EC T55 - TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES

UNIT- I
Network Parameters: Open circuit impedance (Z) parameters - short circuit admittance (Y)
parameters - transmission (ABCD) parameters and inverse transmission parameters - Hybrid (h)
parameters and inverse hybrid parameters - Conversion between parameters –Design of K type
and m-derived filters – Switched twin T network , attenuators and equalizers.
UNIT- II
Transmission Line Theory: Transmission line equation – Primary and secondary constants -
Infinite line- attenuation and phase constants- skin effect- wavelength- velocity of propagation-
group velocity. Waveform distortion- distortion less transmission line-telephone cable-
inductance loading of telephone cables. Open and short circuit lines.
UNIT-III
Transmission Line at Radio Frequencies: Line with any termination- Input impedance, input
impedance of a lossless line, Reflection coefficient- Standing wave ratio. Ultra high frequency
lines- Characteristics impedance, SWR, Smith chart- applications of smith chart- Quarter wave
transformer-Stub matching- Single and double.
UNIT IV
Guided Waves and Rectangular waveguides:Introduction - Waves between parallel planes -
Transverse electric waves,Transverse magnetic waves, Transverse electromagnetic waves and
their characteristics -Wave impedances. Rectangular waveguides - TE and TM waves in
rectangular waveguide- Dominant mode - Impossibility of TEM waves in wave guides - Wave
impedance and characteristic impedance - Excitation methods for various modes.
UNIT V
Circular Wave Guides: Introduction – TE and TM waves in circular waveguide- Wave impedance
- Attenuation factor and Q of wave guides- Wave impedance- Excitation mode sin circular wave
guides. Microwave resonators introduction – Coaxial resonator-Waveguide, rectangular and
circular cavity resonator – Cavity resonator.

Text Books:
1. John. D. Ryder, ―Network lines and fields‖, PHI Learning, Second Edition, 2005.
2. Edward C. Jordan and Keith G. Balaman, ―Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems‖,
Second Edition, PHI Learning, 2007.
3. P. Dananjayan, ―Transmission Lines And Wave Guides‖ Lakshmi Publications, Chennai, 2012

Reference Books:
1. M.E. Van Valkenburg, ―Network Analysis‖, PHI, Third Edition, 2008.
2. William H Hayt and Jr John A Buck, ―Engineering Electromagnetics‖ Tata Mc Graw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi, 2008
3. David K Cheng, ―Field and Wave Electromagnetics‖, Pearson Education Inc, Delhi, 2004
4. JohŶ D Kraus aŶd DaŶiel A Fleisch, ―ElectroŵagŶetics with ApplicatioŶs‖, Mc Graw Hill Book
Co, 200
 UNIT- I

NETWORK PARAMETERS

1.1 NETWORK FUNCTIONS

Give the relation between transform of the excitation to the transform of the response. Consider
the network shown in figure

I1 I1 I2 2
1 ONE PORT 1 ONE PORT
NETWORK NETWORK V2 2’
1’
V1 1’ V1

Figure 1.1: One Port Network Figure 1.2: Two Port Network

One port network consists of only one voltage and one current source. It constitutes of one pair of
terminals called port. Two port networks consist of two currents and two voltages. Normally 1-1‘
and 2-2‘ are called ports. If the driving source is connected across 1-1‘, the load is connected
across 2-2‘. If the source is connected across 2-2‘ then the load is connected across 1-1‘. Two
ports containing no sources are called passive ports. Two ports containing sources in their
branches are called active ports.

1.1.1 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF TWO-PORT NETWORK

For a one port network, the driving point impedance is defined as,
Z(s) = V(s)/I(s)

The reciprocal of impedance function is the driving point admittance function, and is denoted by
Y(s).
For the two port network without internal sources, the driving point impedance function at port 1-1‘
is the ratio of the transform voltage at port 1-1‘ to the transform current at the same port.

Z11(s) = V1(s)/I1(s)

Similarly, the driving poit impedance at port 2-2‘ is thr ratio of transform voltage at port 2-2‘ to the
transform current at the same port.

Z22(s) = V2(s)/I2(s)

Also the driving point admittance is defined as the ratio of he transform current at any port to the
transform voltage at the same port.

Y11(s) = I1(s)/V1(s) and Y22(s) = I2(s)/V2(s)

Y11(s) = I1(s)/V1(s) and Y22(s) = I2(s)/V2(s)

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The relation between voltage or current at one port to the voltage or current at the other port as
shown it is found by forming the system of equations using node or mesh analysis, and taking the
transforms of equations by setting the initial conditions to zero and solving for the ratio of the
response to excitation.

Voltage Transfer Ratio

Ratio of voltage transform at one port to the voltage transform at the other port. It is denoted as
G(s).

G21(s) = V2(s)/V1(s) And

G12(s) = V1(s)/V2(s)

Current Transfer Ratio

Ratio of current transform at one port to the current transform at the other port. It is denoted by
(s).

Transfer Impedance
Ratio of voltage transform at one port to the current transform at the other port. It is denoted by
Z(s).
Z21(s) = V2(s)/I1(s) And

Z12(s) = V1(s)/I2(s)

Transfer Admittance
Ratio of current transform at one port to the voltage transform at the other port. It is denoted by
Y(S).

Y21(s) = I2(s)/V1(s) And

Y12(s) = I1(s)/V2(s)

Poles and Zeros

In pole/zero analysis, a network is described by its network transfer function which, for any linear
time-invariant network, can be written in the general form:

In the factorized form, the general function is:

The roots of the numerator N(s) (that is, z i) are called the zeros of the network function, and the
roots of the denominator D(s) (that is, p j) are called the poles of the network function. S is a
complex frequency.

Consider the network function,

2
 N(s) = [(s+1)2(s+5)]
(s+2) (s+3+j2) (s+3-j2)

Has double zeros at s = -1 and a zero at s = -5; and three finite poles at s = -2, s = -3+j2, and s = -
3-j2 as shown. The network function is said to be stable when the real parts of the poles and zeros
are negative. Otherwise the poles and zeros must lie within the left half of the s-plane.

1.1.2 NECESSAY CONDITIONS FOR DRIVING POINT FUNCTION

The restrictions on pole and zero locations in the driving point function with common factors in P(s)
and Q(s) cancelled are given below:
1. The co-efficient in the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of network functions with N(s) = P(s) / Q(s)
must be real and positive.
2. Complex or imaginary poles and zeros must occur in conjugate pairs.
3.
a) The real parts of all poles and zeros must be zero, or negative.
b) If the real part is zero, then the pole and zero must be simple.
4. The polynomials P(s) and Q(s) may not have any missing terms between the highest and the
lowest degrees, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.
5. The degree of P(s) and Q(s) may differ by zero or one only.
6. The lowest degree in P(s) and Q(s) may differ in degree by at the most one.

1.1.3 NECESSAY CONDITIONS FOR TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

The restrictions on pole and zero location in transfer functions with common factors in P(s) and
Q(s) cancelled are given below:
1.
a) The co-efficient in the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of N(s) = P(s) / Q(s) must be real.
b) The co-efficient in Q(s) must be positive, but some of the co-efficients in P(s) may be
negative.
2. Complex or imaginary poles and zeros must occur in conjugate pairs.
3. The real part of poles must be negative, or zero. If the real part is zero, then the pole must
be simple
4. The polynomial Q(s) may not have any missing terms between the highest and the lowest
degree; unless all even or all odd terms are missing.
5. The polynomial P(s) may not have any missing terms between the highest and the lowest
degree.
6. The degree of P(s) may be as small as zero, independent of the degree of Q(s).
7.
a. For the voltage transfer ratio and the current transfer ratio, the maximum degree of P(s)
must equal the degree of Q(s).
b. For the transfer impedance and transfer admittance, the maximum degee of P(s) must
equal the degree of Q(s) plus one.

TIME DOMAIN RESPONSE FROM POLE AND ZERO PLOT

The time domain response can be obtained from the pole zero plot of a network function. Consider
the array of poles as shown:

3
 j
s1
s3
 
s4 
s2
s3*
s1*

Figure 1.3: Pole zero plot of a network function.

Here, s1 and s3 are complex conjugate poles, whereas s2 and s4 are real poles. If the poles are
real, the quadratic function is,
s2+2n+n2 for >1
Where,  - damping ratio and n – undamped natural frequency. The roots of the equation are
s2,s4 = - n  n2 – 1 ; >1.
For these poles, the time domain response is given by,
i(t) = k 2es2t + k 4es4t
S1 and S2 constitute complex conjugate poles. If the poles are complex conjugate, then the
quadratic function is,
s2+2n+n2 for <1
The roots are s1, s1* = - n  n1 - 2 ; <1.
For these poles, the time domain response is given by,

i(t) = k1e-n+j(n1 - 2 )t + k1*e- n - j(n1 - 2 )t

= ke - nt Sin (n1 - 2)t
from the above eqn., we can conclude that the response from the complex conjugate poles is
damped sinusoid. Similarly s3, s3* are also a complex conjugate pair.

Consider a network having transfer admittance Y(s). If the input voltage V(s) is applied to the
network, the corresponding current is given by

I(s) = V(s) Y(s) = P(s) / Q(s)

Thus, I(s) =
Where, H is scale factor. By taking partial fractions,
I(s) = [k1/ (s-s1)] + [ k2 / (s – s2)] +….+ [km / (s- sm)].
The time domain response can be obtained by taking inverse transform

i(t) = L-1{[k1/ (s-s1)] + [ k2 / (s – s2)] +….+ [km / (s- sm)]}.

Stability of the System

A system will be stable if its polynomial roots has negative real parts. Since it was first
investigated by Routh – Hurwitz criterion of stability of network functions. Following are the steps
for adopting a system to be stable:
1. The array is to be constructed first.

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2. Two rows o co-efficients are formed, first row containing even numbered co-efficients and
the second row odd number co-efficients.
3. The ray is to be completed.
Let the polynomial be
P(s) = b0sm + b1sm-1 +b2sm-2 +….+ bm.
1st row and 2nd row co-efficient give
b0 b2 b4……
b1 b3 b5……
let m=5, the array will contain (m+1) i.e. 6 rows.

S5 b0 b2 b4
S4 b1 b3 b5
S3 c1 c2
S2 d1 d2
S1 e1
S0 f1

According to Routh Hurwitz criterion, the system is said to be stable if and only if there are no
changes in sign of the first column of the array. This gives the roots with negative real pars and
hence gives the condition of stability.

Amplitude and Phase Response

The steady state response can be obtained from the pole and zero plot, and I is given by,

N(j) = M()ej()

Where, M() – amplitude and () – phase.

Two port networks

Figure 1.4 Two port networks

The voltage and current at the input terminals are V1 and I1; whereas V2 and I2 are specified at
the output port. The number of possible combinations are generated by the four variables, taken
two at a time, is six. Thus, there are six possible sets of equations describing a two-port network.

1.2 OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE (Z) PARAMETERS

A General linear two-port network is as shown

Figure 1.5: Linear two port network.

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 The Z parameters of a two-port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may be
defined by expressing the port voltages V1 and V2 in terms of the currents I1 and I2. Here V1 and
V2 are dependent variables, and I1 I2 are the independent variables. Thus,

Here, Z11, Z12, Z21, Z22 are the network functions and are called impedance Z
parameters. These parameters can be represented by matrices.
[V] = [Z][I]
.

Where,

Z11 – open circuit input impedance; Z12 – open circuit forward transfer impedance

Z21 - open circuit reverse transfer impedance; Z22 – open circuit output impedance

The equivalent circuit for the z-parameters is shown below,

Figure 1.6: Equivalent circuit for the z-parameters.

1.3 SHORT CIRCUIT ADMITTANCE (Y) PARAMETERS

A general two – port network is as shown,

The YZ parameters of a two-port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may
be defined by expressing the port currents I1 and I2 in terms of the voltages V1 and V2. Here I1
and I2 are dependent variables, and V1, V2 are the independent variables. Thus,

Here, Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 are the network functions and are called admittance (Y)
parameters. These parameters can be represented by matrices.
[I] = [Y][V]

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.

Where; Y11- Short circuit input admittance or driving point admittance; Y12 – short circuit
forward transfer impedance or transfer admittance; Y21 – short circuit reverse transfer impedance;
Y22 – short circuit output impedance

The equivalent circuit for the Y-parameters is shown below,

Figure 1.7: Equivalent circuit for the Y-parameters.

1.4 TRANSMISSION (ABCD) PARAMETERS

Transmission parameters, or ABCD parameters, are widely in transmission line theory and
cascade networks. Here, the input variables are V1 and I1, usually called sending end, are
expressed in terms of the output variables V2 and I2 called receiving end. Transmission
parameters are also called general circuit parameters, or chain parameters.

V2 = AV1 – BI1
I2 = CV1 – DI1

The negative sign is used with I2 and not with the parameter B and D.

Where,

1.5 HYBRID PARAMETER (h-PARAMETER)

It combines some of the properties of the Z & y- parameters. Here the input voltage and
output current are expressed in terms of input current and output voltage.

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In the matrix form,

Where, h11, h12, h21, h22 – h-parameters of a four terminal network defined as,

The equivalent circuit is as shown:

Figure 1.8: Equivalent circuit h-parameters.

PROPERTIES
· If one set of parameters is known, other parameters can be found using simple
conversions. This can help when one set of parameters is needed, but cannot be measured
directly. Simple cases of networks are reciprocal and symmetrical. When a network is neither of
these, then it typically has active components, dependent sources, etc.

Reciprocal Networks
If an s applied at one port, the short circuit current out the other port will be the
same, regardless of which side the voltage is applied to. Reciprocal networks are only possible
when passive elements are used. The parameters that indicate reciprocal networks are,

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 INTERCONNECTION OF TWO PORT NETWRKS
Three ways those two ports are interconnected

ya Y parameters
* parallel
 y  ya   yb 
yb
Z parameters

za
* Series  z  za   z 
b
zb

ABCD parameters

T  Ta  Tb 

* cascade Ta Tb

TWO PORT PARAMETER CONVERSIONS

To go from one set of parameters to another, locate the set of parameters you are in, move along
the vertical until you are in the row that contains the parameters you want to convert to – then
compare element for element.

1.6 FILTERS
 Purely reactive for the attenuation become zero.

BREMKUMAR-AP/ECE
DEPT OF ECE EC T55-TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES

 A network which in its ideal form has at least one range of frequency in which the
attenuation is zero (pass band) and at least one other range of frequency in which the
attenuation is infinite( attenuation band). Frequencies which separates a pass and an
attenuation band are called cut- off frequencies.
 Attenuation has been expressed in decibels or nepers.

Neper

 Defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of input voltage or current to the output
voltage or current, provided network is properly terminated

For two four terminal network connected in cascade as shown.

V1 V2 V3

Figure 1.9: Two four terminal network.

