Health, Safety And Accident Prevention

1. General Information
The Health & Safety at Work Act, 1974, places a duty on the employer to provide premises,
plant and systems of work which are, so far as it is reasonably practical, safe and without
risk to health. It also charges employees to take reasonable care for their own health and
safety and for that of others.

In this article, the general hazards which may arise when carrying out welding and related
operations, are identified. In subsequent articles, guidelines will be given on the principal
health and safety considerations for each welding process.

1.1. Regulations And Codes Of Practice

The Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974, requires that the risk to workers of injury or ill
health due to work activities should be minimised and there are many national and
international Regulations, approved Codes of Practice and Standards covering the safe
operation of welding and cutting systems. Those of more direct interest to welders and welding engineers are listed at the
end of the article. In the UK, particular attention should be given to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) publications.

1.2. Safe Assembly

Although welding and cutting operations require special considerations, personnel should be aware of the general health

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and safety requirements of related fabrication activities. Safe places and systems of work include handling and
housekeeping.

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The wrong and right way to carry out arc welding processes

1.3. Safe Control Of Arc Welding

Arc processes produce fumes which contaminate the atmosphere surrounding the work. Precautions must be taken to
eliminate the risk of electric shock. Actions to ensure safe practice and accident avoidance will be presented in a
subsequent issue.

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 1 - 22

 1.4. Personal Protection
1.4.1. Fume

Firstly, can exposure can be prevented by eliminating the generation of welding fumes altogether? If not, fume will have
to be controlled at source, perhaps by local ventilation. Respiratory equipment should not be used until all other
possibilities have been eliminated. In general, respiratory protective equipment is used only as an interim measure but
there will be circumstances where, in addition to ventilation measures, personal protection may be necessary.

1.4.2. Arc Radiation

The arc can generate three types of radiation; ultra-violet, visible and infra red (heat) radiation which can be injurious in
the following ways:

• ultra-violet: damage to skin and eyes(inflammation of the cornea and cataracts)

• visible light: dazzle eyes and impair vision
• infra-red: damage skin and eyes (cataracts and corneal lesions)

Radiation may be direct or reflected from shiny or other reflective surfaces.

1.4.2.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• Protect face and eyes using a suitable welding shield equipped with eye protection filter
• Protect the body by wearing suitable clothing
• Protect persons in the vicinity of the arc by means of non-reflective curtains or screens

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1.5. Fire And Explosion Hazards
1.5.1. Fire

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There is an inherent hazard associated with gas processes. Additionally, both flames and arcs in welding and cutting may
create a fire hazard,. When fighting a fire, the appropriate fire extinguisher for the type of material must be used. Class C
fires, for example those involving flammable gases such as acetylene, are best extinguished by cutting off the gas supply.
Water and foam extinguishers should not be used on fires near to live electrical equipment.

1.5.1.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• Remove flammable material from the welding area

• Cover remaining flammable material with fire resistant material
• Before welding, check that the appropriate fire fighting equipment is at hand
• After welding, observe surrounding area of the work for an adequate period of time (suggest about one hour)

1.5.2. Explosion

There is danger of explosion when welding a container which previously contained explosive or flammable substances;
explosive material can be trapped in grooves, seams, riveted joints or behind scale.

1.5.2.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

Before welding, the following actions should be carried out:

• Remove explosive material by steaming or boiling out

• If the explosive material cannot be completely removed, fill the container with water, an inert gas or pass steam
through it

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 2 - 22

 1.6. Welding In Confined Spaces
Special care should be taken in case toxic fumes or gases build up. In gas shielded welding operations, there may be a
danger from asphyxiating because of oxygen deficiency. A suitably qualified person should assess the risk, determine the
steps required to make the job safe and recommend precautions to be taken during the welding operation itself.

1.6.1.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• Ensure adequate ventilation and, if necessary, use personal protection

• Ensure that any used vessel does not contain flammable, poisonous or explosive material
• Ensure gas cylinders are not taken into the enclosed space
• Check equipment for gas leaks
• Ensure trained personnel are in attendance to deal with any emergency
• Check by rehearsal that the worker can be rescued, should an emergency arise
• At the end of work periods, shut off all gas supply valves and withdraw hoses and equipment

1.7. Awareness Of Welding Environments

1.7.1. Noise

As a general guideline, wherever it is difficult to carry on a conversation, it is likely the noise level is unacceptable. HSE
recommendations are that when the noise reaches 85dB(A), employers are required to offer hearing protection to their
employees. As continuous exposure for 8 hours or more to a noise level at or above 90dB(A) is injurious, hearing
protection is mandatory when this level is reached. Higher levels can be tolerated for short periods but impulsive or peak
noise in excess of 140 dB should not, where practicable, be exceeded.

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As damaging noise levels can be generated from some welding processes and allied activities, welders will usually need
hearing protection. For example, hand grinding may emit noise levels of the order 108dB(A).

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1.7.1.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

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If noisy equipment or processes cannot be avoided, one or more of the following alternatives may apply:

• Insulate the noise source as far as possible by fitting silencers or sound proof enclosures
• Insulate the operator from the noise source by wearing suitable ear protection
• Where practicable, do not exceed impulsive noise levels in excess of 140 dB

1.7.2. Vibration

Portable tools which produce excessive vibration, may cause damage to the hands, often called 'white finger' (Raynaud's
phenomenon). As the hazard is particularly acute with tools such as chipping hammers which rely on impact, their use
must be minimised.

1.7.2.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• Avoid or limit the use of equipment with excessive vibration

• Keep the hands warm
• Avoid an excessively strong grip when holding the tool

1.7.3. Designation Of Hazardous Areas

It may be necessary to restrict entry to the work area to authorised persons wearing suitable protection. Warning signs
will be required for the following hazards:

• For welding and cutting processes, where the arc is exposed, the warning for eye protection should refer to the
hazard of arc radiation
• 'Ear Protection Areas' where 8 hours exposure to noise levels is at, or above, 90 dB(A).

