns to the
Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh in India. (In education of the backward castes can co-exist with
the study, the term 'weaker sections' include w o m e n employment and wage discrimination.
and backward caste-group people.) C a n this pattern be changed through legal pro-
A s is usual with this methodology, the study esti- visions or by increasing the quota or reservation?
mates two types of rates of return: marginal (private T h e policy of protective discrimination followed in
and social) and average (private and social). Unlike India has not helped m u c h in changing this pattern.
m a n y other earlier attempts in India, this study takes Hence the author argues for a multi-front attack o n
into accountfivefactors: (a) wastage and stagnation; discrimination at various levels which 'implies fun-
(b) growth in incomes; (c) unemployment; (d) n o n - damental changes in the social economic and political
participation in the labour force; and (e) ability. structure of the country' (p. 162). This of course is a
T h e y are used to derive the adjusted rates of return desirable step which, perhaps, cannot be expected
from the unadjusted and a sensitivity analysis to ident- from government channels. However, the contribu-
ify the relative significance of each of these factors. tion of the book in this respect lies in its excellent
T h e unadjusted rate-of-return estimations confirm analysis of the situation to prove that the existing
the general trend of declining rates with higher levels structure prevents the alteration of the existing
of education. T h e adjusted rates are very low and pattern of h u m a n capital formation.
they do not always follow the same pattern as those of A s mentioned at the beginning, the analysis in the
the unadjusted primarily due to the influence of book is based on the methodology of rates of return.
factors like wastage in education and non-participation Neither the methodology nor its limitations are in
in the labour force. any way n e w to the economists of education, including
T h e more important results of the study are those the author. T h e attraction of the book lies in the
pertaining to sex and caste differences in returns to author's ability to use this conventional methodology
education. Both adjusted and unadjusted rates suggest to prove his rather not-so-conventional thesis of
that returns to education for the backward castes are unjust discrimination of the deprived groups leading
higher than that of the non-backward castes for any to unequal h u m a n capital formation in India. F r o m
given level of education. Further, the relative ad- this angle the book m a y be of special interest to
vantage for the backward castes is higher at the lower specialists and students of the economics of education.
levels of education. In the case of w o m e n the u n - This is one of the few books in India which
adjusted rates are higher than those of m e n . T h e ad- empirically proves (that, too, based on a survey data
justed rates, on the other hand, show a reversal of the specifically collected for this study) and convincingly
trend primarily due to the influence of factors like non- argues that increased public spending on the edu-
participation in the labour force. T h e study also shows cation of deprived groups is also fully justified on
that the process of h u m a n capital formation in India purely economic grounds. Therefore, the govern-
is highly biased against weaker sections and that they ment no longer needs to be apologetic about allocating
are subject to employment and wage discrimination. more resources for the education of these groups.
T h e author's seemingly conflicting conclusions, Given the nature of this conclusion the book will,
that return to education of the backward castes is no doubt, provoke and attract the attention of edu-
higher even w h e n they are subject to employment and cational planners and policy-makers.
wage discrimination, are quite revealing. In fact, they
point to some of the features of educational process N . V . VARGHESE
in India. M o s t of the poor in India, to which the Visiting Fellow
backward castes too belong, can only afford to go to International Institute
government schools which do not charge any fees. for Educational Planning
T h e élite in India, on the other hand, send their Paris
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Mercado 1315, L A P A Z ; Avenida de las Heroínas HABANA.
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B O T S W A N A : Botswana Book Centre, P.O. Box 91, P.O. Box 1722, NICOSIA.
GABORONE. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: S N T L , Spalena 51, 113-02
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Publicaçôes, Caixa postal 9.052-ZC-05, Praia de 111-27 P R A H A I. For Slovakia only: Alfa Verlag
Botafbgo 188, Rio D E JANEIRO (RJ) 2000; Imagem Publishers, Hurbanovo nam. 6, 893 31 B R A -
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D O U G O U ; Librairie Catholique 'Jeunesse d'Afrique', D O M I N I C A N REPUBLIC: Librería Blasco, Avenida