The attenuation in nepers through the separate network is denoted by N1 and N2

thus the total attenuation N is obtained by adding the attenuations of separate networks
N = N1 + N2

decibel (db)

Defined as the ten times common logarithms of the ratio of the input power to the output power.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO UNITS OF ATTENUATION

logex = log10x * loge10

Substituting, x = P1 / P2, and loge10 = 2.3026,

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DEPT OF ECE EC T55-TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES

2N = (D / 10)*2.3026
8.686N = D

Thus,
1 neper = 8.686 decibels
1 db = 0.115 nepers

1.6.1 TYPES OF FILTERS

1. LOW PASS FILTER (LPF)
Allows without attenuation all frequencies up to cut- off frequency fc. This band is termed as pas
band or transmission band. It attenuates all frequencies greater than fc. This band is termed as
stop band.
Pass
 band

Attenuation
band

fc f
2. HIGH PASS FILTER (HPF) 3. BAND PASS FILTER (BPF)

Attenuation
Attenuation band
 band


Pass
band Pass
band
fc f
f1 f2
f
4. BAND STOP FILTER OR BAND ELLIMMINATION FILTER

 Attenuation Pass
band ban d

f1 f2 f
Figure 1.10: Characteristics of filter.

1.6.2 IDEAL FILTER CHARACTERISTICS

 Transmit passband frequencies without any attenuation.

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BREMKUMAR-AP/ECE
  Provides infinite attenuation & hence, completely suppresses all frequencies in the
attenuation band.
 Transition region between the stop and pass band would be very small.
 Throughout the pass band, characteristics impedance of the filter would match circuit to
which it is connected.

1.6.3 CHARACETERISTICS OF THE FILTER

 Propagation constants
Propagation constants P should be real in the attenuation band and imaginary in pass band.
 Characteristics impedance
The characteristics impedance of the pass band should be real and in the attenuation band Zo will
be imaginary.
 Cut off frequency
Frequency where the filter passes from pass band to attenuation band and is denoted by fc, also
termed as nominal frequency because the practical filter does not have sharp cut off frequency.

1.7 CONSTANT K-FILTERS

A constant K- filter is a T or  -network in which series or shunt impedance,Z1 & Z2 are

connected by the relationship,

Z1Z 2  Rk 2
Where, Rk – real constant and is termed as nominal impedance or design impedance of the
constant K- filter.

LOW PASS CONSTANT k-FILTER

The prototype low pass T or  are shown in figure below
L
L/2 L/2
C/2
C
C/2

C
Figure 1.11: Low pass constant k-filter
j
Here, Z1  j L , Z 2  ,
C
j L
Hence, Z1Z 2  j L   
C C

Since the product of Z1 & Z2 is constant i.e., independent of frequency, we get,

L
Z1Z 2  Rk 2 
C
L
Thus, Rk 2 
C
Now, Z OT is given by,

12

BREMKUMAR-AP/ECE
DEPT OF ECE EC T55-TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES

Z12
ZOT   Z1Z 2
4
sub., the values of Z1 & Z2,
( jL)2 j
ZOT   ( jL)( )
4 C
 2 L2 L L  2CL
   1
4 C C 4
 c2 LC  2 LC
Z OT is real if <1 and imaginary if >1 and since the cutoff frequency f c is the
4 4
c
frequency that Z OT changes from real to imaginary,
c2 LC
1
4

1
fc  . Thus the values of inductor and capacitor are
 LC
R 1
L k C
 fc  Rk fc

PHASE SHIFT & ATTENUATION

j
Substituting th values of Z1  j L & Z 2 
C
j L  2CL
cos   1   1 
j 2
2 
C
Since,   0 in the pass band and phase shift  is given by,
2
c 
LC
2
cos   1  2 2
c
2
  cos1 (1 2 )radians
c2
The attenuation of the low pass filter is given by,
j
sub., the value of Z1  j L and Z 2  , we get
C
 2 LC 2 2 
cosh   1  2 1
2 c
22
  cosh 1 ( 1)nepers
c2

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 
  cosh 1 (  1)nepers
c

1.8 CONSTANT K- HIGH PASS FILTER

The prototype of T-section & -section is shown here,
C 2C 2C

2L
2L
L

Figure 1.12: Constant k-high pass filter.

j
Here, Z1   and Z 2  j L .hence the product of Z1 & Z2,
C
j L
Z1Z 2    j L  . Since the product is independent of frequency, the filter is constant –
C C
L
K type. Thus, Z1Z 2  R k 
2

C
L
Rk 
C
Z12
then, Z OT is given by, ZOT   Z1Z 2
4

 
1 L L 1
Z OT   1 2
4 C2 2
C C 4 LC
1 1
Z OT is real if <1 and imaginary if >1 and since the cutoff frequency f c is the
4 LC
2
4 2 LC
frequency that Z OT changes from real to imaginary,
1
1
4 2 LC
1
fc  . From the above equations, we get ,
4 LC
R 1
L  k and C 
4 f c 4 Rk f c

PHASE SHIFT & ATTENUATION

Substituting the value of Z1 & Z2 in equ. W e get,

1
cos   1 
2 2 LC
1
since   0 & phase shift  is given by,  c 
2 LC
hence,

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 2c2
cos   1 
2
2 2
  2 cos 1 (1  2c )

 2
  2 sin 1 c2 radians

j
the attenuation of high pass filter can be obtained by sub., Z1   and Z 2  j L
C
1 2c2
cos   1   (  1)
22 LC 2
c
  cos 1 ( )nepers.


1.9 CONSTANT K-TYPE BAND PASS FILTER

This can be either T or  - section if the series arm contains a series resonant circuit while
the shut arms contain parallel resonant circuit as shown below:
C1 L1
2C1 2C1
L1/2 L1/2

C2/2
C2 C2/2 2L2
L2 2L2

Figure 1.13: Constant k-type band pass filter.

For this condition equal resonant frequencies,

1 1
o  
L1C1 L2C 2
L1C1  L2C2
the series & shunt arm impedances are given below:
 2 L1C1 1
Z1  ( j L1 
j
)  j( ) and
C1 C1
1
j L2
jC 2 j L2
Z2   . If the filter is to be constant k- type,
j L2 
1 1  j 2
L2C 2
jC 2

L2 2L1C1 1
Z1Z 2  Rk2   ( )
C1 1   2 L2C 2
L2 L1
we know that, L1C1  L2C2 hence , Z1Z 2    Rk2
C1 C 2
L2 L1
also, L1C1  L2C2 , thus ,   Rk2
C1 C 2
 Z1
at cut – off frequencies,  1
4Z 2
at the lower cut-offf frequency f1 =-Z1. at upper cut-off f2. sub., the values of Z1 we get,
1 1
(  j1L1)  (  j 2L1)
j1C1 j 2C1
multiplying the above eqn., by j, we get,
1 1
(1L1  )(   2L1)
1C1  2C1
1 2
(1 12 L1C1)  ( L1C1 1)
2 2
1
now, L1C1  2
o
12 1 22
(1 )  ( 1)
02 2 02
f 0  f1 f 2
where, f 0 is the mid-band frequency to which the series & shunt arms are separately tuned. The
lower cut-off frequency,
Z1  2 jRk
1
(  j1L1)  2 jRk
j1C1
1 12C1L1  2R k1C1
12
1  2R k1C1
02
f
1 ( 1 )2  4 Rk f1C1
f2
f f
C1  2 1 and
4 Rk f1 f 2
1
as we know L1C1  2
0
Rk
L1  . Sub., the values of L1 & C1, we get the values of shunt arm,
 ( f 2  f1 )
( f f )R L1 1
L2  C1Rk2  2 1 k and C 2  2 
4 f1 f 2 Rk  ( f 2  f1 )Rk

1.10 CONSTANT K-TYPE BAND STOP FILTER

The configuration of T &  constant –K band stop filter is shown below:

 L1/2
L1 L1/2

2C1 2C1
2L2 C1 2L2

L2
C2/2 C2/2
C2

Figure 1.14: Constant k-type band stop filter.

The condition of equal resonant frequencies,
0 L1 1 1
 for the series arm.  0 
2

2 20C1 L1C1
1 1
For the shunt arm, 0 L2  , thus, 0 
2

0C 2 L2C 2
1 1
  Rk
L1C1 L2C 2
Thus,

L1C1  L2C2

also,
L1 L2
Z1Z 2    R k2 and f 0  f 1 f 2
C 2 C1
at cut-off frequencies, Z1  4Z 2 . Multiplying both sides with Z2, we get,
Z1Z 2  4Z 22  Rk2
Rk
Z2   j
2
if the load is terminated with a load resistance ,R = Rk, then at lower cut-off frequency ,

 1L2)  j k
R
Z 2  j(
1
1C 2 2
1 R
(  1L2)  k
1C 2 2
R 1
1  12 C 2L2  1C 2 k From eqn.,  02 
2 L2C 2
12 R
1 2  1C2 k
0 2
f 12
1  Rk  f 1C2
f0 2
1 f 12
C2  [1  ( 2 )]
Rk  f 1 f0
1 f 2 f1
C2  [ ]
Rk  f1 f 2
 1 R f 1 f 2
also , L2   2 k
0 C 2 0 ( f 2  f 1)
2

since f 0  f1 f 2

 f 1 f 2
L2 
4 ( f 2  f 1)
L1 L2
  Rk2
C 2 C1
R f 2 f 1 L2 1
L1  Rk2 C 2  k ( ) and C1  2 
 f 1 f 2 Rk 4 ( f 2  f 1)

1.11 m- DERIVED FILTERS

Two disadvantages of constant K –filters are:

 The attenuation does not increase rapidly beyond cut off frequencies.
 Characteristics impedance varies widely in the transmission or pass band, from the desired
value.

Thus, high degree of attenuation just beyond the cut-off or constant impedance in the pass band,
demands a better type of filter. If the constant K section is regarded a prototype, it is possible to
design a filter to have the same impedance and hence the same pass band and attenuation band,
but with a degree of attenuation outside the pass band.

Suppose the T-network has the series am modified by some constant m. then if this network
shown in figure below will have the same characteristic impedance Zot as the prototype, the shunt
impedance Z2 must be modified Z2‘.

Z1/2 Z1/2 mZ1/2 mZ1/2

Z2 Z2'

Figure 1.15: Prototype network.

Z12
ZOT   Z1Z 2 . For the modified network shown above, we have, Z1  mZ1 & Z 2  Z '
4
2 2
mZ1 2
now, Z OT   mZ1Z ' 2
4
Z12 m 2 Z12
thus,  Z1Z 2   mZ1Z 2'
4 4
Z 2 1 m 2
Z 2'   Z1
m 4m
' 1  m2
this means Z must have be an impedance Z2/m in series with an impedance Z1=
2 and
4m
these impedance can be physically realizable if 0<m<1. the complete m-derived T-network is
shown below:
 mZ1/2 mZ1/2

Z2/m

1  m2
Z1
4m

The same technique is applied to - network. If the shunt arms are reduced by the factor
1/m then to make Zo of both the networks equal, the series arm has to be modified.

Z1 Z1'

2Z 2 2Z 2
2Z2 2Z2
m m

Figure 1.16: Prototype - network.

Z1Z 2
Z O 
Z1
1
4Z 2
Z2
for the modified network we have , Z1  Z1' & Z 2 
m
Z 1' Z 2
Z O  m
mZ 1'
1
4Z 2

thus,
Z 1' Z 2
Z1Z 2
 m '
Z1 mZ1
1 1
4Z 2 4Z 2
cross multiplying & simplifying,
Z1Z 2
Z1' 
Z 2 Z1
 (1  m2 )
m 4m
4m 2
multiplying the denominator & numerator by we have ,
1  m2
4m 2
mZ1 Z2
Z1'  1 m 2
4m2
Z 2  Z1m
1  m2
4m 2
this represents a parallel combination of mZ1 and Z2as shown in figure below:
1  m2

19
 mZ1

2Z 2 4m 2Z 2
Z2
m 1  m2 m
Figure 1.17: The - section.

1.12 m-derived low pass filter

the m-derived T & - section is shown below:
1  m2
C
4m
mL/2 mL/2

1  m2
L mL
4m
mC/2 mC/2
mC

Figure 1.18: The m-derived T & - section.

The shunt arm in the m-derived T filter will have infinite impedance when,
1 4
2  
1 m
2
(1  m2 )LC
L  mC
4m
and so the frequency of infinite attenuation, f  is gn., by,
1
f  
 LC 1  m2
cut-off frequency f c for the constant –K prototype L.p. filter is given by .,
1
f c 
 LC
fc
f  
1  m2
f
1  m2  ( c ) 2
f 
fc 2
m  1 ( )
f 

1.13 m-derived high pass filter

both T &  - network is shown below:

2C/m 2C/m 1 m2

L
4m

L/m
C/m
4m 2L/m 2L/m
C 20
1 m
2
The frequencies is same for both sections, and is given by,
1 (1 m 2)
2  
L 4m 4LC
 2 C
m 1 m
1  m2
hence , f  
4 LC
1
cut-off frequency of the high pass filter is f c 
4 LC
therefore, f   1  m2 f C
f 2
thus, m  1  ( )
fC
1.14 m-derived band pass filter
Z 2 1  m 2
the T – section will have the shunt impedance  Z1 , where Z1 & Z2 are the
m 4m
values of the constant K- section. Infinite attenuation will occur, when
2C1/m
mL1/2 mL1/2

1  m2 2C1/m
L1
4m
4m
C1
1  m2
L2/m
mC2

Figure 1.19: m-derived band pass filter

Z 2 1  m 2
 Z1  0 . Sub., the values of Z1 & Z2 , we have ,
m 4m
1  j L2 1 m2 2 L1C11
( )  j( )0
m 1  L2C2 4m C1
 2L2C1 1 m 2 2
 ( L1C1
 1)
L2C2 1
2
4 

1
but , L1C1  L2C 2  2
0
1 m 2 f 2
thus the above equation, ( 2 1)  4 2 f 2L2C1
4 f0
sub., the values of C1 & L2 we get,
 1 m 2 f 2 R ( f f )( f f ) 1 m 2 f 2f 0 22 f  2
( 2 1)2  4 2 f 2 k 2 1 2 2 1 ( )  (f  f1 )2
4 f1 f 2 4 Rk f 1 f 2 2
4 f0 4 f 02 4 f 02
since, f 2 f1  f 02
(1 m 2 )( f 2  f1 f 2 )2  f2 ( f 2  f1 ) (1 m 2 ) ( f 2  f1 f 2 )  f  ( f 2  f1 )

sub., (1 m2 )  x xf 2  f ( f 2  f1 )  xf1 f 2  0

 
( f 2 f 1)  ( f 2 f )2 14 x2 f f
f  1 2

2x
f  1f ( f 2  f1 )2
 2
  f1 f 2
2 (1 m2 ) 4(1 m2 )
for the infinite attenuation,
( f2  1f )2 f 2  f1
f 1  2  f 1f 2 
4(1 m ) 2 (1  m2 )
( f2  1f )2 f 2  f1
f2   f 1f 2 
2 (1  m 2 )
2
4(1 m )
from the above equations,
f 2 f1
f  2  f 1 
(1  m2 )
f 2 f1
hence, m  1  ( )
f  2  f 1

1.15 m-derived band stop filter

m-derived low pass filter & m-derived high pass filter resulting structure will be m-derived
band stop filter as shown,
m L1/2 m L1/2

2C1/m 2C1/m
1  m2
L2
4m
4m
C2
1 m2
L2/m
m C2

Figure 1.20: m-derived band stop filter.