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 3 - 22

 1.8. Further Information
The following are useful standards and codes of practice relating to health and safety in welding and allied processes:

1.8.1. HSE Publications

EH 55,1990, The control of exposure to fume from welding and allied processes
HS(G) 53, 1990, Respiratory protective equipment: a practical guide to users
HS(G) 56, 1990, Noise at work, noise assessment, information and control
HS(G) 118, 1995, Electrical safety in arc welding

1.8.2. British Standards

BSEN 169: 1992 Personal eye protection equipment used in welding and similar operations
BSEN 470-1:1995 Protective clothing for welders

The information was prepared in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety Executive, Newcastle upon Tyne.
Further information can be obtained from Bill Lucas, Bob Spiller and Derek Patten. E-mail addresses: wlucas@twi.co.uk or
krspiller@twi.co.uk.

2. Oxyacetylene Welding, Cutting And Heating

Guidelines are given on the principal health and safety considerations for oxyacetylene welding to ensure safe welding
practices.

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2.1. The Oxyacetylene Process

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The oxyacetylene process produces a high temperature flame, over 3000 degrees C, by the combustion of pure oxygen
and acetylene. It is the only gas mixture hot enough to melt steel; other gases (propane, LPG or hydrogen) can be used

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for lower melting point non-ferrous metals, for brazing and silver soldering and as a preheating/piercing gas for cutting.

2.2. Safe Storage

Gases are normally supplied under high pressure in steel cylinders; in the UK, the colour coding for the cylinders is
maroon for acetylene and black for oxygen. To prevent the interchange of fittings between cylinders containing
combustible and non-combustible gases, oxygen cylinders have a right-hand and acetylene have a left-hand thread. All
cylinders are opened by turning the key or knob anticlockwise and closed by turning them clockwise.

Oxygen will cause a fire to burn more fiercely and a mixture of oxygen and a fuel gas can cause an explosion. It is,
therefore, essential that the oxygen cylinders are separated from the fuel gas cylinders and stored in an area free from
combustible material.

2.2.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• Store the cylinders in a well-ventilated area, preferably in the open air

• The storage area should be well away from sources of heat, sparks and fire risk
• Cylinders should be stored upright and well secured
• Oxygen cylinders should be stored at least 3m from fuel gas cylinders or separated by a 30 minute fire resisting
barrier
• The store area should be designated 'No Smoking'.

2.3. Handling Compressed Gases

Cylinders are fitted with regulators to reduce the gas pressure in the cylinder to the working pressure of the torch. The
regulator has two gauges, a high pressure gauge for the gas in the cylinder and a low pressure gauge for the gas being

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 4 - 22

fed to the torch. The gas flow rate is controlled by a pressure adjusting screw which sets the outlet gas pressure. The
BCGA Code of Practice CP7 recommends the gauges are checked annually and replaced every 5 years.

Factors to be considered are that the gas system is suitable for the pressure rating and the hoses are connected without
any leaks. Valve threads should be cleaned before screwing in the regulator. The valve of an acetylene cylinders can be
opened slightly to blow out the threads but the threads in oxygen cylinders are best cleaned using clean compressed air
(the threads on hydrogen cylinders must always be blown out using compressed air).

As oxygen can react violently with oils and grease, lubricating oils or sealant for the threads must not be used.

2.3.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• Cylinders are very heavy and must be securely fastened at all times
• Cylinder valves or valve guards should never be loosened
• Check the regulator is rated for the pressure in the cylinder
• When attaching the regulator to the cylinder the joints must be clean and sealant must not be used
• Before attaching a regulator, the pressure adjustment screw must be screwed out to prevent unregulated flow of
gas into the system when the cylinder valve is opened

2.4. Using Compressed Gases

Gases are mixed in the hand-held torch or blowpipe in the correct proportions. Hoses between regulator and torch should
be colour coded; in the UK, red for acetylene and blue for oxygen. Hoses should be kept as short as possible and users
should check periodically that they are not near hot or sharp objects which could damage the hose wall. Acetylene
cylinders must always be used upright.

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When connecting the system, and at least at the start of each shift, hoses and torch must be purged to remove any
inflammable gas mixtures. It is essential the oxygen stream does not come into contact with oil which can ignite

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spontaneously. Purging should also not be carried out in confined spaces.

The torch should be lit with a friction lighter or stationary pilot flame to avoid burning the hands; matches should not be

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used and the flame should not be reignited from hot metal, especially when working in a confined space.

The cylinders should not become heated, for example by allowing the torch flame to heat locally the cylinder wall.
Similarly, arc welding too close to the cylinder could result in an arc forming between the cylinder and
workpiece/electrode.

Although very little UV is emitted, the welder must wear tinted goggles. The grade of filter is determined by the intensity
of the flame which depends on the thickness of metal being welded; recommendations for filters according to the
acetylene flow rate are given in the table (BSEN 169:1992).

Grade of filter recommended according to the acetylene flow rate:

Work flow rate of acetylene in l/hr

up to 70 70 - 200 200 - 800 over 800
Welding and braze welding of heavy metals e.g. steels, copper and their alloys 4 5 6 7
Welding with emittive fluxes (notably light alloys) 4a 5a 6a 7a

2.4.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• When cleaning the cylinder threads, connecting the regulator and purging the hoses, protect face and eyes by
wearing the appropriate head shield
• Use a suitable welding shield equipped with the appropriate ocular protection filter
• Wear non-combustible clothing
• Ensure the cylinder is not heated by the flame or by stray arcs from adjacent electrical equipment

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 5 - 22

 2.5. Leak Detection
Joints and hoses should be checked for leaks before any welding is attempted. Whilst acetylene may be detected by its
distinctive smell (usually at levels of less than 2%) oxygen is odourless.