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Ont. K i B 3W8 {shops: 61 Sparks St., O T T A W A , SF-00101 HELSINKI 10; Suomalainen Kirja-
and 211 Yonge St., T O R O N T O ) . Sales office: kauppa O Y , Koivuvaarankuja 2,01640 V A N T A A 64.
FRANCE: Librairie de l'Unesco, 7 place de Fontenoy, 17 Park Street, CALCUTTA 700016; Scindia House,
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H O N D U R A S : Librería Navarro, 2a Avenida N o . 201, MASERU.
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Tokwawan, K O W L O O N ; Hong Kong Government for Publishing, Distribution and Advertising, Souf
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Central, H O N G K O N G . Rue, L U X E M B O U R G . Periodicals: Messageries Paul
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Bookshop, Hafnarstraeti 9, REYKJAVIK. l'Unesco, Boîte postale 331, ANTANANARIVO.
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B.P. 188, 97202 F O R T - D E - F R A N C E . tado 2139, L I M A ; Librería La Familia, Pasaje
M A U R I T A N I A : G R A . L I . C O . M A . , I, rue du Souk X , Peñaloza 112, Apartado 4199, L I M A .
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PORT-LOUIS. W A R S Z A W A ; Ars Polona-Ruch, Krakowskie Przed-
M E X I C O : Librería El Correo de la Unesco, Actipán 66 miescie no. 7, 00-068 W A R S Z A W A .
(Insurgentes/Manacar), Colonia del Valle, Apar- PORTUGAL: Dias & Andrade Ltda, Livraria Portugal,
tado postal 61-164,06600 M E X I C O D . F . ; D I L I T S A rua do Carmo 70-74, n 17 LISBOA.
(Distribuidora Literaria S.A.), Pomona 30, Apar- REPUBLIC OF K O R E A : Korean National Commission
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nue Mohammed-V, R A B A T ; Librairie des écoles, Creative Organization, Blue Caribbean Building,
12, avenue Hassan-II, C A S A B L A N C A ; Société chéri- 2ndfloor,Room 12, K I N G S T O N .
fienne de distribution et de presse, S O C H E P R E S S , SAUDI ARABIA: Dar Al-Watan for Publishing and
angle rues de Dinant et St-Saens, B . P . 13683, Information, Olaya Main Street, Ibrahim Bin
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Librairie universitaire, B.P. 3481, L O M É ; Les
Nouvelles Éditions Africaines, 239, boulevard
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chester; Third World Publications, 151 Stratford
Road, B I R M I N G H A M B I I I R D . For scientific maps:
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WCiX 9DS.
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sembly Drive, L A N H A M , M D 20706-4391; United
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AU publications: Ediciones Trecho S . A . , Maldo-
nado 1090, M O N T E V I D E O ; Instituto Nacional del
Libro, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, San UNESCO BOOK COUPONS
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18 de Julio 1222, P A Y S A N D Ú , and Amorin 37> S A L T O . books and periodicals of an educational, scientific or
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C A R A C A S 1060-A; Unesco Coordinación Regional 75700 Paris (France). [10]
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Contents of preceding issues
prospects
Fidel Oteiza M . Informatics and education:
Vol. X V I I , N o . 3, 1987 (63) the situation in Latin America
Landmarks Dragan Vasic Teaching informatics in primary
schools: a Serbian experiment
VIEWPOINTS/CONTROVERSIES Andrei Petrovich Ershov Informatics as a new
subject in secondary schools in the U S S R
Gerhart Neuner General education and subjects
Benjamin M . Makau and Brian Wray
of instruction
Microcomputers in education: a Kenyan experience
OPEN FILE Kamal Datta Computer education in Indian
secondary schools: a survey of C L A S S
INFORMATICS IN EDUCATION (i): Ferenc Papp T h e use of computers in teaching
SEVERAL KEY POINTS foreign languages: research in Hungary
Martel Ledere, Louise Dubuc and Yves Begin The
Tibor Vamos Education and computers: the evaluation of educational software in Canada
h u m a n priority
George J. Papagiannis and Sande Milton Computer TRENDS AND CASES
literacy for development: an evolving metaphor
Jamesine Friend Classroom uses of the computer: Richard Noonan and Jacques Hallak Multi-usage
a retrospective view instructional settings in less developed countries
Dave F. Sewell and David R. Rother ay T h e
application of computers in education
Roland Lauterbach and Karl Frey Educational Vol. XVIII, N o . 1,1988 (65)
software: review and outlook
Ben-Zion Barta Training of educational staff for Landmarks
the information technology age
VIEWPOINTS/CONTROVERSIES
Ed Jacobsen Microcomputers in the teaching of
mathematics and science: Opportunities and Zoltdn Báthory and András Joó Education of
challenges gifted pupils in Hungary
Jonathan Anderson Computer-assisted language Gordana Zindovic Vukadinovic Training for
learning self-instruction: an ongoing experiment
Paul Hurst Microcomputer applications in
educational management OPEN FILE
Jean-Claude Eicher T h e costs of the n e w information
technologies in education: what do w e k n o w ? DISTANCE EDUCATION (i): KEY THEMES
TRENDS AND CASES Anthony Kaye Distance education: the state

