Unit 1

Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction to computer communication
COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is a system of interconnected computers and peripheral devices. For example, it may
connect computers, printers, scanners and cameras. Using hardware and software, these interconnected
computing devices can communicate with each other through defined rules of data communications. In a
network, computers can exchange and share information and resources.
A computer network may operate on wired connections or wireless connections. When two or more
networks are linked or connected and are able to communicate with one another using suitable hardware
and software, it is called an internetwork.

COMMUNICATIONS

Communications is about the transfer of information from a sender, across a distance, to a receiver. Using
electricity, radio waves or light, information and data in the form of codes are transmitted through a
physical medium such as wire, cable, or even the atmosphere.
Therefore, in order to make communications possible from computers, across telephones and radios and
back to computers and other digital devices again, there must be a signal translator, which we call – a
modem. The modem, which is short for modulator or demodulator, converts digital signals into analog and
back again into digital signals for information to move across the telephone line.
 CONNECTIONS FOR NETWORKING

• a physical medium – to allow data to travel across it from device to device

• a set of rules called protocols to ensure that interconnected computing devices have the same standards
for exchange of information to occur smoothly.
• a system application for managing network information flow to ensure that data transmission sent from
one device is received by the intended receiver.
Transmission modes
What is data transmission?

Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more
digital devices. Data is transmitted from one device to another in analog or digital
format. Basically, data transmission enables devices or components within devices
to speak to each other.

How does data transmission work between digital devices?

Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices. There are
two methods used to transmit data between digital devices: serial transmission and
parallel transmission. Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over
a single channel. Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at the same
time over multiple channels.

What is serial transmission?

When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are
organized in a specific order, since they can only be sent one after another. The
order of the data bits is important as it dictates how the transmission is organized
when it is received. It is viewed as a reliable data transmission method because a
data bit is only sent if the previous data bit has already been received.

Example of Serial Data Transmission

Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between
data bytes to synchronize the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is
transmitted correctly. The time between sending and receiving data bits is not
constant, so gaps are used to provide time between transmissions.

The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is

required between the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost effective
method. A disadvantage is that data transmission can be slower, but this is not
always the case.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The
data transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency;
therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used. This means that data moves
faster and timing errors are less frequent because the transmitter and receiver time
is synced. However, data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being synced
correctly between devices. In comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this
method is usually more expensive.

When is serial transmission used to send data?

Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer. It is also used in
cases where the amount of data being sent is relatively small. It ensures that data
integrity is maintained as it transmits the data bits in a specific order, one after
another. In this way, data bits are received in-sync with one another.

What is parallel transmission?

When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted
over multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much
faster than using serial transmission methods.

Example of Parallel Data Transmission

Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in
which a bit string is received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to
the data source, user location, and bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel
interfaces can be seen below. In the first parallel interface, the data is sent and
received in the correct order. In the second parallel interface, the data is sent in the
correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.
Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Correctly

Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Incorrectly

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data Transmission

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:

• it is easier to program;
• and data is sent faster.

Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission
channels than serial transmission. This means that data bits can be out of sync,
depending on transfer distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple of example of
where this can be seen is with a voice over IP (VOIP) call when distortion or
interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when there is skipping or interference
on a video stream.

When is parallel transmission used to send data?

Parallel transmission is used when:

• a large amount of data is being sent;

• the data being sent is time-sensitive;
• and the data needs to be sent quickly.

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices
connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the
direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission modes. They are:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is
done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any
response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and remote,
keyboard and monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal
carrier, but not at the same time.
For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, one
workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from the
same direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a
bidirectional line (one that can carry data in both directions) but data can be sent in only one
direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages
are sent in both the directions.
FULL DUPLEX Mode
In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same
time in other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving
data.

Chapter 2
1.2 Switching
Switching Techniques - In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender
and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels through various communication
channels. There are four typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Circuit switching is a switching method in which a dedicated communication path in
physical form between two stations within a network is established, maintained and
terminated for each communication session. It has basically three phases as circuit
establishment, data transfer and circuit disconnect.