Leak detection is best carried out applying a weak (typically 0.5%) solution of a detergent in water or a leak detecting
solution from one of the gas supply companies. It is applied to the joints using a brush and the escaping gas will form
bubbles. On curing the leak, the area should be cleaned to remove the residue from the leak detecting solution. Leaks in
hoses may be repaired but approved replacement hose and couplings must be used in accordance with BSEN 560:1995
and BSEN 1256:1996.

2.6. Backfire And Flashback

A backfire (a single cracking or 'popping' sound) is when the flame has ignited the gases inside the nozzle and
extinguished itself. This may happen when the torch is held too near the workpiece.

A flashback (a shrill hissing sound) when the flame is burning inside the torch, is more severe. The flame may pass back
through the torch mixing chamber to the hose. The most likely cause is incorrect gas pressures giving too low a gas
velocity. Alternatively, a situation may be created by a higher pressure gas (acetylene) feeding up a lower pressure gas
(oxygen) stream. This could occur if the oxygen cylinder is almost empty but other potential causes would be hose leaks,
loose connections, or failure to adequately purge the hoses.

Non-return valves fitted to the hoses will detect and stop reverse gas flow preventing an inflammable oxygen and
acetylene mixture from forming in the hose. The flashback arrestor is an automatic flame trap device designed not only to
quench the flame but also to prevent the flame from reaching the regulator.

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2.6.1. Backfire Or Flashback Procedure

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After an unsustained backfire in which the flame is extinguished:

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• close the blowpipe control valves (fuel gas first)
• check the nozzle is tight
• check the pressures on regulators
• re-light the torch using the recommended procedure

If the flame continues to burn:

• close the oxygen valve at the torch( to prevent internal burning)

• close the acetylene valve at the torch
• close cylinder valves or gas supply point isolation valves for both oxygen and acetylene
• close outlets of adjustable pressure regulators by winding out the pressure-adjusting screws
• open both torch valves to vent the pressure in the equipment
• close torch valves
• check nozzle tightness and pressures on regulators
• re-light the torch using the recommended procedure

If a flashback occurs in the hose and equipment, or fire in the hose, regulator connections or gas supply outlet points:

• isolate oxygen and fuel gas supplies at the cylinder valves or gas supply outlet points (only if this can be done
safely)
• if no risk of personal injury, control fire using first aid fire-fighting equipment
• if the fire cannot be put out at once, call emergency fire services
• after the equipment has cooled, examine the equipment and replace defective components

When a backfire has been investigated and the fault rectified, the torch may be re-lit. After a flashback, because the
flame has extended to the regulator it is essential not only to examine the torch, but the hoses and components must be
checked and, if necessary, replaced. The flashback arrestor should also be checked according to manufacturer's
instructions and, with some designs, it may be necessary to replace it. BCGA Code of Practice CP7 recommends that non-
return valves and flashback arrestors are replaced every 5 years.

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 6 - 22

The information was prepared in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety Executive, Newcastle upon Tyne.

Further information can be obtained from Bill Lucas, Bob Spiller and Derek Patten. E-mail: mailto:wlucas@twi.co.ukor
krspiller@twi.co.uk

3. Electrical Hazards - Power Sources And Installation

Guidelines are given on the principal health and safety considerations to ensure safe welding practices and prevent
accidents. The hazards associated with the use of electrical equipment are highlighted.

3.1. The Arc Welding Circuit

MMA and TIG processes can be either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) whilst MIG is only operated with DC.
As arc processes need a large current (up to 500 A) but at a relatively low arc voltage (10 to 40V), the high voltage mains
supply (230 or 400V) must be reduced. In its basic form, the power source for generating AC comprises a transformer to
reduce the mains voltage and increase the current for welding. For generating the DC arc, a rectifier is placed on the
secondary side of the mains-fed transformer or alternatively, a motor- or engine-driven generator can be used.

3.1.1. Welding Installations

Typical arc welding installations for both single and multi-welder operations are
described in HSE guidelines No 118, Electrical Safety in Arc Welding. When the
welding circuit is connected, the following guidelines should be adopted:

• the connection between the power source and the workpiece should be

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as direct as practicable
• use insulated cables and connection devices of adequate current-
carrying capacity

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• extraneous conductive parts should not be used as part of the welding
return circuit unless part of the workpiece itself
• the current return clamp should be as near to the welding arc as

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possible

When attaching the welding current and current return cables, it is essential
that an efficient contact is achieved between the connection device and the
workpiece to prevent overheating and arcing. For example, current and return
clamps must be securely attached to 'bright' metal i.e. any rust or primer
coatings should be locally removed.

3.1.2. Power Source And Earthing

The normal practice in the UK has been to provide a separate earth connection to the
workpiece, (Circuit a) so that, in the unlikely event of an insulation breakdown between
primary and secondary circuits, the fuses will blow. However, the separate earth connection
increases the risk of stray currents which may damage other equipment and conductors.

As modern power sources have been designed to have a much higher level of insulation
(double or reinforced insulation), a separate earth connection is not recommended (Circuit
b).

There is a potential problem in that both designs can often be found in the same welding
shop. The newer power source can be identified by the power source's Rating Plate, which
indicates it has been manufactured to present standards e.g. BS 638 Pt10, EN 60 974-1 or
IEC 974-1.

In very old designs, the welding circuit was sometimes connected internally to the power
source enclosure (Circuit c). However, the danger is that even with the welding return lead
disconnected, and a separate earth connection, welding is possible with current flowing

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 7 - 22

through the earth. Because of the risk of damaging protective earth and other connectors, this type of power source is
considered to be obsolete and should not be used.

3.1.3. Manufacturer's Rating Plate

The following symbols are used on the manufacturer's Rating Plate to indicate the type of protection:

3.2. Electrical Hazards

3.2.1. Electric Shock
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In all manual arc welding operations, the principal risk is from electric shock, most likely from contact with bare live parts
of the welding circuit. The arc voltage is within the range 10 to 40V, but, as the voltage required to strike the arc may be
substantially higher, power sources have an open circuit voltage (OCV), typically up to 80V. Although these voltages
appear low compared with the 230V domestic mains supply, work by the International Electrotechnical Commission shows
that only voltages below 50V AC or 120V DC are unlikely to be dangerous to healthy people in a dry working
environment. In other conditions such as restricted conducting locations or wet surroundings, potentials of 80V AC have
been the cause of fatal electric shocks.

