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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS

The development of electric power supply began more than one

hundred years ago. Residential areas and neighbouring establishments were at
first supplied by DC via short line. At the end of 19th century, the AC
transmission system was introduced, utilizing higher voltages to transmit
power from remote power station to the consumers.

The driving force for the development of power systems is the on-
going increase of electrical power demand. Therefore, power systems
developed from regional to national system. A worldwide trend in the
development of power systems is to build interconnections with the goal
network to achieve economical benefits. Such large interconnected systems
can cover many countries or even wide continental areas. Interconnection of
power systems may offer significant technical, economical and environmental
advantages such as pooling of large power generations, sharing of spinning
reserve and use of most economic energy resources taking into account.

The liberalizations in the power industry also support more

interconnections to enable the exchange of power among the regions or
countries and to transport cheaper power over long distance to the load
centers. With an increasing size of the interconnected systems, the technical
and economical advantages diminish. This is related to problems regarding
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load flow, power fluctuation and voltage quality. If power is to be transmitted

through the interconnected system over longer distance, transmission needs to
be supported.

Large blackouts in developed countries confirmed clearly, that the

favourable close electrical coupling strength also includes risk of
uncontrollable cascading effects in large and heavily loaded interconnected
systems. Additional problems are expected when renewable energies, such as
large wind forms, have to be integrated into the system, especially when the
connecting AC links are weak and when there is no sufficient reserve capacity
in the neighbouring system available. In the future, an increasing part of the
installed capacity will be connected to the distribution level which poses
additional challenges on planning and safe operation of the systems. Based
on the global experience with large blackouts, strategies for the development
of large power systems go clearly in the direction of AC- AC interconnections
and AC-DC interconnections. Such interconnected systems offer significant
advantages, both technical and in terms of reliability.

1.2 INTERCONNECTED AC-AC POWER SYSTEMS

The advantages of an interconnected system have been considered

on a network simulation model which can be used as benchmark system for
such generic analysis. The reference case of the interconnected system model
is shown in Figure 1.1. The configuration is similar to existing interconnected
AC systems in different areas of the world. The modelled system consists of 8
areas which are interconnected (Povh 2006). The total peak power of the fully
interconnected system is assumed in the range of 140 GW. The geographical
size of each of the areas is assumed to be in the range of about 300-500 km in
diameter. Peak power of the areas assumed differs, being about 10 GW (areas
4, 6 and 7), 20 GW (areas 2, 3, and 5), and 50 GW (area 1). Area 8 has been
assumed to be in the position to deliver additional power to the other areas.
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Figure 1.1 Reference case Interconnected AC-AC power systems

Each area is represented by a simplified network, consisting of

lines, loads and power plants. The areas have dynamic features similar to real
systems. The data for the reduced systems have been established according to
the experiences gained by the reduction of different real systems using
network reduction method.

The power system areas are interconnected by AC overhead lines

of about 250 km length. Power exchange between the areas is about 7 % of
the total installed capacity, as depicted in the reference scenario in Figure 1.1
(Povh 2006). Main feature of the operational base case is that the area 3 is
importing power of about 4 GW corresponding to 20 % of the area peak
power, delivered by areas 1, 5, and 8. The study of n-1 contingencies in the
system shows that some of the line interconnections are loaded close to the
transmission limit at an outage of one line in the system. An outage of a
second line, especially between the areas 1, 3, and 6 could, however, lead to
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full disconnection (blackout) of the area 3 if no load shedding is applied.

These problems could arise not only in the area where fault occurs but also in
other part of the system. The developed system model is, according to the n-1
criterion, just secure, however, close to the operational limit.

Figure 1.2 Interconnected AC-AC systems strengthened to transmit

additional power from Area 8 to Area 3

Based on a long term contract, an additional power of 2000 MW

should be transmitted from area 8 to area 3. Without investments into the
network, transmission of this additional power is not possible as a number of
lines in the existing system would be overloaded. A detailed study has shown
that additional lines as presented in Figure 1.2 are needed to achieve similar
reliability as in the reference case (Figure 1.1). At least three additional lines
between areas 8 and 7, double lines between areas 6 and 3 and inside the area
6, as well as additional single lines between areas 1 & 3 and 4 & 3 are
required.
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1.3 INTERCONNECTED AC-DC POWER SYSTEMS

An alternative to the transmission of additional power through the

AC system is the point to point 2000 MW HVDC transmission between the
area 8 and the area 3 as shown in Figure 1.3. In this case load flow conditions
in the AC interconnected system remain practically unchanged.

