What is a Computer?

A machine that can be programmed to :

 Receive information.
 Process the information according to a set of suitable instructions.
 Display desired result information.

A computer can also be used to store information whenever required. It is a device capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations

Computer – The Framework

Types of computers

 Analog - An analog computer represents data as physical quantities and operates on the data by manipulating the quantities
 Digital - A computer that stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next
 Hybrid - Hybrid computers are made by combining features of analog computers and digital computers

Components of a Computer

Hardware
The physical components of a computer system that can be touched and felt.
E.g. Monitor, keyboard, mouse etc.

Software
A program or set of instructions that enables the computer to perform a specific task.
E.g. Anti-virus, MS Office etc.

Firmware
Firmware is a combination of hardware and software. These are programs that have been written on to the Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Rear Panel View of a computer Tower
 Switch mode power supply (SMPS) is responsible for converting alternating current( AC) to direct current(DC),filter impurities and split the DC into + and - 5 and 12 V
respectively.
A standard power supply draws power from a local, AC source (usually a wall outlet) and converts it to either 3.3 or 5 volts DC, for on-board electronics, and 12 volts DC
for motors and hard drives. In all cases, it delivers both positive and negative DC to the computer. Power supplies must "condition" the power, smoothing out any radical
changes in its quality. Many homes and offices have power that fluctuates, far more than the delicate parts of a PC can tolerate and survive. Most PC power supplies also
provide the system's cooling and processor fans that keep the machine from overheating.

A power supply converts 110 volt or 220 volt AC current into the DC voltages that a computer needs to operate.

These are as follows:

 +3.3 volts DC
 +5 volts DC
 –5 volts DC (ground)
 +12 volts DC
 –12 volts DC (ground)
 +5 volts DC standby.
The 3.3 volts DC and +5 volts DC standby voltages are used only by ATX motherboards, not AT motherboards.
SMPS

Powersupply connectors
Power supplies use different types of connectors to power the various devices within the computer like Floppy drive power connectors, AT system connectors, ATX power
connectors, and standard peripheral power connectors. Each has a different appearance and way of connecting to the device. Additionally, each type is used for a specific
purpose.

AT system connectors
For AT connector both black (connector) wires need to be connected adjacent to each other.
Power Supply Connectors
Power supplies use different types of connectors to power the various devices within the computer Floppy drive power connectors, AT system connectors, ATX power
connectors, and standard peripheral power connectors. Each has a different appearance and way of connecting to the device. Additionally, each type is used for a specific
purpose.

AT System Connectors ATX Power Connector

These are two 6-wiresconnectors, labeled P8 and P9. They connect to an AT-
only motherboard and deliver the power that feeds the electronic
components on it. It is important to note that only computers with AT and
baby AT motherboards use this type of power connector. Most computers
today use the ATX power connector to provide power to the motherboard.
AT connector cointains 6+6 pins. For AT connector both black (connector)
wires need to be connected. If the Mother board uses AT connector, the
computer will display "It's now safe to turn off the computer".
The ATX system connector (also known as the ATX motherboard power connector)
feeds an ATX motherboard. It provides the six voltages required, plus it delivers them
all through one connector: a single 20-pin connector. This connector is much easier to
work with than the dual connectors of the AT power supply. The computer will
automatically shut down without pressing power button.

Floppy Drive Power Connectors Standard Peripheral Power Connector

Floppy drive power connectors are most commonly used to power floppy disk
drives and other small form factor devices. This type of connector is smaller The standard peripheral power connector is generally used to power different types of
and flatter than any of the other types of power connectors. These internal disk drives. This type of connector is also called a Molex connector. This power
connectors are also called Berg connectors. connector, though larger than the floppy drive power connector, uses the same wiring color
Notice that there are four wires going to this connector. These wires carry code scheme as the floppy drive connector.
the 2 voltages used by the motors and logic circuits: +5VDC (carried on the
red wire) and +12VDC (carried on the yellow wire) plus 2 black ground
wires.
 SATA Power Connector

This connector gives power supply to the SATA devices.