Once the connection is established, the data transfer is transparent. The main feature
of such a connection is that it provides a fixed data rate channel and both subscribers
must operate at this rate, It is considered inefficient compared to packet switching
because channel capacity is completely dedicated for duration of connection. If there
is no data at any moment of time, channel capacity goes wasted. Moreover, setting up
of connection takes time.
Circuit switching has two types of transmissions.
Datagram transmissions - Datagram transmissions have individually addressed
frames.
Data-stream transmissions - Data-stream transmissions have a stream of data for
which address checking occurs only once. The routing in circuit switching may have
either static routing or dynamic routing. In case of static routing, this methodology
uses the same approach all the time while dynamic routing allows alternate routing
depending on traffic.
The Key Point of Circuit Switching are.
1. It is the simplest method of data communication in which a dedicated physical
connection or path is established between the sending and receiving device.
2. In circuit switched networks, a set of switches are connected by physical links. A
connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
3. Figure shows a circuit switched network in which computer A, B and C are
connected to computer D, E, F and G via four switches. If these computers are to be
connected with a point-to-point connections, 12 dedicated lines are required which
will incur high line cost.
4. The four switches connecting these computers thus provide dedicated links by
reducing the line cost. Here I, II, III and IV are the circuit switches or nodes. Nodes I,
III, IV are connected to computers while II is only routing node.

5. In circuit switching the routing decision is made when path is set up across the
network. After the link has been set between the sender and receiver,
the information is forwarded continuously over the link.
6. The dedicated path established between the sender and the receiver is maintained
for entire duration of conversation.
7. This link or path is released only when data transmission between sender and
receiver is over.
8. Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
9. Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation of resources
to be used during the communication. These resources can be switch buffers, switch
processing time, switch input/output ports. These resources remain dedicated during
the entire duration of data transfer.
10 Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized (i.e. in form of
packets). The data are a continuous flow· sent by the source station and received by
the destination station and there may be periods of silence.
11. There is no addressing involved in data transfer. The switches route the data
based on their occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM). However, there is end-to-
end addressing used during set up phase.
12. In telephone systems circuit switching is used.
13. The communication in a circuit switched network takes place in three phases:
1. Circuit establishment or setup phase.
2. Data transfer phase.
3. Circuit disconnects or tears down phase
Advantages of Circuit Switching
The advantages of circuit switching are:
1. The dedicated path/circuit established between sender and receiver provides a
guaranteed data rate.
2. Once the circuit is established, data is transmitted without any delay as there is no
waiting time at each switch.
3. Since a dedicated continuous transmission path is established, the method is
suitable for long continuous transmission.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
The various disadvantages of circuit switching are:
1. As the connection is dedicated it cannot be used to transmit any other data even if
the channel is free.
2. It is inefficient in terms of utilization of system resources. As resources are allocated
for the entire duration of connection, these are not available to other connections.
3. Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.
4. Prior to actual data transfer, the time required to establish a physical link between
the two stations is too long.
PACKET SWITCHING.
Circuit switching is the study of data link layer. The services of networks are provided
by using the concept of packet switching.
Packet switching can be used as an alternate to circuit switching. In the packet
switched networks, data is sent in discrete units that have variable length. They are
called as packets. There is a strict upper bound limit on the size of packets in a packet
switch network. The packet contains data and various control information. The packet
switched networks allow any host to send data to any other host without reserving the
circuit. Multiple paths between a pair of sender and receiver may exist in a packet
switched network.
One path is selected between source and destination. Whenever the sender has data
to send, it converts them into packets and forwards them to next computer or router.
The router stores this packet till the output line is free.
Then, this packet is transferred to next computer or router (called as hop). This way,
it moves to the destination hop by hop. All the packets belonging to a transmission
may or may not take the same route. The route of a packet is decided by network
layer protocols.

Advantages of packet Switching

1. The main advantage of packet switching is the efficiency of the network. In circuit
switching network, a reserved circuit cannot be used by others, till the sender and
receiver leave it. Even if no data is being sent on a reserved circuit, no one else can
access the circuit. This results in network bandwidth wastage. The packet switching
reduces network bandwidth wastage.
2. The other advantage is that the packet switching is more faults tolerant. In case of
circuit switching, all the packets are lost if a router in the circuit is down as all the
packets follow the same route. But, in case of packet switching network, the packets
can be routed over the malfunctioning component of the network. This is because all
the packets may follow a different route to the destination.
3. The circuit switching bills the user depending on the distance and duration of
connection whereas packet switching network bill users only on the basis of duration
of connectivity.
4. The advantage of circuit switching network over packet switching network is that the
circuit switching network provides ordered delivery of packets. As all the packets follow
the same route. They arrive in correct order at destination.
5. It uses a digital network. This method enables digital data to be directly transmitted
to a destination, and is therefore appropriate for data communication systems.
6. High data transmission quality - The quality of data transmission in a packet
switched network is kept high (error free) because the data distribution is checked and
error detection is employed during data transmission.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

