Towards a Standard Microchip for Identifying Pets

The Veterinary Record, April 1, 1995, Volume 136, Number 13
page 305
Comment
Towards a standard microchip
IT IS in the nature of technological progress that products come first and standardisation of
those products comes later. The history of technology and, indeed, many a household, is
littered with examples of appliances which, at the time of their introduction were at the
forefront of technology but which were soon superseded as another type of equipment
became accepted as 'the norm'. Examples abound in the realms of computers and
photographic and hi-fi equipment; another example concerned home video recorders, where
a number of households invested in a system which subsequently failed to catch on. The
task for consumers, faced with a choice of equipment, is to keep abreast of developments
and try to ensure they are not caught out; the challenge for those introducing standards is to
anticipate developments and to make that task as simple as possible.
In the veterinary field, small animal practitioners and pet owners have until recently faced a
similar dilemma regarding systems for microchipping companion animals. Microchipping
represents the best way of permanently identifying companion animals and can be used, for
example, to identify them if they become lost or in connection with veterinary certification
relating to Microchipping represents the best way of permanently identifying companion
animals and can be used, for example, to identify them if they become lost or in connection
with veterinary certification relating to import and export controls. It involves implanting a
microchip carrying a unique identification code under the skin of the animal; this tiny
transponder reacts to an electromagnetic impulse emitted by a transceiver which is used to
read the information contained on the chip. At present there are a number of systems
available and likely to be available for storing and reading the information contained on the
chips, not all of which are compatible. Slowly, however, an international standard is
emerging.
In Europe, the first step towards a standard system of microchipping companion animals
came in 1993, when the Federation of European Companion Animal Veterinary Associations
(FECAVA), recognising the need for a reliable means of identification and that various
microchipping systems were available, recommended a system known as FDX-A as the
European standard. That initiative stimulated the growth of successful companion animal
identification networks in various European countries, notably the UK, Spain and Belgium.
More recently, however, the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has
proposed a different standard, known as FDX-B/HDX, for use in companion and other
animals world-wide.
The ISO has advocated the FDX-B/HDX standard for farm animals for some time and is now
proposing that it should be adopted for companion animals as well. Its draft standard has yet
to be confirmed by a ballot of its members and the result is expected within the next six
months. In the meantime, FECAVA a has announced that it will accept the ISO'S decision on
this matter, and that it will continue to work within the framework of the ISO of to achieve a
single standard (see p 306). The ISO draft standard differs from the FECAVA standard in that
FECAVA standard readers will not be able to read ISO standard microchips. Importantly,
however, to borrow a term often used in relation to hi-fi equipment, the system is 'backwards
compatible' in that future ISO standard readers will be able to read FECAVA standard chips.
Thus, FECAVA of points out, owners of animals already identified or about to be identified
using FECAVA standard microchips can be assured that the chips will be recognised by the
1
future ISO to readers throughout the lifetime of their pets, and that their animals will not have
to be microchipped again.
The intention is that there should be a transition period of two years during which the current
FECAVA standard chips will continue to be used in tandem with any new ISO standard chips,
after which they will stop being used. One consequence of this, provided the ISO standard is
confirmed by the ballot, is that in countries such as Britain, where there is already a large
network of readers capable of reading only FECAVA standard chips, a substantial number of
readers will have to be replaced with readers capable of reading both types of chip before
the new chips are introduced. However, as far as owners are concerned, FECAVA stresses
that FECAVA standard chips can continue to be used with confidence during the proposed
transition period and that, again, owners can be assured that the chips will continue to be
recognised throughout the lifetime of their pets.
Adoption of a universally accepted standard for identifying companion animals remains a

desirable goal, and one which has implications beyond reuniting lost pets with their owners.
Reliable identification of animals remains central to European disease control arrangements,
and microchipping could, for example, play an important part in alternative arrangements if
Britain were to replace its system of quarantine against rabies with a system based on
identification, vaccination, certification and blood testing (see VR, March 25, p 278). The fact
that an international identification standard is emerging is, therefore, to be welcomed.
Backwards compatibility represents a crucial element of the ISO standard; if the confidence
of pet owners in microchips is to be maintained, the changeover must be effected as
smoothly as possible.
page 306-308
News and Reports
Companion Animals
FECAVA to accept ISO standard on microchips
THE Federation of European Companion Animal Veterinary Associations (FECAVA) has set
out its position on the standardisation of microchips and readers used to identify companion
animals, following a recent decision by the International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) to adopt a different standard to the one currently advocated by FECAVA.
FECAVA says that it will accept the ISO'S decision, which has still to be confirmed. In doing
so, however, it emphasises that the current FECAVA standard microchips will remain
compatible with future ISO readers and that all animals already identified using FECAVA
standard chips will be recognised by the future ISO readers throughout their lives.
Electronic identification of microchips was first introduced in 1984 and tested on a large
scale towards the end of the 1980s. The method involves implanting a microchip carrying a
unique identification code under the animal's skin; this tiny transponder reacts to an
electromagnetic impulse emitted by a transceiver which is used to read the code.
Four years ago, the ISO set up a working group (known as WG3 Identification) to look at
standardising identification of farm animals. Its aim was to fulfil a need to tag livestock so
that they could be identified and registered world-wide. That way, farm animals could be
2
traced if, for example, there was an outbreak of disease or if their source needed to be
identified if residues of medicines were found in their meat after they were slaughtered. In
1993, it adopted a standard known as ISO 11784 specifying the code structure for the
information to be contained on the microchip. Subsequently, it proposed a standardised chip
for farm animals known as the FDX-B/HDX.
Meanwhile, a number of manufacturers were producing microchips and readers for use in
companion animals, not all of which were compatible. Faced with this, in 1992 FECAVA,
which represents 22,500 veterinarians associated with companion animals throughout
Europe, identified the need for a European standard. It recommended the FDX-A system,
this being the system most widely sold in Europe.
At that time, the ISO had not produced a standard for companion animals. However more
recently, the ISO has decided to adopt a unique international standard for all animals,
including farm animals, companion animals, zoo animals and endangered species. At a
meeting held in February in Frankfurt, it decided that the requirements of all animals can be
fulfilled by the FDXB/HDX systems, and adopted FDX-B/HDX as a draft standard. It intends
to hold a ballot to ratify its decision, and the results are expected within the next six months.
The proposed ISO standard is not totally compatible with the FECAVA standard in that,
although ISO standard readers will be able to read FECAVA standard microchips, FECAVA
standard readers will not be able to read ISO standard microchips. However, assuming that
the ISO'S proposal is ratified by the ballot, there will be a two-year transitional period during
which the current FECAVA standard chips will be used in tandem with any new ISO chips
and the users of readers will be able to acquire readers conforming to the ISO standard.
In a statement issued last week, FECAVA reiterated its view that microchips represent the
best way of permanently identifying companion animals, whether for pet retrieval purposes
or in connection with veterinary certification relating to import and export controls. It says
that it will continue to work within the framework of the ISO to achieve a single standard, and
that it will accept 'the democratic decision of the ISO on this matter'. It adds that it will
continue to urge the ISO to incorporate a code specific for companion animals within the
proposed standard, and that it will also continue to encourage the standardisation of other
non-electronic aspects of implant able microchips, such as safety, sterility and anti-migration
properties.
FECAVA says that it will do all in it power to ensure that there is a smooth transition to the
new standard. With this in mind, it will be active to:
· Reassure its members and their clients that the current FECAVA standard chips will
remain compatible with any future ISO readers;
· Reassure owners that all animals already identified (together with those identified during
the transition period) using the FECAVA standard chip will be recognised by the future
ISO readers throughout the lifetime of their pets; and
· Continue to endorse and support those companies that will be marketing and distributing
the FECAVA chips throughout the transitional period, as well as those marketing the new
ISO standard chip (once the standard has been agreed).
It adds that, ideally, in countries (such as Britain) where there is already a large network of
readers capable of reading only the FECAVA standard chips. a substantial number of these
3
readers should be replaced before the introduction of ISO chips. It will therefore be
supporting the efforts of its individual national associations to ensure that this happens.
In the meantime, FECAVA is concerned to ensure that the change to a new standard should
be made in such a way that it allows fair and open competition between the companies
involved, and that the credibility of microchips as a means of identifying animals as far as
users are concerned is not compromised. With this in mind, it has sought assurances from
the ISO that:
· Companies should be committed to a programme of exchange of readers to the new ISO
multi-readers as soon as and as cheaply as is practicable;
· The new ISO readers will include the ability to recognise the existing FECAVA standard
chips for a period of 30 years after the end of the transition period;
· Patents and licences associated with the new ISO standard chips will be made available
to all companies at fair and non-discriminatory terms.
As far as veterinarians and their clients are concerned, FECAVA says that the message to
users must be 'to reassure them in their confidence in the system that exists at present and
that the smooth transition to the new standard will in reality occur without any practical effect
on them'.
· Virbac, which has distribution rights for an FDX-B/HDX microchip system in various
European countries, held a press conference in Paris last month to discuss recent
developments on standardisation. Meanwhile, in Britain, the Kennel Club launched
Petlog, a computerised register to record data on pet animals identified by microchip in
Britain. Pooling data on animals microchipped (using FECAVA standard chips), by the
RSPCA, Wood Green Animal Shelters, Animalcare and Pettrac, it will help to service the
needs of these organisations and pet owners by combining all the information on a single
database.
Animal Welfare
FAWC to review the welfare of laying hens
THE Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) has begun a study of the main systems in which
laying hens are kept for the production of eggs.
It intends to assess battery cages, enriched laying cages, alternative systems and - free-
range systems in relation to agreed welfare criteria and to consider, for each, the steps and
adjustments necessary to safeguard and improve welfare within the constraints of the poultry
industry.
The study is expected to take about two years and will be a follow-up to the FAWC'S 1986
assessment of egg production systems and its 1991 report on the welfare of laying hens in
colony systems.
Following a recommendation made in the House of Commons' Agriculture Committee's

second report on the UK poultry industry (see VR, May 28, 1994, p 565), the review will pay
particular attention to battery cage systems, including an assessment the feasibility of their
enrichment.
4
Although the FAWC included battery cages in its 1986 report, this will be the first time that it
has undertaken a detailed study of hens kept in cages.
Pet Superstore reports on progress

PET Depot's first superstore in Charlton south London, has 'exceeded expectations' in terms
of veterinary turnover, according to the company.
Pet Depot, which opened last October, is currently the only pet superstore in the UK with a
veterinary surgery on the premises. In a press release, the company reports that over 50 per
cent of visitors to the surgery have never taken their animals to a veterinarian before and are
now benefiting from expert help and advice.
Mr George Hollingbery, the managing director, comments, 'The in-store veterinary surgery
has shown that there is a job to do to educate pet owners about the care and well-being of
their animals.' He adds, 'We have received a number of approaches from vets throughout
the country who are interested in working with us to expand the Pet Depot concept to other
sites.'
Animal Health
Warble fly warning
THE Ministry of Agriculture has warned farmers to be on the look out for warble fly
infestation.
The warning, issued last month, came after preliminary results from MAFF'S 1994/5
blood/serum survey indicated the presence of warble fly in indigenous cattle throughout
Britain. So far, the disease has only been identified in small numbers of cattle. However, the
State Veterinary Service and the Meat Hygiene Service are mounting a market and
slaughterhouse surveillance exercise to identify any cattle with clinical evidence of the
disease.
In the meantime, MAFF is urging all cattle farmers to look out for signs of warbles throughout
the spring and summer. It says that livestock should be checked regularly and has reminded
farmers to report any suspicions to the divisional veterinary officer as warble fly is a
notifiable disease
In addition, it advises that farmers 'should seriously consider' treating their cattle against
warble larvae this autumn, as a precautionary measure. 'Proper treatment each autumn will
ensure that cattle are cleared of infestation,' it says.
MAFF has also reminded importers of their legal requirement to treat imported animals
against warble fly within 24 hours of arrival. Importers should then send a written declaration
to the local divisional veterinary officer, within five working days, confirming that the
treatment has been carried out. Any imported cattle found to be clinically infested with
warbles will be sent back to the country of origin at the importer's expense.
Canine Topics
Call for inquiry into Dangerous Dogs Act
5
THE Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 Reform Group, which consists of 17 animal welfare
organisations, intends to call for a select committee inquiry into the workings of the
Dangerous Dogs Act. According to the group, this follows 'a clear indication' from the Home
Office that amendments to the Act would not receive Government support (see VR, March
11, p 231).
Ms Clarissa Baldwin, chief executive of the National Canine Defence League, said, 'The
debate surrounding reform of the Dangerous Dogs Act has now become a wider issue
affecting our basic rights to justice under the legal system. The Reform Group's
understanding is that the Government does not place its trust in the judiciary to hear
individual cases and sentence according to the facts of the case.'
At present there are 133 dogs held in police custody in England and Wales under the
Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. In an answer to a parliamentary question from Mr Roger Gale
(Con; North Thanet) last month, Mr Nicholas Baker, parliamentary under-secretary at the
Home Office, said that 97 of the dogs were alleged to be pit bull terriers. Thirty-one of the
dogs had been held in custody for more than three months and 73 dogs for more than six
months. Mr Baker said that the daily cost of keeping dogs in custody ranged between £1.76
and £9, depending on the police force concerned.
News in Brief
Meat regulations New regulations on the production and marketing of meat come into force
from April 1. Both the Fresh Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) Regulations 1995 and the
Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird and Rabbit Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) Regulations
1995 will transfer responsibility for meat hygiene inspection from local authorities to the new
Meat Hygiene Service. MAFF estimates that the enforcement service provided by the MHS
should deliver a saving approaching £4.7 million.
Women business awards Women veterinarians who have achieved business success within
the profession have been invited to enter the 1995 'Working Women Mean Business
Awards', run by Options magazine. Judges will be looking for a business that has been
established for over two and a half years, in which creativity, managerial skills, financial
acumen and an entrepreneurial spirit have been demonstrated Winners of the awards, which
are now in their 12th year will win a luxury break for two in New York, worth £2000, and
£1000 worth of products from Mercury Communications sponsors of the awards. Application
forms are available from Kathy McCormack Room 1629, IPC, Kings Reach Tower Stamford
Street, London SEI 9LS.
Animal welfare chair Professor N G Gregory has been appointed to the AGMARDT Chair in
Animal Welfare Science at Massey University, New Zealand. This is the fourth chair in
animal welfare world-wide and the first in the southern hemisphere. Professor Gregory was
previously senior research fellow in the division of food animal science at the University of
Bristol.
pages 309-311
SAC Veterinary Services

Rare salmonella in the Hebrides, sperm whale stranded on Orkney
6
SALMONELLA bovis-morbificans, which is a rare organism these days, was found during
January in the faeces of a cow in the Outer Hebrides, according to the Scottish Agricultural
College's Veterinary Services' report for the month. Mucosal disease was confirmed in three
separate incidents in stirks on Orkney.
Eleven sperm whales found stranded on a beach on Orkney were examined by SAC staff;
this winter has seen more strandings than usual both in this and in other European
countries.
Cattle
· Nutritional and metabolic disorders
Severe copper deficiency in suckler cows associated with weak calves was reported by Ayr.
Several centres also reported finding low blood copper levels (Thurso reported levels as low
as 2 mmol/litre) in apparently healthy animals. Perth reported young animals affected by ill
thrift, in which the low copper levels were coupled with low vitamin E levels. Edinburgh and
Aberdeen also described ill thrift in young animals in which the only significant finding was
low blood selenium or Vitamin E levels.
Ketosis in dairy cows was reported only in south west Scotland with three farms being
affected. In one of these cases, reported by Ayr, the problem was associated with anoestrus.
Blood samples from several persistent downer cows in Aberdeenshire revealed low blood
phosphorus levels as well as low calcium; however, as in December, Dumfries reported that
the majority of its cases of 'downer cows' were associated with milk fever.
· Parasitic diseases
Unlike December, parasitic diseases were uncommon in centres' reports; parasitic gastro-
enteritis was reported only by Dumfries and Thurso; Dumfries was the only centre to find
evidence of fascioliasis and it recorded it on six farms. On one farm, an 18-month-old dairy
heifer which was suffering marked weight loss showed fluke eggs in her faeces and was also
found to be viraemic for bovine viral diarrhoea virus.
· Generalised and systemic conditions
Salmonellosis and bovine viral diarrhoea/mucosal disease continued to dominate the reports
from centres. The actual number of new cases of salmonellosis continued to fall; however,
Salmonella typhimurium DT104 continued to be the most prevalent organism with seven new
outbreaks being reported from the south west and from Aberdeen. Dumfries reported the
isolation of the organism from the liver of a dead cow in a herd which had last suffered an
outbreak in 1993. As in December, Salmonella dublin was again found in south west
Scotland: three cases were reported, all in calves; in two cases other enterogenic pathogens
were found and, in the third, the calf was deformed with shortened limbs and micro-
ophthalmia.
A relatively rare case of salmonellosis was reported in the Outer Hebrides by Inverness, S
bovis-morbificans being found in the faeces of a crofter' s scouring six-year-old milk cow.
Mucosal disease was confirmed in three separate incidents in stirks on Orkney by Thurso.
Inverness reported that three animals from a group of 10 single-suckled calves developed
7
sudden bloody diarrhoea with pyrexia and died within a week. Virological examination
confirmed a bovine viral diarrhoea viraemia and a re-examination of the survivors
demonstrated one persistently viraemic animal. The herd had been self-contained for some
time but last year had purchased replacement heifers and also borrowed a bull. Severe
scour and weight loss was also described as the essential presenting sign in four
investigations by Dumfries in which persistently viraemic animals were identified. In the
Lothians two cases of mucosal disease were confirmed in newborn calves.
· Alimentary tract disorders
Edinburgh reported a large increase in submissions for neonatal diarrhoea examinations

during January but for the service as a whole this winter the number of submissions has
been lower than for the past two years. The relative prevalence for January follows the trend
for this winter with rotavirus being the 'most commonly identified pathogen closely followed
by cryptosporidia. Furthermore coronavirus continued to be regularly seen except in south
west Scotland. Perth and Aberdeen identified coronavirus almost as frequently as rotavirus.
Aberdeen and Ayr reported, yet again, evidence of low gammaglobulin levels in calves from
herds with neonatal enteritis problems.
Johne's disease caused 15 deaths in 11 herds in Perthshire. The youngest case confirmed
was in a purchased 15-month-old Simmental cross heifer. The animal had started to lose
condition and scoured within a month of purchase. At post mortem examination
approximately 20 per cent of the lower small intestine was grossly thickened but there were
minimal changes in the caecum.
· Respiratory tract diseases
Reports of pneumonia were fewer in January. Two cases of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
were reported; in one the farmer had moved from Northern Ireland to Wigtownshire bringing
his own cows and purchasing other animals in local marts. The purchased animals were the
first to show signs of the disease but within days many cows were affected with acute rhinitis
and coughing. Nasal smears were strongly positive for infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus
and vaccination in the face of the outbreak proved successful, though not before four cows
had been lost. On the other hand, Aberdeen reported that on a bull beef unit vaccination was
carried out for a while and then stopped but the farmer continued to add susceptible animals
to the group and the disease continued to appear.
Respiratory syncytial virus was the most commonly reported respiratory infection and was
believed to be the major pathogen in nine outbreaks of pneumonia in young stock but other
causal agents were reported. St Boswells reported one case in which Mycoplasma bovis was
isolated from the lower airways of samples taken from an outbreak in calves aged seven
months. Pasteurella haemolytica and P multocida were isolated from Iung washes and finally
there was seroconversion to M bovis, respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus 3.
Edinburgh and Inverness reported outbreaks in which Haemophilus somnus was isolated; in
two cases P multocida was also isolated. On one of these farms, in two animals meningitis
accompanied the pneumonia.
· Reproductive tract conditions
Following two abortions in a group of 41 spring calving heifers, St Boswells isolated