The Motherboard

The spine of the computer is the motherboard, otherwise known as the system board (and less commonly referred to as the planar board). This is an olive green or brown
circuit board that lines the bottom of the computer. It is the most important component in the computer because it connects all the other components of a PC together.

On the system board, you will find the following components:

 Expansion slots
 Memory slots
 CPU and processor slots or sockets
 Power connectors
 On-board disk drive connectors
 Keyboard connectors
 Peripheral port and connectors
 BIOS chip
 CMOS battery
 Jumpers and DIP switches
Chipset

A chipset is a collection of chips or circuits that perform interface and peripheral functions for the processor. This collection of chips is usually the circuitry that provides
interfaces for memory, expansion cards, and onboard peripherals, and generally dictates how a motherboard talks to the installed peripherals.

The functions of chipset can be divided into two major functional groups: North bridge and South bridge.

North bridge

The North bridge subset of motherboard chipset includes circuitry or chips that perform one very important function: management of high-speed peripheral communications.
The North bridge subset is primarily responsible for AGP communications and processor-to-memory communications. Therefore, much of the true performance of a PC relies
on the performance of the North bridge chipset and its communication with the peripherals it controls.

South bridge

The South bridge chipset, as mentioned earlier, is responsible for providing support to the myriad of onboard peripherals (PS/2, parallel, IDE, and so on), managing their
communications with the rest of the computer and the resources given to them. Most motherboards today have integrated PS/2, USB, parallel, and serial ports.

The South bridge chipset is also responsible for managing communications with the other expansion buses, such as PCI, USB, and legacy buses.
The Motherboard

Expansion Slots

The most visible parts of any motherboard are the expansion slots. These look like small plastic slots, usually from 3 to 11 inches long and approximately 1/2 inch wide. As
their name suggests, these slots are used to install various devices in the computer to expand its capabilities. Some expansion devices that might be installed in these slots
include video, network, sound, and disk interface cards.

ISA PCI AGP PCI Express

ISA Expansion Slots PCI Expansion Slots

The ISA design is one of the most enduring elements of the PC. It can be found on
virtually all systems, from the second-generation IBM PC to machines built today.
However, it suffers from two major shortcomings: lack of speed and compatibility
problems stemming from card design.
The PCI design's special bus and chip set are designed for advanced bus mastering
techniques and full arbitration of the PCI local bus. This allows support of more than
three slots.

Expansion cards must make use of system resources in an orderly way, so that they The PCI bus has its own set of four interrupts, which are mapped to regular IRQs on
do not conflict with other devices. When demands for these system resources are not
the system. If a PC has more than four PCI slots, some will be sharing interrupts and
coordinated, the system could behave erratically or even fail to boot up. ISA can be
an 8 bit slot or a 16 bit slot. It is black in color. IRQs.

The PCI bus allows multiple bus-mastering devices.