The various disadvantage of Packet switching
1. Packets may be lost on their route, so sequence numbers are required to identify
missing packets.
2. Switching nodes requires more processing power as the packet switching protocols
are more complex.
3. Switching nodes for packet switching require large amount of RAM to handle large
quantities of packets.
4. A significant data transmission delay occurs - Use of store and forward method
causes a significant data transmission.

Types of Packet Switching

The packet switching has two approaches: Virtual Circuit approach and Datagram
approach. WAN, ATM, frame relay and telephone networks use connection oriented
virtual circuit approach; whereas internet relies on connectionless datagram based
packet switching.
(i) Virtual Circuit Packet Switching: In virtual circuit packet switching, a single route
is chosen between the sender and receiver and all the packets are sent through this
route. Every packet contains the virtual circuit number. As in circuit switching, virtual
circuit needs call setup before actual transmission can be started. He routing is based
on the virtual circuit number.

This approach preserves the relationship between all the packets belonging to a
message.Just like circuit switching, virtual circuit approach has a set up, data transfer
and tear down phases. Resources can be allocated during the set up phase, as in
circuit switched networks or on demand, as in a datagram network. All the packets of
a message follow the same path established during the connection. A virtual circuit
network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit switched network
is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer.

(ii) Datagram Packet Switching: In datagram packet switching each packet is

transmitted without any regard to other packets. Every packet contain full packet of
source and destination. Every packet is treated as individual, independent
transmission.
Even if a packet is a part of multi-packet transmission the network treats it as though
it existed alone. Packets in this approach are called datagrams. Datagram switching
is done at the network layer. Figure show how a datagram approach is used to deliver
four packets from station A to station D. All the four packets belong to same message
but they may travel via different paths to reach the destination i.e. station D.

Datagram approach can cause the datagrams to arrive at their destination out of order
with different delays between the packets. Packets may also be lost or dropped
because of lack of resources. The datagram networks are also referred as
connectionless networks. Here connectionless means that the switch does not keep
information about connection state. There are no connection establishment or tear
down phases.
The datagram can arrive at the destination with a different order from the order in
which they where sent. The source and destination address are used by the routers
to decide the route for packets. Internet use datagram approach at the network layer

Chapter 3
Networks
Criteria for a Data Communication Network
The major criteria that a Data Communication Network must meet are:

a. Performance
b. Consistency
c. Reliability
d. Recovery
e. Security

a. Performance
Performance is the defined as the rate of transferring error free data. It is measured by the
Response Time. Response Time is the elasped time between the end of an inquiry and the
beginning of a response. Request a file transfer and start the file transfer. Factors that affect
Response Time are:
 • Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network will run
• Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured in bits per second
(bps)
• Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes together
• Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as Pentiums
• Software Program: How well is the network operating system (NOS) written

b. Consistency
Consistency is the predictability of response time and accuracy of data.

• Users prefer to have consistent response times, they develop a feel for normal
operating conditions. For example: if the "normal" response time is 3 sec. for
printing to a Network Printer and a response time of over 30 sec happens, we know
that there is a problem in the system!
• Accuracy of Data determines if the network is reliable! If a system loses data, then
the users will not have confidence in the information and will often not use the
system.

c. Reliability
Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable. MTBF (Mean Time Between
Failures) is a measure of the average time a component is expected to operate between
failures. Normally provided by the manufacturer. A network failure can be: hardware, data
carrying medium and Network Operating System.

D. Recovery
Recovery is the Network's ability to return to a prescribed level of operation after a network
failure. This level is where the amount of lost data is nonexistent or at a minimum. Recovery
is based on having Back-up Files.

e. Security
Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from unauthorized access.
Restricted physical access to computers, password protection, limiting user privileges and
data encryption are common security methods. Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend
against computer viruses are a security measure.
Physical Structure:
Network attributes: Line Configuration / Type of connection, Topology

Line Configuration
Refers to the way the devices are connected by a link. A link is physical or wireless connection
between one or more devices.