Figure 1.3 Interconnected AC-DC systems strengthened to transmit

additional power from Area 8 to Area 3

The comparison of both AC and DC alternatives shows that the

HVDC alternative is economically the much more favourable solution. The
AC alternative requires in total for additional 950 km double and 750 km
single lines. For the HVDC alternative, two DC converter stations rated at
2000 MW and a 950 km bipolar DC overhead-line is needed. Using average
line costs for moderate climatic conditions the investment costs of the AC
alternative are about 1100 million dollar and 765 million dollar for the DC
alternative. A further important topic in the comparison of the alternatives is
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the evaluation of losses. Additional transmission of 2000 MW through the AC

system means an increase of 285 MW losses. The losses of the HVDC
alternative are, however, only 114 MW, in total (Povh 2006). If investment
costs and costs of losses are taken into account, the AC alternative is about 70
% more expensive than the DC alternative. In addition, of course, HVDC
offers important advantages by controlling load flow and damping possible
system oscillations.

In liberalized market conditions, the AC alternative would have

also further disadvantages as the needed additional lines are located in
different areas which are not directly involved in the delivery contract to
transmit power from area 8 to 3. It would be very difficult and time
consuming to realize such project. Also system charges through the areas as
applied in the liberalized market would be higher than the costs of the HVDC
alternative.

Figure 1.4 shows schematically a generalized solution for a large

interconnected system using AC as well as DC interconnection. Power
exchange among the neighbouring areas of interconnected systems can be
realized by an AC interconnection. The DC interconnection can additionally
support such an AC interconnection and improve the dynamic conditions in
the system. Back-to-back HVDC applied between the areas, also be used to
separate parts of the interconnected systems in order to avoid a spread of large
disturbances throughout the whole system. Transmission of large power
blocks over long distances should, however, be utilized by HVDC
transmission directly between generation and the locations of power demand.
The HVDC transmission can support the AC interconnections, in order to
avoid possible dynamic problems which exist in such complex
interconnections.
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Figure 1.4 Schematic configuration of a hybrid AC-DC interconnected

power system

The possibilities for enhancement of complex interconnected power

systems to decrease the probability of large blackouts and to enable an
increasing power exchange among the different systems inside the large
interconnected network are:

The simplest way is to build new additional AC lines between

some of the areas to strengthen the interconnection. However,
this method would be only a provisional solution as congestion
and bottlenecks can occur after local outages or due to changing
requirements for power transmission routes to other locations.

Building a new, superposed higher AC voltage level as

“backbone” which enables an essential increase of power flows
among the areas. This solution is, however, not possible in high
density population areas due to right-of-way limitations and
environmental restrictions. In some developing countries where
the networks are still isolated or underdeveloped this is,
however, the preferable solution.
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The use of HVDC back-to-back schemes instead of, or in

addition to a weak AC interconnection between the areas.
Advantage of this solution compared to the additional AC lines
is that no additional technical problems can be expected as the
HVDC doesn’t depend on the technical parameters of the areas
(Kyohei Kurohane et al 2010). Fast control of the HVDC further
enables control of load flow and, if needed, active damping of
power oscillations.

Use of HVDC long distance transmission, integrated into the

system to transmit power between power generation and load
centers directly point to point. Possible additional bottlenecks
inside the AC systems, resulting from the increased transmitted
power, can so be avoided.

The HVDC transmission further offers the ability to damp

power oscillations and to improve the system stability. A
number of such HVDC applications, integrated into the
synchronous AC system have been already realized or are on
the way in different countries, e.g. India, China, USA, and
Japan.

1.4 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND FORMULATION

In an interconnected network, a load disturbance in one area affects

the neighbouring systems to change in frequency, causing severe problem in
the entire power system network. Automatic load Frequency Controller
(ALFC) plays a major role in power system operation and control for
supplying sufficient and adequate electric power within specified range
(Dulpichet 2002). Power systems have not been designed for wide area power
trading with daily varying load patterns where power flows do not follow the
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initial planning criteria of the existing network configuration. Most of the

grids are operated already closer to their limits. If the transmission of large
power blocks through the interconnected system is needed, the problem can
be solved by the interconnection of HVDC transmission system with an AC
system and it can additionally enhance the system stability (Padiyar 1999).