Appropriate protective clothing such as gloves, boots and overalls will protect the welder from electric shock.

3.2.2. Stray Welding Currents

A different kind of electrical hazard can arise from stray welding currents which return to the welding transformer by
paths other than the welding return lead. For example, although the return is disconnected, welding is possible when the
return current flows through:

• protective earth (PE) conductors of other electrical equipment, or the power source itself
• wire ropes, slings and chains
• metal fittings and pipework
• bearings in motors

Damage to the PE conductor in particular could mean the equipment is no longer being earthed.

Stray currents may be substantial and comparable with the welding current level where there is poor or faulty insulation
of the return lead which may be short- circuited by other conductors. When welding on building structures and pipework

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 8 - 22

installations, the welding return lead should be placed as close as possible to the point of welding. The exception is where
the metallic grid, support structure or metallic ship hull is used as part of the welding return circuit.

There is an increased risk of stray currents when welding on structures which have an inherent connection to earth such
as ships or pipelines. There could be an unacceptable indirect current return path with damage to conductors if, for
example, the current return lead is detached and the circuit becomes open. The recommendations for the electrical
distribution systems and earth connections in various situations are described in HS(G) 118.

3.3. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

Welding equipment should conform to the appropriate standards (as listed at the end of the article); electrode holders
that are insulated overall are recommended so no bare metal can be inadvertently touched.

Welding leads and return leads should be insulated and thick enough to carry the current safely; connectors should also
be insulated to avoid inadvertent access to live conductors and adequate for the current being carried.

The welding return lead should be connected as near as practicable to the welding arc; metal rails, pipes and frames
should not be used as part of the welding circuit unless they are a part of the workpiece itself.

Check the workpiece earthing requirements. When using a double or reinforced insulation power source, stray currents
can be avoided by not earthing the workpiece or the welding output circuit.

The welding leads, connection devices and electrode holder or torch should be checked at regular intervals for 'fitness for
use'; repair or replace damaged or worn components.

3.4. Publications And Relevant Standards

1.
2.
3.
4.
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HS(G) 118 'Electrical Safety in Arc Welding', HSE Books, 1995

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'The Arc Welder at Work', Welding Manufacturer's Association
IEC 974-1: 1989, Arc Welding Equipment - Welding Power Sources
BS 638, Part 10: 1990, EN 60 974-1: 1990, 'Arc Welding Power Sources, Equipment and Accessories'

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5. BS EN 470-1: 1995, 'Clothing for Use in Welding and Allied Processes'
6. BS EN 50078: 1994, 'Torches and Guns for Arc Welding'.
7. CENELEC HD 407 S1:1980, 'Safety Rules for the Use of Equipment for Electrical Arc Welding and Allied Processes'
8. CENELEC HD 427 S1:1981, 'Specific Safety Rules for the Installation of Equipment for Electric Arc Welding and
Allied Processes'

The information was prepared in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety Executive and Geoff Melton, Chairman,
BSI WEE-6 Committee. Further information can be obtained from Bill Lucas and Derek Patten E-mail: wlucas@twi.co.uk

4. Arc Welding
This article gives guidelines on health and safety considerations when arc welding to ensure safe practice and prevent
accidents. The hazards associated with this process are highlighted.

The wrong and right ways to carry out arc welding processes are shown schematically in the figure at the end of this
page. Regarding safe welding practices, the principal hazards are associated with electric shock and arc radiation.

4.1. Electric Shock

As the principal danger is an electric shock from the live parts of the welding circuit (the electrode and the workpiece),
the following practices are recommended.

4.1.1. Checking The Equipment

Installation of welding equipment should be carried out by suitably qualified staff who must check that the equipment is
suitable for the operation and connected in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. The welder is
responsible for checking the equipment (cable, electrode holder and coupling devices) daily for damage and reporting

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 9 - 22

defects. All external connections should be clean and tight and checked each time a reconnection is made. The welding
return clamp should be connected directly to the workpiece, as close as possible to the point of welding or to the work
bench on which the workpiece is placed.

4.1.2. Changing Electrodes

In MMA welding, the electrode holder should be isolated when changing the electrode. Where a workpiece is earthed, if
the electrode is changed without isolating the electrode holder, the welder is relying on the insulation properties of the
glove to avert shock from the OCV which can be 80V between the electrode and earth. If the glove is wet, the electrode a
bad insulator or the welder in contact with a conductive surface, one or more of these layers of insulation may be
ineffective.

4.1.3. Working In The Open Air

When welding outside, the equipment should have the appropriate level of waterproofing; see manufacturer's Rating
Plate (Fig. 2, Job Knowledge for Welders, No 28) which should display one of the following ingress protection (IP) codes
for enclosures:

• IP 23 protection against limited spraying

• IP 24 protection against spraying from all directions

If there is a risk of heavy rain, a cover for the welder, equipment and workpiece should be in place.

4.1.4. Multiple Welder Operations

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When two or more welders with separate power sources are working on the same workpiece, or electrically-connected
workpieces, it is essential that they are segregated. This will reduce the possibility of electric shock from simultaneous
contact with any part of the two different systems.