Campylobacter fetus fetus from the foetal stomach contents. In another herd in which two
8
abortions and three stillbirths had occurred, Bacillus licheniformis was isolated from the
tissues of a single fetus. This organism was also implicated in outbreaks by Edinburgh and
Aberdeen. The latter case involved a 118-cow dairy herd in which 10 cows out of 25 spring-
calving cows aborted and B licheniformis was isolated from the five investigated. The milking
cows were fed from the silage face and from a ring feeder while the dry cows were fed only
from a ring feeder. Samples from the face had counts of B licheniformis of 1 x 10 cfu/g silage
while that in the ring feeder had counts of almost 2 x 10 cfu/g (despite its being cleaned
before the samples were taken). Subsequently all cows at risk were given long-acting
penicillin and the farmer was advised to put only fresh silage in the ring feeder.
Perth reported abortions associated with Salmonella montevideo in a herd which had had
similar problems two years ago. There were sheep on the farm but this organism had never
appeared to cause problems in the flock. Thurso isolated Listeria monocytogenes from an
abortion while both Ayr and Dumfries found pure growths of Actinomyces pyogenes in
isolates from the foetal stomachs and placenta of two foetuses aged seven months. Dumfries
also described two herds in which it implicated bovine viral diarrhoea virus as the abortion
agent. Perth reported a similar finding. It also reported brain changes suggestive of a
protozoal infection in a foetus aged seven months, from a dairy herd where there were
sporadic abortions. Although Dumfries and Edinburgh each described a herd in which
Leptospira hardjo was implicated as a cause of abortion, there was little other evidence that
this agent was active during January.
· Mammary diseases
Cases of mastitis due to environmental organisms appeared to be more common in January,

particularly Escherichia coli which was the most common isolate in south west Scotland.
Perth and Aberdeen isolated Streptococcus uberis as frequently as E coli but they had
considerably fewer cases overall. Edinburgh reported isolating P multocida from a case of
acute mastitis in a herd which had previously seen several similar cases and which were
shown to be due to E coli. Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae were the
most common isolates from samples from cows with high individual cell counts. Ayr reported
that only two new herds with high cell counts were infected with S agalactiae.
Sheep
· Nutritional and metabolic disorders
Ayr investigated a flock of mule ewes, housed since early December, which were
experiencing sporadic cases of hypocalcaemia. Early cases responded well to treatment with
calcium, but one ewe had relapsed several times before dying and another had been found
in extremis. The mineral composition of the ration appeared suitable and the sheep were
clearly very settled and calm. Inquiries elicited the information that the calcium treatment
was in fact a mixture of calcium, magnesium, phosphate and dextrose. No clinical cases
were available for sampling but three of four ewes sampled at random had b-hydroxybutyrate
levels above 1 mmol/litre the highest being 6-5 mmol/litre (normal <1-2 mmol/litre). The
farmer has been advised about improving the energy level of the ration supplied to heavily
pregnant ewes.
Urolithiasis was identified at St Boswells as the cause of death in housed hoggs which to
date has resulted in 17 deaths and four animals culled out of 290. Groups of 90 and 200
animals each had access to a single water point. The calcium:phosphorus ratio in the
9
pelleted feed was 2:1 but the magnesium concentration, 4.2 g/kg food on a dry matter basis,
was well above the safe upper limit of 2-5 g/kg DM. A changed ration and increased water
supply improved the position.
At Thurso a group of 110 hoggs were thought to be thin and given a cobalt drench. Three
weeks later they were moved off grass and offered hay, barley and turnips. A week later nine
animals died in the space of two days. Post mortem examination of one lamb showed it to be
very thin and to have little food in the stomachs. The animals appeared to be unable to
adjust to the rapid improvement in the diet.
· Generalised and systemic conditions
Perth considered pulpy kidney disease responsible for a series of five sudden deaths in a
group of 50 once-vaccinated hoggs whose diet had recently been supplemented with barley.
Only one outbreak of systemic pasteurellosis was reported during January; four out of 33
vaccinated breeding hoggs died.
At Inverness several ewes died as a result of ruminal acidosis after gaining access to a
quantity of dumped barley in a field. One of the ewes was also found to have septicaemia
caused by Listeria monocytogenes and the barley was suspected to have been the source of
this organism.
· Respiratory tract diseases
Extensive lesions of sheep pulmonary adenomatosis were found by Perth in the lungs of a
cross gimmer -the first case for this flock.
One flock in Thurso experienced coughing and loss of condition among hoggs despite a full
vaccination history; post mortem examination of a lamb that died showed an atypical
pneumonia. Pasteurellae were not isolated but parainfluenza virus 3 was detected by the
fluorescent antibody test and Mycoplasma arginini was isolated. Dictyocaulus filaria larvae
were detected in faeces of this lamb.
· Reproductive tract conditions
Ovine abortion material yielded diagnoses of chlamydial abortion and toxoplasmosis

predominantly but Salmonella derby and Campylobacter species were also recorded.
· Nervous system disorders
L monocytogenes was isolated from the brain of a Cheviot gimmer showing typical signs of
listerial encephalitis. The animal had had no access to silage. In a gimmer on a second farm,
the disease was confirmed by histopathology.
A farmer reported 20 to 25 young ewes going off their feet from a flock of 2500. Treatment
with antibiotics and vitamin B1 had had no effect. The animals were not fed silage, hay or
roots. The animal presented to Dumfries had died from a purulent meningitis from which
Actinomyces pyogenes was isolated.
Goats
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Scour preceding death in a milking doe was confirmed as clostridial enteritis at Perth The
animal had not been vaccinated for over a year intensive treatment with antibiotic and fluids
had saved a previous case.
At Inverness a group of 120 goats were given access to bales of pea-straw. Within 24 hours,
30 animals were off colour, with ruminal bloat and mild diarrhoea. One goat died and a large
quantity of pea-pods was found in its rumen. The post mortem findings were consistent with
a diagnosis of ruminal acidosis and the cause of death was inhalation of stomach contents.
This case illustrates the need to introduce pea-straw gradually to the diet as some goats
appear to consume pods selectively to the exclusion of other dietary components.
Birds
A rise in mortality rates and a drop in egg production prompted the owner of a multiage
caged laying site to submit adult birds for post mortem examination. A consistent feature was
the presence of egg peritonitis and colisepticaemia. Blood samples collected from birds from
all houses demonstrated high haemagglutination-inhibition titres to Newcastle disease, but
attempts to isolate the virus proved negative. The possibility of the laying birds having been
exposed to a live Newcastle disease vaccine could not be discounted. The flock recovered
after antibiotic treatment.
Lead poisoning was diagnosed in a duck from a small backyard flock of mixed poultry and
waterfowl.
A gamekeeper reported that many of the pheasants being shot had white 'growths' in various
parts of the head. Examination of one typical bird revealed many lice and large clusters of
white lice eggs. More unusual was the diagnosis of scaly leg (Cnemidocoptes mutans) in two
pheasants. Both birds had been reared by a bantam hen which was also affected by scaly
leg.
Ill thrift in pheasants was associated with heavy burdens of Heterakis gallinarum and
Syngamus trachea.
A Himalayan snow cock, a very rare bird to be in captivity in the UK, was discovered to have
severe extensive mycotic air sacculitis and pneumonia. Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated.
Cage and aviary birds

A six-month-old macaw which had lost weight and died in a large retail pet outlet was
confirmed as a case of psittacosis.
Cnemidocoptic mange (scaly leg) was diagnosed in a wild crow. Initially, the bird was
observed to have lost the scales from its legs. Subsequently the typical lesions of scaly leg
developed on its feet; Cnemidocoptes species was seen on microscopical examination of
scabs.
Large numbers of unidentified worm eggs and fluke eggs were found in the faeces of a mute
swan with inappetence and loss of weight. A good clinical response was noted to parenteral
ivermectin, and a subsequent faecal sample was negative for parasite eggs.
11
Miscellaneous species
A great variety of conditions was reported by the centres, reflecting the diversity of
submissions received. Demodectic mange in young dogs was mentioned by Ayr, Dumfries
and Perth while ringworm, typically due to Microsporum canis, was confirmed in young cats
by Ayr and Edinburgh.
Generalised lymphosarcoma was highlighted by Perth where the condition affected two
elderly dogs. The same centre recorded Salmonella goldcoast from a litter of five-week-old
St Bernard puppies affected by scour and failure to thrive. The source of the infection may
have been raw tripe. Another litter on the same premises was shedding large numbers of
coccidial oocysts. Perth also recovered S typhimurium DT104 from a cat in an isolated
incident.
Edinburgh confirmed feline infectious peritonitis on post mortem examination of a five-year-

old Persian tom cat from a cattery. Clinically it had shown ascites and a significant feline
infectious peritonitis titre was obtained on serology. An incidental finding was concurrent
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.
The same centre received two dogs from breeders- parvoviral enteritis was confirmed in the
first (a nine-month-old husky) and the other (an eight-week-old puppy) showed evidence of
an extensive pneumonia from which Bordetella bronchiseptica was cultured. Dumfries
isolated Campylobacter jejuni Penner type 2 from a Bernese mountain dog aged five months
and the same organism but Penner type 23/29 was isolated from a two-year-old collie bitch.
Dumfries also reported a diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome in an eight-year-old dachshund

which illustrates the necessity of conducting the ACTH stimulation test. The cortisol level
rose from 26 nmol/litre, which is slightly below the normal lower limit, to over 1000 nmol/litre,
the level considered diagnostic.
Ayr reported a case involving a stray kitten with respiratory disease. Examination of faeces
demonstrated large numbers of Aelurostrongylus species larvae. The kitten was treated with
a benzimadazole wormer for five days with no clinical change, and lungworm larvae were
still present in the faeces. It was then treated with an anthelmintic from a group with a
different active principle but died shortly afterwards. Post mortem examination revealed a
severe bronchopneumonia with degenerate eggs present in the lung, and just one larva
found in the rectal contents.
Horses
Strangles due to Streptococcus equi infection was confirmed by St Boswells. Ayr isolated
Dermatophilus congolensis from a 12 year-old horse while Perth recovered Trichophyton
equinum from girth lesions in a horse which was in contact with another with similar lesions.
Aberdeen demonstrated lice, Damalinia equi, in a hair sample from an eight-year-old Welsh
pony.
Llama
A four-year-old llama became anorexic and died. Numerous mineral encrusted stone were
found in the crypts of the floor of the first compartment of the stomach these stones were
12
basically calcium phosphate with a small percentage of the magnesium salt. The abomasum
was thickened and showed numerous ulcers in the mucosa. Histological examination of
diffuse white lesions throughout the liver revealed a tumour of the bile ducts which had
spread to the abomasum.
Parasitic gastroenteritis was the cause of diarrhoea in other animals on the same farm.
Wallaby
Two wallabies were received from wildlife parks for post mortem examination. A molar
abscess extending into the back of the eye s socket and a purulent pneumonitis was found in
one while the other had died from haemorrhage from the pancreas. The latter wallaby had
been recently introduced into the collection and its adrenal glands were enlarged. Stress is
believed to render wallabies susceptible to haemorrhage, although a kick was thought to
have caused the ruptured pancreas in this case.
Wildlife
Inverness reported on 11 sperm whales found stranded on a beach on Orkney in mid
December. Attempts to examine the animals post mortem were frustrated by the extremely a
high rate of decomposition and the danger posed by massive internal pressure within the
carcasses. Blubber samples taken for pollutant analyses showed PCB levels within average
limits for the species. Male sperm whales migrate past western Scotland at this time of year
but this winter has seen more strandings than usual in the UK and other European countries.
A leatherback turtle, the third to strand in Scotland within the past year, was found to weigh
480 kg. Inverness reported that it was emaciated and suffering from a necrotising wound of
the shoulder in which a large fish hook was embedded. More importantly obstruction of the
digestive tract was a result of the ingestion of plastic bags and a quantity of metalised foil.
Ayr isolated a group D Salmonella species from a dead badger.
Fish
Deaths among large (second sea-winter) salmon at one farm continued over several weeks.
Some fish exhibited little external abnormality other than mild corneal opacity, while others
had more widespread erosions on the body surface and fins. Strong currents which had
caused bagging of the cage nets, and thus a marked reduction in cage volume at certain
stages of the tide, were considered the likely cause of the problem. Fish suffered from
crowding stress and external physical damage.
European Scene
Gene patents directive rejected. The European Parliament has rejected a directive
that would have granted legal protection to patents on life forms. The industry has argued
that patent protection of this nature is necessary to encourage research, but others have
expressed concern about the ethics of patenting human and animal genes and transgenic
animals and plants. In practice, the granting of patents lies in the hands of a non-EU body,
the European Patent Office in Munich, and individual patent offices in member states, but
opponents of the directive hope that the vote rejecting it will open up the ethical debate.
13
Animal transport MEPs adopted a joint resolution at their February assembly, calling for
a maximum journey time of eight hours for animals transported for slaughter. They also
suggested that the European Commission's review of the welfare of male calves, which is
due before the end of this year, should be accompanied by proposals to ban veal crates.
Financial assistance for rural areas affected by changes in the rules and an EU labelling
scheme for meat products were also recommended.
Certification concerns. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons recently gave oral
and written evidence to a House of Lords inquiry into a draft EU regulation on the
certification of animals and animal products (COM [94] 561). The RCVS expressed concern
that the proposed regulation does not include all the points covered by the 12 principles of
certification.
MRL problem. At a recent meeting of the European Regulatory Committee, the European
Commission suggested that a maximum residue level (MRL) could not be set for the safe
use of dimetridazole. At present, the drug has been given a provisional MRL, but it would be
banned from use if the Commission's proposal were implemented. The UK, supported by
France, Italy, Spain and Portugal, voted against the proposal and the matter has been
referred to the Council of Agriculture Ministers.
Indoor fish farms New technology, pioneered in Denmark with the backing of the
European Community and British investors, has been used in the development of indoor fish
farms capable of mass-producing a wide variety of marine fish. A filtration system which
purifies the water in tanks four times an hour means that no additional water has to be
stored, as in traditional outdoor farms, and reduces the space needed. It is claimed that tens
of thousands of fish could be reared in this way, all year round.
pages 312-318
Papers and Articles
An investigation of risk factors for cases of bovine spongiform

encephalopathy born after the introduction of the 'feed ban'
by L.J.Hoinville, J.W.Wilesmith, M.S.Richards
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) occurred in cattle in Great Britain after the
inclusion of protein derived from infected tissues in their feed, and the incidence of the
disease has been reduced by the introduction of legislation to prevent the inclusion of such
protein in ruminant feed. This paper describes a case-control study designed to investigate
whether there is any evidence for direct transmission of infection to cattle born after the
introduction of this legislation. The offspring of animals that were subsequently affected with
BSE were not found significantly more often among the cases. There was a statistically
significant risk for animals born up to three days after a subsequently affected animal calved,
but it may not indicate a causal association. Even after adjusting for an animal's exposure to
infected animals that calved but would have been culled from the herd before developing
clinical signs of BSE these routes of transmission could not account for the majority of cases
born after the introduction of the legislation. A between herd comparison is suggested as a
method of investigating alternative sources of infection.
14
THE epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the United Kingdom is

believed to have occurred because cattle were inadvertently fed commercial concentrates
containing meat-and-bone meal which included an agent of a transmissible spongiform
encephalopathy (TSE) (Wilesmith and others 1988, 1991, 1992). The recycling of the
infection by the inclusion of protein derived from infected cattle tissues in concentrate feed
resulted in a continuous increase in the incidence of the disease (Wilesmith 1991) after it
was initially recognised in 1986 (Wells and others 1987). From July 18, 1988 the feeding of
meat-and-bone meal of ruminant origin to ruminants was prohibited (Order 1988), this order
will be referred to as the 'feed ban'. The reduction of the incidence of BSE in animals born
after the introduction of the feed ban (Wilesmith and Ryan 1992, 1993, Hoinville 1994) has
now result in a decline in the national incidence of BSE. However, although there has been a
reduction in the incidence of the disease, more than 10,000 cases of BSE have been
confirmed in animals born after July 18, 1988. The majority of these animals were born in the
months immediately after the introduction of the ban (Fig 1).
Epidemiological investigations have continued to suggest that meat-and-bone meal is the

only identifiable source of the infection for cattle. However, more recent studies have been
directed principally at determining whether there is any other source of the TSE. agent or
any other means of transmitting the disease between cattle. The study described in this
paper represents an important component of the epidemiological research designed to
identify as rapidly as possible any other potential sources of infection or means of
transmission that may exist. It was designed to investigate whether there was any evidence
for the direct transmission of BSE by the two means of transmission that have been
identified for scrapie in sheep, from mother to offspring or between unrelated animals in
association with parturition (Brotherston and others 1968, Dickinson and others 1974,
Hourrigan and others 1979). The data were also used to re-examine the decline in the
incidence of the disease with time by determining whether there was any evidence for a
within-herd decline in the incidence of the disease during the calving season for animals
born after October 1988.
Materials and methods