Z 2 1  m 2
 Z1  0
m 4m
sub., the values of Z1 & Z2, and simplifying as in band pass filter,
f 2  f 1  ( f 2  f1 ) 1 m 2
f  2 f 1 2 f  2 f 1 2
1  m2  ( ) m  1 ( )
f2  f f2  f
TERMINATING HALF SECTION

It is difficult to terminate the constant – K sections properly; it would be desirable to use

fixed resistance as a termination. This can be achieved by using a half L-section as an impedance
transforming devices.
m Z1/2 m Z1/2
mZ1
Z2/m

2Z 2 4m 2Z 2
1  m2 m
Z2
1  m2 m
Z1
4m

mz1/2 1  m2
Z1
2m

2Z2/m

Z1' Z 2
Z 0'   sub., Z1'  mZ1
ZOT
Z 2 1  m2
mZ1{  Z1
Z OT '  m 4m
Z1
Z1Z 2 1 
4Z 2
Z1
Z1Z 2{1  (1  m 2 ) }
 4Z 2
Z1
Z1Z 2 1 
4Z 2
Z1
design impedance Rk= Z1Z2. also sub., =-x2 for simplicity,
4Z 2
Rk2{1 (1 m 2) x 2
 
'
Z O
Rk 1  x 2

23
The terminating half sections of m-derived T &  are shown below. The impedance of a complete
m-derived T or  section is the same as the prototype

mZ2/2 2m
Z2
1  m2
2Z2/m

1  m2 mZ1/2
2Z2/m
Z1
2m

FORMULAS USED

Constant K-filter
L
RK 
C
low pass filter
j
Z12 Z1  j L; Z 2  
Z OT   Z1Z 2 C
2
4   cos 1 (1  2 2 )radians
1 C
f c 
 LC 
  2 cosh 1 ( )nepers
c2 LC C
1
4
R
L K
 fC
1
C
RK  f C
L
L/2 L/2

C/2
C
C/2

24 C
High pass filter
1
1
Z1 2
4 2 LC
Z OT   Z1Z 2
4 1
fc 
Z 2  j L; Z1  
j 4 LC
C R
L K
4 f C
1
C
4RK  f C
2C2
  2 cos 1 (1  )radians
2
C
  2 cosh 1 ( )nepers


C 2C 2C

2L
2L
L

Band pass filter

 2 L1C1 1
Z1  ( j L1 
j
)  j( )
C1 C1
1
j L2
jC 2 j L2
Z2  
j L2 
1 1  j 2 L2C 2
jC 2
L2 2L1C1 1
Z1Z 2  Rk2   ( )
C1 1   2 L2C 2
1 1
o  
L1C1 L2C 2
L1C1  L2C2
f 0  f1 f 2
f 2 f1 Rk
C1  ; L1 
4 Rk f1 f 2  ( f 2  f1 )
( f 2 f1 )Rk L1 1
L2  C1Rk2  ; C2  2
4 f1 f 2 Rk  ( f 2  f1 )Rk

25
 C1 L1
2C1 2C1
L1/2 L1/2

C2/2
C2 C2/2 2L2
L2 2L2

band stop filter

0 L1 1

2 20C1
1
0 2 
L1C1
1 1
  Rk
L1C1 L2C 2
1 f 2 f1  f 1 f 2
C2  [ ]; L2 
Rk  f1 f 2 4 ( f 2  f 1)
Rk f 2 f 1 L2 1
L1  Rk2C 2  ( ) ; C1  2 
 f1f 2 Rk 4 ( f 2  f 1)
L1/2
L1 L1/2

2C1 2C1
2L2 C1 2L2

L2
C2/2 C2/2
C2

m-derived filters

m-derived low pass

2C/m 2C/m 1 m 2

L
4m

L/m
C/m
4m 2L/m 2L/m
C
1  m2
fc 2
m  1 ( )
f 

26
m-derived high pass
f 2
m  1 ( )
fC

2C/m 2C/m 1 m 2

L
4m

L/m
C/m
4m 2L/m 2L/m
C
1 m 2

m-derived band pass

2C1/m
mL1/2 mL1/2

2C1/m
1  m2
L1
4m f 2  f1
C1
4m m  1 ( )
1  m2 f  2  f 1

L2/m
mC2

m-derived band stop filter

mL1/2 mL1/2

2C1/m 2C1/m
1  m2
L2
4m
4m f  2 f 1 2
C2
1  m2 m  1 ( )
f2  f

L2/m
mC2

27
 UNIT -II TRANSMISSION LINE

THEORY

 Guide electrical energy to transmit from one place to another.

 These lines are used as a link between an antenna and transmitter or a receiver.
 Employed as circuit elements like inductors, capacitors, resonant circuits, filters, transformers
and even insulators at high frequencies.

2.1 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINE

2.1.1 Parallel wire type

 Common form of transmission line.
 Open wire line.
 Commonly employed as telephone lines telegraphy line and power line.
 Easy to construct and cheaper.
 Insulation between line conductors is normally air. So, the dielectric loss is extremely small.
 Significant energy loss due to radiation.
 These line become unsuitable for frequencies above 100 MHZ.

2.1.2 Coaxial type

 Employs different types of construction.
 One conductor is a hollow tube, second conductor being located inside and coaxial with the
tube. Dielectric may be solid or gaseous.
 To avoid severe radiation losses taken place in open wire lines at frequencies beyond 100
MHZ, a closed field configuration is employed in coaxial cable by surrounding the inner conductor
with an outer cylindrical hollow conductor

2.1.3 Advantage
 Electric & magnetic fields remain confined within the outer conductor and cannot leak into free
space.
 Some axial cables use concentric conductors with air as the dielectric between these
conductors.
 Mostly, the dielectric be polyethylene between these conductors.
 Extensively used in frequency range extending upto 1 GHZ.
 Quite costlier as compared to open wire lines.

2.1.4 Waveguides
 Hollow conductor which may be filled with a dielectric material and is used to guide
electromagnetic waves of UHF propagated along its length, called waveguide.
 Transmitted wave is reflected back by the internal walls and distribution associated with the
wave causes the transmission mode.
 Main types of wave confrigurations are: TE, TM, TEM.

Optical Fibers
 Optical fibers are increasingly replacing wire transmission lines in communication system.

Advantage:
 Superior transmission quality.
 Light weight & smaller size.

28
  Higher information carrying capacity.
 Reduced cost & higher security.
 Carrying capacity is much greater than microwave radio systems.
 Optical fiber theory- when the light enters at one of glass fiber under right conditions most of
the light will propagate or move down the length of the fiber & exit from far end. A small part will
escape through side walls of the fiber & some due to internal absorption.

Fundamental Quantities:

R1 L1

C3
2
CAPACITOR NON-POL

Figure 2.1: R, L, C Circuit.

Consider a long line consisting of parallel uniform conductors, carrying current, magnetic field
around conductors & voltage drop along them. Magnetic field is proportional to current- indicates
series inductance ‗L‘ and voltage drop indicates the presence of series resistance ‗R‘ voltage
applied across the conductor produces an electric field between the conductor and charges on
them. This indicates the presence of shunt capacitance ‗C‘ & since it is lossless have some shunt
conductance ‗G‘. When R, L, C, G are uniformly distributed along the entire length of the
transmission line, it is termed as uniform transmission line.

2.2 PRIMARY CONSTANTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE:

R, L, G, C – are termed as primary constants of the transmission line.

Resistance ‗R‘- loop resistance per unit length of the line. Thus it is sum of resistance of
both the wires for unit line length. Unit- ohm/Km.
Inductance ‗L‘- loop inductance per unit length of line. Sum of inductance of both wires for
unit line length. Unit- henries/Km.
Conductance ‘G‘- shunt conductance between the two wires per unit length. Unit-
mhos/Km. Assuming they are independent of frequency, series impedance ‘Z‘ & shunt admittance
‘Y‘ of the line per unit length are respectively.

2.2.1 Loop Inductance

Loop inductance per unit length depends upon the nature of transmission line and its dimensions.
I. Open Wire Line
Consider an open wire line having 2 circular conductors parallel to each other. Let the
radius be ‗a‘ and separated by the distance‗d‘ as shown in figure.

Z=R+jL
Y=G+jC
1

29
 Self inductance of two-wire taken together is given by,

L={r+9.21log 10(d/a)}10-7 henrys/metre

r- relative magnetic permeability. r=1 implies non-magnetic material.

Note: it is true only d>>a.

II. Cables:
2 wires are close to each other and are twisted so that ther is hardly any flux linkage. Here the
inductance of a paired cable is very small and is practically negligible in comparison with
resistance and capacitance.

III. Co-Axial Cable

Let radius of inner conductor be ‗a‘.
radius of outer conductor of inner surface be ‗b‘.
radius of outer conductor of outer surface be ‗c‘.
Self inductance,

L= [d/2 loge (b/a)]+ c/8[4C4/(c2-b2)2 * loge(c/b)-2c2/(c2-b2)] henry/metre

d- permeability of dielectric material

c- permeability of the conductors.

Shunt Capacitance

i) Open Wire Line

Let the radius be ‗a‘ & spacing be ‗d‘ and considered to be uniform distributed around the
periphery of each conductor capacitance of parallel line is gn by th equation,

C=d/loge(d/a) farad/metre

d - dielectric const of dielectric material.

r – relative dielectric const of the dielectric material

ii) Co-Axial Cable

C=2d/loge(d/a) farad/metre

Loop Resistance
Open Wire Line

Rdc=2/a2 ohms/loop metre

Rac = Rdc/2* a*√(fc)

Where,
Rdc – dc loop resistance
Rac – ac loop resistance
f- frequency in hertz
 - conductivity

30
Co-Axial Cable

Rac = [√(fc)/(4r)]*[1/a+1/b] ohms/loopmetre

Rdc = (1/){(1/a2)+[1/(c2-b2)]}ohms/loop metre

2.3 SKIN EFFECT

When an alternating current flows in a conductor, alternating magnetic flux within the
conductor induces an emf. This causes current density to decrease in interior of the wire & to
increase towards the outer surface.

2.3.1 Skin Depth

When the cross-sectional dimension of the conductor is much larger than effective
thickness of the ‗skin‘ of the current, current density varies exponentially inward from the surface.
The distance at which the current density decreases to 1/e of its surface value is called skin depth.

=√[/(*f*)] metres

Where,  - resistivity of the conductor ohm/metre

f – frequency in hertz
 - magnetic permeability henry/metre

W.K.T, for CU , = √[1.74*10-8]/[4**f*4**10-7]= 0.0664/√f metres. Thus f , 

For cylindrical conductor,

Li = /(4af2) henrys/metre

Re = /(2a) ohms/metre

Where, a – radius of conductor

Re – effective resistance
Li – internal inductance.
Sub the value of Re = , we get,

Re = (1/2a) √[f/] = [√()/(2a√)]√f ohms/metre

Li = 1/4a(√[/f])

Li = √[()/(4a√)] henry/metre

Thus, Re , √f and Li , √f

Methods adopted to overcome the skin effect losses:

 Use of tubular conductors for short indoor lengths and copper strip bent, steel core is used for
long outdoor exposed lengths.
 Litz wire is used for IF and quite effective ( 100KHZ)

31
 Silver is better conductor than CU & silver plated plastic rods & silver plated CU tubing are
used frequently in UHF band.
2.4 TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS

Let the line be for length ‗l‘. Primary constants of the line are R, L, C, &G per KM. ass they
do not vary with frequency. Consider a short section of line PQ of length dx, at a distance x from
the sending end A as shown in figure. dx-small implies I- constant.

Q I+d
I
x dX
V+dV
l
Figure 2.2: dx-small implies I-Constant.

At P, let the voltage be ‗V‘ & at Q, the voltage will be ‗V+dV‘ and the current will be ‗I+dI‘. Thus,
Series impedance of small secion dx will be (R+jL)dx
Similarly the shunt admittance of small section dx will be (G+jC)dx
Potential difference between P& Q is due to current flowing through series impedance (R+j l)dx.
Thus, V-(V+dV) = I(R+jL)dx

- dV/dx = I(R+jL) 2

Current difference between P&Q is due to voltage applied to shunt admittance (G+jC)dx. Thus, I-
(I+dI) = V(G+jC)dx

- dI/dx = V(G+jC) 3
Differentiating eqn. 2 & 3 & substituting,

- d2V/dx2 = (R+jL) dI/dx

d2V/dx2 = V(G+jC) (R+jL) 4

d2I/dx2 = I(G+jC) (R+jL) 5

Let, p2 = (G+jC) (R+jL). where p is a complex constant of a given frequency

Eqn 4 & 5 implies ,

d2V/dx2 = Vp2
6
d2I/dx2 = Ip2
The above equation is the differential equation of the transmission line. The solutions are:

V = aepx + be-px
I = cepx + de-px 7

Where, a &b – constants with the dimension of voltage

c &d – constants with the dimensions of current.
W.K.T,

32
 epx = Coshpx + Sinhpx and
e-px = Coshpx - Sinhpx 8

Sub., eqn 8 & 7, we get, V=a (Coshpx + Sinhpx) + b (Coshpx - Sinhpx)

= (a+b) Coshpx + (a-b) Sinhpx
Where, A= (a+b) ;
B = (a-b).

V = A Coshpx + B Sinhpx
9
similarly ,

I = c (Coshpx + Sinhpx) + d (Coshpx - Sinhpx)

= (c+d) Coshpx + (c-d) Sinhpx

Where, C= (c+d) ;
D = (c-d).
I = C Coshpx + D Sinhpx
10

Instead of four constants A, B, C, D it can be simplified to any two unknown constants by

substituting eqn 9 in 2,
- dV/dx = I(R+jL)

d (A Coshpx + B Sinhpx ) / dx = I(R+jL)

-(ApSinhpx + BpCoshpx) = I(R+jL)

-p ( ASinhpx + BCoshpx) = I(R+jL)

sub., p = √[(G+jC) (R+jL)],

- [√ (G+jC) (R+jL)]
( A Sinhpx + B Coshpx) = I
(R+jL)
- √ (G+jC)
( A Sinhpx + B Coshpx) = I
√ (R+jL)

Where Zo = √ (R+jL) / √ (G+jC)

I = - 1/Zo ( A Sinhpx + B Coshpx ).

thus,
V = A Coshpx + B Sinhpx
11
I = - 1/Zo ( A Sinhpx + B Coshpx )
Expressing Equation 11 in exponential form,

Coshpx = (epx + e-px) / 2 &

33
Sinhpx = (epx - e-px ) / 2

V = a epx + b e-px
I = - 1/Zo ( a epx b + e-px ) 12

Where, a & b are old constants.

The relation between old constant and new constant is shown below.
A = (a+b) & B = (a-b)
a = (A+B) / 2 & b = (A-B) / 2.

Thus eqn 11 & 12 are general equations of a transmission line.