Auto configuration lets the PC's BIOS assign the IRQ linking the card to the system
bus. Most PCI cards have no switches or jumpers to set, speeding installation and
preventing many hardware conflicts. It's a 32 bit interface. It is creamy white in
color.
AGP Expansion Slots
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slots are becoming more popular. In the past, if you
wanted to use a high-speed, accelerated 3D graphics video card, you had to install
the card into an existing PCI or ISA slot. AGP slots were designed to be a direct
connection between the video circuitry and the PC's memory. They are also easily
recognizable, because they are usually brown, are located right next to the PCI slots
on the motherboard, and are shorter than the PCI slots. AGP is dark brown in color
usually. It's a 64 bit interface.
PCI Express
PCI Express or PCIe, (formerly known as 3GIO for 3rd Generation I/O, not to be
mistaken for PCI-X) is an implementation of the PCI computer bus that uses existing
PCI programming concepts.
A connection between any two PCIe devices
is known as a "link", and is built up from a
collection of 1 or more lanes. All devices must
minimally support single-lane (x1) links.
Devices may optionally support wider links
composed of 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32 lanes. This
allows for very good compatibility in two
ways. A PCIe card will physically fit (and work
correctly) in any slot that is at least as large
as it is (e.g. an x1 card will work in an x4 or x16 slot), and a slot of a large physical
size (e.g. x16) can be wired electrically with fewer lanes (e.g. x1 or x8; however it
must still provide the power and ground connections required by the larger physical
slot size). In both cases, the PCIe link will negotiate the highest mutually supported
number of lanes. PCI Express is 64 bit interface.
Processor Socket and Slot
Sockets and slots on the motherboard are plenty and varied.
Sockets are basically flat and have several rows of holes arranged in a square. The
processor slot is another method of connecting a processor to a motherboard, but
one into which an Intel Pentium II or Pentium III.
The Motherboard
On-Board Floppy and Hard Disk Connectors
These connections are known as drive interfaces and are of two types: floppy drive
interfaces and hard disk interfaces. Floppy disk interfaces allow floppy disk drives to
be connected to the motherboard and, similarly, hard disk interfaces do the same
for hard disks. Most motherboards manufactured today include both the floppy disk
and hard disk interfaces embedded on the motherboard.
Memory Slots
Memory or random access memory (RAM) slots are the next most prolific slots on a
motherboard, and they contain the memory chips. There are varied types of memory
available for PCs today. PCs today use memory chips arranged on a small circuit
board.
These circuit boards are called Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMM) or Dual Inline
Memory Modules (DIMM), depending on whether there are chips on one side of the
circuit board or on both sides, respectively.
Aside from the difference in chip placement, memory modules also differ in the
number of conductors, or pins, that the particular memory module uses. Some
common examples include 30-pin, 72-pin, and 168-pin (the 168-pin modules are
most often DIMM).
Additionally, laptop memory comes in smaller form factors known as Small Outline
DIMM (SODIMM).
On Board SATA connector
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) is an interface for connecting hard
drives to a computer.
Unlike IDE which uses parallel signaling, SATA uses serial signaling technology.
Because of this the SATA cables are thinner than the ribbon cables used by IDE hard
drives. SATA cables can also be longer allowing you to connect to more distant
devices without fear of signal interference. There is also more room to grow with data
transfer speeds starting at 150 MB/s.
Keyboard Connectors

The most important input device for a PC is the keyboard. All PC motherboards contain a connector that allows a keyboard to be connected directly to the motherboard
through the case. There are two main types of keyboard connectors: AT and PS/2. The AT connector is round, about 1/2 inch in diameter, and has five sockets in the DIN-5
configuration.

The PS/2 connector is smaller and more common than the AT connector. Most new PCs you can purchase today contain a PS/2 keyboard connector as well as a PS/2 mouse
connector right above it on the motherboard.

The Motherboard

Peripheral Ports and Connectors

In order for a computer to be useful and have the utmost functionality, there must be a way for the data to arrive and depart. Many different ports are available for this
purpose.

Briefly, the seven most common types of ports you will see on a computer are serial, parallel, Universal Serial Bus (USB), Video, Ethernet, Sound in/out, and Game ports.

Typical 9-pin and 25-pin serial ports A Parallel Port

The above Figure shows an example of the two different types of serial ports: 9-pin The above Figure shows a typical parallel port (also called a printer port,
male and 25-pin male.
because the most common peripheral connected to it is a printer).
A Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port A Video Port

Video (SVGA) ports (as shown above) are found on motherboards

Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports look slightly different, as shown in the figure
that have built-in video circuitry to allow the computer to display
above.
images on a monitor. The video port is typically a 15-pin, three row,
female connector.