Study design
A matched case-control study (Schlesselman 1982) was used to compare the exposure of
potential sources of infection of confirmed cases of BSE, born after the introduction of the
feed ban, with the exposure to the same sources of unaffected control animals born in the
same herd and in the same calving season.
Case selection
BSE has been a notifiable disease since June 1988 (Order 1988). All suspected cases of the
disease are reported to the local divisional veterinary officer and an epidemiological
questionnaire is completed. All the animals which a veterinary officer believes on the basis of
a clinical examination, are affected with BSE are compulsorily slaughtered and their brains
are examined histologically for evidence of BSE. A database containing the results of all
these investigations is maintained in the Epidemiology Department at the Central Veterinary
Laboratory (CVL) (Wilesmith and others 1988), and cases for inclusion in this study were
selected from those recorded on this database on three dates during 1993.
The eligible cases were animals born after the introduction of the feed ban in which BSE had
been confirmed histologically (Wells and others 1989). They had to be resident on the farm
15
on which they were born when they developed clinical signs of the disease, and have an
exact date of birth recorded on the epidemiological questionnaire submitted to CVL. Cases
born in the first three and a half months after the introduction of the feed ban were not
included in the study because they were most likely to have had access to infected feed
manufactured before July 18, 1988.
A calculation of sample size was made by using the best estimate of the lowest prevalence
of exposure expected. This indicated that an exposure at a prevalence of 5 per cent in
unaffected animals, and including approximately 300 cases, would give an 80 per cent
probability of detecting an odds ratio of two or more when using a 95 per cent confidence
level. The study was therefore designed to collect information from 300 cases. The earliest
date of birth for the eligible cases was different for the selections made on the three dates
(Table 1) to ensure that sufficient farms were recruited before the end of 1993 and that as
many animals as possible which had been born well after the introduction of the feed ban
were included. Any other animals which were histologically confirmed as having BSE before
the data processing stage and were born in the selected herds in the calving season of
interest were also included in the study.
TABLE 1; Earliest dates of birth for selected subjects

Selection date Earliest date of birth for selected subjects
February 26, 1993 November 1 1988
June 15, 1993 January 1,1989
September 29, 1993 July 1, 1989
Data collection
The information was collected by using an interview-administered questionnaire which was

piloted by the investigator on 14 farms in the south of England in March 1993. The remaining
farms were visited by one of 25 veterinary officers who had been specially briefed on the
aims of the study and the data collection process involved.
Each of the selected farms was contacted before a visit was arranged to determine whether
the detailed records required to complete the questionnaire were available. To ensure that
the required information was likely to be available only herds that produced at 90 per cent of
their own breeding replacements.
The information was collected by using an interview-administered questionnaire which was

piloted by the investigator on 14 farms in the south of England in March 1993. The remaining
farms were visited by one of 25 veterinary officers who had been specially briefed on the
aims of the study and the data collection process involved.
Each of the selected farms was contacted before a visit was arranged to determine whether
the detailed records required to complete the questionnaire were available. To ensure that
the required information was likely to be available only herds that produced at least 90 per
cent of their own breeding replacements were included in the study.
The questionnaire collected information about the management of calving in the herd during
the calving season in which the selected case was born. A herd was defined as a group of
animals that shared the same calving facilities. The calving seasons were defined as starting
on July 1 and ending on the following June 30 to allow for the winter calving pattern. The
identities of all the animals calving in the season of interest, and of all the calves born in this
16
season that were retained as breeding replacements were collected using a separate calving
record sheet. The ear-tag numbers of all the recorded animals were checked with the ear-tag
numbers of all the confirmed cases of BSE recorded on the database at CVL to ensure that
all the cases were covered and to obtain the dates of onset of clinical signs for all the cases
that calved or were born in the season of interest.
The numbers of adult animals in the herd, the region of the country and the previous
incidence of the disease on the farm were obtained from the information recorded on the
database at CVL.
Data processing and selection of controls
On the return of the questionnaires up to four control animals were randomly selected from
the unaffected animals which had been born in the same herd and calving season as each
case, and that were still on the farm at the time of the veterinary officer's visit. Only animals
that had shown no clinical signs of BSE and were at least as old as the oldest of the animals
selected from a farm when it first showed clinical signs of disease, were eligible for inclusion
as controls. If there were less than four eligible controls born in any herd in one calving
season they were all included as controls. The earliest date of birth for the controls selected
to match the cases recruited on each of the three selection dates was the same as that of
the matched case (Table 1).
Exposure definition
The types of exposure considered were, first, whether the mother of each subject was
subsequently, at any time after the birth of the subject, confirmed as affected with BSE,
secondly, the number of subsequently affected animals that calved within a week of the birth
of the subject and, thirdly, the month of birth of the subject.
Information was also collected about the factors which were likely to modify the association
between these types of exposure or risk factors, and the occurrence of disease. These
included the age of the case at the onset of clinical signs, the size of the herd, the region of
the country, the previous incidence of the disease on the farm, and the data quality. The data
quality was considered to be good if complete calving records were available and ear-tag
numbers were provided for at least 90 per cent of the animals that calved in the season.
Other potential modifying factors included the location of the birth, the number of different
locations used for calving at the time, whether any attempt was made to remove placental
tissues from the calving accommodation, and whether this location had been used for
calving in the previous season.
Data management and analysis
All the data were translated into numerical codes and double-entered into six Epi Info
database files (Centres for Disease Control, Atlanta, USA). These data files were validated
by using Epi Info's data validation procedure and the frequencies and tabulations were
checked for consistency before analysis. All manipulations to relate data from the farm and
individual animals, and to define new categories of exposure were carried out using Epi Info.
The frequencies with which the cases and controls were exposed to each of the risk factors
of interest were initially examined by using cross-tabulations in Epi Info. The effect of each
factor on the risk of developing BSE was assessed from the case-control study data by
17
comparing the prevalence of exposure in the cases and the controls in terms of odds ratios.
The odds ratios provided an estimate of the risk of the disease occurring in the animals
exposed to any factor compared with the risk for the unexposed animals. In order to take
account of the matched study design all further analyses were made by using conditional
logistic regression in the statistical package Egret (Statistics and Epidemiology Research
Corporation, Seattle, USA) with herd and calving season used as the matching variable. The
ordinal variables were evaluated as linear and as multi-level factored variables in these
models and included as linear effects unless there was any evidence that their inclusion as
factored variables improved the fit of the model. When a risk factor was included in the
model as a linear effect the odds ratio represented the change in the risk resulting from each
change in the level of exposure.
Each hypothesised risk factor was examined individually to obtain unadjusted odds ratios
and its relationship with all potential confounders and modifiers was then examined. The
final adjusted odds ratios, which provide the best estimate of the effects of each, of the risk
factors on the occurrence of the disease, were obtained from a conditional logistic
regression model which included the risk factor considered, and all its significant
confounding and modifying factors.
Population attributable risks (PAR per cent) were calculated by using the adjusted odds
ratios obtained from these models and the prevalence of exposure in cases (Bruzzi and
others 1985). The values of PAR per cent indicate the proportion of cases in the population
that could be accounted for by exposure to the risk factor, and which therefore would not
have occurred if this exposure could have been removed. These PAR per cent values were
adjusted to account for any exposure to infected animals which was unidentifiable because
they had been culled before they exhibited clinical signs of BSE, by multiplying the
prevalence of exposure for both cases and controls by three, and by recalculating the odds
ratios and the values of PAR per cent.
After the main data-set had been analysed two further data-sets were created and further
analyses were made to help in the interpretation of the results. The first was an extended
data-set which included the maternal status and month of birth of all the eligible control
animals born in these herds in the calving season of interest but not previously selected as
controls, together with all the subjects included in the original data-set. These data were
used to increase the power of the analysis of the relationship between maternal status and
the occurrence of disease. The second was a subset of the original data-set which included
only the cases that were confirmed before the final selection of cases for inclusion in the
study and only the controls that were at least as old on this final selection date as the oldest
case selected from the farm on its date of confirmation. These data were used to overcome
the selection bias with respect to month of birth which had been introduced by the selection
of controls for the original data set in order to examine the relationship between month of
birth and the occurrence of disease.
Results
Herds and cases included in the study
At least one suspect animal born between November 1, 1988 and June 30, 1990, and
confirmed as having BSE, had been reported in 677 herds before the final selection of the
cases (Table 2) Of these herds, 283 were not eligible to be included for one of the following
18
reasons: because the case was purchased; because no exact date of birth was provided;
because the farm did not produce at least 90 per cent of its own breeding replacements, or
because the farm records did not provide sufficient information to complete the
questionnaire. Of the 394 herds selected to take part, 349 (89 per cent) responded; 160 of
these had reported at least one case born in the 1988/89 calving season and 189 had
reported at least one case born in the 1989/90 calving season.
TABLE 2: Herd selected for inclusion in the study

Herds selected Herds excluded
Herd Responders Non-responders (not eligible) TOTAL
characteristic n % n % n % herds
Herd type*
Dairy 328 94 42 93 229 81 599
Suckler/mixed 19 5 3 7 45 16 67
Herd Size +
1-100 133 38 10 22 167 59 310
> 100 215 62 35 78 108 38 358
Region
Eastern 56 16 5 11 27 10 88
South east 43 12 6 13 21 7 70
South west 97 28 7 16 75 27 179
Mid & west 69 20 19 42 67 24 155
North 46 13 5 11 54 19 105
Wales 27 8 2 4 26 9 55
Scotland 11 3 1 2 13 5 25
Total 349 100 45 100 283 100 677
* Two responder herds and nine excluded herds of unknown herd type
+ One responder herd and eight excluded herds of unknown herd size
The distribution of the participating herds by the number of cases and controls selected for
inclusion is shown in Table 3. A total of 447 cases and 1294 controls were included in the
original data set, 447 cases and 5648 controls in the extended data set and 352 cases and
1262 controls in the restricted data set.
TABLE 3: DIstribution of herds included in the Study by the numbers of cases and controls
selected
Number of Number of controls
cases 1 2 3 4 Total
1 10 22 15 229 276
2 1 2 3 49 55
3 - 1 1 13 15
4 - - - 1 1
5 - - - 1 1
7 - - - 1 1
Total 11 25 19 294 349
The distribution by month of birth of all the animals born after the introduction of the feed
ban that were confirmed as having BSE before June 4, 1994 and of those cases selected for
inclusion in the case-control study is shown in Fig 1.
19
The distribution of the cases and controls by each of the risk factors of interest is shown in
Table 4.
TABLE 4: Distribution of cases and controls by the risk factors considered

Cases Controls
Exposure exposed exposed
Risk factor category n % n %
Mother subsequently Yes 25 (56) 56 (4.3)

affected with BSE No 422 (94.4) 1238 (95.7)
Number of subsequently 0 319 (71.4) 987 (76.3)

affected animals calving 1 75 (16.8) 196 (15.13
within a week of the birth 2 26 (5.8) 50 (3.9)
of the subject 3 11 (2.5) 13 (1.0)
4 3 (0.7) 13 (1.0)
5 5 (1.1) 14 (1.1)
6 1 (0.2) 5 (0.4)
7 3 (0.7) 1 (0.1)
8 3 (0.7) 3 (0.2)
9 1 (0.2) 1 (0.1)
Number of subsequently affected 0 383 (85.7) 1136 (87.8)

animals calving between four and 1 46 (10.8) 119 (9.2)
seven days before the birth of 2 9 (2.0) 23 (1.8)
the subject 3 5 (1.1) 9 (0.7)
4 3 (0.7) 3 (0.2)
5 0 (0.0) 2 (0.2)
6 1 (0.2) 1 (0.1)
7 0 (0.0) 1 (0.1)

animals calving between One and three 1 39 (8.7) 100 (7.7)
days before the birth of the subject 2 12 (2.7) 19 (1.5)
3 3 (0.7) 9 (0.7)
4 2 (0.4) 1 (0.1)
5 1 (0.2) 1 (0.1)

animals calving on day of birth of 1 41 (9.2) 103 (8.0)
subject (may or may not be mother of 2 6 (1.3) 5 (0.4)
subject) 3 1 (0.2) 2 (0.2)
Number of subsequently affected O 428 (95.7) 1253 (96.8)

animals calving after the birth of the 1 19 (4.3) 30 (2.3)
subject but while it was still in the 2 0 (0.0) 7 (0.5)
calving accommodation 3 0 (0.0) 1 (0.1)
5 0 (0.0) 3 (0.2)
Month of birth, 1988/89 calving November 72 (53.3) 142 (36.2)
20
season first selection December 32 (23.7) 89 (22.7)

January 11 (8.1) 53 (13.5)
February 10 (7.4) 39 (9.9)
March 6 (4.4) 21 (5.4)
April 1 (0.7) 19 (4.8)
May 1 (0.7) 14 (3.6)
June 2 (1.5) 15 (3.8)
Total 135 (100) 392 (100)
Month of birth, 1988/89 calving January 22 (37.3) 40 (22.6)

season second selection February 14 (23.7) 47 (26.6)
March 10 (16.9) 27 (15.3)
April 4 (6.8) 28 (15.8)
May 3 (5.1) 14 (7.9)
June 6 (10.2) 21 (11.9)
Total 59 (100) 177 (100)
Month of birth, 1989/90 calving July 50 (19.8) 77 (10.6)

season August 77 (30.4) 197 (27.2)
September 78 (30.8) 192 (26.5)
October 33 (13.0) 130 (17.9)
November 10 (4.0) 61 (8.4)
December 3 (1.2) 39 (5.4)
January 1 (0.4) 12 (1.7)
February 0 (0.0) 5 (1.1)
March 0 (0.0) 8 (0.7)
April 1 (0.4) 0 (0.0)
May 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)
June 0 (0.0) 4 (0.6)
Total 253 (100) 725 (100)
Effect of risk factors on the occurrence of disease
Although 5.6 per cent of the cases and 4.3 per cent of the controls were the offspring of
animals subsequently affected by BSE the adjusted odds ratio did not attain a high level of
statistical significance, and provided no evidence for a statistically significant association
between maternal status and the occurrence of the disease (Table 5).
TABLE 5: Association between maternal status and the occurrence of BSE

Cases Controls Unadjusted Adjusted
exposed exposed odds ratio odds ratio
EXPOSURE (%) (%) (95 % CI) (95 % CI)
Mother not subsequently 94.4 95.7 1 1

affected with BSE (baseline) (baseline)
Mother subsequently 5.6 4.3 1.34 1.23

affected with BSE (0.80-2.27) (0.72-2.10)
P=0.28 P=0.45
CI Confidence interval
21
TABLE 6: Association between maternal status and stage of incubation and the occurrence
of BSE
Exposure (%) (%) (95 % CI) (95% CI)
Mother not subsequently 94.4 95.7 1 1

affected with BSE (baseline) (baseline)
Mother affected three or 0.4 1.3 0.39 0.39

more years after birth of (0.09-1.71) (0.09-1.73)
subject
Mother affected 1.6 0.7 2.61 2.33

between two and three (0.93-7.37) (0.81-6.71)
years after birth of
subject
Mother affected 2.2 1.2 2.17 2.05

between one and two (0.89-5.28) (0.83-5.06)
years after birth of
subject
Mother affected within 1.3 1.2 1.04 0.88

one year of the birth of (0.38-2.83) (0.32-2.43)
subject P=0·092 P=0.148
TABLE 7: Association between the number of subsequently affected animals calving within a
week of the birth of the subject and the occurrence of BSE
Type of exposure (%) (%) (95% CI) (95% CI)
Initial analysis
Number of
subsequently affected 0 71.4 76.3 1 1
animals calving within (baseline) (baseline)
a week of the birth of
the subject 1-9 28.6 23.7 1.23 1.20
(1·06-1·43) (1·03-1·40)
P=0.005 P=0.015
Division into four exposure periods
Number of
animals that calved (baseline) (baseline)
seven days before the 1-7 14.3 12.2 1.09 1.07
22
birth of the subject (0.88-1.34) (0.87-1.33)