2.5 DETERMINATIN OF CONSTANTS A & B

Let current & voltage at the sending end be I s & Vs respectively. at the sending end x = 0 & V = Vs.
thus in eqn. 11 ,

Vs= A Coshp(0) + B Sinhp(0) 13

Similarly substituting x = 0 & I = Is in eqn. 11,

I = - 1/Zo ( A Sinhp(0) + B Coshp(0) ) 14

B = -IsZo

Sub., the values of A & B in eqn. 11, we get,

V= Vs Coshpx – IsZoSinhpx
and
I = -1/Zo(-IsZo Coshpx + Vs Sinhpx)

Vs = A

I = Is Coshpx – Vs/Zo( Sinhpx )

V = Vs Coshpx – IsZo Sinhpx 15
Equation 15, is the general line equations expressing the current and voltage at a point / distance
x from the sending end in terms of the sent current and voltage.

2.6 INFINITE LINE

Consider a signal fed in to a line of infinite length. It could not reach the far end in a finite
time. (i.e.,) the conductor of the far end can have no effect at the input end. W hen an AC voltage is
applied to the sending end of an infinite line, a finite current will flow due to the capacitance ‗C‘ and
conductance ‗G‘ between the two wires of the line.
Isi

Vsi 
Zo

34
 The ratio of the voltage applied to the current flowing will give the input impedance of an infinite
line. Also known as characteristic impedance and is denoted by Zo.

Zo= Vsi /Isi

Vsi & Isi – sending voltage & current of an infinite line respectively. Current at any point /distance x
from the sending end is given by eqn.7,

I = c epx + d e-px
16

Values of c & d can be determined by considering an infinite line.

At the sending end of the infinite line, x = 0 & I = Is
Isi = c + d
At the receiving end of the infinite line, x =  & I = 0
0 = c* + d*0
0 = c* 0=c

Thus,

Isi = d

Sub., the values of c & d in eqn. 1

I = Isi e-px
Similarly, the voltage at any point of an infinite line can be deduced to be,

V = Vsi e-px

2.7 FINITE LINE TERMINATED IN ITS Z0

If an infinite line is joined with a similar kind of infinite line, their total input impedance is same as
that of infinite line itself.

Finite line infinite line

Input A Input
impedance  impedance
(Zo) B (Zo)
Zo

Let us consider a line of length ‗l‘, terminated characteristic impedance Zo. Let the voltage and
current at the termination be VR & IR resp.,

(VR / IR) =Zo

A

Putting x = l, V = VR * I = IR in eqn. 15, we get,

VR = Vs cosh pl – Iszzo sinh pl 17

35
IR = Is cos hpl – (Vs / Zo) sinh pl 18

Dividing eqn.1 by 2, VR = Vs cosh pl – Is zo sinh pl

IR = Is cos hpl – (Vs / Zo) sinh pl

multiplying Zo to numerator and denominator,

Zo = ( Vs / Is) = Zo = Zin

Thus the input impedance of a finite line terminated in its characteristics impedance of the line.

SECONDARY CONSTANTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE

Two complex constants P & Zo are terminated as secondary constants of the line.
P- propagation constants, Zo – characteristic impedance.
W. K.T,
Zo = √ [ (R+jL) / (G+jC) ] = Zo = √ (Z / Y) 19

And P = √ [ (R+jL) (G+jC) ]

P = √ (Z * Y)
20
Eqns. 21 & 22 gives the relationship between primary line constants R,L, C & G and secondary
line constants P & Zo.

Characteristic Impedance

Characteristic impedance is the input impedance of an infinite line.

W.K.T from eqn. 2,

- dV/dx = I(R+jL) 21

For an infinite line, V = Vsi e-px & I = Isi e-px

Eqn. 23,

- d( Vsi e-px )/dx = (R+jL) Isi e-px

(Vsi / Isi) = (R+jL) / P

22

Substituting P = √ [ (R+jL) (G+jC) ]

36
Zo = √ [ (R+jL) / (G+jC) ]

Thus the characteristics impedance of a uniform transmission line may be defined as the steady
state vector ratio of the voltage to the current at the input of an infinite line. Its unit is ohms. It is
also known as surge impedance. Zo for two types of basic transmission lines are
1. Open wire lines:
Zo = 276log10(s /r) ohms
s- Spacing between two wires.
r- Radius of the wire.

2. Coaxial cable
Zo = 138log10(D / d) ohms

Where, D – inner diameter of the outer conductor. d – Diameter of the inner conductor.
Propagation Constants

Propagation constant per unit length of a uniform line may defined as the natural logarithm of the
steady state vector ratio of the current or voltage at any point, to that at a point unit distance
further from the source, when the line is infinitely long

For convenience, P was assumed to be equal to √ (R+jL) / (G+jC) . Thus

P = √ [ (R+jL) / (G+jC) ] 23
Propagation constant has no unit. It is normally expressed in per Km unit

In lossless line,
P – purely imaginary & directly proportional to frequency.
In lossy line, p – complex quantity.
Propagation constant of a uniform transmission line is defined as the natural logarithmic of the
ratio of the sending end current to the receiving end current
P = 20 log10(Is / IR)
In decibel, P = 20log10(Vs / VR) 24

Attenuation and Phase Constants

Propagation constant P is usually complex quantity and can be expressed as,

37
 P = j
25

 - real part, called attenuation constant. It determines the reduction in voltage and current along
the line.
 increases, reduction – quicker. Its unit is neper per km.

1 neper = 8.686 db
 - imaginary part, phase constant. It determines the variation in phase position of voltage and
current along the line. Unit is radians per km.

1 rad = 57.3
 &  - both are function of frequency. Propagation constant should have a positive angle when
expressed in its polar form.

P = j = √ [ (R+jL) / (G+jC) ]

Squaring on both sides & equating the real part, we get,

2 -  2 = RG - 2LC
26

P = 2 +  2 = √ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C2)

adding eqn.,26 &27,

2 +  2 = √ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C2) 27

22 = (RG - 2LC) + {√ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C2)}

 = 1/2√{(RG - 2LC) + {√ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C2)}} 28

Subtracting eqn., 26 & 27., we get,

 = 1/2√{2LC – RG - √ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C 2)

29

Eqn., 28 & 29 are the value of attenuation constant and phase constant in terms of primary
constants R, L, G and C.

COMPUTATION OF PRIMARY CONSTANTS

W.K.T., P = √ [ (R+jL) / (G+jC) ] 30 and

Zo = √ [ (R+jL) / (G+jC) ] 31
  (R+jL) = Zo  P
30 31 32

31  30 
(G+jC) = P / Zo 33

38
COMPUTATION OF SECONDARY CONSTANTS

Given the values of R, L, C, G and freq (f), the secondary constants Zo and P and comments 
& can be calculated by using the formula,
Zo = √(R+jL) and P = √ [ (R+jL) / (G+jC) ]
√ (G+jC)
OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITED LINES

1. Voltage & current at any point in a transmission line are dependent on the load at the end
of the line and on the distance of the points from the load.
2. Thus impedance must also dependent on the load and the distance from it.
3. Various methods or ways in which the voltage & current may be distributed along a
transmission line are the following.
 When the load end (i.e.) terminating end is open.
 When the load end is shorted and
 When the load is equal to characteristics impedance.
4. Open circuit or short circuit line will be small and it is termed as stubs.

Reflected And Incident Waves

In case of open and short circuited lines, all the energy sent down the line is reflected back
because there is no resistance at the terminating end to absorb it.
Voltage & current at any point of a transmission line

V = a epx + b e-px
I = - 1/Zo ( b e-px + a epx) 34

In eqn., 34,
a epx – incident wave (voltage / current component decreases exponentially as x increases
b e-px - reflected wave. Travels in opp.direction to incident wave.

If the line is infinite, x = , a =0 which implies no reflected wave in an infinite line or finite line
terminated in its characteristics impedance.

STANDING WAVES IN OPEN AND SHORT – CIRCUITED LINES

In open and & short – circuited line, there are antinodes – maximum voltage – in phase (add).
Nodes – minimum voltage – out of phase (cancel)
Since, complete cancellation takes place, nodes & antinodes remain motionless, standing wave
occurs.

Open circuited line

 Maximum voltage and minimum current flow

 Incident and reflected lines will be 180 out of phase.
 Distance b/w successive maxima - /2
 Distance b/w consecutive maxima & minima - /4
 Current maximum occurs ata point of voltage minimum & vice versa.

39
 Current – voltage distribution goes on decreasing due to attenuation of the line in case of lossy
line.

Short circuited lines

The current is maximum. Thus the voltage is zero.

current voltage

/4 3/4 /2 /4

Figure 2.3: Current vs. Voltage

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF OPEN & SHORT CIRCUITED LINES

 l 
Zoc IR = 0 Zsc
VR = 0
 

Consider length of line l. in open circuited end I R = 0

& in short circuited end VR = 0. when, x = l, V = VR & I = IR

VR = Vs cosh pl – IsZo sinh pl 35

IR = Is cosh pl – (Vs / Zo) sinh pl 36

Since IR = 0, in open circuited line eqn. 36 = [Is cosh pl – (Vs / Zo) sinh pl] = 0

Zoc = Zo coth pl
Zoc = Zo coth pl 37

Where, Zoc – open circuit impedance. Similarly in a short – circuited line VR = 0,

Eqn. 37 =>0 = Vs cosh pl – IsZo sinh pl
=>
Zsc = Zo tanh pl 38

(i.e)., input impedance of an infinite line is its characteristic impedance.

Secondary constants in terms of Zoc & Zsc

 => Zoc  Zsc = Zo2 tanh pl  coth pl
37 38
=>
Zoc  Zsc = Zo2 39
38 / 37 => tanh pl = ( Zsc / Zoc) 40

40
Experimental Determination Of Primary & Secondary Line Constants
 Primary & secondary constant can be found by measurement of input impedance of the line
under two condition:
I. With he far end of the line shorted and
II. With the far end of the line open.

When no current flows through G by adjusting R4 & C in the arm CD, we get,
R1/R2 = Zin / Z
Zin – input impedance

R2   2C 2 R 4

(1   2 C 2 R 2 ) (1   2C 2 R 2 )2
R
(1   2 C 2 R 2 )
If R1 = R2, Zin = Z
Under null condition, impedance of arm CD,
1/Z = (1/R)+(jC)
Z= [R/(1+ jC)]

Where,

   X 2 Y2
R2  2C 2 R 4
=  
(1   2C 2 R 2 ) (1   2C 2 R 2 ) 2

R
 42
(1   2C 2 R 2 )

Line with any termination

General equation

Consider a transmission line of length l terminating in an impedance Z R

VR – voltage across ZR

41
IR – current flowing through it.
Voltage at any point of a transmission line is given by,
VR  A cosh pl  B sinh pl

I R  B / Zo cosh pl  ( A / Zo) sinh pl

to determine the constant A

multiplying eqn.50 by coshpl /Zo and eqn 51 bysinh pl and adding the eqns.,

VR  cosh pl  I R sinh pl  ( A / Zo)(cosh 2 pl  sinh 2 pl)

A  VR cosh pl  I R Zo sinh pl
At the termination RR,
x= l, V = VR,I = IR

VR  A cosh pl  B sinh pl
I R  B / Zo cosh pl  ( A / Zo) sinh pl 43

To determine the const B, multiply eqn. 50 by sinh pl /Zo & eqn 51 by cosh pl and dding, we
get,
VR / Zo sinh pl  I R cosh pl  B / Zo(cosh 2 pl  sinh 2 pl)
B  (VR sinh pl  I R Zo cosh pl )
sub., A & B in eqn 49,
V  VR (cosh pl  ZoI R sinh pl ) cosh px  (VR sinh pl  I R Zo cosh pl ) sinh px
V  VR cosh pl cosh px  ZoI R sinh pl cosh px VR sinh pl sinh px  I R Zo cosh pl sinh px.
V  VR cosh p(l  x)  I R Zo sinh p(l  x)
Similarly,

I  1/ Zo sinh px(VR cosh pl  ZoI R sinh pl )  1/ Zo cosh px(VR sinh pl  ZoI R cosh pl )
I  VR sinh p(l  x)  I R cosh p(l  x)
sub y – l-x in eqn 54 & eqn 55
V  VR cosh py  I R Zo sinh py
I  (VR / Zo) sinh py  I R cosh py
at the sending end, x = 0, V = Vs,I = Is
Vs  VR cosh pl  I R Zo sinh pl
Is  (VR / Zo) sinh pl  I R cosh pl

INPUT IMPEDANCE

Input impedance of the transmission line is defined as the ratio of Vs & Is

Zin  Vs / Is  VR cosh pl  Is 

42
Thus, in open – circuited line, Zin = Zo c; ZR = ,

=>

In short – circuited line, Zin = Zsc; ZR = 0,

=>

Input impedance of a lossless line

W.K.T,

Thus, for lossless line

For a lossless line, the resistive component of the line i.e R & G will be equal to zero,

Considering, the termination impedance is pure resistance and sub the value of , we get,

REFLECTION

 Occurs when there is impedance irregularity or improper termination of the load.

43
 Maximum when line is open or short circuited. Will be zero when Z R = Zo.
Reflection co-efficient

Ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage or ratio of reflected current to incident current and it is
denoted as K
K = Vr / Vi
where, Vr – reflected voltage.
Vi – incident voltage.
Similarly, Ir / Ii = -K
Where, Ir – reflected current
Ii – incident current.
W.K.T, the voltage & current eqn. are:

V = a epx + b e-px
I = - 1/Zo ( b e-px + a epx)

Y – Distance measured from termination ZR, then x = -y.

V = b epy + a e-py
I = - 1/Zo ( b e-py + a epy)
If y = 0; V = VR, & I = IR,
I = IR, (b / Zo) – (a / Zo) => IR Zo = b - a and VR Zo = b + a
Thus,

and
b= (VR + IRZo) / 2 a= (VR - IRZo) / 2

Similarly, voltage reflection coefficient K = (Vr / Vi)

K = (a e-py) / (b epy ) => K = (a / b) e-2py => K = (a / b)

Substituting, the values of a & b,
K = (VR - IRZo) / (VR + IRZo) => K = (Z – Zo) / = (ZR + Zo)
R 44

Reflection loss & reflection factor

Reflection loss is the ratio of power delivered to the load to the incident power and is normally
denoted by Fl.
Fl = 10 log10( 4(ZRZo)2 / ZR + Zo) db

Fl = 20 log10( 2(ZRZo) / ZR + Zo) db 45

Reflection loss in terms of reflection factor is, Fl = 20 log Fr db

Fl = 20 log Fr db 46

Where, Fr – reflection factor.

Fr = 2(ZRZo) / ZR + Zo)
Fr = (1-K2)

44
 Fr = 2(ZRZo) / ZR + Zo) 47

Standing wave ratio

 Combination of reflected & incident waves gives rise to standing waves of current & voltage
with definite maxima & minima along the line.
 Ratio of maximum & minimum magnetic of current or voltage on the line having standing
waves and is denoted as S.

Note: VSWR > 1. When VSWR = 1 =>no reflection & the line is terminated correctly.

Power delivered to load

 By maximum power transfer theorem, ZR – complex conjugate of Zo.
 Maximum power is delivered to load.
 If not the case, it is very important to know the amount of power delivered to the load,

Power delivered to the load

PR = IR2RR 48

W.K.T., IR = Is cosh pl – (Vs / Zo) sinh pl

Is can also be calculated by the formula, Is = (Vs / ZIN)1

Where, / ZIN= Zo.ZR cosh pl + Zo sinh pl
Zo cosh pl + ZR sinh pl

Alternatively, IR can be obtained by the formula,

epl = (Is / IR) 49

Efficiency of transmission

Ratio of power delivered to the load to the input power.