An Ethernet Port A Game Port

If your motherboard has an Ethernet network adapter integrated into its circuitry, The above figure shows an example of a game port (also called a joystick port
you may see an Ethernet port (as shown above), an RJ-45 port, attached to the because that’s the most common device connected to it). Game ports are used to
motherboard. connect peripheral devices to the computer and use a 15-pin female connector.

Connecting a port to the motherboard with the Dongle Method Peripheral ports Directly Soldered to a Motherboard
 There are two ways of connecting these ports to the motherboard (assuming the
circuitry for providing these functions is integrated into the motherboard). The first,
called a dongle connection, allows you to mount the ports into the computer’s case
with a special cable (called a dongle). The dongle for each port connects to the
respective pins on the motherboard for that port.
The second method of connecting a peripheral port is known as the direct-solder
method. With this method, the individual ports are soldered directly to the
motherboard. This method is used mostly in integrated motherboards in non-clone
machines. Figure above shows peripheral ports connected to a motherboard with
the direct solder method. Notice that there is no cable between the port and the
motherboard and that the port is part of the motherboard.

Microprocessor

Microprocessor is the brain of any computer that does all the arithmetic computations & logical instructions inside the CPU. Microprocessor also communicates and controls
activities between all peripherals including hard drive, RAM, multimedia devices and other components of a PC. Microprocessors comprise millions of transistors that contribute
to performing additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions and much more complex instructions.

Initial computing was about using small programs like basic spreadsheets, word processors, simple calculations and some programming. Today's computing requires more
powerful hardware to compete with much powerful programs including complex calculations, graphic designing, gaming, multimedia and much demanding development
software.

The Factors which affect the performance of a processor are as follows:

Clock Speed

The clock speed is the frequency with which a processor executes instructions. This frequency is measured in millions of cycles per second (megahertz [MHz]) or billions of
cycles per second (gigahertz [GHz]). Generally speaking, the higher the MHz value, the faster the PC.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a storage area for frequently used data and instructions. It requires a small amount of physical RAM that can keep up with the processor; it uses this RAM
for storage. The processor contains an internal cache controller that integrates the cache with the CPU. The controller stores frequently accessed RAM locations to provide
faster execution of data and instructions. This type of cache is known as a level 1(L1) cache.

L1 Cache L2 Cache L3 Cache

In addition to external memory (RAM) will improve In addition to L1 Cache & DRAM, it was available on In addition to L1 and L2 Cache, available in recent
the performance as it is much faster than RAM, found the motherboard earlier and now "in-built" today in processor Intel Pentium IV HT Extreme edition,
integrated along with the processor. most of the processors. improves performance much better.
Microprocessor
The Bus
The processor’s ability to communicate with the rest of the system’s components relies on the supporting circuitry. The system board’s underlying circuitry is called the bus.
The computer’s bus moves information into and out of the processor and other devices, allowing all the devices to communicate with each other. The bus consists of several
components, including the external bus, the data bus and the address bus.
The External Bus (System Bus)
The external bus is also referred to as the system bus or expansion bus. The
expansion bus is a bus system that allows the processor to talk to another device. It
is known as an external bus system because it is outside the processor. The devices
are connected through expansion cards and slots. An expansion card is a removable
circuit board that expands the capability of the computer.
The Address Bus
The address bus contains a set of wires to carry information into and out of the
processor.The information the address bus sends used to describe memory locations.
These locations are used for data being sent or retrieved. The address bus carries a
single bit of information, representing a digit in the address, along each wire. The
size of the address bus corresponds to the number of address locations. The larger
the address bus, the more memory address locations can be supported. The more
memory address locations a processor can address, the more RAM a processor can
use.
The Data Bus
The data bus is used to send and receive data. The larger the bus width, the more
data that can be transmitted (and, therefore, the faster the bus).
Data in a computer is transferred digitally. A single wire carries +3.3V or +5V to
indicate a 1 data bit; it carries 0 volts to indicate a 0 data bit. (Remember, computers
use the binary system to transmit information.) The greater number of wires allows
more bits to be transmitted simultaneously.
For example, a 16-bit data bus width has 16 wires to transmit data, and a 32-bit data
chip can transmit twice the amount of data as a 16-bit chip. A good comparison is
the highway system. A single traffic lane allows only one car through at a time,
whereas two lanes allow twice the amount of traffic to pass.
Bus Speed
Motherboards are designed to be more or less universal. They have a processor
socket or slot that can support many different processor types and speeds. The
speed of the bus and the speed of the processor are directly related. Typically, the
bus speed is set to 66MHz, 100MHz, or 133MHz plus a multiplier. For example, if you
have a 450MHz processor, you set the processor speed jumper to 450MHz, the
expansion bus speed to 100MHz, and the multiplier to 4.5 (4.5 × 100MHz =
450MHz). Speeds for processors below 200MHz are generally set without a multiplier.
 Memory