P=0.457 P=0.517
Number of
animals that calved (baseline) (baseline)
between one and three
days before the birth 1-5 12.8 10.0 1.32 1.27
of the subject (1.01-1.71) (0.98-1.66)
P=0.040 P=0-078
Number of
the day that the (baseline) (baseline)
subject was born 1-3 10.7 8.4 1.52 1.47
(0.04-2.20) (1.00-2.15)
P=0.031 P=0.051
Number of
subsequently affected
animals that calved 0 95.7 96.8 1 1
after the subject was (baseline) (baseline)
born but while it was
still in the calving 1-5 4.3 3.2 1.35 1.21
accommodation (0.71-2.56) (0.63-2.33)
P=0.369 P=0.573
TABLE 8: Population attributable risk (%) for the number of subsequently affected animals
that calved on the day of birth and between one and three days before the birth of the
subject
PAR% for Adjusted estimate of
exposure to clinically PAR% for exposure to
affected animals all infected animals
Exposure (95% CI) (95% CI)
1988/89 1989/90 1988/89 1989/90
calving calving calving calving
season season season season
Number of animals 1 6 4 14
calving on the day (0-2) (0-9) (1-5) (4-21)
of birth
Number of animals 1 5 5 17
calving between one (0-2) (0-10) (2-7) (7-25)
and three days before
the birth of the subject
PAR Population attributable risk, CI Confidence interval
TABLE 9: Association between the occurrence of BSE and exposure to subsequently

affected animals calving on the day of birth
23

Exposure (%) (%) (95% CI) (95%CI)
No subsequently
affected animal calved 89.3 91.5 1 1
on the day of birth (baseline) (baseline)
At least one
subsequently affected 5.1 4.2 1.38 1.40
unrelated animal calved (0.78-2.45) (0.77-2.52)
on the day of birth
Mother subsequently 5.6 4.3 1.41 1.29

affected with BSE (0.83-2.39) (0.75-2.21)
P=0.308 P=0.411
Further analysis of the data, taking into account the stage of incubation of the dam when the
subject was born, did not provide any evidence to suggest that its risk of developing BSE
was higher if its dam was nearer to the onset of clinical signs when it was born (Table 6).
In the analyses of the extended data set which included all potential controls, the adjusted
odds ratio for the offspring of affected animals increased to 1.49 (95 per cent confidence
interval [CI] 0.93 to 2.38, P=0.106) but it was still not statistically significant
The results in Table 7 suggest that the animals born within a week of the calving date of an
animal that subsequently developed BSE might have been at increased risk of developing
BSE (odds ratio 1.20, P=0.015). This association was investigated further by dividing the
period of exposure to subsequently affected animals into four mutually exclusive periods. All
the types of exposures listed in Table 7, except the number of subsequently affected animals
calving after the birth of the subject, were included in the conditional logistic regression
model as linear effects.
The associations between the exposure to animals calving in each of the four periods and
the occurrence of BSE were not statistically significant at the 5 per cent level but the animals
born on the day (odds ratio 1.47, P=0.051) or between one and three days after a
subsequently affected animal calved (odds ratio 1.27 P=0.078) may have been at an
increased risk of developing BSE. The values of PAR per cent given in Table 8 show that
approximately 2 per cent of the cases born in the 1988/89 calving season and 11 per cent of
those born in the 1989/90 calving season could be accounted for by their exposure to
subsequently affected animals that calved up to three days after the birth of the cases.
The animals that were exposed to a subsequently affected animal that calved on the day of
birth were divided into those that were the offspring of a subsequently affected animal and
those that were born on the day that an unrelated and subsequently, affected animal calved
(Table 9). The apparent risk of developing the disease was similar in these two groups.
The only significant confounding variable included in the final regression models to obtain
the adjusted odds ratios in Tables 5, 6, 7 and 9 was the month of birth of the subject. There
24
was no evidence for a significant modification of any of these associations by the age of the
case at the onset of clinical signs, the calving season, the herd size, the region, the previous
incidence of disease in the herd, the quality of the data, or the location of the calving or its
management in this location.
The initial analysis of the original data set suggested that the calves born later in the calving
season were at a lower risk of developing BSE (odds ratio 0.72, 95 per cent CI 0.66 to 0.79,
P=0.001). In the further analysis, using the restricted data set with the controls selected from
those that had reached the age of the oldest case on the date of the final selection of cases,
there was no evidence for a decrease in the risk of disease with the month of birth (odds
ratio 1.07, 95 per cent CI 0.96 to 1.20, P=0.271). The month of birth was included in these
models as a linear effect.
There were no significant confounding factors for this risk factor. In the analysis of this
restricted data-set, in which there was no evidence of an association between the month of
birth and the occurrence of the disease, the animals born within a week of the calving date of
a subsequently affected animal remained at an increased risk of developing the disease
(odds ratio 1.24, 95 per cent CI 1.04 to 1.47, P=0.045) as did the animals born on the day
that an affected animal calved (odds ratio 160, 95 per cent CI 0.98 to 2.59, P=0.059) and
those born between one and three days after an affected animal calved (odds ratio 1.48, 95
per cent CI 1.07 to 2.05, P=0.018).
Discussion
Although the incidence of BSE in animals born after the introduction of the feed ban on July
18, 1988 has been less than the incidence in animals born before it was introduced, a
considerable number of cases have occurred (Fig 1). The disease in these animals is most
likely to have occurred because they had access to feed produced before the ban was
introduced (Wilesmith and Ryan 1993). This explanation is supported by the gradual decline;
in the incidence of BSE in the months immediately after the introduction of the ban (Hoinville
1994). It is also possible that ruminant feed produced after the introduction of the ban may
have been inadvertently contaminated at feed mills with ingredients intended for use in feeds
for other species. This possibility is supported by the increase in the proportion of cases
born in the eastern region of the country after the introduction of the ban (unpublished
observation) which could have been because more pigs and poultry are kept in this area.
The inclusion of ruminant-derived protein in feed used for non-ruminants was not subject to
any restriction until the introduction of the specified bovine offals ban in September 1990
(Order 1990). If feed is the only source of BSE infection for cattle the disease should be
eradicated from the population when all infected tissues have been removed from animal
feed, and all cattle incubating the infection have died or been culled. This result would be
analogous to the eradication of kuru from tribes of cannibals in Papua New Guinea when
their contact with infected tissues was prevented (Alpers 1987).
An alternative explanation for the occurrence of the disease in animals born after the
introduction of the feed ban is that BSE is directly transmitted between cattle. Other TSES
are believed to be transmitted naturally, the best known example being scrapie of sheep and
goats (Hourrigan and others 1979). There is also evidence that chronic wasting disease of
mule deer and elk in the USA (Williams and Young 1992) and BSE in greater kudu in a
zoological collection in this country (Cunningham and others 1993) could have been
transmitted naturally. The exact means of transmission in these species is unknown, but in
scrapie the offspring of affected sheep are at increased risk (Hourrigan and others 1979).
25
The infection is also thought to be transmitted directly to unrelated animals or to be

transferred indirectly from a contaminated environment (Greig 1940, Palsson 1979). The
source of the infection for in-contact animals is unknown but the only tissue excreted by
infected sheep in which infectivity has been identified is the placenta (Pattison and others
1972, 1974).
The possibility that these direct routes of transmission were occurring in BSE was
investigated in this study by using the most efficient epidemiological method for investigating
the aetiology of a rare disease, a case-control study. Herd-matched controls were used to
remove the potential confounding effects of factors such as the level of infection in the feed
or the indirect transmission of the infection, which could cause a variation in the incidence of
the disease between herds. Overmatching occurs when controls are matched too closely
with respect to factors related to exposure, but this should not have been a problem in this
study because the controls were born at any time during the same calving season as the
cases and were therefore not matched closely for the specific risk factors considered.
The only indication that these direct routes of transmission may have been occurring is the
odds ratios for the animals born on the day, or between one and three days after a
subsequently affected animal calved. However, this result does not appear to be consistent
with the failure to demonstrate an increased risk in the offspring of affected animals. This
inconsistency is unlikely to have been the result of passive immunity passed to the offspring
of the affected animals, because no immunity to any TSE agent has ever been demonstrated
(Brown 1990), but it could have been due to a difference in the power of the study to detect
these effects. If these exposures had caused an increase in the risk of similar magnitude the
study would have been more likely to find statistically significant evidence of an increase in
the risk resulting from an exposure to subsequently affected animals that calved within a
week of the birth of the subject, because more of the subjects were born on the day, or
between one and three days after a subsequently affected animal than were themselves the
offspring of a subsequently affected animal. This difference is illustrated by the division of
the animals exposed to an animal calving on the day of their birth into those exposed to their
own dam and those exposed to unrelated animals (Table 9). There is no evidence for a
significant increase in the risk of developing BSE for the offspring of subsequently affected
animals or for those born on the day that an unrelated affected animal calved, and the
prevalence of both these exposures was low.
It is also important to consider whether the association between the number of subsequently
affected animals calving within a week of the birth of the subject and the occurrence of the
disease could have been produced by confounding factors or bias. The most important
potentially confounding factor for these direct transmission effects would have been the
variation in the incidence of the disease between herds, the effect of which was removed by
the selection of controls matched for herd and calving season. The odds ratios obtained
should therefore provide an accurate assessment of the relative rate of disease in the
exposed and unexposed animals within this age range even if some of the control animals
were incubating BSE (Rodrigues and Kirkwood 1990). The small confounding effect of month
of birth was removed from the adjusted odds ratios by including this variable in the
conditional logistic regression model. Any residual confounding effects were thought to be
unlikely, and this was confirmed by the analysis of the restricted data-set, in which there was
no association between the month of birth and the occurrence of disease. Animals born
within a week of the calving date of a subsequently affected animal remained at increased
risk.
26
The two most important types of bias that should be considered in assessing the results of a
case-control study are selection bias and information bias (Sackett 1979). Although the
characteristics of the herds that were not eligible to take part in the study were different from
those of the herds that were included (Table 2) there is no reason to believe that the
exposure to subsequently affected animals would have been different in the two groups.
Non-response bias was also unlikely, given the high response rate in these herds that were
eligible to take part in the study. As the study was designed to obtain a rapid result only
young cases of BSE could be included; the age at clinical onset of the oldest case included
was only 56 months. If the incubation period varies in accordance with the different sources
of infection to which cattle may be exposed the results of this study may not be applicable to
older cases. There is some evidence to suggest that the incubation period of scrapie is
shorter in sheep that are the offspring of affected animals (Dickinson and others 1964). If this
is also true of BSE then the young cases used in this study should demonstrate any
increased risk in the offspring of affected animals. The random selection of the controls from
animals born in the same herd and calving season made selection bias with respect to these
horizontal exposures unlikely. However, a selection bias due to the month of birth was
inherent in the original data-set, as a result of the selection procedure. Any confounding
effect of this bias on the hypothesised horizontal exposures was removed by the inclusion of
the month of birth in the logistic regression model for the analysis of the original data-set,
and by the use of the restricted data-set.
Information bias due to inaccurate recall of information by farmers or selective recording of

data by interviewers was avoided by the use of calving records and the CVL database to
assess the exposures. However, one source of information bias could not be avoided
because of the nature of the spongiform encephalopathies. The long incubation period and
absence of a preclinical diagnostic test mean that many BSE-infected animals that calved in
the seasons of interest would have been culled before developing clinical signs of the
disease. This study measured the exposure of animals to animals that became clinically
affected and were diagnosed as cases of BSE, and would therefore have underestimated the
exposure to all infected animals because many would never have become clinical cases.
However, there is no reason to believe that this underestimation of exposure would have
been different for the cases and the controls. The interpretation of the effect of exposure to
subsequently affected animals at around the time of parturition on the risk of developing the
disease as evidence for a causal relationship should be viewed with caution, given the low
odds ratios and the marginal statistical significance, although these associations could not
be accounted for by any identifiable confounding factors or biases.
The biological plausibility of this means of transmission also needs to be considered. The
increased risk for animals born at around the time that a subsequently affected animal
calved suggests that the placenta may be a source of infection, but does not rule out other
routes of excretion. The placenta is a biologically plausible source of infection, because
placental tissues from scrapie-affected sheep have been used to transmit the infection orally
(Pattison and others 1972, 1974). However, there was no evidence that the observed
associations were modified by the location of calving or by any attempt to remove placental
tissues from the calving accommodation. Moreover, placental tissues from BSE-affected
cattle have not yet been shown to transmit the infection in the small number of experimental
transmissions that have been attempted.
A simulation model is being developed to determine what rates of transmission of BSE in the
population would be consistent with the odds ratios observed in this case-control study. As
there is no evidence of a statistically significant increase in the risk of BSE in the offspring of
27
the affected animals the results are most consistent with a rate of maternal transmission of
zero. Preliminary results indicate that rates of maternal transmission of between 0 and 13
per cent (that is between 0 and 13 per cent of the offspring of infected animals become
infected) could produce the results obtained. By using this maximum rate of maternal
transmission of 13 per cent, the model suggests that approximately 8 per cent of the cases
born in the 1988/89 calving season and 21 per cent of the cases born in the 1989190 calving
season would have been infected by this route.
The model does not yet incorporate any transmission of infection between unrelated animals
but the proportion of cases that may have been caused by the direct transmission of the
infection to unrelated animals has been estimated from the PAR per cent. The results of
these calculations indicate that even after making adjustment for the exposure definition
used in this study these direct means of transmission could not have accounted for the
majority of cases born in either calving season (Table 8). The method of adjustment,
although crude, is likely to overestimate rather than underestimate the attributable risk.
The month of birth of the subjects was used to assess whether there was any evidence for a
decline in the incidence of infection over time, in which case the animals born at the
beginning of any calving season would have been at greater risk of developing BSE than
those born towards the end of the same calving season. Such a decline would have been
expected if there had been a decline in the level of feed contamination with the BSE agent
with time. The analysis of the complete data-set suggested that the animals born at the
beginning of the calving season were at greater risk of developing the disease. The absence
of a similar association when using the restricted data-set, in which the controls had reached
the same age on the date when the final selection of cases was made as the case selected
from the farm would have reached on the date the disease was confirmed, showed that this
association could be wholly accounted for by the original method of selecting the controls.
These results do not exclude the possibility that feed was a source of infection for animals
born after October 1988 but suggest that the risk of food-borne exposure remained constant,
throughout the calving season.
The results of this study do not provide conclusive evidence for the direct transmission of
BSE between cattle by the routes investigated, although the animals born on the day or
between one and three days after an affected animal calved may have been at an increased
risk of developing the disease. However, even after adjusting for the underestimation of the
exposure that occurred because many of the animals calving in the season of interest would
have been culled before developing clinical signs of BSE, these direct routes of transmission
could not account for the majority of the cases of BSE that have occurred in cattle born after
the introduction of the feed ban. The likely alternative sources of infection for these animals
are feed contaminated with the BSE agent which was produced after the introduction of the
feed ban, or indirect routes of transmission between cattle. These routes can be investigated
only by comparing exposures in affected and unaffected herds.
pages 319-323
Papers and Articles
Effects on cattle of transport by road for up to 15 hours

P. D. Warriss, S. N. Brown, T. G. Knowles, S. C. Kestin, J. E. Edwards, S. K. Dolan, A. J.
Phillips
28
Twenty-four castrated male cattle aged between 12 and 18 months were transported by road
for five, 10 or 15 hours, over distances of 286, 536 and 738 km. Half the animals were of
Hereford x Friesian breeding and half of 'continental' type. The animals transported for five
hours lost 4.6 per cent of their bodyweight, those transported for 10 hours lost 6.5 per cent
and those transported for 15 hours lost 7.0 per cent; recovery to pre-transport values took
five days. There was little evidence from changes in blood composition that a 15-hour
journey was more stressful than a 10-hour journey. The cortisol concentrations were
increased by the stresses of loading and the first part of the journey but then recovered as
the journey continued. Creatine phosphokinase (CPK) activities increased progressively with
the longer journeys and CPK, urea, albumin and osmolality levels recovered more slowly
after the longer journeys. Increases in free fatty acids, b-hydroxybutyrate and urea
concentrations and the continued increase in urea levels after the end of the journeys
suggested that the animals' normal pattern of feeding was disrupted. Increases in albumin,
total plasma protein and osmolality indicated slight dehydration during transit which was
quickly rectified by access to water. The two breed types responded similarly to transport,
except that the increases in CPK were greater in the continental breeds, possibly as a result
of their greater muscularity or greater sensitivity to stress. Based on the physiological
measurements made and the subjective observations of behaviour a 15-hour transport
period under good conditions is not unacceptable from the viewpoint of animal welfare.
MOST of our knowledge of the effects of transport on cattle has been reviewed recently
(Tarrant 1990, Warriss 1990). Detailed studies of the transport of cattle under European
conditions have considered journeys of up to one hour (Kermy and Tarrant 1987a, b) or four
hours (Tarrant and others l 988), and Kent and Ewbank (1983) studied six-month-old calves
transported for six hours. Current United Kingdom legislation allows cattle to be transported
for up to 15 hours. The responses of animals to longer Journeys, such as these, which may
occur more frequently with the impending decrease in the number of slaughter plants in the
UK (Kempster and Sloyan 1992) and the greater international trade between EU countries,
are not known. The work reported here examined the effects on steers of two contrasting
breed types, of being transported for five, 10 or 15 hours.
Materials and Methods