 = (PR / Ps)* 100

Where, Ps = VsIs cos,  - angle by which sending end & current Is leads Vs.

45
 UNIT III

TRANSMISSIONLINE LINE AT RADIO FREQUENCIES

Signal transmitted over lines are normally complex and consists of many frequency
components. For ideal transmission the waveform at the line receiving end must be the same as
the waveform of the original input signal. The condition requires that all frequencies have the same
attenuation and the same delay caused by a finite phase velocity or velocity of propagation. W hen
these conditions are not satisfied, distortion exist.

Line distortion, i.e., distortion on transmission lines is usually of two types:

Frequency distortion: it is that type of distortion in which the various frequency
components of the signal undergoes different attenuations. This is, when the attenuation constant
 is not a function of the frequency distortion does not exists on transmission lines.

Delay distortion: it is that type of distortion in which the time required to transmit the
various frequency components over the line and the consequent delay is not a constant. This is,
when vp the phase velocity is independent of frequency, delay distortion does not exist on lines.
Since vp = , it will be independent of frequency only when is equal to a constant multiplied
by. This type of distortion is also known as phase distortion.
Therefore we conclude that a transmission line will neither have delay distortion nor frequency
distortion only if  is independent of  and  is a constant multiplied by .

 = 1/2√{(RG - 2LC) + {√ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C2)}} and

 = 1/2√{2LC – RG - √ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C2)

Distortion less line

The line having parameters satisfy this condition is termed as distortion less line. Distortion less
condition can help in designing new lines or modifying old ones to minimize distortion.
This condition will be investigated by the expansion for the propagation constant P as follows:
The real part of  of the propagation constant is LCG / C or LC R L which is independent of

frequency and imaginary part  is  LC is a constant multiplied by 

When the line parameters are connected neither frequency distortion nor delay distortion exists,
and the line is said to be distortion less.
R G
P  (R  j L)(G  jC )  L(  j )C (  j)
L C
R G
 LC (  j )(  j)
L C
R G
when  P  LC ( R  j) =  LC ( G  j)
L C L C
R G
Thus, we get, P    j   LC (  j)  LC (  j)
L C
Equating real & imaginary parts, we get,
R G C L
  LC or LC R orG
L C L C

46
    LC
thus,  1
vp  
 LC

Thus the characteristics impedance Zo can be expressed as,

R
L(  j)
R jL
Z 0   L
G  jC G
C(  j)
C
R G L
Since  is a distortion line, Zo of a distortion line is Zo 
L C C
in a distortion line, all frequency components have the same attenuation and phase velocity. The
received and transmission waveforms have the same shape, but the received wave is reduced in
amplitude because of attenuation. However, this assumes that line parameters are independent of
frequency.
For a lossless line,  =0 and resistive component which absorb power R and G are equal to zero.
Thus substituting R=0 and G=0 we get,

 0
   LC
Since  is independent of  and  is a constant multiplied by  , this also satisfies distortion
less condition. Hence lossless line is distortion less.

3.1 CONDITION FOR MINIMUM ATTENUATION

The attenuation of a line is expressed by attenuation constant  as

 = 1/2√{(RG - 2LC) + {√ [ (R2+2L2) / (G2+2C2

it is observed that  depends on the four primary constants in addition to the frequency.

Value of L for minimum attenuation

While determining the value of L for minimum attenuation, it will be assumed that the other three
line constants, C, G & R including  are constant.
Diff.  with respect to L & equating it to zero, we get,

1  22L(G 2C2 )2


2  ( R 2  2 L2 )(G 2  2C 2 )
  2C 
d  1

dL 2 1
2
(R 2   2 L2 )  (R 2   2 L2 )(G 2   2C 2 ) 

47
Squaring on both sides we get,
L2 (G 2   2C 2 )  C 2 (R 2   2 L2 )
LG  CR
G R

C L
The condition is similar to the one derived for distortion less line.
The attenuation will be minimum when,
CR
L henries / km
G
Value of C for minimum attenuation: now if only C is varied while other three line constants L,
G, R including  are assumed constant, the same result will be arrived at by differentiating  with
respect to C and equating it to zero,
G R

C L
LG
C farad / km . In practice C is normally greater than the desired value and to reduce the
R
attenuation C has to be decreased.
Value of R & G for minimum attenuation: If either R or G is the only variable no minimum is
found by differentiating and equating to zero. However, when R=0 & G=0, the attenuation constant
 is zero. Therefore R & G both should be kept as small as possible.
Loaded lines
Let us consider a typical 16 gauge paper insulated cable pair whose line parameters are:
R  42.1ohms / km
G  1.5 mhos / km
C  0.062  F / km
L  1mH / km
R 42.1
  42.1103
L 110 3
G
 0.0242 103
C
R G
L C

Reduce R: this will decrease the attenuation but will require large conductors, which in urn causes
an increase in cable size and cost. Reduction of R will also lower Zo

Increase G: this can be accomplished by lowering conductor insulation or by introducing shunt

capacitance along the line. This is a poor solution because it increases losses. Increasing G also
lowers Zo.

Decrease C: this will increase the spacing between conductor, resulting increase of cable size and
cost. Decreasing C increase Zo although lowers fc.

48
Increase L: this decrease  and reduces distortion and hence offers the best approach to achieve
distortion less and minimum attenuation condition.
Increasing inductance by inserting in series with the line is termed as loading and such lines are
called loaded line. In practice, lumped inductors, known as loading coils are placed at suitable
intervals along the line to increase the effective distributed inductance.
The effect of loading can be realized by plotting the graph of attenuation for various frequencies as
shown.

fc
Figure 3.1: Loaded unloaded cable.

The curve of loaded cable is similar to a low pass filter, having cut-off frequency as shown, thus
limits the range of transmitted frequencies. Therefore, the attenuation is reduced by the loading for
frequencies below the cut-off value given by,
1
fc 
 LcC  d
Where Lc – inductance of the loading coil and cable per km
C – Capacitance of the cable per km
And the attenuation rises rapidly above that frequency as shown.

3.2 Loading practice:

The advantage of loading is not so great on open wire lines which have an appreciable inductance
of their own and so have much less distortion than cable. As a result the practice of loading open
wire lines has been abandoned. The loading practice is, therefore normally restricted to cables
only. There are three types of loading in practice these days:

Continuous loading

Figure shows a type of iron or some other magnetic material as numetal is wound round the
conductor to be loaded thus increasing the permeability of the surrounding medium and thereby
increasing inductance. This method can give an increase in inductance up to about 65 mH per km
but, it is quite expensive due to laborious construction
Iron wire

Copper conductor

Figure 3.2: Types of iron or other magnetic material

Patch loading:
This type of loading employs sections of continuously loaded cable separated by sections of
unloaded cable. In this way the advantage of continuous loading is obtained but the cost is greatly
reduced. In fact, in submarine cable, it has been found unnecessary to use continuous loading
over the entire cable to obtain the required reduction in attenuation and desired result without

49
continuous loading over the entire length of the cable. The typical length for the section is normally
quarter kilometer.

Lumped loading
The inductance of a line can also be increased by the introduction of loading coil of uniform
intervals. This is called lumped loading. This method of loading is more convenient than
continuous loading provided that limited frequency ranged up to fc as shown.

fc
Figure 3.3: Lumped Loading
3.3 STANDING WAVE RATIO

When the transmission line is not terminated correctly, the traveling electromagnetic wave at the
sending end is reflected completely or partially at the termination. The combination of incident and
the reflected waves gives rise to standing waves of current and voltage along the line, with definite
maxima and minima of current and voltage along line when the line is lossless as shown if figure

Vmax
Vmin

DISTANCE
V
ANTINODE

NODE
DISTANCE
Figure 3.4: Maxima and minima of current and voltage along line.

Nodes - points of zero voltage or current in the standing wave system

Antinodes - points of maximum voltage or current.

50
A line terminated in its characteristic impedance or resistance has no standing waves and hence
no nodes.

The ratio of the maximum and minimum magnitudes of current or voltage on a ine having standing
waves is called the standing wave ratio. Abbreviated as SW R. Denoted by letter S. while dealing
with the ratio of voltage only, the standing wave ratio is abbreviated as VSWR.

VSWR =

Note: VSWR>1 when, VSWR = 1, the line is correctly terminated and there is no reflection.

3.4 IMPEDANCE MATCHING DEVICES

If maximum power has to take place between the source and the load, the resistance of the load
should be equal to that of source and the reactance of the load should be equal to that of the
source but in opposite sign. W hen this condition is achieved, it is commonly referred to as
impedance matching and the methods employed to achieve this are termed as impedance
matching devices.

3.5 QUARTER WAVE TRANSFORMER

The input impedance ZIN of the uniform transmission line in terms of secondary line constants is
given by.,

ZIN = Zo (ZR CoshPl + Zo sinhPl )

(Zo CoshPl + ZR sinhPl)

since high frequency lines can be considered losses free,  = 0, P = j. thus the above eqn.,
ZIN = Zo (ZR Cosh jl + Zo sinh jl )
(Zo Cosh jl + ZR sinh jl)

ZIN = Zo (ZR Cosh l + j Zo sinh l )

(Zo Cosh l + j ZR sinh l)

for a line of quarter wavelength, l =  / 4 and  = 2 / ; l = ( / 4)*( 2 / ) =  / 2.

Thus the above eqn., can be written as,

ZIN = Zo (ZR Cosh ( / 2) + j Zo sinh ( / 2) )

(Zo Cosh ( / 2) + j ZR sinh  / 2))
2
= Zo /ZR

Zo = ( ZIN  ZR)

Thus the product of the input impedance and the load impedance is equal to the square of the
characteristic impedance of the line.

51
3.6 STUB MATCHING

A section of open or short circuited line called stub in shunt with the main line at some points to
affect impedance matching. This is called stub matching.
The advantages of stub matching are the following:
1. The length and characteristics impedance of the line remain unaltered.
2. Adjustable susceptance is added in shunt with the line.

Basically stub matching are o two types:

1. Single stub matching
2. Duble stub matching

SINGLE STUB MATCHING

When YR is different from Yo, the standing waves will be set up. When the line is traversed from
the point of maximum conductance to that of minimum conductance, obviously, there will be a
point at which the real part of the admittance is equal to the characteristic admittance. If the
suitable susceptance, obtained by using an appropriate length of a short circuited or open circuited
line is added in shunt at this point so as to obtain anti-resonance with the susceptance already
existing, then up to that point, matching has been achieved. It is desirable that the stub be located
as near the load as possible. Also, the characteristic admittance of the stub so connected in shunt
should be the same as that of the main line.

lmain

Zo Zo ZL

Zo
Zin
lstub

Figure 3.5: Single stub matching.

The input impedance of the transmission line is ,

ZIN = Zo (ZR + j Zo tanh Pl )

(Zo + j ZR tanh Pl)

Converting impedance in to admittance, we get,

Since high frequency lines can be considered losses free,  = 0, P = j and changing admittance
in to normalized admittance in the above eqn, we get,

Yin = (YR + j tan l )

(1 + jYR tanl)

where Yin = YIN / Yo

the susceptance of lossless short- circuited stub is –Yocot li, where li, the length of the short –
circuited stub.

52
 ZrZ 0  li   ZrZ 0
Thus,  li  tan 1 tan 1
(Zr  Z 0) 2 (Zr  Z 0)
Disadvantage of single stub matching:
 The single stub matching system is useful for a fixed frequency only because, as the
frequency changes, the location of the stub will have to be changed. The change of the
susceptance of the stub does not however, present any problem, because the shorting plug may
be moved to the required position. So, single stub matching is a narrow band system.
 Another disadvantage of the single stub is that, for final adjustment the stub has to be moved
along the line slightly. This is possible only in open wire lines and therefore, on coaxial lines single
stub matching may become inaccurate in practice, hrough it reduces the reflection losses to a
considerable extent.

What is smith chart?

It is a polar plot of the complex reflection coefficient (called gamma herein), or also known as the
1-port scattering parameter s or s11, for reflections from a normalized complex load impedance z
= r + jx; the normalized impedance is a complex dimensionless quantity obtained by dividing the
actual load impedance ZL in ohms by the characteristic impedance Zo (also in ohms, and a real
quantity for a lossless line) of the transmission line.

The contours of z = r + jx (dimensionless) are plotted on top of this polar reflection coefficient
(complex gamma) and form two orthogonal sets of intersecting circles. The centre of the SMITH
chart is at gamma = 0 which is where the transmission line is "matched", and where the
normalised load impedance z=1+j0; that is, the resistive part of the load impedance equals the
transmission line impedance, and the reactive part of the load impedance is zero.

The complex variable z = r + jx is related to the complex variable gamma by the formula

1 + gamma
z = r+jx = -----------
1 - gamma

and of course, the inverse of this relationship is

z-1 (r-1) + jx
gamma = -------- = ------------
z+1 (r+1) + jx

From this chart we can read off the value of gamma for a given z, or the value of z for a given
gamma. The modulus of gamma, which is written |gamma|, is the distance out from the centre of
the chart, and the phase angle of gamma, written arg(gamma), is the angle around the chart from
the positive x axis. There is an angle scale at the perimeter of the chart.

On a lossless transmission line the waves propagate along the line without change of amplitude.
Thus the size of gamma, or the modulus of gamma, |gamma|, doesn't depend on the position
along the line. Thus the impedance "transforms" as we move along the line by starting from the
load impedance z = ZL/Zo and plotting a circle of constant radius |gamma| traveling towards the
generator. The scale on the

53
perimeter of the SMITH chart has major divisions of 1/100 of a wavelength; by this means we can
find the input impedance of the loaded transmission line if we know its length in terms of the
wavelength of waves traveling along it.

 The plot you usually see is the inside of the region bounded by the circle |gamma| = 1. Outside
this region there is reflection gain; in this outside region, the reflected signal is larger than the
incident signal and this can only happen for r < 0 (negative values of the real part of the load
impedance). Thus the perimeter of the SMITH chart as usually plotted is the r=0 circle, which is
coincident with the |gamma| = 1 circle.
 The r=1 circle passes through the centre of the SMITH chart. The point gamma = 1 angle 0 is
a singular point at which r and x are multi-valued.
 The SMITH chart represents both impedance and admittance plots. To use it as an admittance
plot, turn it through 180 degrees about the centre point. The directions "towards the generator" and
"towards the load" remain in the same sense. The contours of constant resistance and constant
reactance are now to be interpreted as constant (normalized) conductance g, and (normalized)
susceptance s respectively.
 To see this property of the SMITH chart we note first that the admittance y is the reciprocal of
the impedance z (both being normalized). Thus inverting the equation above we see that

1 - gamma
y = g+js = ------------
1 + gamma

And this is the same formula that we had above if we make the substitution gamma --> (- gamma).
Of course, inverting the SMITH chart is the same as rotating it though 180 degrees or pi radians,
since (-gamma) = (gamma)(exp{j pi}).

 Admittance plots are useful for shunt connected elements; that is, for elements in parallel with
the line and the load.

Why is one circuit of the SMITH chart only half a wavelength?