•
•
•
•
•
4.1.5. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

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Welders should not wear jewellery (especially rings) or metallic watch straps
Appropriate clothing should be worn. Gloves, boots and overalls will provide some protection from electric shock
The welder should check daily, and after each reconnection, that all external connections are clean and tight
When changing the MMA electrode, the electrode holder should be isolated
When welding stops for a short time, the MMA electrode holder should not be put on the face shield or flammable
material as it may still be 'live' at 80V or hot enough to cause damage
• When two or more welders (with separate power sources) are operating on the same workpiece, they should
work out of reach of each other

4.2. Environments With Increased Hazard Of Electric

Shock
These are as follows:

• locations where the welder has restricted freedom of movement, working in a cramped position (kneeling or
sitting) or in contact with conductive parts
• areas which are fully or partially restricted by conductive elements with which the welder is likely to make
accidental contact
• welding in wet, damp or humid conditions which reduces the skin resistance of the body and insulating properties
of accessories

Where electrically conductive parts have been insulated close to the welder, there is no increased shock hazard.

The equipment should conform to BS 638 Part 10. In MMA welding DC is safer than AC welding. However, if AC is used
the OCV or no-load voltage should be limited, where possible, by a voltage reduction device. This limits the OCV to less
than 48V until the electrode touches the workpiece. Suitable power sources may be marked with S on the manufacturer's

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 10 - 22

Rating Plate (see Fig. 2, Job Knowledge for Welders No 28) and it is also often displayed on the front of the power
source.

4.2.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• Wear protective clothing including insulating safety boots

• Stand or kneel on a mat of insulating material which should be kept dry
• Only use an all-insulated electrode holder
• Place the welding power source outside the working environment
• Ensure qualified support staff are in close proximity outside the working space to give first aid and switch off the
electrical supply
• When welding outside, check the power source protection rating is adequate for the environment and do not
weld in the rain without a suitable cover

4.3. High Frequency

In TIG welding, high frequency (HF) is used to start the arc and to stabilise the AC arc. HF consists of sparks of several
thousand volts but because they last for only a few microseconds and are at a very low current, will not give an electric
shock. However, HF can startle the welder who could injure himself. If HF is concentrated on the skin, for example
through a hole in the glove, it can cause small, deep burns.

HF generates electromagnetic (EM) emission, both airborne or transmitted along power cables. Care must be taken to
avoid interference in equipment control systems and instruments in the vicinity of welding.

Guidance on installation and use of arc welding equipment to minimise the risk of EM interference is given in BS EN
50199:1995. In practice, the welder is advised to keep welding cables as short as possible, close together and near to the

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ground. Workpiece earthing may be effective but should only be done if it does not increase the risk to users or damage
other electrical equipment through stray currents (see Job Knowledge for Welders, No 28).

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4.4. Arc Radiation

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The welder must be protected from light radiation emitted from the arc by a hand or head shield and protective clothing.
The shield is fitted with filter glass, dark enough to absorb infrared and ultraviolet rays. Filter glasses conform to EN
169:1992 and are graded according to a shade number. This specifies the amount of light allowed to pass through - the
lower the number, the lighter the filter. The shade number is selected according to welding process and current level.

For a given current level, the same shade number can be used for MMA and MIG welding on heavy metals such as steel.
However, a higher shade number is needed for MIG welding light metals such as aluminium, and for MAG welding.

Screens must be used to protect other workers in the vicinity.

4.5. Publications And Relevant Standards

HS(G) 107 Maintenance of portable and transportable electrical equipment
HS(G) 118 Electrical Safety in Arc Welding, HSE Books, 1995
The Arc Welder at Work Welding Manufacturer's Association
BS EN 60 974-1990 Arc welding power sources, equipment and accessories, Part 10, Specification for safety
requirements of arc welding equipment: welding power sources
BS EN 169:1992 Personal eye protection equipment used in welding and similar operations
BS EN 60 529:1992 Specification for degree of protection provided by enclosures (IP codes)
BS EN 60 974-11:1995 Arc-welding equipment: electrode holders
BS EN 470-1:1995 Protective clothing for use in welding and allied processes-general requirements
BS EN 50199:1996 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)-Product standard for arc welding equipment

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 11 - 22

 The contrast between good and bad practice in arc welding

Bad practice Hazards Good practice

1. No face protection arc eye, burn

2. No arm protection burn
3. Exposed cloth fire
4. Exposed solvent fire/explosion, toxic vapour
5. Bystander exposed to arc arc eye
6. Fire exit obstructed fire, burns

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7. Fire bucket unsuitable for electrical fires -
should contain sand electric shock
8. Fume extraction not effective fume

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9. No work earth (if required) electric shock
10. Cable damaged stray arc, burns, electric shock

BSI WEE-6 Committee.

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This information was prepared in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety Executive and Geoff Melton, Chairman,

Further information can be obtained from Bill Lucas, Derek Patten, Colin Eileens and Brian Bartlett.

E-mail: wlucas@twi.co.uk

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 12 - 22

5. Health Risks Of Welding Fume/Gases
Guidelines are given on the principal health and safety considerations to ensure safe welding
practices and prevent accidents. Health risks associated with fume and gases generated during
welding are highlighted.

5.1. What Is Welding Fume/Gases?

Welding fume is a mixture of airborne fine particles and gases.

5.1.1. Particulate Fume

More than 90% of the particulate fume arises from vaporisation of

the consumable electrode, wire or rod as material is transferred
across the arc or flame. The range of welding particles size is
shown in relation to the more familiar types of dust and fume. The
respirable fraction of particles (especially less than 3µm) are
potentially the more harmful as they can penetrate to the
innermost parts of the lung.

The range of welding particles size in relation to the more familiar

types of dust and fume

5.1.2. Gases

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Gases encountered in welding may be:

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• Fuel gases which, on combustion, form carbon dioxide and sometimes carbon monoxide
• Shielding gases such as argon, helium and carbon dioxide, either alone or in mixtures with oxygen or hydrogen
• Carbon dioxide and monoxide produced by the action of heat on the welding flux or slag

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• Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone produced by the action of heat or ultraviolet radiation on the atmosphere
surrounding the welding arc
• Gases from the degradation of solvent vapours or surface contaminants on the metal.