The experiment was carried out during May 1993. Twenty-four castrated male cattle (steers)
aged between 12 and 18 months (mean initial weight 341 kg) were purchased and kept for
14 days before the experiment. During this time they were maintained on hay ad libitum
supplemented with 4 kg concentrate feed per animal per day. The concentrate (Intensive
Beef HE Nuts, W. M. F. Llanthony Mills) contained 16 per cent protein and 5.25 per cent oil.
Twelve of the steers were Hereford x Friesian crosses and the other 12 were of 'continental'
breeding (a mixture of Limousin and blonde d'Aquitaine crosses). Within the two breed types
the animals were allocated randomly to three groups, to be transported for five, 10 or l5
hours. The eight animals in each group were held together in one pen and remained in this
group, unmixed with animals from the other groups, throughout the experiment.
The cattle were transported on the bottom deck of an articulated vehicle at a stocking
density of about 1 m2 per animal. The three pens at the back of the vehicle were used with
the groups allocated so that the front pen held animals transported for 15 hours, the middle
pen those transported for 10 hours and the last pen those transported for five hours, so that
they could easily be unloaded at the end of their journeys. The journeys included a variety of
road surfaces ranging from motorways and major trunk roads to small country lanes. The
29
cattle transported for five hours travelled 286 km, those transported for 10 hours travelled
536 km and those transported for 15 hours travelled 738 km.
Before and after the journeys the physiological state of the cattle was monitored by making
measurements of liveweight, food and water intake, behaviour and various blood
components. Liveweight was recorded and blood samples were taken on seven occasions;
two were taken before the journey to give control values, one was taken immediately after
the journey and the others were taken at one, two, five and eight days after the journey
began. The first control sample (sample 1) was taken at 09.00 and the second (sample 2)
was taken six days later, on the day before the journey at 07.00. The samples taken between
one and eight days after the journey (sample 4 to 7) were also taken at 07.00. The sample
taken immediately after the journey (sample 3), was taken at 12.00, 17.00 and 22.00,
respectively, from the groups transported for five, 10 and 15 hours. The journey began at
07.00.
Blood samples (20 ml) were taken by jugular venepuncture placed into heparinised tubes
and kept on ice until processed Packed cell volume (PCV) was measured by a
microhaematocrit method. The samples were centrifuged and the plasma frozen in liquid
nitrogen for the subsequent analysis of cortisol, glucose, lactate, free fatty acids, b-
hydroxybutyrate, urea, total protein albumin, osmolality and creatine phosphokinase (CPK)
using the methods described by Knowles and others (1993).
The daily consumption of hay and water by each pen of eight animals was monitored for six
days before the journey and seven days after it. The behaviour of the group transported for
15 hours was recorded continuously by means of video cameras during the journey and the
behaviour of the groups transported for five and 15 hours was recorded after the journey.
The temperature of the air above the animals' heads in each pen, and outside the vehicle,
was monitored at five-minute intervals with thermistor temperature probes and recorded on a
Squirrel data recorder (Grant Instruments). The results were scrutinised by analysis of
variance, using repeated measures analyses where appropriate.
Results
Temperature during transport
The temperature increased steadily from about 7°C at the start of the journey at 07.00,
stabilised at about 17°C between five and 10 hours after the start and then fell with the onset
of evening to approximately 10°C (Fig 1). There were no differences in temperature between
the pens, or between the internal and external air temperatures.
Liveweight and blood measurements
The changes in liveweight and in the levels of the various blood components are illustrated
in Figs 2 and 3. There were no material differences between the treatment groups before the
journey. The only statistically significant difference (P<0.05) between the groups was for
CPK activity which was slightly higher for the group transported for 10 hours (76.4 u/litre)
than for the groups transported for five hours (61.4 u/litre) or 15 hours (57.8 u/litre). This
difference was very small in comparison with the potential increases in CPK activity and may
have been caused by the slightly greater stress associated with the weighing and bleeding
of the increases in CPK activity and may have been caused by the slightly greater stress
associated with the weighing and bleeding of the cattle in this group. The values for the
30
second control samples were strictly comparable with those from later 'recovery' samples all
being derived from samples taken at 07.00; the first control sample was taken slightly later at
09.00. The significance of the differences for each blood component between the samples
taken at the different times from the cattle in each of the groups transported for different
times is given in Table 1. The variance ratios are derived from a repeated analysis of
variance.
Table 2 gives the mean values of all the measurements made immediately after the journey
(sample 3) and Table 3 shows the percentage change from the value of the pre-transport
sample (sample 2). Together these highlight the differences in the effects of the three
transport times.
Liveweight. All the groups increased in weight (by approximately 2 per cent) during the six
days between the first and second control weighings, showing that the animals had become
adapted to the holding conditions. Between the second control weighing, on the day before
the journey, and the end of the journey all the groups lost weight. The loss was greater after
the longer journeys (Table 3) but the weights of the groups after the journeys were not
significantly different (Table 2). The cattle transported for five hours lost 4.6 per cent, those
transported for 10 hours lost 6.5 per cent and those transported for 15 hours lost 7.0 per
cent of their initial weights. It required about five days after the journey for the liveweight to
recover, and there was evidence that the recovery took slightly longer for the groups
transported further. Thus the mean liveweight of the group transported for five hours after
five days recovery was 0.6 per cent higher than immediately before the journey, that of the
group transported for 10 hours was 0.3 per cent less and that of the group transported for 15
hours was 0.8 per cent less. The changes in liveweight were significant (P<0.001) for all
three journey lengths (Table 1).
TABLE 1: Variance ratios (F values) and their significance for the effect of the duration of the
journey, on the liveweight and blood composition of the three groups of eight steers
Duration of journey (hours)
Variable 5 10 15
Liveweight 46.5*** 46.5*** 30.3***
PCV 2.9* 7.4*** 1.2 NS
Cortisol 62.6*** 9.0*** 4.5***
CPK 9.0*** 13.6*** 14.9***
Glucose 19.5*** 36.6*** 15.4***
Lactate 5.5*** 5.5*** 1.8 NS
FFA 5.5*** 1.9 NS 0.7 NS
b-OHB 2.4* 4.0** 1.7 NS
Urea 6.1*** 4.0** 21.7***
Total plasma protein 0.8 NS 7.7*** 1.7 NS
Albumin 5.3*** 5.1*** 11.3***
Osmolality 5.1*** 12.8*** 8.6***
CPK Creatine phosphokinase, FFA Free fatty acids, b-OHR b-hydroxybutyrate

Each F value has (6, 42) degrees of freedom
NS Not significant, * P<0.05, ** P<0.01, *** P<0.001
Packed cell volume. The PCV decreased in all the groups during the journey, but there was
no evidence of any relationship with journey time (Table 3). The average decrease was 4.8
31
per cent of the initial values. During the recovery period the PCV values initially continued to
decrease in the group transported for 10 hours and remained low in the other two groups,
and the values did not return to the control levels even after eight days. There was, however,
considerable variation between the animals and the changes in the group transported for 15
hours were not significant, whereas those in the other two groups were significant (Table 1).
Cortisol. The concentrations of cortisol were low (mean 2.5 ug/100 ml) in all the samples
except in those taken immediately after the journey, in which the concentration was
significantly (P<0.001) increased in all the groups (Table 1). The greatest increase (200 per
cent to 7.2 mg/100 ml) occurred in the group transported for five hours (Table 3) followed by
the group transported for 10 hours (88 per cent to 4.5 mg/100 ml) and the group transported
for 15 hours (42 per cent to 3.7 mg/100 ml). The differences between the cortisol
concentrations of the three groups immediately after the journey (Table 2) were highly
significant (P<0.001), suggesting that the cortisol concentration increased in response to the
stresses associated with loading and the initial stages of transport but then recovered as the
journey proceeded.
TABLE 2: Mean values of the measurements made immediately after the steers returned
from their journeys (sample 3)
Variable 5 10 15 F value
Liveweight (kg) 330 333 320 0.1
PCV (%) 34.9 33.5 35.2 0.4
Cortisol (mg/100 ml) 7.2a 4.5b 3.7b 15.8***
CPK (U/litre) 226a 730ab 1039b 5.1*
Glucose (mmol/litre) 6.64 6.49 6.36 0.1
Lactate (mg/100 ml) 20.7 27.4 27.5 0.5
FFA (mmol/litre) 0.54 0.40 0.38 2.8
b-OHB (mmol/litre) 3.3 0.46 0.46 0.2
Urea (mmol/litre) 3.3 3.8 3.9 1.8
Total plama protein (g/litre) 66.1 71.2 68.7 2.4
Albumln (g/litre) 32.8a 36.5b 36.9b 8.6**
Osmolality (mosmol) 284 287 287 1.2
CPK Creatine phosphokinase, FFA Free fatty acids, b-OHB b-hydroxybutyrate

* P<0.05, ** P<0.01, ***P<0.001
Means with different superscripts are significantly different
TABLE 3: Percentage cnanges in liveweight and blood composition during the journey based
on tne samples taken before (sample 2) and immediately after (sample 3) the journeys
Variable 5 10 15 All journeys
Liveweight - 4.6 - 6.5 - 7.0 - 6.0
PCV - 6.7 - 3.2 - 4.3 - 4.8
Glucose +43.4 +44.4 +39.1 +41.2
Lactate 0 +122.7 +68.7 +53.5
Cortisol +200.0 +87.5 +42.3 +108.1
FFA +92.8 +17.6 +26.6 +43.4
b-OHB +2.4 +39.4 +21.1 +19.4
Urea +6.5 +15.2 +14.7 +12.2
CPK +268 +855 +1698 +920
32
Albumin +1.2 +10.6 +12.5 +8.1

Total plasma protein -1.5 + 9.2 + 6.2 +4.6
Osmolality +1.4 + 2.9 + 2.1 +2.1
FFA Free fatty acids, CPK Creatine phosphokinase, b-OHB b-hydroxybutyrate
Creatine phosphokinase. The activity of CPK in the plasma was increased by transport in
proportion to the length of the journey (Table 3) and there were significant differences
(P<0.05) in the activity in the sample taken immediately after the journey (Table 2). The five-
hour journey raised the level over three-fold, the 10-hour journey by nearly 10-fold and the
15-hour journey raised it by nearly 18-fold. The activity of CPK remained high, particularly in
the two groups making the longer journeys, for two days, but had returned to the control
levels after five days.
Glucose. There were significant (P<0.001) effects of transport on glucose concentration,

which increased by about 41 per cent irrespective of the journey time (Table 3), so that there
was no difference between the mean concentrations in the three groups immediately after
the journey (Table 2). However, there was some evidence that the recovery was slower after
the longer journeys; thus, one day after the start of the journey the glucose concentrations
were 4.9, 5.1 and 5.3 mmol/litre in the groups transported for five, 10 and 15 hours
respectively. However, these differences should be treated with caution, because the
samples were taken 19 hours after the return of the group transported for five hours, but only
nine hours after the return of the group transported for 15 hours. By two days after the
journey, the glucose concentrations in all the groups had returned to the control levels.
Free fatty acids and b -hydroxybutyrate. The concentration of free fatty acids was
significantly (P<0.001) affected only in the group transported for five hours, in which the
mean concentration had increased by 93 per cent after the journey (Table 3). Immediately
after the journey there were no significant differences between the concentrations of free
fatty acids in the three groups (Table 2), but recovery to the control values required five
days. The concentrations of b-hydroxybutyrate also increased after the journey (Table 3),
and to similar levels (Table 2), although the increases above the control values tended to be
greater in the groups transported for 10 hours (39 per cent) and 15 hours (21 per cent) than
in the group transported for five hours (2 per cent). The overall effects were significant only
in the groups transported for five hours (P<0.05) and 10 hours (P<0.01). Recovery to control
values required between one and two days.
Lactate. Lactate concentrations were variable but there were significant treatment effects
(Table 1) in the groups transported for five and 10 hours (P<0.001). In the groups
transported for 10 and 15 hours there were increases in lactate concentrations after the
journey (Table 3) although the levels were not significantly different between the groups
(Table 2). During the recovery period the lactate concentrations fell below the control levels.
Urea. The journey had significant effects on the concentration of urea in all the groups (Table
1). The concentration of urea had increased in all the groups immediately after transport
(Table 3) but the maximum concentrations occurred in the samples collected the day after
the journey (sample 4). The levels increased by an average of 12 per cent during the journey
(sample 3) to levels which were not significantly different between the groups (Table 2), but
they had increased by an average of 43 per cent on the following day. At this time, the
concentration of urea in the group transported for 15 (5.4 mmol/litre) was higher (P<0.05)
33
than that in either of the other groups (4.3 mmol/litre). Recovery took between two and five
days.
Albumin, total plasma protein and osmolality. There were significant overall effects on
albumin concentration and osmolality in all the groups (P<0.001) and on total plasma protein
in the group transported for 10 hours (P<0.001). Transport increased the albumin and total
plasma protein concentrations, and the osmolality. The albumin concentrations increased as
the journey proceeded, by 12 per cent after five hours, by 10.6 per cent after 10 hours and
by 12.5 per cent after 15 hours. There were significant (P<0.01) differences between the
albumin concentrations in the animals in the three groups immediately after the journeys
(Table 2). The total plasma protein concentration increased by 9.2 per cent after 10 hours
(P<0.001) and by 6.2 per cent after 15 hours; the concentration in the group transported for
five hours decreased by 1.5 per cent. The plasma osmolality increased by 1.4 per cent in the
group transported for five hours, by 2.51 per cent in the group transported for 10 hours and
by 21 per cent in the group transported for 15 hours (Table 3), but the differences in
osmolality between the groups were not significant immediately after the journey (Table 2).
Total plasma protein concentrations and osmolality took one to two days after the journey to
recover to the control values. Albumin concentrations had decreased to near the control
values by two days after the journey but tended to increase slightly subsequently.
Differences between the rates of recovery in the three groups for selected variables .
The differences between the rates of recovery to control levels of CPK, urea, albumin and
osmolality are illustrated in Table 4, which gives the values for the samples collected one
day after the journey (sample 4) for the variables in which there were significant differences
between the groups. The progressive increases in the levels with the longer journeys imply a
correspondingly greater response by the animals to being transported. A similar, but non-
significant effect also occurred in the glucose concentrations. However, some of the
differences may have been due in part to the variation from nine to l9 hours in the interval
between the end of the journey and sampling for the three groups.
Consumption of hay and water. In the six days before the journey the cattle consumed on
average 5.24 kg of hay and 22.7 litres of water each per day. In the seven days after the
journey the corresponding averages were 5.55 kg of hay and 21.8 litres of water, and the
consumption of water did not differ between the three groups (Table 5). Hay consumption
was similar in the three groups during the last three days of the recovery period but
appeared to be lower in the group transported for 15 hours during the first four days of
recovery, particularly at first. Some of this reduction was probably due to the fact that the
cattle transported for 15 hours arrived during the hours of darkness, at 22.00, when their
intake of feed would normally have been very low. The observed behaviour of the animals
concurred with the amounts of water and hay they consumed. There was no difference
between the number of animals observed drinking during the first 20 hours after the journey,
between the groups transported for five hours and 15 hours; in the group transported for five
hours 2.0 animals per hour were observed to drink and in the group transported for 15 hours
2.3 animals per hour were observed to drink. In contrast the number of animals eating over
the same time period was reduced in the group transported for 15 hours compared with the
group transported for five hours. The average number of animals observed eating over the
first ten hours was 14 per hour in the 5-hour group and 21 per hour in the 15-hour group, but
the corresponding figures for animals eating over the second ten hours were 21 and 10
respectively.
34
TABLE 4: Levels of CPK, urea, albumin and osmolality measured 24 hours after the start of
the journey (sample 4)

Variable 5 10 15 Fvalue
CPK (U/litre) 126a 372ab 615b 6.0**
Urea(mmol/litre) 4.3a 4.3a 5.4b 3.7*
Albumin (g/litre) 34.0a 35.5ab 36.3b 4.7*
Osmolality 278a 283b 286b 11.9***
CPK Creatine phosphokinase
* P<0.05, ** P<0.01, *** P<0.001
Means with different superscripts are significantly different
TABLE 5: Average consumption of hay and water by three groups of eight cattle before and
after journeys of different duration
Duration of journey
Variable 5 10 15
Hay consumption (kg/animal/day)
Before transport (six days) 5.5 5.3 5.0
After transport
1st period (2 days) 5.8 5.5 3.7
2nd period (2 days) 5.9 5.8 5.5
3rd period (3 days) 6.0 5.9 6.0
Water consumption (litre/animal/day)

Before transport (six days) 21 22 25
After transport
1st period (2 days) 24 25 23
2nd period (2 days) 19 22 21
3rd period (3 days) 23 20 19
Differences between breeds. The differences between the weights and blood compositions
of the two breed types are given in Table 6. The Hereford x Friesians were heavier (P<0.05),
had higher PCVS (P<0.05) and urea (P<0.001 ) and total plasma protein (P<0.05)
concentrations and lower CPK (P<0.001) and glucose (P<0.01) concentrations. The only
significant interaction between the effects of breed and transport was on plasma CPK activity
(P<0.05). In the Hereford x Friesians the CPK activity did not increase significantly after 10
hours of transport, but in the continental-type animals it continued to increase. Thus, after 10
hours the CPK activities of the continental cattle were more than twice the activities after five
hours, and they had increased to more than 3.5 times the five-hour level after 15 hours.
TABLE 6: Differences between the Hereford-Friesian (HF) and continental-type (C) steers in
the overall mean values of liveweight, and blood consumption
Overall mean F F F
Variable HF C (treatments) (breeds)
(interaction)
Liveweight (kg) 364 319 0.1 7.8* 0.2
PCV (%) 36.4 33.2 1.6 6.8* 1.0
Cortisol (mg/100 ml) 2.8 2.9 5.8 0.2 1.2
CPK (U/litre) 124 284 14.2*** 27.0*** 5.3
Glucose (mmol/litre) 4.76 5.10 0.3 10.1* 1.6
35
Lactate (mg/100 ml) 15.0 16.0 0.4 0.1* 0.3

FFA (mmol/litre) 0.38 0.37 0.2 0.1 0.2
b-OHB (mmol/litre) 0.37 0.38 0.3 0.1 0.3
Urea (mmol/litre) 3.9 3.4 0.4 12.6*** 0.3
Total plasma
protein (g/litre) 68.0 65.2 0.2 4.7* 0.3
Albumin (g/litre) 34.4 34.0 2.6 0.4 0.1
Osmolality (mosmol) 281 281 3.1 0.0 0.6
* P<0.05, ** P<0.01, *** P<0.001