We remember that the SMITH chart is a polar plot of the complex reflection coefficient, which
represents the ratio of the complex amplitudes of the backward and forward waves.

Imagine the forward wave going past you to a load or reflector, then traveling back again to you as
a reflected wave. The total phase shift in going there and coming back is twice the phase shift in
just going there. Therefore, there is a full 360 degrees or 2 pi radians of phase shift for reflections
from a load HALF a wavelength away. If you now move the reference plane a further HALF
wavelength away from the load, there is an additional 360 degrees or 2 pi radians of phase shift,
representing a further complete circuit of the complex reflection (SMITH) chart. Thus for a load a
whole wavelength away there is a phase shift of 720 degrees or 4 pi radians, as the round trip is 2
whole wavelengths. Thus in moving back ONE whole wavelength from the load, the round trip
distance is actually increasing by TWO whole wavelengths, so the SMITH chart is circumnavigated
twice.

What are the main advantages of the SMITH chart?

Several other graphical transmission line calculators have been proposed. The SMITH chart is
particularly elegant for the following reasons.

54
 It is a direct graphical representation, in the complex plane, of the complex reflection
coefficient.
 It is a Riemann surface, in that it is cyclical in numbers of half-wavelengths along the line.
As the standing wave pattern repeats every half wavelength, this is entirely appropriate. The
number of half wavelengths may be represented by the winding number.
 It may be used either as an impedance or admittance calculator, merely by turning it
through 180 degrees.
 The inside of the unity gamma circular region represents the passive reflection case,
which is most often the region of interest.
 Transformation along the line (if lossless) results in a change of the angle, and not the
modulus or radius of gamma. Thus, plots may be made quickly and simply.
 Many of the more advanced properties of microwave circuits, such as noise figure and
stability regions, map onto the SMITH chart as circles.
 The "point at infinity" represents the limit of very large reflection gain, and so therefore
need never be considered for practical circuits.
 The real axis maps to the Standing W ave Ratio (SWR) variable. A simple transfer of the
plot locus to the real axis at constant radius gives a direct reading of the SW R.

Impedance vs. Position

Refer to the same picture. The impedance at any point on the line can be found from the current
and voltage or equivalently from the reflection coefficient:

.
The normalized impedance at any point is easily found

So, impedance depends on the position along the transmission line.

The relationship for the normalized impedance, z(x), is the key to the Smith Chart. The Smith
Chart is just a polar plot of reflection coefficient. Impedance is determined by

It is a one-to-one mapping between complex numbers Γ and z, and is in fact an analytic function
and a conformal transformation. You can read about this in math books on complex analysis. In
the two-dimensional plane of Γ, the Γ plane, a reflection coefficient Γ is represented by a point.

Figure 3.6: Impedance vs. Reflection coefficient.

55
As we move away from the load by a distance l on the transmission line, Γ rotates by an angle Δθ
where:

One whole rotation is required in the plane for each half-wavelength movement on the line.

Note the following:

1. βl is defined as "electrical length" in degrees.
2. The degree scale on the edge of the Smith Chart represents 2βl, the angle of the reflection
coefficient.
Lines of constant resistance can be plotted on the chart through the use of

These will take the form of circles (See Gonzalez, Sect. 2.2) whose centers are on a line across
the center of the chart as shown below.

Note that the units of r are normalized to Z0, in this case 50 ohms. So, the circle labeled

r
Figure 3.7: Line across the center of the chart.

56
 value. If Z0 were 100 ohms, r=0.5 would represent 50 ohms.
Similarly, the reactance‘s x can be represented by circles. These have their centers on the
vertical axis at the right edge of the chart. These are also normalized to Z0. Positive x corresponds
to inductive reactance and is above the center line of the chart. Negative x represents capacitive
reactance. Given this mapping onto the Γ plane, we can associate any reflection coefficient (a
point on the plane) with impedance simply by reading the z coordinates of the point. We can also
associate the change of impedance with position with a rotation on the chart. Just rotate the Γ
vector clockwise around the chart at the rate of one rotation for every half wavelength of
movement on the line. Then read off the impedance directly from the chart. Note that all points on
this chart represent series equivalent impedances.

Figure 3.8: Chart represent series equivalent impedances

So, for example, z = 1 + j1 represents a series RL network. z = 1 - j1 is a series RC.

z = 1 is a point right in the center of the chart.
Normalization: Consider the point z = 1 + j1. If Z0 = 50, then Z = 50 +j50 when the im pedance is
deformalized. If Z0 were 1000 ohms, we would have Z = 1000 + j1000 for the same point. In this
way, the chart can be used over an arbitrary range of impedance.

Figure 3.9: Arbitrary range of impedance.

On this chart, we see an impedance 1 +j1 corresponding to the series RL network. If we add a
capacitive reactance -j1 in series with this, the point will move along the constant resistance line r
= 1 to the center. The reactance has been cancelled.

57
Figure 3.10: The impedance smith chart is convenient for evaluating the effect of adding
components in series

58
 UNIT- IV

GUIDED WAVES AND RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES

The two-wire transmission line used in conventional circuits is inefficient for transferring
electromagnetic energy at microwave frequencies. At these frequencies, energy escapes by
radiation because the fields are not confined in all directions, as illustrated in figure 3.1. Coaxial
lines are more efficient than two-wire lines for transferring electromagnetic energy because the
fields are completely confined by the conductors, as illustrated in figure 3.2. Waveguides are the
most efficient way to transfer electromagnetic energy. WAVEGUIDES are essentially coaxial
lines without center conductors. They are constructed from conductive material and may be
rectangular, circular, or elliptical in shape, as shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3 . 1 : F i e l d s confined i n t w o directions only.

Figure 3 . 2 : F ie l d s confined i n all directions.

4.1 WAVEGUIDE ADVANTAGES

Waveguides have several advantages over two-wire and coaxial transmission lines. For
example, the large surface area of waveguides greatly reduces COPPER (12R) LOSSES. Two-wire
transmission lines have large copper losses because they have a relatively small surface area.
The surface area of the outer conductor of a coaxial cable is large, but the surface area of the inner
conductor is relatively small. At microwave frequencies, the current-carrying area of the inner
conductor is restricted to a very small layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called
SKIN EFFECT.

59
 Figure 3 . 3 : W a v e g u i d e shapes.

Skin effect tends to increase the effective resistance of the conductor. Although energy
transfer in coaxial cable is caused by electromagnetic field motion, the magnitude of the field
is limited by the size of the current-carrying area of the inner conductor. The small size of the
center conductor is even further reduced by skin effect, and energy transmission by coaxial
cable becomes less efficient than by waveguides. DIELECTRIC LOSSES are also lower in
waveguides than in two-wire and coaxial transmission lines. Dielectric losses in two-wire and
coaxial lines are caused by the heating of the insulation between the conductors. The
insulation behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor formed by the two wires of the
transmission line. A voltage potential across the two wires causes heating of the dielectric and
results in a power loss. In practical applications, the actual breakdown of the insulation
between the conductors of a transmission line is more frequently a problem than is the
dielectric loss.

This breakdown is usually caused by stationary voltage spikes or ―nodes,‖ which are
caused by standing waves. Standing waves are stationary and occur when part of the energy
traveling down the line is reflected by an impedance mismatch with the load. The voltage
potential of the standing waves at the points of greatest magnitude can become large enough to
break down the insulation between transmission line conductors.

The dielectric in waveguides is air, which has a much lower dielectric loss than
conventional insulating materials. However, waveguides are also subject to dielectric breakdown
caused by standing waves. Standing waves in waveguides cause arcing, which decreases
the efficiency of energy transfer and can severely damage the waveguide. Also since the
electromagnetic fields are completely contained within the waveguide, radiation losses are kept
very low.

Power-handling capability is another advantage of waveguides. W aveguides can

handle more power than coaxial lines of the same size because power-handling capability
is directly related to the distance between conductors. Figure 3.4 illustrates the greater
distance between conductors in a waveguide.

In view of the advantages of waveguides, you would think that waveguides should be
the only type of transmission lines used. However, waveguides have certain disadvantages that
make them practical for use only at microwave frequencies.

60
 Figure 3.4: Comparison of spacing in coaxial cable and a circular waveguide.

4.2 WAVEGUIDE DISADVANTAGES

Physical size is the primary lower-frequency limitation of waveguides. The width of a

waveguide must be approximately a half wavelength at the frequency of the wave to be
transported. For example, a waveguide for use at 1 megahertz would be about 700 feet wide.
This makes the use of waveguides at frequencies below 1000 megahertz increasingly
impractical. The lower frequency range of any system using waveguides is limited by the
physical dimensions of the waveguides.

Figure 3. 5: Two-wire transmission line.

Note that quarter-wave sections are insulators at only one frequency. This severely
limits the bandwidth, efficiency, and application of this type of two-wire line.

Figure 3.6 shows several metallic insulators on each side of a two-wire transmission
line. As more insulators are added, each section makes contact with the next, and a rectangular
waveguide is formed. The lines become part of the walls of the waveguide, as illustrated in
figure 3-7. The energy is then conducted within the hollow waveguide instead of along the
two-wire transmission line.

Figure 3.6: Quarter-wave section of transmission line shorted at one end.

61
 Figure 3.7: Metallic insulator o n each side of a two-wire line.

Figure 3. 8: Form ing a waveguide by adding quarter-wave sections.

Like a two-wire line that is completely shunted by quarter-wave sections. If it did,

the use of a wave- guide would be limited to a single-frequency wave length that was
four times the length of the quarter- wave sections. In fact, waves of this length cannot
pass efficiently through waveguides. Only a small also undergo changes, the many
changes. As a result of these waveguide does not actually operate range of
frequencies of somewhat shorter wavelength(higher frequency) can pass efficiently.

As shown in figure 3.7, the widest dimension of a waveguide is called the ―a‖
dimension and determines the range of operating frequencies. The narrowest dimension
determines the power-handling capability of the waveguide and is called the ―b‖ dimension.

Figure 3.9: Labeling waveguide dimensions.

NOTE: This method of labeling waveguides is not standard in all texts, Different
methods may be used in other texts on microwave principles, but this method is in accordance
with Navy Military Standards (MIL-STDS).
62
 In theory, a waveguide could function at an infinite number of frequencies higher than
the designed frequency; however, in practice, an upper frequency limit is caused by modes of
operation, which will be discussed later.

If the frequency of a signal is decreased so much that two quarter-wavelengths are longer
than the wide dimension of a waveguide, energy will no longer pass through the waveguide. This is
the lower frequency limit, or CUTOFF FREQUENCY of a given waveguide. In
practical applications, the wide dimension of a waveguide is usually 0.7 wavelength at the
operating frequency. This allows the waveguide to handle a small range of frequencies both above
and below the operating frequency. The ―b‖ dimension is governed by the breakdown
potential of the

Dielectric, which is usually air. Dimensions ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 wavelength are
common for the ―b‖ sides of a waveguide.

4.3 ENERGY PROPAGATION IN WAVEGUIDES

Since energy is transferred through waveguides by electromagnetic fields, you need

a basic understanding of field theory. Both electric (E FIELD) and magnetic fields (H
FIELD) are present in waveguides, and the interaction of these fields causes energy to travel
through the waveguide. This action is best understood by first looking at the properties of
the two individual fields.

E Field

An electric field exists when a difference of potential causes a stress in the

dielectric between two points. The simplest electric field is one that forms between the plates of
a capacitor when one plate is made positive compared to the other, as shown in view A of figure
3-24. The stress created in the dielectric is an electric field.

Electric fields are represented by arrows that point from the positive toward the
negative potential. The number of arrows shows the relative strength of the field. In view B,
for example, evenly spaced arrows indicate the field is evenly distributed. For ease of
explanation, the electric field is abbreviated E field, and the lines of stress are called E
lines.

H Field

The magnetic field in a waveguide is made up of magnetic lines of force that are caused
by current flow through the conductive material of the waveguide. Magnetic lines of force,
called H lines, are continuous closed loops, as shown in figure 3-25. All of the H lines
associated with current are collectively called a magnetic field or H field. The strength of the
H field, indicated by the number of H lines in a given area, varies directly with the amount of
current.

Although H lines encircle a single, straight wire, they behave differently when the wire
is formed into a coil, as shown in figure 3-26. In a coil the individual H lines tend to form
around each turn of wire. Since waveguide is confined to the physical limits of the guide.
Two conditions, known as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, must be satisfied for energy
to travel through a waveguide.

63
 Figure3.10: Simple electric fields.

The first boundary condition (illustrated in fig. 3-27, view A can be stated as
follows: the H lines take opposite directions between adjacent turns, the field between the
turns is canceled. Inside and outside the coil, where the direction of each H field is the
same, the fields join and form continuous H lines around the entire coil. A similar action
takes place in a waveguide.

Figure 3.11.—Magnetic field on a single wire.

Figure 3.12: Magnetic field on a coil. BOUNDARY C O N D I T I O N S IN

A WAVEGUIDE

The travel of energy down a waveguide is similar, but not identical, to the
travel of electromagnetic waves in free space. The difference is that the energy in a
For an electric field to exist at the surface of a conductor, it must be
perpendicular to the conductor.

64
 Figure 3.13.—E field boundary condition.

The opposite of this boundary condition, shown in view B, is also true. An

electric field CANNOT exist parallel to a perfect conductor.

The second boundary condition, which is illustrated in figure 3-28, can be stated as
follows: For a varying magnetic field to exist, it must form closed loops in
parallel with the conductors and be perpendicular to the electric field.

Figure 3.14.—H field boundary condition.

Since an E field causes a current flow that in turn produces an H field, both fields
always exist at the same time in a waveguide. If a system satisfies one of these
boundary conditions, it must also satisfy the other since neither field can exist
alone.

4.4 WAVEFRONTS WITHIN A WAVEGUIDE

Electromagnetic energy transmitted into space consists of electric and magnetic

fields that are at right angles (90 degrees) to each other and at right angles to the
direction of propagation. A simple analogy to establish this relationship is by use of
the right-hand rule for electromagneti c energy , base d on the POYNTING
VECTOR. It indicates that a screw (right-hand thread) with its axis
perpendicular to the electric and magnetic fields will advance in the direction
of propagation if the E field is rotated to the right (toward the H field). This rule is
illustrated in figure 3-29.

65
 Figure 3.15.—The Poynting vector.

The combined electric and magnetic fields form a wavefront that can be
represented by alternate negative and positive peaks at half-wavelength
intervals, as illustrated in figure 3-30. Angle

66
 Figure 3.17—Reflection of a single wavefront.

Because all the particles are traveling at the same velocity, particles 1 and
2 do not change their relative position with respect to each other. Therefore, the
reflected wave has the same shape as the original. The remaining
particles as shown in views D, E, and F reflect in the same manner. This
process results in a reflected wavefront identical in shape, but opposite in polarity,
to the incident wave.

4.5 Waveguide Bends

The size, shape, and dielectric material of a waveguide must be

constant throughout its length for energy to
without reflections. Any abrupt change in its
and a loss in overall efficiency. When such
twists, and joints of the waveguides must
reflections.
move from one end to the other
size or shape can cause reflections
a change is necessary, the bends,
meet certain conditions to prevent

Waveguides maybe bent in several ways that do not cause reflections. One way
is the gradual bend shown in figure 3-48. This gradual bend is known as an E
bend because it distorts the E fields. The E bend must have a radius greater than
two wavelengths to prevent reflections.