of the art
Olga Mitrofanova and Yulia Desherieva T h e origin, Armando Villarroel Planning of distance-learning
limits and future of mother tongues projects
Onkar Singh Dewal Pedagogical issues in distance
education
Vol. X V I I , N o . 4 , 1987 (64) Anthony B. Zahlan Issues of quality and relevance
in distance-teaching materials
Landmarks
France Henri Distance education and
VIEWPOINTS/CONTROVERSIES computer-assisted communication
Greville Rumble T h e economics of mass
George Vaideanu Interdisciplinarity in education: distance education
a tentative synthesis
Joäo Batista Araujo e Oliveira Where is higher TRENDS AND CASES
education in Francophone West Africa heading?
Carlos Órnelas T h e decentralization of education
OPEN FILE in Mexico
Zellynne Jennings Belize's R E A P programme
INFORMATICS IN EDUCATION (il):
EXPERIENCES AND PLANS
Henri Dieuzeide Computers and education:

the French experience
Haruo Nishinosono Informatics in general education:
the Japanese plan
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The International Dimension of Scholarly Journals PDF

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The international dimension of scholarly journals

Article in Prospects · June 1988

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TRENDS AND CASES

T h e designations employed and the presentation of material in Prospects

All Unesco documents and publications out of print

Published by the United Nations Educational

Prospects, Vol. XVIII, N o . 2, 1988

Distance education: from theory to practice

The preceding issue analysed fundamental theoretical themes concerning

traditional instruction was mentioned. By confronting the theoretical

Since this definition by Henri Marion appeared in the famous

Francine Best (France). A philosopher by training. Until January 1988, Director of

Prospects, Vol. XVIII, N o . 2, 1988

France (though this discussion concerns the whole of Europe) the

played no part, namely psychology. In this w a y , the word 'pedagogy'

Similarly, Wallon distinguished between his work on educational

so to speak, knowledge about education. So far as their status was

and rightly, aroused great interest? Perhaps s but its ramifications

ought to add 'psycho-sociology', can be subsumed under the term

research of m a n y different kinds which have nevertheless been

recognized. So w h y can w e not use these terms to denote, in a

important link between the different parts of Europe. It is truly a

that: pedagogical research seems to us to be more all-embracing,

Comparative education, as afieldof study worthy of scholarly pursuit,

Prospects, Vol. XVIII, N o . 2, 1988

knowledge. O n all three points I shall take a definite stand, as a

'Education' as afieldof study

problem, as demonstrated by the bewildering variety of subjects in

'selective focusing of interactive and communicative processes'—in

T h u s w e have the key to the solution of the 'crucial problem'

A s a result of this process of differentiation, in every m o d e r n society

social sciences, including education, for social criticism and social

These partial conclusions m a y atfirstsight seem too obvious.

It has become equally obvious that in most countries the social

ally understood as consisting of ways of doing rather than of k n o w -

educational framework. T h e situation of the psychologist, the psycho-

out, the object to be scientifically studied is a complex institutional

specific, etc.). This difference is essential: the knowledge about

But inside the education system there are, as w e have seen, m a n y

T h e science of comparative education

Comparison is such an essential and spontaneous procedure of the

refined form of the same mental process is used at the scientific

replacing the differences in their contexts, and so to find the 'laws

belong to comparative education proper. T h e y constitute rather

F r o m time to time it becomes necessary in every discipline to go

This is what I have tried to do in this article. Looking over the

O L I V E R A , Carlos E . 1984a. El enfoque sistémico en la planificación. San José (Costa Rica),

Distance education (II):

from which it will be difficult to expand rapidly.

Prospects, Vol. XVIII, N o . 2, 1988

After the curriculum was agreed upon by the

was consequently delayed by several weeks.

A special rate was arranged for the point-

to complement print. Audio-visual media can

University of Zambia enrolled itsfirstexternal

Prospects, Vol. XVIII, N o . 2, 1988

withdrawn because teaching schools and de-

I system of study material preparation. This m a y K I N G S L E Y , P. Correspondence Teaching: A Discussion