CHAPTER-I

SOIL AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The infrastructure development for the progress of a nation depends mainly
on the Transportation Engineer, Structural Engineering and Geotechnical Engineering.
The activities of almost all these fields of engineering are mainly concerned with soil
and its behavior. The soil is either used as construction material, such as highways
embankments and dams or as a foundation support for the structures such as bridges
and buildings.

Transportation Engineering is backbone for the economic development and

progress of ac country. Some of the important areas of interest where the
Transportation Engineering can play a major role for the economic uplift of Pakistan
and other developing countries are as follows: -
1. Subways- To avoid traffic congestion in the urban area, subways
(underground transportation system) are the most viable option. Most of
the developed countries have quite sophisticated networks of subways.
Thousands of peoples daily commute through the subways, which reduces
the traffic as well as parking problems.
2. International trade- Growth of the international trade depends on the
efficient transportation links. To cut travel time and ensure safety in hilly
terrain, tunnels are the solution.
3. Mineral exploration- Many potential mineral resource areas are yet to be
explored, the main obstacle being the lack of access.
4. Oil exploration- This also requires access roads to conduct geophysical
surveys to locate potential oil fields, mobilization of the drilling rigs, and
the transportation of the crude oil and the machinery to develop the oil
fields.
5. Tourism development-Depends on safe and fast communication links. Safe
and comfortable travel to the tourist resorts attracts the tourists. Pakistan
has been gifted by the almighty, “ALLAH” with very attractive tourist
resorts. But due to lack of adequate and efficient transportation links,
tourism industry has not been developed to its maximum capacity.

Geotechnical Engineering serves as a foundation for the transportation

engineering. Pavement and bridge structure are supported on soil. Tunnels and
subways are made through soil or rock. An adequate knowledge of the properties and
behavior of these materials is essential for the proper design and construction of the
highways, bridges and tunnels. Strength of the sub-grade soil is very important for
efficient performance of pavement. Slope stability, retaining walls, surface and sub-
surface drainage are the parameters, which greatly influence the pavement
performance and are related the field of Geotechnical Engineering. Soil Mechanics is a
section of Geotechnical Engineering and simply means the application of laws
mechanics to the soil, which is a naturally occurring material. Soils do not have any

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chemical formula, as they have not been made under clinically controlled conditions,
like other engineering materials (e.g. steel, cement, plastic etc.)

1.2 SOIL
The term soil according to engineering point of view is defined as the
materials, by means of which and upon which engineers build their structures. The
term soil includes entire thickness of earth’s crust (from ground surface to bed-rock),
which is accessible and feasible for practical utilization as a foundation support or
construction material. It is composed of loosely bound mineral particles of various
sizes and shapes formed due to weathering of rocks. It also has organic matter, water
and air in it. The behavior of soil as a foundation support or as a construction material
is greatly influenced by the following:

1. The moisture content present in soil pores.

2. The fluctuation of groundwater table.
3. Freezing and thawing phenomena.
4. The presence of organic matter.
5. History of formation of soil.
6. Seismicity of the area.

Soil is a particulate mixture, which means that a soil mass consists of an

accumulation of individual particles that are bonded together by mechanical or
attractive forces. The binding power of soil particles however, is very low as compared
to the binding power of rocks. The type of soil may vary from clay to gravel and even
to cobbles and boulders. The top soil, which usually extends to a depth of about two
feet contains organic matter and is generally considered unsuitable for Civil
Engineering use.

1.3 FORMATION OF SOIL

Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition of rocks at or
near the earth’s surface through the action of may natural, physical, mechanical and
chemical agents, which break them in to smaller and smaller particles (Fig: 1.1)

The disintegration of rocks sometimes is the result of wedging action of water

turned to ice in the pores of rocks, because water expands as it freezes. The
mechanical movement of water destroys the bonds between mineral particles, and if
the water is charged with dissolved carbon dioxide from the air, a weak carbonic acid
is formed. Though weak as an acid, such water becomes a powerful solvent, which by
chemical action may dissolve or alter the nature of the parent rock’s constituent
minerals. Previously existing igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks provide the
materials in the form of minerals, from which the different types of soil are created.
The majority of soil particles are silicates of one form or another, since the silicate
minerals occurring in igneous rocks eventually become the particles of soil.

Water, wind and gravity are transporting agents that work on the products of
weathered rocks to produce soil. Geological time is a further factor in soil formation.
Over a period of many thousands of years, the beating action of rains, the grinding

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action of the waves and tides of sea, combined with the transporting action of wind,
flowering streams and rivers, has progressively reduced the rock fragments and sorted
them into particles varying in size between that of boulders, at one end of the scale,
and dust at the other.