Memory is the electronic holding place for instructions and data that your computer's microprocessor can reach quickly.When your computer is in normal operation ,its
memory usually contains the main parts of the operating system and some or all of the application programs and related data that are being used. Memory is often used as a
shorter synonym for Random Access Memory(RAM).

There are two major classes of computer memory:

Non - Volatile Volatile

The Memory is said to be Non Volatile, if the data is retained even though the power
The memory is said to be Volatile, if the data is lost when the computer loses the
to the computer is shut off. The setup data held in CMOS (complementary metal-
oxide semiconductor), is a good example of nonvolatile memory. power. The RAM is an volatile memory

The various types of Non-Volatile Memory are as follows:

ROM CMOS

ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is called read-only because it cannot be

written to. Once information has been written to the ROM, it cannot be changed.
ROM is normally used to store the computer’s BIOS, because this information
normally does not change.

CMOS is a special kind of memory that holds the BIOS configuration settings. CMOS
memory is powered by a small battery so the settings are retained when the
computer is shut off. The BIOS reads information such as the hard drive types which
are configured for this computer to use, the drive(s) it should search for boot sectors,
and so on. CMOS memory is usually not upgradable in terms of its capacity.

RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) is most often referred to when PC memory is discussed. RAM is the form of volatile memory used to hold temporary instructions and data
for manipulation while the system is running. The term random is applied because the CPU can access or place data to and from any addressable RAM on the system. If
power to the system is lost, all RAM is lost as well.

Input Devices
Let’s start this chapter off by talking about some of the most commonly used peripheral devices: input devices. As their name suggests, input devices exist so that human
beings can communicate with the object we call a computer. These devices interpret the intentions of their users (via a keystroke or some other movement) to tell the
computer to perform some action. Without them, the computer would be of little use to us.
Keyboard

The most common PC input device is the keyboard. This type of device translates keystrokes into letters or
numbers. The letters are then interpreted and commands are performed, depending on what is being sent.

Input Devices
Mouse

A mouse is an input device which allows the user to control a cursor to manipulate data without complicated commands. The mouse or mice was invented by Douglas
Englebart in 1963, who at the time was working at the Stanford Research Institute. Today the mouse are now found on every Apple and PC computer and used with
various different GUIs.

Types of Mouse and its Technologies

Mechanical Mice Optical Mice

Mechanical Mice requires that the mouse be set on a flat surface. The distance and
the speed of the rollers inside the mouse determines how far the mouse cursor
moves on the screen depending on the software configuration.
Optical Mice require a special mouse pad which has a grid pattern. A sensor inside
the mouse determines the movement by reading the grid as the mouse passes over
it while emitting a light from an LED or sometimes a laser. This type of mouse is
much more accurate than the ordinary optical mechanical mouse which relies on the
traction between the mouse ball and the rollers. One drawback to an optical mouse
is they can have problems in bright lights.
New Optical Mice no longer have the disadvantages of earlier mice and are capable
of being utilized on any surface. In comparison to the traditional Optical-Mechanical
mouse the Optical is a much better solution for a computer mouse.
 Optical Storage Device

CD-ROM Drives

A CD- ROM (CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc–Read-Only Memory) is an optical storage device which is accommodated by a CD-
ROM drive.These drives are slightly different from other storage media in several ways. First, they read information differently than
magnetic media disk drives do. CD-ROM drives use laser light to read the information from the media, they are described as optical
drives.