The degree of risk to the welder's health from fume/gases will depend on:

• composition
• concentration
• the length of time the welder is exposed
• the welder's susceptibility

5.2. Health Hazards From Particulate Fume

The potential hazards from breathing in particulate fume are:

5.2.1. Irritation Of The Respiratory Tract

Fine particles can cause dryness of the throat, tickling, coughing and if the concentration is particularly high, tightness of
the chest and difficulty in breathing.

5.2.2. Metal Fume Fever

Breathing in metal oxides such as zinc and copper can lead to an acute flu-like illness called 'metal fume fever'. It most
commonly occurs when welding galvanised steel; symptoms usually begin several hours after exposure with a thirst,
cough, headache sweat, pain in the limbs and fever. Complete recovery usually occurs within 1 to 2 days, without any
lasting effects.

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 13 - 22

 5.2.3. Longer Term Effects

The continued inhalation of welding fume over a long periods of time can lead to the deposition of iron particles in the
lung giving rise to a benign condition called siderosis.

There is some evidence that welders have a slightly greater risk of developing lung cancer than the general population. In
certain welding situations, there is potential for the fume to contain certain forms of chromium and/or nickel compounds -
substances which have been associated with lung cancer in processes other than welding. As yet, no direct link has been
clearly established. Nevertheless, as a sensible precaution and to minimise the risk, special attention should be paid to
controlling fumes which may contain them.

5.2.4. Additional Hazards

A number of other specific substances known to be hazardous to health can be found in welding fume such as barium
and fluorides which do not originate from the metal. If the metal contains a surface coating, there will also be a potential
risk from any toxic substances in the coating.

5.3. Health Hazards From Gases

The potential hazards from breathing in gases during welding are:

5.3.1. Irritation Of The Respiratory Tract

Ozone can cause delayed irritation of the respiratory tract which may progress to bronchitis and occasionally pneumonia.

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Nitrogen oxides can cause a dry irritating cough and chest tightness. Symptoms usually occur after a delay of 4 to 8
hours. In severe cases, death can occur from pulmonary oedema (fluid on the lungs) or pneumonia.

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5.3.2. Asphyxiation

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There may be a risk of asphyxiation due to replacement of air with gases produced when
welding in a workshop or area with inadequate ventilation. Special precautions are needed
when welding in confined spaces where there is the risk of the build up of inert shielding gases.

Carbon monoxide, formed as a result of incomplete combustion of fuel gases, can also cause
asphyxiation by replacing the oxygen in the blood.

5.4. Establishing Safe Levels Of Fume In The

Workplace
The COSHH Regulations set specific occupational exposure levels for certain substances. The limits are detailed in EH 40
which is revised periodically. The majority of limits listed are for single substances. Only a few relate to substances which
are complex mixtures; welding fume is one of these. It has an occupational exposure limit but account must also be taken
of the exposure limits of any of the individual constituents. So, in considering what would be safe exposure levels to
welding fume, not only should exposure be controlled to within the welding fume limit but also the individual components
must be controlled to within their own limits. The assessment of exposure to fume from welding processes is covered in
EH 54.

Substances may have a maximum exposure limit (MEL) or an occupation exposure standard (OES).

A MEL is the maximum concentration of an airborne substance to which people may be exposed under any
circumstances. Exposure must be reduced as far as is reasonably practicable and at least below any MEL.

An OES is the concentration of an airborne substance, for which (according to current information) there is no evidence
that it is likely to cause harm to a person's health , even if they are exposed day after day. Control is thought to be
adequate if exposure is reduced to or below the standard.

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 14 - 22

The OESs and the MELs of some of the substances found in welding fume are listed in Table 1; the absence of other
substances from this list does not indicate that they are safe.

If the fume contains only substances such as iron or aluminium which are of low toxicity, an 8 hour (TWA) OES of
5mg/m3 applies; this figure is the concentration of particulate fume that should not be exceeded in an 8 hour day.

5.5. Publications And Relevant Standards

EH 40 Occupation Exposure Limits, HSE Books.
EH 54 Assessment of Exposure to Fume from Welding and Allied Processes, HSE Books, 1990.
EH 55 The Control of Exposure to Fume from Welding, Brazing and Similar Processes, HSE Books, 1990.

The article was prepared by Bill Lucas (E-mail: wlucas@twi.co.uk) in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety
Executive.

Further information, such as technical data on fume limits, can be obtained from Graham Carter (E-mail:
gjcarter@twi.co.uk)

6. Health Risks From Fume And Gases During

Welding
6.1. Factors Affecting Composition And
Quantity Of Fume And Gases

•
•
type of process
welding consumable I
The quantity and composition of welding fume and gases are influenced by the following:

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T
• presence of any material coatings
• nature of MMA flux coating, or core of FCA consumable
• welding parameters
• shielding gas composition

The two most important are the welding process and the choice of consumable.

6.2. Welding Processes

6.2.1. Gas Welding

Gas welding fume contains pollutants formed by combustion of the fuel gas. When an oxidising flame is used, these will
be carbon dioxide with oxides of nitrogen but, for a slightly reducing flame, carbon monoxide will also be present.

6.2.1.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

Providing there is good ventilation, the levels of fume and gases generated when welding mild steel are normally well
below the occupational exposure limits (OELs). No special precauations are required.

6.2.2. Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

An MMA rod has a suitable composition for the weld metal but the flux covering provides gases for the arc, additional
alloying elements and slag for protecting the weld pool. The composition and quantity of the fume generated will depend
on the process variables, for example, type of consumable, polarity, voltage and current. The toxic elements in the fume
will be similar to those in the consumable although the proportions are likely to be different.

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 15 - 22

 6.2.2.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

For normal welding operations, fume exposure will generally be over the welding fume exposure limit of 5 mg/m3. As
stainless steel fume, in particular, causes respiratory tract sensitisation (the welder becomes more susceptible to
occupational asthma), special precautions should be taken to control exposure. Local fume extraction should be used to
remove fume at source.