Figure 3.18.—Gradual E bend.

Another common bend is the gradual H bend (fig. 3-49). It is called an H

bend because the H fields are distorted when a waveguide is bent in this manner.
Again, the radius of the bend must be greater than two wavelengths to prevent

67
reflections. Neither the E bend in the ―a‖ dimension nor the H bend in the ―b‖
dimension changes the normal mode of operation.

Figure 3.19.—Gradual H bend.

A sharp bend in either dimension may be used if it meets certain

requirements. Notice the two 45-degree bends in figure 3-50; the bends are
1/4λ apart. The reflections that occur at the 45-degree bends cancel each other,
leaving the fields as though no reflections have occurred.

Figure 3.20.—Sharp bends.

Sometimes the electromagnetic fields must be rotated so that they are in

the proper phase to match the phase of the load. This may be accomplished by
twisting the waveguide as shown in figure 3-51. The twist must be gradual and
greater than

68
joints. The three basic types of waveguide joints are the PERMANENT, the
SEMIPERMANENT, and the ROTATING JOINTS. Since the permanent joint is a
factory-welded joint that requires no maintenance, only the semipermanent and
rotating joints will be discussed.

Figure 3.22.—Flexible waveguide.

Sections of waveguide must be taken apart for maintenance and repair. A

semi-permanent joint, called a CHOKE JOINT, is most commonly used for this
purpose. The choke joint provides good electromagnetic continuity between the
sections of the waveguide with very little power loss.

A cross-sectional view of a choke joint is shown in figure 3-23. The

pressure gasket shown between the two metal surfaces forms an airtight seal.
Notice in view B that the slot is exactly

69
problems often fall w i t h i n the technician‘s area of responsibility. A b rie f
discu ssion of wa veg uide handling, installation, and maintenance will help
prepare you for this maintenance responsibility, Detailed information
concerning waveguide maintenance in a particular system may be found in the
technical manuals for the system.

Figure 3. 2 3.—Choke joint.

Figure 3.24.—Rotating joint.

Since a waveguide naturally has a low loss ratio, most losses in a waveguide
system are caused by other factors. Improperly connected joints or damaged inner
surfaces can d e c r e a s e the efficiency of a system to the point that it will not
work at all. Therefore, you must take great care w h e n working with waveguides to

70
prevent physical damage. Since waveguides a r e made from a soft, conductive
material, such as copper or aluminum, they are very easy to dent or deform. Even
the slightest damage to the inner surface of a waveguide will cause standing
waves and, often, internal arcing. Internal arcing causes further damage t o th e
waveguide i n a n a c t i o n t h a t i s o f t e n self-sustaining until the w a v e g u i d e is
damaged beyond use. Part of your job as a technician will be to inspect the
waveguide system for physical damage. The previously m e n t i o n e d dents are
only one type of physical damage that can decrease the efficiency of the
system. Another problem o c c u r s because waveguides are made from a
conductive material such as copper while the structures of most ships are made from
steel. When two dissimilar metals, such as copper and steel, are in direct
contact, an electrical action called ELECTROLYSIS takes place that causes very
rapid corrosion of the metals. Waveguides can be completely destroyed by
electrolytic corrosion in a relatively short period of time if they are not isolated from
direct contact with other metals.

Any inspection of a waveguide system should include a detailed

inspection of all support points to ensure that electro- lytic corrosion is not taking
place. Any waveguide that is exposed to the weather should be painted and all
joints sealed. Proper pa in t in g prevents natural corrosion, and sealing the joints
prevents moisture from entering the waveguide.

Moisture can be one of the worst enemies of a wa vegu ide system. As

previously discussed, the dielectric in waveguides is air, which is an excellent
dielectric as long as it is free of moisture. Wet air, however, is a very poor dielectric
and can cause serious internal arcing in a waveguide system. For this reason, care is
taken to ensure that waveguide systems are pressurized with air that is dry.
Checking the pressure and moisture content of the waveguide air may be one of your
daily system maintenance duties.

More detailed waveguide installation and mainte- nance information can be

found in the technical manuals that apply to your particular system. Another good
source is the Electronics I n s t a l l a t i o n an d Maintenance Handbooks (EIMB)
published by Naval Sea Systems Command. Installation Standards (EIMB) Handbook,
NAVSEA 0967-LP-000-0110, is the volume that deals with waveguide installation and
maintenance.

4.8 WAVEGUIDE DEVICES

The discussion of waveguides, up to this point, has been concerned only

with the transfer of energy from one point to another. Many waveguide devices
have been developed, however, that modify the energy in some fashion during the
transmission. Some devices do nothing more than change the direction of the
energy. Others have been designed to change the basic characteristics or power
level of the electromagnetic energy.

This section will explain the basic operating principles of some of the more
common waveguide d e v i c e s , s u c h a s DIRECTIONAL C O U P L E R S , CAVITY
RESONATORS, and HYBRID JUNCTIONS.

Directional Couplers

The directional coupler is a device that provides a method of sampling

energy from within a waveguide for measurement or use in another circuit. Most
couplers sample energy traveling in one direction only. However, directional couplers
can be constructed that sample energy in both directions. These are called

71
BIDIRECTIONAL couplers and are widely used in radar and communications
systems.

Directional couplers may be constructed in many ways. The coupler

illustrated in figure 3.24 is constructed from an enclosed waveguide section
of the same dimensions as the waveguide in which the energy is to be sampled.
The ―b‖ wall of this enclosed section is mounted to the ―b‖ wall of the waveguide
from which the sample will be taken. There are two holes in the ―b‖ wall
between the sections of the coupler. These two holes are

72
pickup probe. The wave represented by the dotted line travels further and
arrives at the probe 180 degrees out of phase with the wave, represented by the
solid line. Because the waves are 180 degrees out of phase at the probe, they
cancel each other and no energy is induced into the pickup probe. When the
reflected energy arrives at the absorbent material, it adds and is absorbed by the
material.

Figure 3.27.—Reflected wave in a directional coupler.

and the probe are in opposite positions from the directional coupler designed
to sample the incident energy. This positioning causes the two portions of the
reflected energy to arrive at the probe in phase, providing a sample of the
reflected energy. The transmitted energy is absorbed by the absorbent
material.

Figure 3.28.—Directional coupler designed to sample retlected energy.

A simple bidirectional coupler for sampling both transmitted and reflected

energy can be constructed by mounting two directional couplers on opposite sides of
a waveguide, as shown in figure 3.28. and uses at microwave frequencies.
Resonant cavities have a very high Q and can be built to handle relatively
large amounts of power. Cavities with a Q value in excess of 30,000 are not
uncommon. The high Q gives these devices a narrow bandpass and allows very
accurate tuning. Simple, rugged construc- tion is an additional advantage.

73
 Figure 3.29.—Rectangular waveguide cavity resonator.

Although cavity resonators , built for different frequency ranges and

applications, have a variety of shapes, the basic principles of operation are the
same for all. One example of a cavity resonator is the rectangular box shown in figure
329, view A. It may be thought of as a section of rectangular waveguide closed at
both ends by conducting plates. The frequency at which the resonant mode
occurs is of the distance between the end plates. The magnetic
field patterns in the rectangular cavity are shown in view B.

There are two variables that determine the primary frequency of any resonant
cavity. The first variable is PHYSICAL SIZE. In general, the smaller the cavity,
the higher its resonant frequency. The second controlling factor is the SHAPE of
the cavity. Figure 3-21 illustrates several cavity shapes that are commonly used.
Remember from the previously stated definition of a resonant cavity that any
completely enclosed conductive surface, regardless of its shape, can act as a
cavity resonator.

Energy can be inserted or removed from a cavity by the same methods that
are used to couple energy into and out of waveguides. The operating principles of
probes, loops, and slots are the same whether used in a cavity or a waveguide.
Therefore, any of the three methods can be used with cavities to inject or remove
energy.

74
 The resonant frequency of a cavity can be varied by changing any of the
three parameters: cavity volume, cavity capacitance, or cavity inductance.
Changing the frequencies of a cavity is known as TUNING. The mechanical
methods of tuning a cavity may vary with the application, but all methods use the
same electrical principles.

4.9 Waveguide Junctions

You may have assumed that when energy traveling down a waveguide
reaches a junction it simply divides and follows the junction. This is not strictly
true.

Figure 3.30: Types of cavities.

Different types of junctions affect the energy in different ways. Since

waveguide junctions are used extensively in most systems, you need to
understand the basic operating principles of those most commonly used. Divided into
two basic types, the E TYPE and the H TYPE. HYBRID JUNCTIONS are more
complicated developments of the basic T junctions. The MAGIC-T and the HYBRID
RING are the two most commonly used hybrid junctions.

The T JUNCTION is the most simple of the commonly used waveguide

junctions. T junctions are E-TYPE T JUNCTION.— An E-type T junction is
illustrated in figure 3.30, view A It is called an E-type T junction because the
junction arm extends from the main waveguide in the same direction as the E field
in the waveguide.

Figure 3.31, view B, illustrates cross-sectional views of the E-type T

junction with inputs fed into the various arms. For simplicity, the magnetic lines
that are always present with an electric field have been omitted. In view K, the input
is fed into arm b and the outputs are taken from the a and c arms. When the E
field arrives between points 1 and 2, point 1 becomes positive and point 2
becomes negative.

The positive charge at point 1 then induces a negative charge on the wall
at point 3. The negative charge at point 2 induces a positive charge at point 4.
These charges cause the fields to form 180 degrees out of phase in the main
waveguide; therefore, the outputs will be 180 degrees out of phase with each
other.

75
 Figure 3.32:E fields in an E-type T junction.

In view L, two in-phase inputs of equal amplitude are fed into the a and c
arms. The signals at points 1 and 2 have the same phase and amplitude. No
difference of potential exists across the entrance to the b arm, and no energy will
be coupled out. However, when the two signals fed into the a and c arms are
180 degrees out of phase, as shown in view M, points 1 and 2 have a difference
of potential.

This differenceof potential induces an E field from point 1 to point 2 in the b arm,
and energy is coupled out of this arm. Views N and P illustrate two methods of
obtaining two outputs with only one input.

H-TYPE T JUNCTION.— An H-type T junction is illustrated in figure 3.32,

view A. It is called an H-type T junction because the long axis of the ―b‖ arm is
parallel to the plane of the magnetic lines of force in the waveguide. Again, for
simplicity, only the E lines are shown in this figure. Each X indicates an E line
moving away from the observer. Each dot indicates an E line moving toward the
observer.

Figure 3.34.—E field in an H-type T junction.

76
MAGIC-T HYBRID JUNCTION.— A simplified version of the magic-T hybrid
junction is shown in figure 3.35. The magic-T is a combination of the H-type and
E-type T junctions. The most common application of this type of junction is as
the mixer section for microwave radar receivers.

Figure 3-35.—Magic-T hybrid junction.

If a signal is fed into the b arm of the magic-T, it will divide into two out-of-phase
components. As shown in figure 3.37, view A, these two components will move into
the a and c arms. The signal entering the b arm will not enter the d arm because of
the zero potential existing at the entrance of the d arm. The potential must be
zero at this point to satisfy the boundary conditions of the b arm. This absence
of potential is illustrated in views B and C where the magnitude of the E field in
the b arm is indicated by the length of the arrows. Since the E lines are at
maximum in the center of the b arm and minimum at the edge where the d arm
entrance is located, no potential difference exists across the mouth of the d arm. In
summary, when an input is applied to arm b of the magic-T hybrid junction, the
output signals from arms a and c are 180 degrees out of phase with each other,
and no output occurs at the d arm.

Figure 3. 3 6 .Magic-T with input to arm b.

77
The action that occurs when a signal is f e d into the d arm of the magic-T is
illustrated in figure 3.37. As with the H-type T junction, the signal entering the d arm
divides and moves down the a and c arms as outputs that are in phase with each
other and with the input. The s h a p e of the E fields in motion is shown by the
numbered curved slices. As the E field moves down the d arm, points 2 and 3
are at an equal potential.

The energy divides equally into arm s a and c, and the E fields in both arms become
identical in shape. Since the potentials on both sides of the b arm are equal, no
potential difference exists at the entrance to t h e b arm, resulting in no output.

Figure 3.37: Magic-T with input to arm d.

When an input signal is fed into the a arm as shown in figure 3-38, a portion of the
energy is coupled into the b arm as it would be in an E-type T junction. An equal
p o r t i o n of the signal is coupled through the d arm because of the action of the H-
type junction. The c a r m has two fields across it that are out of phase with each
other. Therefore, the f i e l d s c a n c e l , resulting in no output at the c arm. The reverse of
this action takes place if a signal is fed into the c arm, resulting in outputs at
the b and d arms and no output at the a arm.

Figure 3.38.—Magic-T with input to arm a.

Unfortunately, when a signal is applied to any arm of a magic-T, the flow of energy in
the output arms is affected b y reflections. Reflections are caused by impedance
mismatching at the junctions. These reflections are the cause of the two
major disadvantages of the m a g i c -T.

First, the reflections represent a power loss since all the energy fed i n t o t h e j
u n c t i o n does not reach the load that the arms feed. Second, the reflections
produce standing waves that can result in internal arcing. Thus, the m a x i m u m power a
magic-T can handle is greatly reduced.

Reflections c a n be reduced b y using s o m e means of impedance matching that

78
does not Destroy the s h a p e of the j u n c t i o n s . One m ethod is shown in figure 3-39. A post i s
used to match the H plane, and an iris is used to match the E plane. Even though this
method reduces reflections, it lowers the p o wer -handling capability even further.

Figure 3.39.—Magic-T impedance matching.

HYBRID RING.— A type of hybrid junction that overcomes the power limitation of
the magic- T is the hybrid ring, also called a RAT RACE. The hybrid ring, illustrated in
figure 3-69, vie w A, is actually a m o d i f i c a t i o n of the magic-T. It i s constructed
o f rectangular waveguides m o l d e d into a circular pattern. The ar m s are j o i n e d t o
the circular waveguide to form E-type T junctions. View B shows, in wavelengths,
the d im e n s io n s required for a hybrid ring to operate properly.

The hybrid r i n g is used primarily i n h i g h - powered radar a n d communicatio ns

systems to perform two functions. During the transmit period, the hybrid ring
couples microwave energy from the transmitter to the antenna and allows no energy
to reach the receiver. During the receive cycle, the hybrid ring couples energy from
the antenna to the receiver and allows no energy to reach the transmitter. Any
d e v i c e that performs both of these functions is called a DUPLEXER. A duplexer
permits a s y s t e m to use the same antenna for both transmitting and
receiving.

79
 UNIT - V

CIRCULAR WAVE GUIDES

5.1 ATTENUATORS

An attenuator is a two-port resistive network and is used to reduce the signal level by a given
amount. Attenuators may be symmetrical or asymmetrical, and can be either fixed or variable. A fixed
attenuator with constant attenuation is called a pad. Variable attenuators are used as volume controls
in radio broadcasting sections. It is expressed either in decibels (dB), or in nepers.

Attenuation in dB = 10 log10 (P1/P2)

Where, P1 – input power

P2 – output power.