Another difference between magnetic media and CD-ROM drives is that CD-ROM drives are read-only devices ( Compact Disc–Read-
Only Memory). The only way to write to a CD-ROM is during manufacture time, when the pits are burned into the substrate of the
disc. Once written, they cannot be erased.Today, using the latest writable and re-writable CDs we can write new data as well as
erase existing and re-write new data.

When reading information from a CD, the drive basically reads a lot of pits and lands (lands are the spaces between the pits) in the disc surface. The pits are etched into
the CD at production time. The laser reflects off the CD’s surface and onto a sensor. The sensor detects the pattern of pits and lands as the disc rotates and translates them
into patterns of 1s and 0s. This binary information is fed to the computer that is retrieving the data.

A CD-ROM disc has a single track that runs from the center to the outside edge, exactly the reverse of the groove on a record. A CD-ROM uses basically the same
technology as the audio compact discs used in most homes today. When a CD-ROM is placed into a CD-ROM drive, a motor spins the CD at a specific rate. A laser that
reads the CD is then activated.Due to these basic similarities, several compatibilities exist between the different compact disc technologies. For example, it is possible to
play audio CDs in a computer’s CD-ROM drive. Also, some computer CDs have audio tracks on them and are made to be used in either type of CD drive (home audio or
computer).

Storage Devices

Floppy Disk Drives

The floppy disk drive is the most commonly used magnetic storage device. Floppy disks have only one platter encased in a plastic
shell and are available in different capacities.

A floppy drive has either one or two read/write heads. Each head moves in a straight line on a track over the disk rather than on an
angular path as with fixed disk systems. When the disk is placed into the drive, a motor engages the center of the disk and rotates
it in 3600RPMs speed. This action moves the tracks past the read/write heads.
Storage Devices

Magnetic Storage Device

Disk Drives

A disk drive is an encasement which accommodates a disk and helps to read and write data on the disk .There are different types of disk drives for different types of disks
:- Hard disk drive ( HDD )- Floppy disk drive ( FDD )

Hard Disk Drives

Hard disks actually contain several disks called platters, stacked together and mounted through their centers on a small rod called a
spindle. The disks are rotated about this rod at a speed between 2,000 and 10,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). As the disks
rotate, one or more read/write heads float approximately 10 micro inches (about one-tenth the width of a human hair) above the
disk surfaces and make, modify, or sense changes in the magnetic positions of the coatings on the disks. Several heads are moved
together as one unit by an actuator arm. There is usually one head for each side of a platter.

This entire mechanism is enclosed in a hard disk case. These disks are also called fixed disks because the mechanism is not
designed to be removed. The disk platters, though perfectly free to revolve at high RPM, are otherwise fixed in place.

SATA
Ports and Connectors

A port is a place where data arrives or departs in a computer .There are two types of ports:

- Physical ports - Eg. Serial, parallel, game and USB.

Peripheral Port Connector Types

DB-Series

DB connectors, the most common style of connector found on computers today, are typically designated with DB-n, where
the letter n is replaced by the number of connectors. DB connectors are usually shaped like a trapezoid.

The nice part about these connectors is that only one orientation is possible. If you try to connect them upside down or
try to connect a male connector to another male connector, they just won’t go together, and the connection can’t be
made.

RJ-Series

Registered Jack (RJ) connectors are most often used in telecommunications. Figure shows the two most common
examples of RJ ports and connectors: RJ-11 and RJ-45. RJ-11 connectors are used most often in telephone hookups; your
home phone jack is probably an RJ-11 jack or port. RJ-45 connectors, on the other hand, are most commonly found on
Ethernet networks that use twisted pair cabling.