1.4 TYPES OF SOIL

A geologist has an entirely different viewpoint about the types of soil as
compared to an engineer. According to geologist, the soil types are named to the basis
of particular geological agent, due to which the soil has been formed. The name of the
soil type so assigned, gives an idea about the properties and behavior. According to a
soil type so assigned, gives an idea about the properties and behavior. According to an
engineer, the soil types are solely based on the range of particle sizes within a soil
mass.

Since the soil properties very much depend on the particle size, the name so assigned
gives a general idea about its properties and behavior. However commonly occurring

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soil deposits consist of a very wide range of particle sized i.e. a mixture of soil types.
Therefore soil classification systems (as discussed in chapter-3) have been developed
to classify the soil for different engineering uses. The soil types based on geological
and engineering viewpoints separately are discussed below.

1.4.1 Geological Consideration:

The history of formation of a soil deposit, greatly influence its properties and
behavior. The properties of soil highly depend on the geological agents or the
processes through which the soil deposits have been developed.
Following are the types of soil based on the geological agents or the processes of
formation of soil.
1. Glacial Soil: This type of soil is developed, transported and deposited
by the action of glaciers. These deposits consist of rock fragments, boulders, gravels,
sand, silt and clay in various proportions (i.e. a heterogeneous mixture of all sized of
particles).
2. Residual soil: This type of soil is found on nearly flat rock surfaces
where the weathering action has produced as soil with a little or no tendency to
move. Residual soil also occurs when the rate of weathering is higher than the rate of
removal. The surface soil formed due to weathering of upper rock layers, conceal the
parent intact rock below the ground surface.
3. Alluvial soil: The soil transported and deposited by water is called
alluvial soil. As flowing water (stream or river) looses velocity, it tends to deposit some
of the particles that if was carrying in suspension or by rolling, sliding or skipping along
the riverbed. Coarser or heavier particles are dropped first. Hence on the higher
reaches of a river, gravel and sand are found. However on the lower parts, silt and clay
dominate, where the flow velocity is almost zero or very small, i.e. where the river
enters the sea or a lake. Thus river deposits are segregated according to size.
4. Wind blown soil or Aeolian soil: The soil transported by geological
agent ‘wind’ and subsequently deposited is known as windblown soil or Aeolian soil.
Win can move small particles of soil by rolling or by carrying them and may pile up in
the form of dunes. The wind may bring dust storms in arid regions, removing the soil,
which is necessary to the plant life, and causing deserts. Windblown soil has two main
types named Dune sand and Loess.
4-a. Dune or Dune Sane: in arid parts of the world, wind is continually
forming sand deposits in the form of dunes characterized by low hill and ridge
formation. They generally occur in deserts and comprise of sand particles, which are
fairly rounded and uniform in size. The particles of the dune sand are coarser than the
particles of loess. Dune material is generally, a good source of sand for construction
purpose.
4-b. Loess: Accumulation of wind blow dust (mainly siliceous silt or silty-
clay) laid down in loose condition is known as loess. The dust is originally derived from
desert areas or from vegetation free areas around the ice sheets. Silt soil in arid
regions have no moisture to bond the particles together and are very susceptible to
the effects of wind and therefore can be carried great distances by wind storms. An
important engineering property of loess is its low density and high permeability. In
saturated condition its strength falls significantly, such that its structures collapses and

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its consolidates under its own weight. Saturated loess is very weak and always causes
foundation problems e.g. liquefaction.

5. Colluvial soil: The accumulation formed by the rock fragments and soil
material resulting from the mechanical weathering of rocks is known as colluvial soil.
This type of soil is formed more or less in situ or as a result of transported by gravity
over a short distance. Colluvial soil usually exists as heaps of coarse debris at the foot
of cliffs and steep slopes. The free face (slope) adopts the angle of repose for the
material, usually 25-350. The finest particles are usually removed from the heaps by
percolating water.
1.4.2 Engineering Consideration:
The types of soil based on engineering consideration solely depend on the particle
size. Since the engineering properties of soil markedly change with the change of

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particle size, different names are assigned to particular ranges of particle sizes. The
range of particle sizes specified for each soil type, however, vary among the agencies.
The soil types based on MIT classification are as follows.
1. Clay: It is composed of very fine particles, less than .002 mm in size.
They are flaky in shape and therefore have considerable surface area. These surfaces
carry electrical charge, which helps in understanding the engineering properties of
clay soils. In a moist condition, clay becomes very sticky and can be rolled into
threads. Due to electrical charge, clay shows high inter-particle attraction and thus
exhibits sufficient cohesion. It has very high dry strength, low erosion, good
workability under moist condition, and can be readily compacted. It has no inter-
particle friction and is, therefore, subjected to slides at high moisture contents. It is
also susceptible to shrinkage and swelling. It has very low permeability. Clay soils
commonly have brown colour.