Each mean is derived from 12 animals. The F values come from a repeated measures
analysis of variance with breed type and duration of journey as between-subject factors and
time as the within-subject factor
Discussion
The animals were inspected by a veterinary surgeon at intervals during the journey and all of
them were considered to be in good clinical condition at the end. It was noticeable however
that after 15 hours travelling the cattle appeared to be fatigued, as indicated by their relative
'docility' during the weighing and blood sampling after the journey. The interpretation of the
food and water consumption data is complicated by the differences between the times at
which the three groups returned, but there was some evidence that food consumption by the
group transported for 15 hours was initially depressed.
The increases in blood cortisol levels indicated that the transport was stressful to the cattle,
at least during the loading and initial stages of the journey. However, it is not clear whether
the animals subsequently adapted to being transported. This is one possible interpretation of
the decrease in cortisol levels which occurred during the longer journeys, which suggested
that the cattle were recovering. The increases in CPK activities indicated that transport was
physically stressful. CPK is released from the skeletal muscles in response to changes in the
permeability of cell membranes, and very high activities have been recorded in the blood of
young bulls which-were mixed with unfamiliar animals and engaged in long-term agonistic
interactions such as butting and mounting (Warriss 1984). The increases in CPK therefore
suggest that the maintenance of posture in the moving vehicle was physically demanding,
because longer journeys were associated with progressively higher CPK activities, implying
increasing fatigue. It is unfortunate that it was not possible to monitor muscle glycogen
concentrations which might have corroborated this supposition. Fatigue might also have
accounted for the increase in lactate levels in the groups transported for five and 10 hours.
The group transported for 15 hours was videoed continuously during the journey; they
remained standing throughout the journey but often changed their position with respect to
other animals in the pen and to the direction of travel of the vehicle. They often had difficulty
in maintaining their position when the vehicle cornered or braked but on only two occasions
did individuals lose their footing and fall, regaining their feet almost immediately.
The increases in glucose concentrations after the journeys could have been due to
catecholamine-stimulated glycogenolysis, and the influence of catecholamines could also
explain some of the increase in free fatty acid concentrations. However, these changes,
together with the increases in b-hydroxybutyrate levels, might also have been a response to
the lack of food during the journey. The high urea concentrations after transport, particularly
the continuing increase after the return, are, similarly, likely to have been due to the
disruption to the animals' normal pattern of feeding caused by the associated stress. This is
36
borne out by the greater increase in urea observed in the cattle transported furthest, whose
intake of hay was also apparently reduced during the first few days of the recovery period.
The increases in albumin, total plasma protein and osmolality suggest a progressive degree
of dehydration during the journeys. However, the animals' water consumption after the
journey did not appear to be greater than before it, or to vary between the cattle transported
different distances. The blood values had returned to the control levels by the second day
after the return, suggesting that the dehydration was not severe or distressing to the animals
and was quickly reversed by access to water. The dehydration was not severe enough to
increase the PCV, and PCV values decreased during the journeys and continued to do so
during the recovery period. The PCV can be increased by the contraction of the spleen,
which releases erythrocytes into the circulation, under the influence of sympatho-adrenal
stimulation. The gradual decrease in PCV could therefore indicate a progressive habituation
of the cattle to being handled.
The changes in most of the blood constituents were in agreement with previously published
studies in cattle, as reviewed by Leach (1981), and were very similar to those recorded in
sheep transported for up to 14 hours (Knowles and others 1993). There were no important
differences between the way in which the cattle of the two breed types responded to being
transported, except in the response of plasma CPK activities. The higher CPK activities
observed in the plasma of the continental breed type may be related to their greater
muscularity, and the continuing increase during the longer journeys may indicate their
possibly greater sensitivity to stress. Although the present work was carried out on steers, it
is likely that the results would also be applicable to bulls and heifers because previous
studies have shown no material differences in the way the sexes respond to being
transported (Tennessen and others 1984, Kenny and Tarrant 1987a, b).
The cattle in this experiment were apparently stressed by being transported and showed
evidence of slight dehydration. Some measurements showed progressive changes during
the longer journeys, but many indicated that a journey lasting 15 hours was little, if at all,
more stressful to the animals than one lasting 10 hours. The implication is that the initial
loading and start of the journey was most stressful to the animals and that its prolongation
after 10 hours was not particularly distressing. This finding may be evidence of the general
resilience of well-fed cattle in which the rumen acts as a reservoir of nutrients and water.
However, in animals suffering from previous poor nutrition or other marketing stresses this
may not apply, and caution should therefore be exercised in extending these findings to all
cattle transported commercially. Nevertheless, on the basis of the physiological
measurements and the subjective observations by the authors and the veterinary surgeon, a
journey of 15 hours under good conditions appears to be acceptable from the viewpoint of
the animals' welfare. Unlike sheep (Knowles and others 1994), the cattle were not observed
to lie down during the journeys and may therefore suffer more from fatigue; it may therefore
be undesirable to extend the permitted transport time much beyond the current limit of 15
hours.
pages 319-323
Papers and Articles
Sedative and analgesic effects of detomidine and romifidine in horses

by D.Hamm, P.Turchi, W.Jochle
37
In a double blind study, eight horses were treated intravenously at seven-day intervals with
detomidine at doses of 10, 20 and 40 mg/kg, or with romifidine at doses of 40, 80 and 120
mg/kg, or with a placebo solution. Their sedative and analgesic effects were evaluated by
objective measurements and by a clinician at 15-minute intervals for three hours and the
horses' instability in stocks, locomotor ataxia and heart rate were recorded simultaneously.
The administration of both drugs at all doses resulted in sedation. The sedation achieved
with romifidine was significantly shallower and shorter-lived than with detomidine at the
recommended doses (P<0.05). The results obtained with the highest dose of romifidine were
in some cases significantly inferior and shorter-lived than those obtained with the medium
dose (P<0.05). Detomidine at the 10 mg/kg dose was similar in its effects to the two highest
doses of romifidine. At all doses detomidine had analgesic properties against the effects of
electrical pain stimulation at the withers, the coronary bands on the front and hind legs, and
in the perianal region, which were dose-dependent in depth and duration, whereas
romifidine was devoid of any analgesic effect. Instability and ataxia were more pronounced
with detomidine than with romifidine but the effects were only slight to moderate and not
regarded as a hindrance to procedures for which sedation is needed. Bradycardia was
evident with both drugs at all doses; its severity and duration was related to the sedative
properties of the drugs and was dose related. No other side effects were observed.
DRUG induced sedation and analgesia are commonly used in equine practice.
Acepromazine, a widely used sedative, provides good sedation but is devoid of any
analgesic properties. Xylazine (Rompun; Bayer) the first of several drugs based on a2-
agonism, combined sedative and analgesic effects. Detomidine hydrochloride (Domosedan;
Orion Corporation Animal Health Division) combined a higher level of a2-receptor specificity
with stronger and longer lasting sedation and analgesia in direct comparisons with xylazine
in experimental studies (Jochle and Hamm 1986, Lowe and Hilfiger 1986) and clinical trials
(Dyson and others 1987, Jochle and others 1991) and especially in equine colic (Jochle
1989, Jochle and others 1989).
With detomidine, the depth and duration of sedation and analgesia are dose-dependent
(Jochle and Hamm 1986, Kamerling and others 1988). At doses of 20 mg/kg or more both
effects were always observed with detomidine, but at 10 mg/kg, although it always induced
sedation, its analgesic effect measured superficially at the body’s surface (Kamerling and
others 1988) or abdominally in a colic model (Lowe and Hilfiger 1986) was inconsistent.
Recently, romifidine (Sedivet; Boehringer Ingelheim Vet-medica), a new a2-agonist has

become available, and it is claimed that doses of 40, 80 and 120 mg/kg provide light, deep,
and deep and prolonged sedation. No claims have been made for analgesia. However, in
practice it is commonly assumed that deep and long sedation also provides some analgesia.
In an experimental study with four ponies and one horse, England and others (1992)
compared detomidine, xylazine and romifidine and concluded that these drugs were
equipotent sedatives at doses of 10 mg/kg detomidine and 40 mg/kg romifidine and at doses
of 20 mg/kg detomidine, 80 mg/kg romifidine and 1.0 mg/kg xylazine. Ptosis was less
pronounced with romifidine than with detomidine and xylazine. The duration of sedation was
longer with romifidine than with detomidine and xylazine, but the a2-specific bradycardia was
similar for all three drugs. Analgesia was not evaluated. Ataxia, a common side effect of
sedatives, was less pronounced with romifidine than detomidine, as was the degree and
duration of prolapse of the penis.
38
The purpose of the controlled study reported here was to evaluate objectively the sedative
and analgesic effects of detomidine and romifidine administered intravenously over the
range of recommended doses for detomidine: 10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg, and
romifidine: 40 mg/kg, 80 mg/kg and 120 mg/kg, supplemented by a clinician's assessment of
the suitability of the sedation or analgesia for clinical procedures. In North America,
detomidine is approved at doses of 20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg only.
Materials and methods

Eight mature, mixed breed, light horses, three geldings and five mares, aged three to 12
years, were used. They were acclimatised to local conditions for 14 to 21 days, examined for
soundness and general health, and dewormed and vaccinated.
Before each treatment, the horse's temperature, pulse rate and respiratory rate were
measured and a complete blood count was made to assess its health.
The following observations were made before each treatment, and at 15-minute intervals
after dosing, either until signs of the drug's effects had disappeared, or for three hours:
Dropping of the horse's head (head ptosis) by measuring the distance between the lowest
part of the lower lip and the floor.
Response to the noise made by banging on an empty bucket scored as follows: 0

undiminished response, animal moves away vigorously; 1 muted response, subdued
reaction and movements 2 no appreciable response, but evidence of hearing; 3 no signs of
noise recognition.
Response to swinging an open white, plastic laundry bag over the horse's head and before
its eyes scored as follows: 0 undiminished response, animal moves away vigorously; 1
muted response, subdued reaction and movements; 2 reaction significantly subdued; 3 no
signs of visual arousal.
For the clinical evaluation of the sedative effect the following scoring system was used: 0 no
sedation; 1 poor sedation, unsatisfactory*; 2 fair sedation, satisfactory*; 3 good to excellent
sedation, highly satisfactory*. (* For the execution of clinical procedures in which sedation
would be required.)
For the clinical evaluation of analgesia, pain was inflicted by an electrical current to
determine the changes in the pain threshold due to the treatments. A constant current shock
generator (metered? was applied to the withers (a), the coronary band of the left (or right)
front leg (b), the coronary band of the left (or right) hind leg (c), and to the perineal region
(d).
The details of this nociceptive technique have been described by Jochle and Hamm (1986).
In this study the following scoring system was used: 0 no recognisable analgesia anywhere;
1 poor analgesia, unsatisfactory*; 2 analgesia moderate, satisfactory*; 3 good to excellent
analgesia, highly satisfactory*. (* For the execution of painfree clinical procedures.)
Other observations included prolapse of the penis in geldings, instability while in the stocks
-which scored as follows: 0 no signs of instability, stable. 1 stable but swaying lightly: 2
swaying and leaning on the stocks; 3 swaying and leaning on the stocks with the hindlegs
39
crossed and the forelegs buckled at the knee. Locomotor ataxia (disturbance in the power of
governing movements, although the necessary power for these movements is still present:
Black's Veterinary Dictionary [1979] 13th edn p 52) was also observed. The following
procedure was used. The horse was led out of the stocks, turned to the left and led along an
aisle for 20 m, turned in the aisle and returned to the stocks. The observations were scored
as follows: 0 no signs of locomotor disturbances, sure footed; 1 slight incoordination; 2
moderate incoordination, slight swaying and stumbling; 3 significant incoordination, heavy
stumbling, animal may fall.
The horse's heart rate was recorded before each treatment and at 15-minute intervals for a
maximum of four hours after the treatment. The body temperature was measured with an
electronic thermometer, before the treatment and at hourly intervals thereafter, for a
maximum of three hours.
Any other side effects observed, including sweating, piloerection and increased micturition,
were recorded. The eight horses were assigned randomly to each of the following seven
intravenous treatments: detomidine (Domosedan Orion Corporation Animal Health Division)
at 10, 20 and 40 mg/kg bodyweight; romifidine (Sedivet; Boehringer Ingelheim Vet-medica) at
40, 80 and 120 mg/kg bodyweight; and placebo (1.0 ml saline solution).
Each animal received the seven treatments consecutively at intervals of seven days. To
ensure that the observations were carried out 'blind' the treatments were not administered by
the clinician involved in the evaluation of the procedures. Testing was discontinued after two
identical sets of baseline responses had been recorded.
Statistical analysis
The quantitative variables, such as heart rate, were analysed by a repeated measures
analysis of variance, followed by multiple comparisons of the treatment group means at each
time, based on the least significant difference procedure, with the appropriately in, pooled
mean-square error (Cochran and Cox 1975). Score variables, such as the responses to
noise, were analysed like the quantitative variables by a repeated measures analysis
variance in order to take account of the repeated measurements on each horse at 15-minute
intervals after the administration of the drugs.
Results
· Sedative Effects
Detomidine induced a sedative effect that was dose-dependent in its depth and duration
(Tables 1, 2 and 3). This trend was significant and was apparent with all four parameters
tested. A comparison of the mean values of these sedation-related parameters during 120
minutes after treatment (32 observations) showed significantly higher values (P<0.05) in
87.5 per cent of them for the dose of 20 mg/kg vs 10 mg/kg, and in 78.1 per cent for 40 mg/kg
vs 20 mg/kg; in 12.5 per cent and 21.9 per cent, the effects of these doses were equal, and at
no time was a lower dose more effective than a higher dose (Table 3). As the scores for
sensory arousal, the extent of head ptosis and the clinical evaluation indicate, sedation was
rated least effective with 10 mg/kg detomidine, but highly satisfactory with 20 mg/kg and 40
mg/kg detomidine.
40
Romifidine induced a sedative effect that was less clearly dose-dependent (Tables 1, 2 and
3). In general, the scores were lower and the head ptosis less pronounced than with
detomidine, but the effect lasted as long (Tables 1, 2 and 3). Even with the two higher doses,
the clinical evaluation gave a slightly 'better than fair' assessment only once, and at most
other times the degree of sedation was rated between poor and fair. A comparison of the
mean values of the sedation-related parameters during 120 minutes after treatment showed
significantly higher values for 80 mg/kg romifidine vs 40 mg/kg in only 25.0 per cent of the
observations, and in 75.0 per cent the values were not significantly different. A comparison of
the mean values for doses of 120 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg indicated that the effect of the higher
dose was equal to that of the lower dose in 65.6 per cent of cases, was greater than that of
the lower dose in only 6.3 per cent and was significantly less than that of the lower dose in
28.1 per cent of the observations. For two of the parameters, ptosis and response to noise,
the highest dose of romifidine gave a shorter-lived effect than the medium dose (Table 3).
· Analgesia
Detomidine had significantly dose- and time-related antinociceptive effects which were
similar in depth and duration at each of the sites stimulated (Fig 1). Analgesia with 10 mg/kg
detomidine was rated poor to fair and was short-lived; 20 mg/kg provided satisfactory
analgesia, and the analgesia produced by 40 mg/kg was rated highly satisfactory.
At the doses used romifidine had no analgesic effects at any of the sites stimulated at any
time.
· Other observations
Incomplete prolapses of the penis occurred in the geldings for short periods with both drugs
and at all doses. There were no significant differences between the effects of the two drugs
or between the effects of the different doses.
The degree of instability of the horses in the stocks was more pronounced with detomidine
during the first 60 minutes after treatment than with romifidine. The instability was barely
noticeable and mostly short-lived with 10 mg/kg detomidine. For the first 30 minutes it was
more pronounced with 20 mg/kg detomidine than with 40 mg/kg of the drug (P<0.05).
Thereafter, the instability was similar for both these doses, but was noticeable after 90
minutes only with 40 mg/kg. With romifidine, only the highest dose produced significant
instability for 30 minutes (Tables 1, 2 and 3).
Locomotor ataxia was more pronounced with detomidine, but least noticeable with 10 mg/kg.
The 20 mg/kg dose produced a higher degree of locomotor ataxia than 40 mg/kg at 30 and 45
minutes after treatment; at 60 and 70 minutes the effect was equal for both doses, and at 90
minutes only 40 mg/kg detomidine produced some degree of ataxia. Significant levels of
ataxia were observed with romifidine. At the two higher doses the degree of ataxia observed
45 minutes after treatment was similar to the degree of ataxia with 40 mg/kg of detomidine.
The degree of instability of the horses in the stocks and of locomotor ataxia for both the
drugs were never rated more than slight or moderate (Tables 1, 2 and 3).
The cardiovascular effects were pronounced with both drugs and the degree and duration of
the bradycardia were dose-dependent. The degree and duration of the bradycardia after
41
treatment with detomidine were greater than after treatment with romifidine. No other drug-
related clinical observations were recorded.
Discussion
Both detomidine and romifidine provided reliable sedation in all the treated animals, but
there were substantial differences between the effects of the two a2-agonists at the
recommended doses. With detomidine, the degree of deep sedation and its duration, and
the dose-related differences observed were in good agreement with earlier data from dose
titration studies (Jochle and Hamm 1986, Kamerling and others 1988). Sedation was least
pronounced and most short-lived with 10 mg/kg detomidine, and increased significantly in
depth and duration with larger doses. With rofimidine, a different pattern was observed; the
difference between the effects of lowest and the medium dose was much less pronounced,
both in depth and duration. The effects of the highest dose of romifidine were either equal to,
or less than the effects of the medium dose, and the sedative effects were of shorter duration
for two of the four parameters measured (Tables 3 and 4). In 28.1 per cent of the
observations the medium dose of romifidine was more effective than the highest dose. As
shown in previous titration studies, detomidine achieves its maximum sedative response at
about 40 mg/kg. All higher doses of detomidine prolong this response in a dose-related
fashion but they never reduce the depth of sedation (Jochle and Hamm 1986). Romifidine
appeared to produce its greatest and most long-lived effect at a dose of 80 mg/kg. The dose
of 120 mg/kg, contrary to the manufacturer's statements and the observations by England
and others (1992), did not provide deeper or longer lasting sedation.
TABLE 4: Comparison of significant differences in mean values for sedation-related