On the left in this picture is an RJ-11 connector and on the right is an RJ-45 connector. Notice the size difference.

As you can see, RJ connectors are typically square with multiple gold contacts on the top (flat) side. A small locking tab on
the bottom prevents the connector and cable from falling or being pulled out of the jack accidentally.
Ports and Cables

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Most computers built after 1997 have one or two flat ports in place of one DB-9
serial port. These ports are Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports, and they are used for
connecting multiple (upto 127) peripherals to one computer through a single port
(and use of multi port peripheral hubs). USB version 1.1 supported data rates as
high as 12Mbps (1.5MBps). The newest version, USB 2.0, supports data rates as
high as 480Mbps (60MBps).

Because of USB’s higher transfer rate, flexibility, and ease of use, most devices that
in the past used serial interfaces now come with USB interfaces.

Infrared Centronics

Increasing numbers of people are getting fed up with being tethered to their
computers by cords. As a result, many computers (especially portable computing
devices like laptops and PDAs) are now using infrared ports to send and receive
data. An infrared port is a small port on the computer that allows data to be sent
and received using electromagnetic radiation in the infrared band. The infrared port
itself is a small, dark square of plastic (usually a very dark maroon) and can
typically be found on the front of a PC or on the side of a laptop or portable.
The last type of port connector is the Centronics connector. It has a unique shape.
It consists of a central connection bar surrounding by an outer shielding ring. The
Centronics connector is primarily used in parallel printer connections and SCSI
interfaces. It is most often found on peripherals, not on computers themselves
(except in the case of some older SCSI interface cards).
PS/2 (Keyboard and Mouse) VGA port

The last type of port connector is the Centronics connector. It has a unique shape.
It consists of a central connection bar surrounding by an outer shielding ring. The
A PS/2 port (also known as a mini- DIN 6 connector) is a mouse and keyboard
Centronics connector is primarily used in parallel printer connections and SCSI
interface port first found on the IBM PS/2. It is smaller than previous interfaces interfaces. It is most often found on peripherals, not on computers themselves
(the DIN-5 keyboard port and serial mouse connector), and thus its popularity (except in the case of some older SCSI interface cards).
increased quickly. You can tell the difference because usually the keyboard port is
purple and the mouse port is green. Also, typically there are small graphics of a
keyboard and mouse, respectively, imprinted next to the ports.

BIOS ( Also known as ROM BIOS and Firmware ) and CMOS

BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. The BIOS communicates between the computer and devices. The BIOS is usually stored in ROM. It was created by IBM to act
as a translator to run the same operating systems on different hardware platforms. When the operating system needs to access a piece of hardware, it would now ask the
BIOS, rather than just taking control of the hardware. The use of BIOS prevented programs from fighting over hardware. As long as the operating system (such as DOS)
uses the BIOS for its hardware requests, it can run on different hardware platforms. The BIOS creates a standard reference point for many different types of hardware.

BIOS Chip

Aside from the processor, the most important chip on the motherboard is the basic input/output system (BIOS) chip. This special
memory chip contains the BIOS software that tells the processor how to interact with the rest of the hardware in the computer. The
BIOS chip is easily identified: If you have a non-clone computer (Compaq, IBM, HP, and so on), this chip has on it the name of the
manufacturer and usually the word BIOS. For example, the BIOS chip for a Compaq has something like Compaq BIOS printed on it.
For clones, the chip usually has a sticker or printing on it .

Flashing : Process of upgrading BIOS.