.
2. Silt: It is composed of particle ranging in size between .002 and .06
mm. it has high capillarity, no plasticity and has very low dry strength. It has particle
size intermediate between clay and sand. Therefore it possesses properties of both
clay and sand, i.e. it shows slight cohesion and also friction. The color of silty soil is
mostly brown.
3. Sand: It consists of particles ranging in size from .06 mm to 2 mm. it
has a grey color. These particles may be rounded to angular in shape. It shows no
plasticity, high strength in confined state and has considerable frictional resistance.
The frictional resistance depends upon the particle shape. Angular particles have
higher frictional resistance as compared to the rounded ones. It has high permeability
and low capillarity.
Sand is the most wanted material. In buildings it is used in concrete, plastering, mortar
and some time a layer of compacted sand is provided under the building foundation. It

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is used for site improvement in vibroflotation method for deep compaction of loose
soil deposit. It is used in the form of sand piles to speed up the process of
consolidation in pre-loading method for site improvement. In dams it is used as a filter
material. It is also used behind retaining walls for backfill drainage to avoid the
development of hydrostatic pressure.
Abundant quantities of sand are available in deserts and riverbeds. It is also available
in the form of sub-surface seams or layers at shallow depth, which can be develop as
quarry for taking sand for construction proposes.
4. Gravels: They consist of particles varying in size from 2 mm to 60
mm. they form a good foundation material. They show high frictional resistance. Thee
frictional resistance depends upon the particle size and shape. Angular particles have
higher frictional resistance as compared to the rounded particles. The gravel produced
by crushing of rocks are angular in shape, while those take from riverbeds are sub-
rounded to rounded. Therefore graves from crushers are used in the upper layers of
pavement, where wheel load stresses are higher. They show very high permeability.
When sand and silt are mixed with gravels their bearing capacity in further increased
but permeability may be decreased.
5. Cobbles or Boulder: Particles larger than gravel are commonly known
as cobbles or boulders. Cobbles generally range in size from 60mm to 200mm. the
material larger than 200mm is designated as boulders.
6. Organic Matter: The main source of organic matter is the plants
or animal remains that are added to soil when these organism die. Plants decompose
at a slower rate than the animal remains. Commonly about 12 of the soil from top
surface has a major concentration of organic matter. Organic matter has open spongy
structure and is mechanically weak. It undergoes large volume changes under loads
and contains high natural moisture content. The strength of soil is very much reduced
when the concentration of organic matter is more than 2% and the soil is considered
unsuitable for foundation support.
The soil types based on the grain size limits according to ASTM and AASHTO
are given in the following table.

Table: 1.1 Nomenclature of material (soil type) and range of sizes

Nomenclature Range of Sizes

(Soil Type) ASTM AASHTO
75 mm to 4.75 mm
Gravel Larger than 2mm
(3in Sieve to No. 4 sieve)
4.75 mm to 2 mm
Coarse Sand 2mm to 0.425mm
(No. 4 to No. 10 Sieve)
2mm to 0.425mm
Medium Sand ---
(No. 10 to No. 40 Sieve)
0.425mm to 0.075mm
Find Sand 0.425 mm to 0.075mm
(No. 40 to No. 200 Sieve)
0.075mm to 0.005mm
Silt 0.075mm to .002mm
(No. 200 to .005mm)
Clay Smaller than 0.005mm Smaller than 0.002mm
Colloids Smaller than 0.001mm Smaller than 0.001mm

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 The nomenclature for the material assigned to the grain-size limits adopted by
the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) as given in the Table: 1.1, has
been used in the unified soil classification system. The AASHTO soil classification
system however, follows the nomenclature established by the AASHTO (American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) for the classification of
soils.

1.5 SOIL MECHANICS

Soil Mechanics is defined as the branch of engineering science which enables
an engineer to know theoretically or experimentally the behavior of soil under the
action of loads (static or dynamic), gravitational forces, water and temperature.
Simply speaking it is the knowledge of engineering science, which deals with
properties, behavior and performance of soil as a construction material or foundation
support.
Teraghi, a famous soil scientist defines soil mechanics as follow:

Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of hydraulics and mechanics to

engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by mechanical and chemical disintegration
of rocks.
With recent advances in Engineering science, the design and execution of large
projects, which at times were considered beyond imagination and control, have now
become quite common. Skyscrapers, subways, maritime and off-shore structures,
dams and bridges spanning the sea are some examples of large projects.
For the design and construction of almost all such projects the engineers have to deal
with both soil and rock, either as construction material or as foundation support.
Further, it is known that physical and engineering properties of soil and rock are very
therefore considered more logical to use a more descriptive term, i.e., Geotechnical
Engineering instead of Soil Mechanics. Thus Soil Mechanics, now-a-days is considered
as a section of Geotechnical Engineering.
Figure 1.5 shows a soil mass subjected to static load i.e. from a building
structure. When a building is constructed, the loads are transferred to the soil through
the foundation. The purpose of the foundation is to spread the load over a wider area,
so that the stress (load divided by the area of foundation) applied to the soil mass
should not cause shear failure of the supporting soil. Higher the number of storey or
the columns or wall spacing, higher is the applied load and hence larger is the area of
foundation required. Structural loads, once applied to the soil, remain constant and
known as static loads. Due to the static loads, the supporting soil is compressed and
the building settles down. For the safety of a structure, the following two basic
stability criteria should always be satisfied.
1. There should be no shear failure of the foundation soil.
2. The settlement should remain within permissible limits.
Therefore, for the design of foundation for structures, the information about
the shear strength and compressibility characteristics of soil are required.