6.2.3. Flux Cored Arc (FCA)

Continuously fed wire in self-shielded FCA welding contains a flux which produces a large amount of gas for the arc and
protection/deoxidisation of the weld pool. Self-shielded wires are normally used for welding outdoors. In gas-shielded
wires, which are only used in the welding shop, an additional shield (CO2 or argon-CO2) is needed to protect the weld
pool. As FCA is normally employed at high welding current levels and higher duty cycle, more fume will be produced
compared with MMA.

6.2.3.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

Providing sensible precautions are taken, self-shielded FCA welding taking place outside will not need any fume removal
measures. For gas-shielded welding inside a building, similar precautions to MMA welding should be used, such as local
fume extraction.

6.2.4. Metal Inert Gas (MIG/MAG)

MIG uses a solid wire and a separate gas to form the arc and shield the weld pool. The shielding gas is normally CO2 or a
mixture of argon-O2-CO2 and argon can be partly replaced with helium. As well as the effect of the welding parameters,

I
the mode of metal transfer has a significant effect on fume levels.

Dip transfer mode operates at a low welding current level and has a characteristic short arc length. Fume levels are low.

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However, spray transfer mode which operates at much higher current levels and at a greater arc length generates higher
fume levels.

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Pulsed transfer mode operates at similar low current levels to dip transfer but with a longer arc length and generates
intermediate fume levels depending upon the welding parameters.

Special mention must be made of the presence of ozone which is generated by the effect of ultraviolet radiation on the air
immediately surrounding the gas shield as shown in the diagram. Welding of stainless steel and aluminium, in particular,
can produce a significant level of ozone and exposures may exceed the recommended OEL.

6.2.4.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

Use local fume extraction equipment to remove fume at source. As ozone can be generated away from the arc, additional
general ventilation may be needed. If the fume is not adequately controlled by these methods, the welder must wear
Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE).

6.2.5. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) And Plasma

The arc is formed between the tungsten electrode and the workpiece with an inert gas. As the filler metal is added
directly to the weld pool, metal does not pass through the arc so there is considerably less particulate fume emission. In
open workshop conditions, exposure to particulate fume will normally be below the OEL of 5 mg/m3.

Welding of stainless steel and aluminium may generate unacceptable levels of ozone.

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 16 - 22

Ozone is generated by the effect of ultraviolet radiation on the air immediately surrounding the gas shield.

6.2.5.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

Good ventilation does not require fume extraction but when welding stainless steel and aluminium, local extraction to
control ozone may be needed.

6.2.6. Submerged Arc

Submerged arc welding uses a bed of granulated flux to cover the arc. As the arc is not exposed, there is negligible
emission of fume and gaseous pollutants.

6.2.6.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

No special precautions are needed but it should be remembered that dust may be produced when filling the hopper with

I
flux.

6.3. Exposure To Welding Fume And Gases

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The effect of process, consumable and parent metal composition on exposure assessment is summarised in the Table.

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The Indication of fume levels assumes that no control systems are being used.

The generic term Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) is used and may apply to one or all of the individual constituents of
the fume. The Assessment indicators summarise information published in EH 54 'Assessment of exposure to fume
from welding and allied processes.'

The Welding Manufacturers Association has produced a standard format for hazard data sheets to enable manufacturers
to comply with their legal obligations under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 Section 6. The hazard sheet contains
the following information:

• chemical analysis of substances present in the fume produced by the consumable

• the appropriate OELs

For safe use of consumables, reference should always be made to the manufacturers' or suppliers' hazard data sheets.

It should be noted that in addition to particulate fume, where appropriate, risk assessment must also include composition
of shielding gases which may be toxic or asphyxiant. Gases are also produced by the action of heat on the welding flux or
slag (carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide) and heat or ultraviolet radiation on the atmosphere surrounding the welding
arc (nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone).

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 17 - 22

 6.4. Effect Of Process, Consumable And Parent Metal
Composition On The Assessment Of Exposure
Process Material Indication of fume level Nature of fume - assessment
indicators

Gas welding Mild steel Below OELSs except in poorly Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
ventilated or confined space (reducing flame) nitrogen dioxide

Manual metal Mild steel and low 3 mg/m3 -30 mg/m3 in open Iron oxide flux particulates eg fluorides
arc (MMA) alloy steels workshop conditions,
depends on operator
variables

Stainless steel 3 mg/m3-30 mg/m3 in open Consumable particulates, may contain

workshop up to 8% chromium, the majority
present as hexavalent chromium (CrVI)

Consumable particulates, ozone in

Generally in excess of OELs aluminium welding
Aluminium, copper,
nickel alloys, cast iron,
hardfacing

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TIG and Mild and low alloy Less than OELs Particulate fume from consumable -
plasma arc steels shielding gas can constitute a hazard in
confined spaces by reducing the

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available oxygen to a level which will
not support life

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Stainless steel alloys
Less than OELs for particulate Ozone, shielding gases in confined
fume, greater than OELs for spaces
gases

Metal inert Mild and low alloy Generally in excess of 5 Particulate iron oxide, ozone, shield
gas/metal steels mg/m3 gases. High fume levels are obtained
active gas with CO2 shielding than with argon
(MIG/MAG
Particulate fume from consumable,
Stainless steel Greater than OELs ozone and shield gases. Process
related values will apply to particulate
fume

Aluminium and Greater than OELs for gases Particulate aluminium oxide fume.
aluminium alloys and fume Ozone levels can be very high
particularly with aluminium/silicon
alloys some distance from the arc

Flux-cored arc Mild and low alloy Greater than 10 mg/m3 Particulate iron oxide and flux
steels materials, some consumables may give
rise to soluble barium in fume

Greater than 10 mg/m3 Consumable and flux particulates,

Stainless steel chromium VI likely to be present

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 18 - 22

 6.5. Publications And Relevant Standards
EH 40 Occupation Exposure Limits, HSE Books.
EH 54 Assessment of exposure to fume from welding and allied processes, HSE Books, 1990.
EH 55 The control of exposure to fume from welding, brazing and similar processes, HSE Books, 1990.