Point-to-Point

This type of configuration is used for line-ofsight communication when the two communicating
devices are connected physically by a single wire or by a line-of-sight microwave link. Main
characteristics are:

Dedicated link between two devices. Whole capacity of the channel is reserved. Uses actual length
of wire or cable to connect two ends. Microwave or satellite links can be established.

Examples: Connection of devices in mesh topology. Connection between remote control and
operating device such as CD player, television set, home theater etc. A simple example of type of
connectivity between the two machines are:

1. Straight Cable: Used for communication between two similar type of

communicating device as computer to hub/switch. The CAT-5 cable connection
to RJ45 is pin-to-pin
2. 2. Cross Cable: Used for communication between two similar type of
communicating device as computer to computer. The CAT-5 cable connection to
RJ45 is pin 1-3, 2-6 as shown below:
 Point-to-Multipoint
This configuration is used when the medium is shared by multiple devices. This is also
known as multi-drop configuration. A multipoint also called multi-drop is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link. In this connection the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several users can use the link
simultaneously, it is spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is time shared
connection. Figure shows the configuration.

More than two devices share the same link. Capacity of channel is shared spatially or
temporarily. Allows broadcasting packets over the network. Each device is able to
communicate with each other.
Examples: A radio station. Video Conference

Network Topology
A network topology is the pattern in which nodes (i.e., computers, printers, routers or
other devices) are connected to a local area network (LAN) or othernetwork via links
(e.g., twisted pair copper wire cable or optical fiber cable).

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology
1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the
network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
MESH Topology: Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic
to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which
has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have
routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is
used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
Categories of Communication
Networks
Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Wireless
5. Inter Network (Internet)

Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot.
Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We
can use different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network
among each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive
etc.

Characteristics of LAN
• LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
• LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
• There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent
ones are Ethernet, Token ring.
• It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a
restricted geographical area.
Applications of LAN
• One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by
the remaining clients.
• Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with
each other locally without any internet access.
• Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Advantages of LAN
• Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives
and hard disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost
and hardware purchases.
• Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network
instead of purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
• Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred
over networked computers.
• Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the
server computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access
their data. Because data is not stored on workstations locally.
• Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to
manage data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
• Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection
sharing system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages of LAN
• High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared
computer resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is
high.
• Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data
files of each and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and
computer use history of the LAN user.
• Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an
organization if centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN
administrator.
• LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because,
there are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable
disturbances in Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time
job.
• Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one
building or a group of nearby buildings.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN
and uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It
can be means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single
cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.
Characteristics of MAN
• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
• Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as
fibre optic cables.
• It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to
WANs.
• The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions
simultaneously.
• A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
• More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
• It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial
espionage(spying) graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used
for the network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not
easy to design and maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or
Satellite links. WAN operates on low data rates.
Characteristics of WAN
• It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).
• Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers.

Advantages of WAN
• Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one
network.
• Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
• Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages
can have picture, sounds or data included with them(called attachments).
• Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all
the computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each
computer.
• Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some
users may have older information than others.

Disadvantages of WAN
• Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
• Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the
network the more expensive it is.
• Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network
supervisors and technicians to be employed.
• Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use
information from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more
complexity and expense.

Wireless Network
Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to
implement wireless networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance,
but the basic idea is the same.
Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:
1. System interconnection
2. Wireless LANs
3. Wireless WANs

System Interconnection
System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer
using short-range radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range
wireless network called Bluetooth to connect various components such as monitor,
keyboard, mouse and printer, to the main unit, without wires. Bluetooth also allows
digital cameras, headsets, scanners and other devices to connect to a computer by
merely being brought within range.
In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The
system unit is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.
Wireless LANs
These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with
which it can communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly
common in small offices and homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much
trouble. There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, which most systems
implement and which is becoming very widespread.

Wireless WANs
The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth
wireless WAN. This system has already gone through three generations.
• The first generation was analog and for voice only.
• The second generation was digital and for voice only.
• The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.

Inter Network
Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter network can be
formed by joining two or more individual networks by means of various devices such as
routers, gateways and bridges.
 CHAPTER 4
NETWORK MODELS

Introduction
Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip level
engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the whole
networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some particular
task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all networking tasks depend
on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and they depend on each other only
to take input and send output.