For a properly matched network, both terminal pairs are matched to the characteristics resistance, Ro
of the attenuator.

P1 I12 Ro  I12
Hence,  
P2 I 22 Ro I 2 2
Where, I1 – input current

I2 – output current

P1  V12
or 
P2 V 22
where, V1 – input voltage at port 1

V2 – voltage at port 2

V1
Attenuation in dB = 20 log10( )
V2

I1
= 20 log10( )
I2
V 1 I1 P1
if   N , then  N2
V 2 I2 P2

dB  20 log10 N

dB
N  anti log( )
20
5.2 TYPES OF ATTENUATOR

Basically there are 4 types of attenuators. They are:

1. T type attenuator
2. - type attenuator
3. Lattice attenuator
4. Bridged type attenuator

80
5.2.1 Symmetrical T type attenuator

The values of the arms of the network can be specified in terms of characteristics impedance, Zo &
propagation constant,, of the network. The network in figure is a symmetrical resistive circuit; hence
Zo = Ro &  =. The design equations can be obtained by applying Kirchoff‘s law to the network.

R1 I1 I2 R1

c
I1- I2

R0 R2 R0

Figure 5.1: Symmetrical T type attenuator

R2(I1  I 2)  I 2(R1  Ro)

I 2(R2  R1  Ro)  I1R2
I1 R2 R1 Ro
 N
I2 R2
The characteristics impedance of the attenuator is Ro when it is terminated in a load of Ro

R2( R1 Ro)
Ro  R1 
R2  R1  Ro

Ro( N  1)
R1 
N 1
We have,
NR2  R2  R1  Ro
( N 1)R2  (R1  Ro)

Substituting the value of R1, we have,

( N 1)
( N 1)R2  Ro  Ro
( N  1)
2 NRo
( N 1)R2  2
N 1

5.2.2 Symmetrical - Type attenuator

Figure shows symmetrical attenuator. The series and shunt arm of the attenuator can be specified in
terms of Zo & propagation constant. The network in figure is a symmetrical resistive circuit; hence Zo
= Ro &  =.
R1
c

R0 R2 R2 R0

Figure 5.2: Symmetrical - Type attenuator.

81
R1 = Ro Sinh 

R2 = Ro coth /2

e   e 
R1  Ro
2
By definition of propagation constant,

I1
e  N
I2

  & e  N

e / 2  e / 2
R2  Ro
e / 2  e / 2
( N  1)
R2  Ro
( N 1)

5.2.3 Symmetrical Lattice network

A symmetrical resistance is given below: the series and the diagonal arm of the network can be
specified in terms of the characteristics impedance Zo & propagation constant.

( N 1)
R1  Ro
( N  1)
( N  1)
R1  Ro
( N 1)

5.3.4 Symmetrical Bridged-T network

The bridged –t network is shown below:

RA
R0 R0
2
1
R0 RB R0
1'
2'

Figure 5.3: Symmetrical Bridged-T network.

( N  1)
RA  Ro
( N 1)

R2  Ro  2RB
Ro
RB 
N 1

82
5.3 Asymmetrical attenuator

If an attenuator is required to work between two impedances of unequal value an asymmetrical

attenuator may be designed to have image impedances equal to the given impedances. The values of
the arms can be calculated for the values of two image impedances and the relation for attenuation. If
Na is the aattenuation of an asymmetrical attenuator,
P1  Is 2 Ri1 Is Ri1
Na   
P2 I R2 Ri 2 I R Ri 2

Ri1 & Ri2 are the image impedances of the asymmetrical attenuator.

5.3.1 Asymmetrical T-attenuator

Consider an asymmetrical attenuator is terminated in its image resistance Ri2 as shown in fig.

R1 R2

Is R3 Ri2

IR

Figure 5.4: Asymmetrical T-attenuator.

The image transfer constant of the attenuator is given by,

e i 
VsIs
VR I R

Since the attenuator contains only resistances V1 & V2 are in phase with Is & IR; hence

 i  Ainepers
Bi  0
The arms of an asymmetrical T network is given by,
Zg ZgZl
Z1  
tanh  i sinh  i
Zl ZgZl
Z2  
tanh  i sinh  i
ZgZl
Z 3 
sinh  i

5.3.2 Asymmetrical - network

Considering an asymmetrical - attenuator terminated in its image impedances Ri1 & Ri2 as shown,

83
 R2

R3
Ri1 R1 Ri2

Figure 5.4: Asymmetrical - network

The arms of an attenuator in terms of image impedance and images transfer constant are given by,

Yg
Y1  Y 3
tanh  i
Yl
Y2  Y 3
tanh  i
YgYl
Y 3 
sinh  i
Y1, Y2, Y3 – admittances

Yg, Yl – admittance of the generator & load.

For the attenuator shown in figure Y1=G1, Y2=G2, Y3=G3, Yg=Gi1 & =Ai IN nepers. Hence,

Gi1
G1   G3
tanh 1
Gi 2
G2   G3
tanh Ai
Gi1Gi2
G3 
sinh Ai
G1, G2, G3 – Conductors.

5.4 Equalizers

Equalizers are networks designed to provide compensation against distortions that occur in a signal
while passing through an electrical network.

Series equalizer

The series equalizer is a two terminal network connected in series with a network to be connected

Let,

N – Input to output ratio of the load

D – Attenuation in decibels

Ro – resistance of the load as well as source

P1 – input power

P1 – load power

84
2X1 – reactance of the equalizer

Vmax – voltage applied to the network.

Attenuation D = log10

Pi
N
Pl
V V 2
Pi  ( max )2 Ro  max
2Ro 4Ro

When the equalizer is connected,

Vmax
l1 
(2Ro)2  (2 X 1) 2
Vmax
Pl  [ ]Ro 2
(2Ro)  (2 X 1)
2 2

simplifying, weget
X 12
N  1 
Ro 2

Shunt equalizer

The shunt equalizer is a two terminal network connected in shunt with a network to be corrected.

Let, N – input to output power ratio

D – Attenuation in decibels

Ro =- source resistance / load resistance

Is – source current

Il – load current

Pi – input power

Pl – load power

X1/2 – reactance of shunt equalizer

The shunt equalizer connected to the network is shown in figure below:

Il
Is
X1/2 Ro
Ro

V
VCC_WAVE

Figure 5.5: Shunt equalizer connected to the network.

85
Source current,

Vmax
Is 
Ro  ( Ro
jX 1)
2
V [2Ro jX 1]
Is  max
2Ro(Ro  jX 1)
Load current,

jX 1/ 2
Il  Is
jX 1
Ro 
2
Vmax jX 1
sub., Is in the above eqn., we get, Il 
2Ro(Ro  jX 1)
Power delivered to load

Pl  Il Ro  Vmax2 / 4Ro
2

Therefore, N= Pi/Pl

Ro 2
N  1 ( )
X1

Constant resistance equalizer

The disadvantage of a reactance equalizer either in a shunt equalizer or a series equalizer, the
variation of impedance with frequency causes impedance mismatch which results in reflection losses.
A four terminal equalizer which offers constant resistance at all frequencies avoids reflection loss
when terminated in its design impedance. Constant resistance equalizer is a four terminal network
which can be T, , lattice and bridged- T network type. All these types have characteristics impedance
satisfying the relation, Z1Z2 = Ro2

5.5 NETWORK SYNTHESIS

Positive real functions

The driving point impedance or driving point admittance function is expressed as

P(s) aos  a1s  ....  an1s  an
n n1
Z (s)  Y (s)  
Q(s) bos m  b1s m1  ....  b n1s  b n
Properties

 When s is real, Z(s) and Y(s) are real functions because the quotients of the polynomials P(s) &
Q(s), that is ak & bk are real. When Z(s) is determined from the impedance of the individual branches,

86
the quotients ak & bk are obtained by adding together, multiplying or dividing the branch parameters
which are real.
 The poles are zeros of Z(s) & Y(s) all lie in the left half of the s-plane, or on the imaginary axis of
the s-plane. In the latter case, the poles & zeros are simple.

 The real parts of the driving point functions Z(s) & Y(s) are positive, or zero, that is ReZ(s)>0 or
ReY(s)>0 provided for all Re(s)>0.

Synthesis of reactive one-ports by Foster’s network

The driving point function of a reactive one-port Z(s) is given by

H (s 2 1 2 )(s 2 3 2 )(s 2 5  2 )
Z (s) 
s(s 2  2 2 )(s 2  4 2 )(s 2  6 2 )

to determine the circuit parameters that implement its frequency response Z in ( j)  jX in () .

The 2 forms of Foster networks for reactive one-ports are:

1. Series combination of parallel LC circuits with capacitance & inductance as shown below & is
known as first Foster form or impedance form.

L2 Ln
Co

C2 Cn

Figure 5.6: second Foster form or admittance.

The expression for the LC parallel combination in the network is,

1
1 ( )s
Z (s)   C
1 1
Cs  s2 
Ls LC
as a result, we get ,

1
Cn  and
2Pn
2Pn
Ln  2
n

where, n refers to the term 2Pns / s 2  2n .

2. Parallel combination of series LC circuits with inductance Lo & capacitance as shown below & is
known as second Foster form or admittance form.

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 L2 Ln
Lo
Y(s)
C2 Cn

Figure 5.7: second Foster form or admittance.

Figure

Similar results are obtained after the simplification of the admittance of the above network.

1
Cn  and
2Pn
Where, 2Pns / s  n
2 2
2Pn
Ln  2
n
Synthesis of R-L network by the Foster method

The driving point impedance of an RL network Z(s) is given by

H (s  1 )(s   3 )....
Z (s) 
(s   2 )(s   4 )....

The first form is shown in figure 5.5 below:

R1
R0

Z(s) L1

The above impedance function possess the following properties.

 The poles & zeros of the RL driving point impedance function are located on the negative real
axis of the s-plane.
 Poles & zeros alternate along the negative real axis.
 The singularity at he origin, or s=0 is a zero.
 The singularity at s= is a pole.
 The slope of the impedance curve is positive.
 The impedance at s= is always greater than the impedance at =0.
 The residues at the poles of Z(s) / s are real and positive.

The expression of the parallel combination in the network is

R1(s) R1 Z1(s) R1(s)
Z1(s)  where,  1  or 
s  1 L1 s s  1

We have the another form of the equation as

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 aos n  a1s n1  ...  an
Z (s)  where n>m. the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the
bos m  b1s m1  ...  bm
denominator by one. At s=0.

an
Z (s)  (when an 0)
bn
= 0 (when an =0)

ao
and at s=, Z (s)  s ( ao0)
bo

a1
 (ao=0)
b1
by separating the constant term and linear term, the RL impedance function can be written as

Pi s
Z (s)  Po   ...  Hs
s  i

if we divide the total impedance in to series combination of impedance Z1(s), Z2(s), …. Zn(s)

Z (s)  Z1(s)  Z 2(s)  ...  Zn(s)

Thus we have impedance Z1(s) = Po, which is constant. The term Po represents a resistor Ro and
the impedance Zn =Hs represent the value of inductor and a resistor. Thus by comparing, we have,

Rn
Pn  Rn And  n  where, 2Pns / s  n .
2 2
Ln
Synthesis of R-L network by Cauer method

To synthesis the RL network, the basic step to know is that the impedance function at infinity is
always greater than the impedance function at zero. Similarly, the admittance function at zero is
always greater than the admittance function at infinity. In case of RL network synthesis, we remove
the minimum real part from the function Z(s), the remainder will have a zero at s = 0. After inverting
the remaining function, we can remove the pole at s=0. by carrying on this process, we obtain a
continued fraction expansion. The first form of continued function expansion is called the first Cauer
form, which is,

1
Z (s)  sL1 
1 1

R1 sL2  1
1
 ....
R2

L1 L2 Ln

R1 R2 Rn

Figure5.8: The Causer network for realizing.

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 In the network shown above, if Z(s) has a pole at s=, the first element is L1. if Z(s) is a
constant at s=,the first element is R1. if Z(s) has a zero at s =0, the last element is Ln. if Z(s) is a
constant at s=0, the last element is Rn. The second form of continued fraction expansion is,

1
Z (s)  R1 
1
sL1 
1
R2 
1 1

sL2 R3  ....
R1 Rn
R2

L1
L2 Ln

Here also the presence of the first and the last element depends on the characteristics of impedance
function, Z(s). If Z(s) has a zero at s=0, the first element is L1. If Z(s) is a constant at s=0, the first
element is R1. If Z(s) ha a pole at s=, the last element is Ln. if Z(s) is a constant at V the last
element is Rn.

Synthesis of R-C network by the Foster method

The driving point impedance RC network is shown below:

H (s   1 )(s   3 )....
Z (s) 
(s   2 )(s   4 )....

The first form of he Rc Foster network is shown:

R1
C0
Z(s) C1

Here, the RC impedance possesses the same properties as the RL admittance function. Thus,
1
1 1
Z1(s)  C1 where,  1  and P1  .
1 R1C1 C1
s
R1C1
We have the other form of the impedance function

aos n  a1s n1  ...  an

Z (s) 
bos m  b1s m1  ...  bm
Obviously, the degree in s of the numerator polynomial is greater than that of the denominator
polynomial by 1. The roots of the polynomials are real and negative.

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 ao
At s =, Z (s)   R where ao0
bo 

=0, when ao=0

The total impedance can be written as the combination of impedances Z1(s), Zn(s)

Z (s)  Z1(s)  Z 2(s)  ...  Zn(s)

Po Pi
Z (s)    ...  H
s s i

1 1
Thus we have P1  and  1  .
Cn RnCn
Synthesis of R-C network by Causer method

To synthesis the RC network function, the basic step to know is that the impedance function at zero
is always greater than the impedance function at infinity. Similarly, he admittance function at infinite is
always greater than the admittance function at zero.

To synthesis an RC network, we remove the minimum real part from the function, Z(s). if the
minimum real part is Re[Z(j)] = Z(C), by removing Z() from Z(s), the remainder will have a zero at
s= .after inverting the remaining function, we can remove a pole at s=. By carrying on this process,
we obtain a continued fraction expansion. The first form of continued fraction expansion is called the
first Causer form, and is given by,

1
Z (s)  R1 
1
sC1 
1
R2 
1
 ....
sC 2
R1 Rn
R2

Cn
C1 C2

The Causer network for realizing the above function is shown in figure. In the network shown, if Z(s)
has a zero at s= , the first element is C1. If Z(s) is a constant at s=, the first element is R1. If Z(s)
has a pole at s=0, the last element is Cn. If Z(s) is constant at s=0, the last element is Rn.

The second form of continued fraction expansion is,

1 1
Z (s)  
C1s 1  1
R1 1
1
C 2s 
1
 ....
R2
The second Causer form of network for the above function Z(s) is shown in figure 5.7.

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 C1 C2
Cn

R1 R2 Rn

LCR circuit

The electromagnetic energy is stored in the entire volume of the cavity in the form of
electric and magnetic fields. The presence of electric field gives rise to a capacitance value and the
presence of magnetic field gives rise to a inductance value and the finite conductivity in the walls
gives rise to loss along the walls giving rise to a resistance value. Thus the cavity resonator can be
represented by a equivalent LCR circuit and have a natural resonant frequency

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