The integration of HVDC transmission into an AC system started

with the pacific intertie project in USA. The second large HVDC, integrated
into an AC system is Rihand – Dadri transmission in India, built to
interconnect regional systems, to by – pass the weak AC system and to bring
power directly from large power plant in the area of Rihand to load center of
New Delhi under the system subjected to a sudden large disturbance. For the
system study, a three area interconnected system through AC-DC link are
considered as shown in the Figure 1.5. In this system the power demand is
rapidly increased due to sudden change of load such as arc furnace, steel
mills, etc., in area-1. These large load changes cause a serious problem of
frequency oscillation in area-1. The capabilities of frequency control of
governor in area-1 are not enough. The power exchange in the neighbouring
areas can be achieved by the interconnection.

The area-3 is having low installed capacity. Therefore it is not able

to supply the additional power requirement of area-1. On the other hand,
connecting long HVDC transmission line in parallel with the AC line in area-
2 having adequate installed capacity, meets the demand in area-1.With the
interconnections of AC and DC lines, the DC tie line becomes capable of
stabilizing the frequency variation of associated AC networks. It can
additionally enhance the system stability, especially when the connected AC
line has inadequate installed capacity and when there is no sufficient reserve
capacity in that system is available. The proposed control approach is able to
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offer the service for stabilizing frequency oscillations in the power system
network under the different load disturbance in any area.

Area -3

Bus-3

AC Line Bus-2

AC Line

Area -2

Area -1

Long HVDC Line

Load Bus-1

Figure 1.5 Parallel AC-DC interconnected Power Systems

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

The control of power system is becoming increasingly complex due

to large number of interconnections. In an electric power generation,
disturbance caused by load fluctuation will result in changes of the desired
operating frequency. The requirements for control of frequency in a multi area
interconnected power system are implemented by the Automatic Load
Frequency Controller (ALFC). The ALFC provides automatic variation of
generation set points on the speed governors to maintain system frequency
within the specified limit (DeMellow 1972, Chowdhury 1999). Many
investigations in the area of ALFC in interconnected power systems have
been reported in the past decade. Recently, Application of high power devices
like IGPT, MOSFET and GTO in transmission system provides better and
attractive benefit of economics. In particular, in a parallel AC-DC
interconnected power transmission system, a DC transmission system will
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effectively cooperate with an AC transmission system in improving system

stability by reducing the frequency deviation under load disturbance. By
doing this it is possible to simultaneously achieve the following objectives:-

i. To minimize the Area Control Error (ACE) of an AC-DC

interconnected power system.

ii. To enhance transient and dynamic stability in interconnected

power system network.

iii. To achieve reliable operation and control of power system.

Modern power system networks require design of high performance

frequency controller and its implementation for wide range of frequency
variations (George 2001). In the design of ALFC system, it is a usual practice
to use conventional integral controller or Proportional plus Integral controller
to reduce the ACE of the interconnected power system to a minimum state.
However, the conventional integral controller performs only at a particular
operating range and they need to be retuned if the operating range is changed.
To overcome such a problem, the Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) was
proposed to stabilize the system frequency.

Considering effective tool for dealing with uncertainties, the FLC is

fine tuned to improve the system performance and to achieve faster control
action. In many situations, under different operating conditions these
controllers are not properly tuned and there is heuristic knowledge available
on how to tune them while they are in operation. There is then opportunity to
utilize supervisory expert fuzzy control that tunes or coordinates with the
conventional direct fuzzy controller. For the first time this research addresses
the design and implementation of a Supervisory Expert Fuzzy Controller
(SEFC) structure with knowledge- based fuzzy controller as the supervisor for
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tuning input scaling factor of a direct fuzzy controller in an interconnected

AC-DC power system network. The performance of the SEFC has been
compared with the integral controller and fuzzy logic controller.

1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

This thesis is composed of six chapters. The overall organization of

rest of the chapters is as follows:

Chapter 2 outlines the Literature review of Interconnected Power

Systems.

Chapter 3 describes the Transfer function and state space

modelling of an Interconnected AC- DC Power Systems.

Chapter 4 deals with the Frequency Stabilization of Interconnected

AC-DC Power Systems using Fuzzy Logic control technique.

Chapter 5 deals with the Frequency Stabilization of Interconnected

AC-DC Power Systems using Supervisory Expert Fuzzy Logic control
technique.

Chapter 6 discusses the main points of the work completed with

the results to justify the direction taken in the research. Conclusion on the
main body of the work, including the applicability, use and effectiveness of
the intelligent techniques for Stabilizing the frequency deviation in
interconnected AC-DC power systems.

1.7 SUMMARY

This chapter provides an introduction to the interconnected power

system to transmit the power from one area to another area. The
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interconnection between the region or countries can be made by AC-AC

transmission system and AC-DC transmission system. The importance of
AC-DC transmission, problem identification and objective of the research
work are described. A brief introduction of the rest of the chapters has been
outlined.