parameters in eight horses within products and between products and over 32 time points: of
four parameters evaluated for sedation in 15-minute intervals (ptosis response to noise
visual arousal and clinical evaluation) from 15 to 120 minutes after treatment
Doses (ug/kg)
Detomidine (D) 10 vs 20: % 20 vs 40: %
10 = 20: 12.5 20 = 40: 21.9
10 < 20: 87.5 20 < 40: 78.1
10 > 20:0 20 > 40: 0
Romidifine (R) 40 vs 80: % 80 vs 120: %
40 = 80: 75.0 80 = 120: 65.6
40 < 80: 25.0 80 < 120: 6.3
40 > 80: 0 80 > 120: 28.1
D vs R 10 D vs 40 R: % 20 D vs 80 R %
10 = 40: 56.8 20 = 80: 50.0
10 < 40: 25.0 20 < 80: 0
10 > 40: 18.7 20 > 80: 50.0
There was pronounced difference between detomidine and romifidine in their effects on
ptosis (Tables 1 and 2). Ptosis has been judged by researchers and clinicians alike to be a
highly characteristic measure of sedation in general, and specifically of its depth. As a result,
its measurement has become widely used in the objective assessment of the depth and
duration of the sedation provided by a2-agonistic products (Jochle and Hamm 1986,
Kamerling and others 1988, England and others 1992). Experts in equine behaviour have
identified head ptosis as an inherited trait for indicating submission in horses; the lower the
head is held in the presence of more dominant horses, the greater is the depth of
42
submission (R. M. Miller, personal communication). The ptosis may be accompanied, as a

displacement gesture, by eating-like movements of the lips, or by the uptake of food without
swallowing it. This peculiar behaviour has often been observed when doses of 20 mg/kg or
more of detomidine have been used, even in horses with colic. The significantly deeper level
of head ptosis induced by detomidine in comparison with romifidine strongly suggests a
deeper level of sedation. At the same time the a2-specific bradycardia was significantly more
pronounced and prolonged with detomidine than with romifidine, and the horses' instability in
the stocks, and locomotor ataxia were more noticeable with detomidine. Furthermore, from
30 minutes onwards, the clinical evaluation scores for sedation with detomidine were
significantly higher than those observed with romifidine, confirming a correlation between the
parameters used for determining the sedative effects of the drugs and their clinical suitability.
The complete lack of analgesic effects with romifidine was unexpected, but the dose-related
analgesic effects of detomidine were in good agreement with previous reports on the
product's analgesic properties (Jochle and Hamm 1986, Kamerling and others 1988). At 10
mg/kg, the analgesic effect of detomidine was modest and not judged sufficient when true
analgesia was required (Fig 1).
Clinicians, and sometimes anaesthetists, seem to consider that deep sedation provides
some degree of analgesia, but the result of this study and a previous clinical study have
shown that this is not the case (Hamm and Jochle 1991). Hence, romifidine is the first of the
three a2-agonists introduced to equine practice which is a sedative only, with characteristics
differing from those of detomidine. The statement made by England and others (1992) that
10 mg/kg detomidine was equipotent to 40 mg/kg romifidine held true for three of the four
parameters measured at 15 minutes but not for longer; the same held true for a comparison
of 20 mg/kg detomidine with 80 mg/kg romifidine (Tables 1,2,3, and 4). Detomidine was a
significantly more potent sedative from 15 to 30 minutes onward. The significantly deeper
level of head ptosis observed after 15 minutes indicates that the sedation with detomidine
was more profound.
page 327
Abstracts
Lymphocytes in sow colostrum

by LE JAN, C. (1994) Research in Veterinary Science 57, 300
MAMMARY secretions contain leukocytes which may be of value to the neonate. In sow
colostrum the cells are mainly lymphocytes (10 to 25 per cent) and epithelial cells (more than
20 per cent), but in the milk there are few Iymphocytes and mostly epithelial cells. The high
proportion of epithelial cells has made it difficult to study the lymphocytes in the mammary
secretions of sows. This paper describes a flow cytometric method which overcomes this
problem. It showed that 70 to 90 per cent of the lymphocytes in the colostrum were T
lymphocytes, with T8 lymphocytes predominating over T4, and that the ratio of T4/T8
lymphocytes was significantly lower in colostrum (0.57) than in blood (0.80). There were no
Iymphocytes expressing interleukin-2-receptors in the colostrum of sows.
Effect of prostaglandin on normal post-parturient cows

GAY, J. M. & UPHAM, G. L. (1994) Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
205, 870
43
IN a randomised controlled clinical trial prostaglandin F 2a was administered to 228 normal

cows with a palpable corpus luteum 20 to 40 days; after parturition and a mean milk output
of 8970 kg. Although the treatment reduced the median time to first breeding from 57 days to
52.5 days (P<0.0025), the median time to conception was not significantly reduced (87 vs
88.5 days) and there was a non-significant reduction in conception rate by 110 days after
parturition from 69.6 to 64.7 per cent. This reduction was due to a significant (P<0.046)
decrease in the conception rate to first breeding from 42 to 29 3 per cent.
Analysis of equine parentage by DNA analysis

by BINNS, M. M., HOLMES, N. G., HOLLIMAN, A. & SCOTT, A. M. (1995) British Veterinary
Journal 151, 9
WHEN a mare has been covered by two stallions it is sometimes difficult to assign the
parentage by conventional methods, particularly when the stallions are closely related. This
paper describes the use of DNA typing to resolve eight cases of double covering which could
not be resolved by blood typing. Several of the microsatellite loci amplified were polymorphic
and, by using a limited subset of primers, a clear exclusion could be established for one of
the stallions in five of the cases.
pages 328-329
Short Communications
Disease outbreaks in pigs in Great Britain due to an influenza A virus of

H1N2 subtype
I. H Brown. P. Chakraverty, P. A. Harris, D. J. Alexander
SWINE influenza, as a clinically identifiable disease, re-emerged in Europe in 1976 and

since then has become widespread (Bachmann 1989). Influenza A virus subtypes, H1N1 and
H3N2 are endemic in pigs in Great Britain. Two distinct antigenic variants of H1N1 viruses
have been associated with outbreaks of disease, one of which was probably transmitted from
birds to pigs in the early 1990s (Brown and others 1993). Co-circulation of influenza A
viruses in pigs can result in the production of new reassortant viruses, as occurred in Italian
pigs during the 1980s, when there was genetic mixing between avian-like H1N1 and human-
like H3N2 viruses (Castrucci and others 1993). Pigs have been considered a logical
intermediate for the reassortment of influenza viruses, since they can serve as hosts for
viruses from either birds or humans (Scholtissek and others 1983, Webster and others
1993).
During 1992, an influenza A virus of unusual subtype, H1N7, was isolated from pigs in
England (Brown and others 1994). The virus appeared to be a reassortment of human and
equine viruses and had low pathogenicity for pigs, although it was transmitted readily
between that species. Similar pathogenic properties have also been recorded for other
reassorted influenza viruses isolated from pigs (Sugimura and others 1980, Gourreau and
others 1994). In January 1994, two influenza A viruses were isolated from lungs, collected
from three-month-old pigs which had been housed on a unit in Scotland where there had
been an outbreak of respiratory illness. The lungs from affected animals were submitted to
the Central Veterinary Laboratory, Weybridge, for virus isolation. Homogenates of the
samples (10 per cent w/v) were prepared in phosphate-buffered saline pH 7.4 with
antibiotics, and incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature. Following clarification at 1500
44
g for 10 minutes, the resulting supernatant was inoculated in to 10-day-old embryonated

fowls' eggs by the allantoic and amniotic routes. After incubation at 35°C for three days, the
fluids were harvested and tested for haemagglutinating activity using 1 per cent chicken red
blood cells.
Haemagglutinating agents isolated were identified as type A influenza viruses using an

immunodiffusion test, and as subtype H1N2 by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) and
neuraminidase inhibition (NI) tests with specific antisera using standard methods (Palmer
and others 1975). The initial isolate was designated A/swine/Scotland/410440/94(H1N2).
Eleven weeks later, blood samples from 23 pigs which had been in contact with those from
which virus was isolated were tested using the HI test. Ten were positive with 410440/94,
with titres ranging from 1/10 to 1/80.
Isolate 410440/94 was compared in cross HI tests with selected strains of influenza A virus
and ferret polyclonal antisera (Table 1). These viruses included representatives of swine
H1N1 viruses circulating in European pigs and human H1N1 viruses isolated since 1947.
The isolate could be distinguished clearly from swine H1N1 viruses, both the virus and
antisera being largely unreactive in tests with these viruses and their respective antisera.
However antigenic similarities to human H1N1 viruses were detected by titres obtained with
410440/94 virus and antisera to representative strains. Unusually, 410440/94 virus and
antisera gave a broad spectrum of reactivity with human H1N1 viruses which were
representative of antigenic drift from 1977 to the present day. In addition, 410440/94 virus
and antisera were reactive to a recent swine H1N7 virus, the haemagglutinin gene of which
probably originated from a human H1N1 virus (Brown and others 1994). Further examination
of the isolate 410440/94 in NI tests with selected H3N2 influenza viruses of human, swine
and avian origin revealed a greater similarity to the neuraminidase of swine H3N2 viruses.
Molecular analyses of the haemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes are currently in
progress to determine precisely the progenitor viruses.
From January to May 1994 virological studies of outbreaks of swine respiratory disease
resulted in the isolation from two farms of two further H1N2 influenza viruses. The farms
were located in Essex and Humberside; both reported morbidity and coughing in fattening
pigs. The isolates were compared with 410440/94 in HI and NI tests and were found to be
antigenically very similar to it. There was no apparent association between any of the three
farms from which an H1N2 influenza virus had been isolated. It would appear that the
outbreaks occurred independently, suggesting that this reassortant virus may already be
widely established in the national pig population.
To investigate further the prevalence of H1N2 viruses in pigs, a small serological survey was
done using 500 sow sera from a national pig serum bank which had been assembled in
1991. All the sera were prepared in receptor-destroying enzyme, to give a final dilution of 1/5
before HI tests with 410440/94 and A/Taiwan/1/86. A total of 49 (9.8 per cent) sera had HI
titres (ranging from 1/10 to 1/640) to both viruses, with 47 (9.4 per cent) having a higher
reactivity to H1N2 virus. These results also suggest that viruses with a haemagglutinin
similar to 410440/94 are already widespread in the national pig population.
The influenza A viruses of H1N2 subtype isolated from pigs in Great Britain appear to have
originated from a human H1N1 virus (which was circulating in man during the mid 1980s)
and swine H3N2 virus. These H1N1 viruses have now disappeared from the human
population and therefore the pig apparently provides a reservoir for a virus which could
infect a susceptible human population. The three viruses obtained from separate disease
45
outbreaks appeared to be antigenically closely related and pathogenic for pigs. These
findings, together with the apparent spread of the virus, are in contrast to the characteristics
of H1N2 viruses isolated from pigs in Japan in 1978 (Sugimura and others 1980) and in
France in 1987/88 (Gourreau and others 1994). These earlier isolates appeared to be
derived from swine H1N1 and H3N2 viruses known to be co-circulating in pigs and, unlike
the British H1N2 virus, there was no evidence of spread. The current report provides further
evidence of the pig as a mixing vessel of influenza virus, some of which may have the
potential to infect humans.
pages 329-330
Short Communications
Acute spinal cord degeneration following general anaesthesia in a young

pony
K. H. K. Lam, J. B. A. Smyth, K. Clarke, D. Platt
THERE have been several reports of spinal cord accidents occurring during general
anaesthesia in heavy horses in dorsal recumbency (Schatzmann and others 1979,
Blakemore and others 1984, Brearley and others 1986, Stolk and others 1991;). Clinical
signs varied from slow recovery from anaesthesia followed by recumbency to inability to
stand after anaesthesia. The clinical circumstances and the histological evidence of
congestion and ischaemic poliomyelopathy in all these cases have suggested inadequate
perfusion of the spinal cord during anaesthesia. It is speculated that hypoxia of the spinal
cord can be caused by a combination of arterial hypotension and venous obstruction as a
result of the pressure on the posterior vena cava by the great mass of the viscera in the
heavy horse and the positioning of the horse in dorsal recumbency (Schatzmann and others
1979, Blakemore and others 1984, Brearley and others 1986). The clinicopathological
observations on a young light-weight pony which failed to stand following general
anaesthesia are reported here.
A seven-month-old Connemara pony gelding, weighing 214 kg, was presented as an

emergency with herniation of abdominal contents following routine castration. Castration had
been carried out 24 hours previously and the pony has been turned out to pasture
postoperatively. Clinical examination revealed a metre-length of grossly contaminated
omentum through the left inguinal castration wound. Surgery was indicated for correction of
the inguinal hernia. No detectable abnormalities of the cardiovascular or respiratory system
was found in the pre-anaesthetic examination.
The pony was premedicated with acepromazine, 4 mg, given intravenously 20 minutes
before surgery. Anaesthesia was induced with intravenous administration of detomidine, 4
mg, followed by a single bolus injection of thiopentone, 1.2 g, five minutes later. Following
endotracheal intubation, anaesthesia was maintained with a mixture of oxygen and
halothane using a semi-closed cycle system, a fresh oxygen flow of 2 to 3 litres per minute
and a halothane vaporiser setting of 1.5 to 2.5 per cent. Preoperative preparation was
carried out in lateral recumbency. The pony was then hoisted on to the operating table and
placed in dorsal recumbency. An angiocatheter, 22 g 2.5 cm (Insyte; Vialon, USA) was
inserted into the facial artery for arterial blood pressure measurement. Balanced electrolyte
solution (Isolec, Ivex Pharmaceutical) and dobutamine, 0.05 mg/ml, (Dobutrex; Eli Lilly) were
infused intravenously to maintain an adequate blood pressure. The total duration of
anaesthesia was 90 minutes. Throughout the anaesthesia, the mean arterial blood pressure
46
was between 70 and 80 mm Hg; heart rate 34 to 40 beats per minute and respiration 10 to
12 breaths per minute. On completion of the surgery, the animal was returned to the
recovery box in left lateral recumbency.
Recovery from anaesthesia was calm. However, about three hours after the operation, it was
apparent that the pony could get into sternal recumbency but was unable to stand. Despite
numerous attempts to rise, the animal kept falling over and showed signs of distress.
Neurological examination revealed a flaccid paralysis of the tail and absence of the
panniculus and perineal reflexes, patellar reflexes and conscious pain and withdrawal
responses in the hindlegs. The pony was also incontinent.
Intravenous dexamethasone, 20 mg (Dexadreson; Intervet), was administered at that time

and the pony was monitored for 24 hours. The animal was given a continuous intravenous
infusion of Hartmann's solution and sedated with acepromazine 10 mg, romifidine 15 mg,
and methadone 20 mg, every four to six hours. The pony continued to deteriorate, showing
signs of ascending neurological deficits with progressing extensor rigidity of the forelegs.
The animal was euthanased with the owner's consent after 24 hours.
The causal lesions were found in the spinal cord where there was a small focus of
haemorrhage beginning in the right dorsal horn of the spinal segment T12. At T13-14 quite
extensive haemorrhages and areas of necrosis were present in both dorsal horns (Fig 1).
The inflammatory response to the necrosis was minimal. The sources of these
haemorrhages were thin-walled vessels in the dorsal horns which were dilated with and
surrounded by red blood cells (Fig 2). In some of the serial sections taken through T13-14
these vessels appeared ruptured, discharging the blood into the adjacent tissue. No definite
lesions could be found in the arterial supply to the cord. Further along these caudal
segments, a small focus of haemorrhage appeared in the left horn for a short distance. The
dorsal horn haemorrhages and necrosis continued down the cord to the cauda equina where
they disappeared. No lesions were found in the spinal cord anterior to T12. Cross sections
through the fixed brain failed to detect any gross lesions, and histopathological examination
of the brain stem failed to find intracytoplasmic lipofuscin in the nucleus cuneatus accesorius
or, for that matter, in other cells of the brain stem and spinal cord.
Regarding other tissues, there was minimal oedema at the castration wound sites. Some
minor blood clots were present in the right-sided wound. The abdominal viscera appeared
normal except for some mild pallor of the renal cortices. The abdominal viscera appeared
normal except for some mild pallor of the renal cortices. The abdominal contents were
relatively contracted. In the thoracic cavity, there was some right-sided hypostatic congestion
and mild bilateral dorsal congestion. The heart appeared normal in structure and colour. The
brain appeared grossly normal with some hypostatic congestion of the meningeal vessels.
Problems involving the central nervous system such as brainstem haematoma and cervical
fractures have been mentioned in the number of complications associated with equine
general anaesthesia (Heath 1981). Spinal cord damage following general anaesthesia in the
horse is rare. There appear to have been only 13 cases reported in the literature
(Schatzmann and others 1979, Blakemore and others 1984, Brearley and others 1986, Stolk
and others 1991). They were all in young animals, ranging in age from six to 14 months, and
heavy breed horses (300 to 400 kg). All these animals were operated on in dorsal
recumbency under halothane anaesthesia. Two of the horses were of the Shire breed. In
contrast, the case reported here occurred in a young lightweight pony.
47
It has been suggested that obstruction caused by visceral mass on the venous vessels and
halothane induced hypotension may produce failure of spinal cord perfusion and hence
spinal cord degeneration. In addition, subclinical vitamin E hypovitaminosis has been
observed in nine cases with intracellular liopofuscin accumulation and degeneration of the
nucleus cuneatus accesorius (Stolk and others 1991). Similar changes have been reported
in horses suffering from equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy with evidence of vitamin
E hypovitaminosis. It was suggested that the supine recumbency related myelomalacia in
anaesthetised horses could result from destabilisation of the biological membranes of the
spinal cord because of lipid peroxidative processes due to vitamin E hypovitaminosis.
Therefore, inadequate perfusion would probably cause marked reduction of intracellular
availability of oxygen, which, if sustained long enough, would eventually result in cellular
degeneration (Stolk and others 1991). However, there was no evidence of such lesions in
this case.
The post mortem findings reported here would support the hypothesis of vascular stasis in
the spinal cord, with dilation of the thin-walled vessels in the grey matter leading to
haemorrhages and pressure or ischaemic necrosis of the spinal cord (Schatzmann and
others 1979, Blakemore and others 1984, Brearley and others 1986). However,
thoracolumbar myelomalacia appears to occur mainly in young growing horses during their
exponential growth phase. It is speculated that the development of thoracolumbar
myelomalacia was because of the pony's age and that the weight, previously thought to be
important, is not such a major factor. This vascular pathogenesis may possibly be a result of
these susceptible young, and rapidly growing, horses being more sensitive to a limited
period of mechanically induced and physiological reduction of the spinal cord perfusion
while in dorsal recumbency under general anaesthesia.
These rare spinal accidents are multifactorial. Spinal cord malacia may be a recognised risk
in young and rapidly growing horses which can occur in both light and heavy breeds
following general anaesthesia in dorsal recumbency. Prevention may involve tilting the
animal from dorsal recumbency, which may not always be practical for surgical reasons.
48
pages 334-336
LETTERS
New rules on medicines