 CMOS

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) contains settings that determine how the computer is configured. These settings are user-configurable and can be
accessed through the CMOS setup program by pressing some key combination at startup (such as Shift+F1 or Ctrl+Shift+Esc). For example, one setting in CMOS controls
the boot sequence. The parameter is usually called boot sequence and can be set to either ―A: C:‖ or ―C: A:‖ (in most cases). Every CMOS setup program is different and
uses different commands for configuration. Usually, though, the CMOS setup program is menu driven and will present you with a list of settings that you can configure, as
well as the possible settings for them. When you’re done configuring, you can press Esc and the CMOS setup program will ask you to press Enter to save the changes and
reboot. After rebooting, the computer will operate with the modified settings.

Your PC has to keep certain settings when it’s turned off and its power cord is unplugged. Some of these settings include:
 Date
 Time
 Hard drive configuration
 Memory
Your PC keeps these settings in a special memory chip called the Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS RAM ) chip.

CMOS Battery

To maintain CMOS RAM settings, it is essential to have power constantly. When you shut down the computer and it stops receiving
power supply , CMOS battery continues to provide power supply to CMOS RAM to main its contents.

Monitors

Is bigger and bulkier when compared to the more modern flat screens Consumes less power and occupies less space, owing to its flat nature 
Consumes more power when compared to flat screens A beam of electrons Reflective twisted pneumatic liquid crystal display Commonly used in
lights up pixels on the screen. notebooks, mobile phones, calculators etc.
 Printers

Printers are considered standard PC components; they are often bundled with computers and sold to consumers as part of a complete package. The most common add-
ons, printers are manufactured in several popular forms. Like other devices, each type has unique advantages and disadvantages.

A printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper, transparent sheets, etc

Three of the most commonly used printers are

 Dot matrix
 Ink jet
 Laser jet

Dot-Matrix Printers Ink-Jet Printers

A quick trip through a consumer electronics store might lead the average person to
believe the age of the dot-matrix printer is over. The home and home office
segments of the market are now the domain of the ink-jet and low-cost laser
products. Still, in business locations, where the ability to print several copies at
once is a driving factor, the loud and lowly dot-matrix still rules.
Ink-jet printers spray ink onto paper to form images. They produce good-quality
printing and—compared to dot-matrix and wax printers—they are relatively fast.
They also require little maintenance beyond cleaning and ink cartridge replacement.
Their ability to easily produce color as well as standard black-and-white images
makes them attractive.
Laser Printers

The laser printer has become the dominant form of computer output device, with models ranging from personal, low-volume,
desktop printers to behemoths that fill half a room and serve hundreds of users, churning out reams of pages every day.

All laser printers follow one basic engine design, similar to the one used in most office copiers. They are non impact devices that
precisely place a fine plastic powder (the toner) on paper. Although they cost more to purchase than most ink-jet printers, they
are much cheaper to operate per page, and the "ink" is permanent.

Printer Connection

There are eight major Printer connection types: serial, parallel, Universal Serial Bus (USB), network, infrared, SCSI, IEEE 1394, and wireless. You’ve learned about these
connections earlier, but now you will learn how they apply to printers.

Parallel

When a printer uses parallel communication, it is receiving data eight bits at a time
over eight separate wires (one for each bit). Parallel communication is the most
popular way of communicating from computer to printer, mainly because it’s faster
than serial.

A parallel cable consists of a male DB-25 connector that connects to the computer
and a male 36-pin Centronics connector that connects to the printer. Most of the
cables are less than 10 feet long.

Universal Serial Bus (USB) Network

The most popular type of printer interface as this book is being written is the Some of the newer printers (primarily laser and LED printers) have a special
Universal Serial Bus (USB). In fact, it is the most popular interface for just about interface that allows them to be hooked directly to a network. These printers have a
every peripheral. The convenience for printers is that it has a higher transfer rate network interface card (NIC) and ROM-based software that allow them to
than either serial or parallel and it automatically recognizes new devices. communicate with networks, servers, and workstations.

The type of network interface used on the printer depends on the type of network
the printer is being attached to. For example, if you’re using a Token Ring network,
the printer should have a Token Ring interface.