Layered Tasks
In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small tasks.
Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process the task
only. Every layer does only specific work. In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals
with the task done by or to be done by its peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task
is either initiated by layer at the lowest level or at the top most level. If the task is initiated by the-
top most layer, it is passed on to the layer below it for further processing. The lower layer does the
same thing, it processes the task and passes on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by lower most
layer, then the reverse path is taken

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to execute its
piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation header and tail.
OSI reference model (Open Systems Interconnection)
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how applications can
communicate over a network. A reference model is a conceptual framework for
understanding relationships. The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and
developers so the digital communication products and software programs they create will
interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons among communications tools. Most vendors
involved in telecommunications make an attempt to describe their products and services in
relation to the OSI model. And although useful for guiding discussion and evaluation, OSI is
rarely actually implemented, as few network products or standard tools keep all related
functions together in well-defined layers as related to the model. The TCP/IP protocols, which
define the Internet, do not map cleanly to the OSI model.
Developed by representatives of major computer and telecommunication companies
beginning in 1983, OSI was originally intended to be a detailed specification of actual
interfaces. Instead, the committee decided to establish a common reference model for which
others could then develop detailed interfaces, which in turn could become standards. OSI was
officially adopted as an international standard by the International Organization of Standards
(ISO).
OSI layers
The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints in a
telecommunication network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or
layers. Each communicating user or program is at a computer that can provide those seven
layers of function. So in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data down
through the layers in the source computer, across the network and then up through the layers
in the receiving computer. The seven layers of function are provided by a combination of
applications, operating systems, network card device drivers and networking hardware that
enable a system to put a signal on a network cable or out over Wi-Fi or other wireless
protocol).
The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are:
Layer 7: The application layer. This is the layer at which communication partners are identified
(Is there someone to talk to?), network capacity is assessed (Will the network let me talk to
them right now?), and that creates a thing to send or opens the thing received. (This layer is
not the application itself, it is the set of services an application should be able to make use of
directly, although some applications may perform application layer functions.)
Layer 6: The presentation layer. This layer is usually part of an operating system (OS) and
converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation format to another (for example,
from clear text to encrypted text at one end and back to clear text at the other).
Layer 5: The session layer. This layer sets up, coordinates and terminates conversations.
Services include authentication and reconnection after an interruption. On the Internet,
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide these services
for most applications.
Layer 4: The transport layer. This layer manages packetization of data, then the delivery of
the packets, including checking for errors in the data once it arrives. On the Internet, TCP and
UDP provide these services for most applications as well.
Layer 3: The network layer. This layer handles the addressing and routing of the data (sending
it in the right direction to the right destination on outgoing transmissions and receiving
incoming transmissions at the packet level). IP is the network layer for the Internet.
Layer 2: The data-link layer. This layer sets up links across the physical network, putting
packets into network frames. This layer has two sub-layers, the Logical Link Control Layer and
the Media Access Control Layer. Ethernet is the main data link layer in use.
Layer 1: The physical layer. This layer conveys the bit stream through the network at the
electrical, optical or radio level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data
on a carrier network.
The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network
model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which
govern every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the
movement of data between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer

simple naming and addressing schemes.

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by
Department of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of
a research project of network interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP
reference model were:
• Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
• The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and
destination machines were functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data
packets) another application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference

Model
Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless
internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by
transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the
protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote
machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer
users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport
electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts
connected over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented
protocol which handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and
flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that
do not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind
of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

Reference Model
Now it's time to compare both the reference model that we have learned till now. Let's
start by addressing the similarities that both of these models have.
Following are some similarities between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference
Model.
• Both have layered architecture.
• Layers provide similar functionalities.
• Both are protocol stack.
• Both are reference models.

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP

Reference Model
Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.
OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard

standard, acting as a communication protocols around which the Internet has
gateway between the network and end developed. It is a communication protocol,
user. which allows connection of hosts over a
network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
guarantees the delivery of packets. not guarantees delivery of packets. Still the
TCP/IP model is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate

Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection 5. Transport Layer is both Connection

Oriented. Oriented and Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.

Oriented and Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around which 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation
the networks are built. Generally it is of the OSI model.
used as a guidance tool.

8. Network layer of OSI model provides 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model
both connection oriented and provides connectionless service.
connectionless service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.

10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
and are easily replaced as the technology
changes.

11. OSI model defines services, 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and
interfaces and protocols very clearly and protocols are not clearly separated. It is also
makes clear distinction between them. It protocol dependent.
is protocol independent.

12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference

Model and TCP/IP Reference Model