P. M. Taylor, Dept of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge; A. E. Waterman,
School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol; R. S. Jones, Dept of Anaesthesia,
University of Liverpool; K. W. Clarke, Royal Veterinary College University of London; J. Reid,
Veterinary School, University of Glasgow; R. E. Clutton, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary
Studies, University of Edinburgh
SIR, As we are responsible for teaching anaesthesia in the UK veterinary schools we are
writing to add our voices to those who have already expressed their dismay at the new rules
on medicines introduced on December 31, 1994. We note M. Aitken's interpretation of the
cascade system (VR, March 11, p 251) and welcome the more detailed guidance note Amelia
8 now available from the Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD). These indicate that
treatment of companion animals need not be compromised if the chosen drug does not have
a veterinary licence.
We have sympathy for those protesting that some generic or human preparations are
available in a more suitable formulation or are cheaper than the veterinary preparation of
some drugs. However, this is a relatively minor matter -at least the drug itself is available for
use!
The problem that has arisen in farm animals is far worse. Although the cascade still applies,
there is an added condition that any drug used in this way must be licensed in a food animal.
The number of drugs licensed food animals is ever decreasing, leading to serious difficulties
in ensuring adequate welfare in these species.
Over the past few years there have beer enormous improvements in anaesthetic and
analgesic techniques and many have been applied to food animals. If the new regulations
are to be taken at face value most of these improved techniques as well as many long
established methods can no longer be used. Indeed, it becomes almost impossible to
anaesthetise any food animal in an acceptable, humane manner -there are no licensed
intravenous anaesthetics for farm animals, in spite of the fact that the data sheets for
halothane suggest that a short acting barbiturate precedes the administration of the volatile
agent. Of course, there are no potent analgesics licensed for food animals either.
Surely common sense must prevail where anaesthesia is concerned. One of the features of
an anaesthetic is that its effect is reversible, by redistribution and metabolism. A drug would
not be used as an anaesthetic if it stayed in the body beyond a few hours. A generous
withdrawal time is all that would be necessary to prevent any anaesthetic drug o reaching
the food chain.
Although this problem applies to a relatively small number of animals it is no reason for it to
be ignored. First, the welfare of an individual cow, pig or sheep should be as much the
concern of the veterinary surgeon -as the welfare of any other animal in his care Secondly,
by virtue of the fact that the problem concerns only a small number of animals, the potential
risk of contamination of the food chain is further reduced.
49
We have forwarded more detailed examples of the problem to the BVA and the VMD.
50
A. J. Trees, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine/Faculty of Veterinary Science, University

of Liverpool, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA
SIR, The recent letter from Walters and Craig (VR, March 4, p 228) rightly highlights the risk
of introducing a dangerous zoonotic parasite into Britain if quarantine is relaxed. The debate
about the risks attendant upon the abolition of quarantine has largely focused on those
diseases which might be introduced into this country and spread by direct transmission.
There are, however, other pathogens which, because they are vector-borne, may not
become established as autochthonous infections but to which, for the same reason, it is
impossible to prevent exposure if animals are taken abroad. Given the British fondness for
the family pet dog, one can imagine tens of thousands of dogs 'going on holiday' to southern
Europe where diseases like leishmaniasis, dirofilariasis and babesiosis are endemic, and at
a season when the arthropod vectors are active. After their return to Britain any disease
which occurs will present particular problems. British veterinarians are unfamiliar with the
diagnosis of these diseases; their treatment, as in the case of leishmaniasis and
dirofilariasis, may be hazardous and require specialist knowledge, and the specific drugs are
not easily available.
Although certain British mosquitoes are permissive intermediate hosts of Dirofilaria, they are
unlikely to be effective natural vectors at prevailing temperatures in Britain; the vectors of
canine leishmaniasis are absent (although direct transmission between dogs has occurred),
and the tick vector of canine babesiosis has a very restricted distribution in Britain, having
been reported only from domestic habitats in London. Thus the risks of these infections
becoming established in Britain are remote.
The problems, however, which may arise if many thousands of highly susceptible dogs are
seasonally exposed to arthropod-borne exotic diseases need to be carefully considered.
Diagnosis of BSE
K. C. Taylor, Assistant Chief Veterinary Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,
Hook Rise South, Tolworth, Surbiton KT16 7NF J. W. Wilesmith, Epidemiology Department
Central Veterinary Laboratory, New Haw, Weybridge KT15 3NB
SIR, We find the arguments advanced by Short and Otte (VR, March 18, p 274) difficult to
understand and, in some respects, variance with the facts.
There is little point in advocating the investigation of preclinical cases, or undetected false
negative cases of BSE if such exist, since neither category can be identified. We agree that
a diagnostic test which can be used in live animals is a desirable objective, particularly as an
aid to the differential diagnosis of clinically suspect animals, and the Ministry is spending
large sums of money on research in this area. The prospect of a practical test being
developed for use in the live animal in the short to medium term is, however, highly unlikely.
Nevertheless, epidemiological studies have allowed estimates of the prevalence of
subclinical infection to made with reasonable confidence. Interpretation of the cohort study is
dependent on the availability of a test to identify infection in the live animal. The brain of
every animal in the study will be subject detailed histopathological examination when clinical
disease develops or when the animal is seven years old, and the results cannot be
interpreted until all animals are dead and laboratory results received in 1997. The design of
the study takes account of the probability that some animals would have been infected via
feed: the incidence in controls and offspring will be compared, but the effect of any feed
source will be the same in both groups.
51
We are aware of no evidence that BSE systematically under reported. To do so would be

difficult as clinical signs are exacerbated by stress, so that any attempt to dispose of a
suspect at a market or slaughterhouse is likely to be detected, with inevitable financial
consequences. A few suspect animals are detected in these situations, but the number is
minute in the context of the epidemic. Further evidence can be obtained by comparing the
epidemics in mainland Britain and in the Channel Islands. The two are identical in terms of
change of incidence and seems most unlikely that under-reporting, it occurred, would do so
to the same extent both areas.
Illegal growth promoters

Andrew Soldan, 3 Old Bury Road, Alpheton, Sudbury, Suffolk Martyn Edelsten, 6 Braidmount
View, Edinburgh, Midlothian
SIR, Karel Van Noppen was a 41-year-old Belgian veterinary surgeon murdered in February
while attempting to control the illegal use of veterinary drugs in his country (VR, March 4, p
207). We knew Karel during the time that he worked as a project veterinary officer in Malawi.
His stories of the widespread use of illegal substances to enhance animal growth and the
huge well organised black market that supplied then shocked us. In the UK the worst we
hear are rumours of antibiotics being sold out of car boot on market day. In Belgium, he told
us, huge sums of money were involved with widespread corruption among officials with
responsibility for controlling the use of hormones. The black market, he said, was so well
organised that it was able to compensate farmers whose animals were found to contain
residues. This ensured that farmers did not reveal their suppliers. On occasions, veterinary
surgeons might avoid testing their own client's animals for hormone residues when
performing meat inspection. Farmers might transport animals to abattoirs where meat
inspection was known to be lenient.
Karel worked first as a meat inspector but later became a member of a small team set up to
carry out spot checks, random samplings, tracing of positive animals back to the farm of
origin. His was an extremely dangerous occupation. At least part of Karel's reason for
working in Malawi for a period was to escape the tensions and dangers of his job. One of the
other members of his team had been savagely beaten up. Karel's car had been vandalised
ant his daughter given a letter on her way home from school informing Karel that 'they knew
how to find his family. He had been regularly threatened.
While working with Karel we saw his hard work, compassion for others and drive to change
and improve systems that he saw as deficient. He returned to Belgium to carry out the vital
role of attempting to ensure that meat was safe and paid the ultimate price. Only by the
continuing integrity and resolve of our farmers, vets and regulatory authorities can a similar
situation be prevented here.
BVA ethics committee

Tim Townsend, 96 Brook Gardens, Emsworth, Hampshire PO10 7LL
SIR, May I congratulate the BVA on establishing an ethics committee, but I would like to
make some observations with respect to its apparent remit. The editorial in The Veterinary
Record (March 11, p 229) notes that 'It is in the nature of scientific progress that techniques
become possible and ethical debate then follows.' While in isolation this is true, veterinary
ethics is, or should be, a far wider consideration.
52
Veterinary ethical consideration must continually re-evaluate fundamental assumptions made

by us all day to day. I suggest that to provide 'policy which can be promoted to the profession
and the public', the ethics committee must start at the beginning. The first question should
be: is it ethical to use animals for whatever purpose, that is, not only experimentally or
economically, but even for pleasure? Having defined the ethical defence to an answer of
'yes' we have a tool with which to assess the first divergence from such a broad question.
It seems to me that consideration of ethical issues is something we all feel equally qualified
to do, but fail to see the rigour with which judgements of this nature need to be defined. At
first reading of any applied ethics text, one is immediately struck by the tortuosity with which
apparent home truths seem to be argued and subsequently agreed upon. Equally it can be
disturbing to find some home truths have very flimsy, if no, ground on which to stand.
Therefore it is not mere pedantry to suggest that setting up an ethics committee (which aims
to represent the profession) that immediately launches into the complexities of
xenotransplantation and transgenic animals, is running before learning to walk!
As veterinary surgeons, it has been said, we have no God-given right to lead on these
issues. Equally, we must make our position clear on the foundations upon which we do make
subsequent judgements. This was mooted long before the present ethics committee was
thought of, but I suspect that to get back to basics would prove far more painful individually
than even the dilemmas thrown up by live animal transport or the docking of puppies' tails.
Too often, ethical stands are taken without the merest attempt to get background information.
The proper place first to consider these issues is during our training, where resources are
more likely to be available in the college libraries. Students will no doubt to say that the
current curricula are already too full, but experience in the USA has prove that this brief
divergence into the ethereal can be far more rewarding than at first it seems. Subsequent
ethics committees will also be populated by vets with at least a brief introduction to this ever
more important subject (not that I have any reason to doubt the current members' sincerity or
integrity).
Ultrasonic pregnancy diagnosis

S. Woodcock, Ken Anderson,C. McCreath, D. Talbot, R. E. Symes,
Veterinary Hospital, Penkridge, Stafford ST19 5RY
SIR, - Having followed the correspondence in The Veterinary Record over several months
concerning ultrasound scanning in cattle by lay operators, we were left unaware as to
exactly what the views of the BVA and RCVS were on the matter.
We are at present being plagued by a 'scanner man' who seems to have adopted the system
of cold calling on a farm. If a negative or not very interested response is shown the system of
cold calling on a farm. If a negative or not very interested response is shown by the farmer
then an offer to come and do some pregnancy diagnosis for nothing ensues -a temptation
indeed for most people!
We assume this comes under the heading of deregulation, and it would appear to beg
several questions:
(1) Is the profession as a whole to be deregulated and, as practising veterinary surgeons,

could we adopt a similar approach to our neighbouring practice's clients?
53
(2) If we were to offer the same service ourselves by professional or lay personnel, what
restrictions as to marketing our services would apply?
(3) Are we being unreasonable in making our displeasure known to the company concerned?
(4) Is the 'scanner man' going to start providing a 24-hour obstetric service so that the
redundant vet can at least enjoy an undisturbed night's sleep?
Presumably those within the profession are expected to behave in a professional manner,
while those outwits can roam wherever they like free from any ethical or professional
restraint.
Dearth of locums
P. R. Timmis, M. D. Crighton, Mercia Veterinary Surgery, Marmion
House, Marmion Street, Tamworth, Staffordshire B79 7JG
SIR, - We wish to bring to the attention of readers the potentially disastrous employment
situation facing practices during the summer months. The recognised situation of an
undersupply of qualified veterinary surgeons is about to be greatly exacerbated by the fact
that since October 1994, Antipodean veterinary graduates are to be denied employment
visas to work as veterinary locums. This practice and no doubt many others over several
years has relied heavily on these graduates to relieve hard pressed, over-worked veterinary
surgeons. We would ask readers for their views on this subject and to apply any influence,
political or otherwise, to help remedy it.
Johne's disease in red deer

G. W. de Lisle, D. M. Collins, AgResearch Wallaceville Animal Research Centre, PO Box 40-
063, Upper Hutt, New Zealand
SIR, We read with interest the recent article 'Johne's disease in a herd of farmed red deer'
by Fawcett and others (VR, February 18, p 165). The article highlighted the severe losses
which can occur in farmed deer infected with Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and described
the use of vaccination for the control of this disease. However, our extensive experience with
this disease (e.g., de Lisle and others 1993), does not support the authors' statement that
'histopathology provides the most sensitive and specific method for the confirmation of the
infection'.
The striking feature of the majority of the bacteriologically confirmed cases of cervine
Johne's disease in New Zealand was the presence of caseous necrosis in mesenteric lymph
nodes. These lesions had histopathological changes that were usually indistinguishable from
those caused by members of the Mycobacterium avium complex and Mycobacterium bovis.
Furthermore, the associated lesions in the small intestine of deer caused by members of the
M avium complex were also very similar to those caused by M paratuberculosis. We would
therefore urge that suspect cases of Johne's disease in deer be confirmed either by bacterial
culture or by a polymerase chain reaction test using specific DNA primers from IS900.
Failure to establish a definitive diagnosis could lead to inappropriate control measures being
taken following the identification of a mycobacterial disease in deer.
54

Towards a Standard Microchip for Identifying Pets

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Towards a Standard Microchip for Identifying Pets

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The Veterinary Record, April 1, 1995, Volume 136, Number 13

Adoption of a universally accepted standard for identifying companion animals remains a

News and Reports

Following a recommendation made in the House of Commons' Agriculture Committee's

Pet Superstore reports on progress

SAC Veterinary Services

· Generalised and systemic conditions

· Alimentary tract disorders

Edinburgh reported a large increase in submissions for neonatal diarrhoea examinations

· Respiratory tract diseases

· Reproductive tract conditions

Following two abortions in a group of 41 spring calving heifers, St Boswells isolated

Cases of mastitis due to environmental organisms appeared to be more common in January,

· Nutritional and metabolic disorders

· Generalised and systemic conditions

· Respiratory tract diseases

· Reproductive tract conditions

Ovine abortion material yielded diagnoses of chlamydial abortion and toxoplasmosis

· Nervous system disorders

Cage and aviary birds

Edinburgh confirmed feline infectious peritonitis on post mortem examination of a five-year-

Dumfries also reported a diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome in an eight-year-old dachshund

Ayr isolated a group D Salmonella species from a dead badger.

An investigation of risk factors for cases of bovine spongiform

THE epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the United Kingdom is

Epidemiological investigations have continued to suggest that meat-and-bone meal is the

Materials and methods

TABLE 1; Earliest dates of birth for selected subjects

The information was collected by using an interview-administered questionnaire which was

The information was collected by using an interview-administered questionnaire which was

Data processing and selection of controls

Data management and analysis

Herds and cases included in the study

TABLE 2: Herd selected for inclusion in the study

TABLE 4: Distribution of cases and controls by the risk factors considered

Mother subsequently Yes 25 (56) 56 (4.3)

Number of subsequently 0 319 (71.4) 987 (76.3)

Number of subsequently affected 0 383 (85.7) 1136 (87.8)

Number of subsequently affected 0 390 (87.2) 1164 (90.0)

Number of subsequently affected 0 399 (89.3) 1184 (91.5)

Number of subsequently affected O 428 (95.7) 1253 (96.8)

Month of birth, 1988/89 calving November 72 (53.3) 142 (36.2)

season first selection December 32 (23.7) 89 (22.7)

Month of birth, 1988/89 calving January 22 (37.3) 40 (22.6)

Month of birth, 1989/90 calving July 50 (19.8) 77 (10.6)

Effect of risk factors on the occurrence of disease

TABLE 5: Association between maternal status and the occurrence of BSE

Mother not subsequently 94.4 95.7 1 1

Mother subsequently 5.6 4.3 1.34 1.23

Mother not subsequently 94.4 95.7 1 1

Mother affected three or 0.4 1.3 0.39 0.39

Mother affected 1.6 0.7 2.61 2.33

Mother affected 2.2 1.2 2.17 2.05

Mother affected within 1.3 1.2 1.04 0.88

seven days before the 1-7 14.3 12.2 1.09 1.07

birth of the subject (0.88-1.34) (0.87-1.33)

PAR Population attributable risk, CI Confidence interval

TABLE 9: Association between the occurrence of BSE and exposure to subsequently

Cases Controls Unadjusted Adjusted

Mother subsequently 5.6 4.3 1.41 1.29

The infection is also thought to be transmitted directly to unrelated animals or to be

Information bias due to inaccurate recall of information by farmers or selective recording of

Effects on cattle of transport by road for up to 15 hours

* P<0.05, P<0.01, * P<0.001