Welding Manufacturers Association, Leaflet 236, Hazards from welding fume.

This article was prepared by Bill Lucas, E-mail: wlucas@twi.co.uk in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety
Executive.

Further information and technical data on fume limits can be obtained from Graham Carter at TWI, E-mail:
gjcarter@twi.co.uk

Note: When assessing fume risk, the suppliers' data sheets and hazard information must be fully consulted.

7. Control Of Welding Fume

7.1. Exposure To Fume
For many gas and arc welding processes, the fume concentration in the immediate vicinity of the
weld is well above its exposure limit. The amount of fume generated is determined primarily by
welding process, consumable and welding procedure. However, the following aspects are likely to
influence the degree to which the welder is exposed to fume:

• welding position

I
• location and type of workplace
• exposure duration

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Thus, welders using the same process may be exposed to different levels of fume. The risks for each job should,
therefore, be assessed individually.

7.1.1. Welding Position

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The welding position (flat, vertical, horizontal or overhead) and proximity of the welder to the fume plume affect
exposure. As the welder naturally bends over the workpiece, the flat position induces the highest level of fume in the
breathing zone. The welder should adopt a working position which ensures that his head is away from the plume.

7.1.2. Location And Type Of Workplace

Welding in a large workshop, or outdoors, prevents build-up of fume and gases. However, in a small workshop, fume will
not be readily dispersed and the welder may be subjected to a higher than average exposure. Working in confined
spaces, in particular, requires an efficient, monitored, ventilation system so exposure is controlled and there is no
depletion of oxygen in the working atmosphere.

7.1.3. Exposure Duration

Long and short term Occupational Exposure Limits (OELS) given in Job Knowledge for Welders No. 31 relate to the
average concentration over an eight hour period. Exposure will be intermittent, mainly during the arcing period. There
should be relatively little exposure between arcing periods but this may be influenced by the presence of other welders,
effectiveness of control measures and general ventilation. Furthermore, as the work pattern (arcing time and down time)
vary from day to day, average exposure may often only be assessed by frequent sampling.

7.2. Control Of Welding Fume

If welding fume cannot be eliminated, control measures should be adopted as follows:

• choice or modification of the welding process

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 19 - 22

 • improvement in working practices
• ventilation
• use of respiratory protection equipment (RPE)

RPE should not be considered until the effectiveness of all other techniques has been explored.

7.2.1. Choice Or Modification Of The Welding Process

Process choice is usually made on the basis of weld quality, economics and equipment availability. Nevertheless, if other
processes can be used, it should be borne in mind that some processes, such as submerged-arc and TIG, generates
significantly less particulate fume than MMA, MIG and FCAW. Consumable manufacturers also supply information on fume
composition which can be used in selecting welding rods for a particular job.

7.2.2. Improvement In Working Practices

A substantial improvement can often be made by placing the workpiece so the welder can avoid the plume which rises
above the weld.

In large scale fabrications, the welding sequence should be organised to minimise the work carried out in enclosed or
confined spaces.

7.2.2.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• adopt position and techniques to keep head out of welding plume

• avoid welding in enclosed and confined spaces

I
7.2.3. Ventilation

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The strategy for using ventilation to control fume is shown above.

General ventilation may be adequate if welding is of short duration

and intermittent.

The most efficient way of controlling exposure to welding fume is its

removal at source. There are several methods of removing fume close to
the weld:

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 20 - 22

 Extracted benches

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Extracted booth

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Local exhaust ventilation (LEV)

On-gun extraction

As LEV and on-gun extraction systems are never 100% efficient, especially when welding awkward structures, general ventilation may
also be necessary to control the background level of fume.

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 21 - 22

As each type of extraction equipment has limitations, it is important to select the right equipment for each job. It is also
essential that welders are adequately trained to use the equipment and adopt good working practices. Supervision is
needed to ensure the equipment is being used effectively and to minimise background fume level in the workshop.

7.2.3.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

• check that the equipment is working correctly and is regularly maintained, for example, cleaning and replacing
filters according to manufacturer's recommendations
• place the extraction hood or nozzle to capture the fume without disturbing the gas shield
• when welding large structures, reposition the hood at appropriate intervals to ensure fume continues to be
effectively extracted

7.2.4. Respiratory Protection Equipment (RPE)

Where fume needs to be controlled, LEV should always be used to achieve as much control as possible. If LEV is not
possible, or there is still unacceptable exposure, RPE is needed. RPE should always be the least preferred means of
control because it only protects the wearer. Other methods are all aimed at preventing exposure whereas RPE is
essentially curative. There are two types of RPE:

• respirators - workshop air cleaned before being inhaled

• air-supplied - air supply is separate from workshop atmosphere

Selection of suitable RPE will require the advice of an expert who can make the selection based on fume concentration,
presence of toxic gases and whether there is a oxygen deficient atmosphere.

7.2.4.1. Safe Practice And Accident Avoidance

•
•
•
•
Consult expert in choice of respirator

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Each welder to be personally fitted with an RPE to ensure that it provides adequate protection
Personnel to be trained in use of an RPE and its maintenance and cleaning
Management to ensure systems exist for control of equipment and training

7.3. Publications And Relevant Standards

EH 54
EH 55
HS(G)37
HS(G)53
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Assessment of Exposure to Fume from Welding and Allied Processes, HSE Books, 1990.
The Control of Exposure to Fume from Welding, Brazing and Similar Processes, HSE Books, 1990.
An Introduction to Local Exhaust Ventilation, HSE Books, 1995.
Respiratory Protective Equipment - a Practical Guide, HSE Books, 1990.

The article was prepared by Bill Lucas, E-mail: wlucas@twi.co.uk in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety
Executive.

Further information, can be obtained from Graham Carter, E-mail: gjcarter@twi.co.uk

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 22 - 22