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 Figure 1.666 shows a soil mass subjected to traffic loading. Due to moving
speed of the traffic, an impact is produced and therefore traffic loads are known
dynamic loads. Higher the speed greater is the impact. Cutting r filling is required for
the construction of roads. For filing, soil is excavated from the borrow areas and
dumped at the embankment site and then compacted by rollers. The compaction of a
soil very much depends on tits type, the moisture content, the weight and type of
roller and the number of passes of the rollers. The type of roller is selected based on
the type of soil. The weight of roller is based on the degree of densification required.
For economic reasons the borrow areas are selected close to the embankment site.
However, if the soil from the borrow areas close the proposed embankment is not
suitable for construction, then either the soil will be stabilized or may be brought from
other areas. The road embankments are always open to the seasonal variation of
moisture content due rains and dry weather. During rains or flooding along the
embankment, the moisture content of the soil is increased which causes reduction in
shear strength of the soil. Some soils show significant swelling and shrinkage due to
increase and decrease of moisture content respectively. Therefore, for the design and
construction of roads, compaction related characteristics of soil and its behavior with
respect to seasonal changes of moisture content are required.

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 Figure 1.7 and 1.8 show a soil mass subjected to gravitational forces.
Gravitational forces are continuously acting on soil mass to pull it down to the lower
levels. Whenever cuttings are made for any civil engineering project (such as roads in
hilly areas), the soil at the higher level has a tendency to move down due to
gravitational forces. The shear strength of the soil provides a resisting force against
the downwards movement.

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If the downwards gravitational force is greater than the resisting shear strength a slide
take place and soil mass achieves a more flat angle of slope. Slides also occur in
natural mountain slopes. A mountain slope, which has been stable for a long time,
may slide down thus achieving a bit flatter angle of slope due to reduction in resisting
force (shear strength) as a result of weathering. Further slides are also possible
whenever the forces resisting the slide become smaller than the gravitational forces.
Such progressive slides occur in areas, where active weathering agents cause
reduction in resisting forces (shear strength) after each landslide, the slope angle is
further reduced. The landslides, for most of the slopes in critical condition, are
triggered by earthquake.
Water is the most aggressive factor responsible for the occurrence of most of
the landslides around the world. Water has two ways negative effect. It reduces the
resisting forces due to decrease in shear strength and at the same time it increases
the gravitational forces due to increase in unit weight.
For both of the cases as shown in figures 1.7 above and 1.8 below, after the
landslide, the slope angle is slightly reduced and the slope is temporarily stable with
the new angle of slope. The resisting forces are just balancing the gravitational forces.
If any future rainstorm or weathering agent causes a further reduction in shear
strength, so that the gravitational forces overcome the resisting forces, another slide
will occur and the slope will attain another comparatively flat slope angle. Therefore,
soil properties related to stability analysis of slopes are required to be known. A slope
angle should be designed using knowledge of soil mechanics to provide a reasonable
factor of safety under all conditions expected during the lifetime of the project.

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 Figure 1.9 below, shows a soil mass subjected to the action of storm water.
The storm water moving down along the face of a slope without vegetation cover
carries the soil particles down the slope. As the particles are gradually eroded away
with the flow, small channels are developed. The channels gradually grow in size as
they attract more and more water. The landscape is totally damaged and the soil is
accumulated at the toe of the slope, which cause serious problems for the moving
traffic.

Figure 1.10 shows a soil mass subjected to the action of river water. Whenever
a bridge is constructed, the piers obstruct the flow and the flow path is disturbed. The
flow area at the bridge section is reduced and the flow velocity is increased. The
disturbed flow path and the increased flow velocity result in erosion of the soil around
the pier know as scouring. The scour depth depends mainly on the flow velocity and
the particles size of the river bed material. For the design of foundation of the bridge
pier, the maximum depth of scour for the maximum anticipated flood during the
lifetime the bridge should be known. The foundation for the pier should be placed

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below this depth. If the foundation is placed above the potential scour depth expected
during the maximum anticipated flood, soil below the pier foundation will eroded,
resulting in washing away of the entire bridge structure. Therefore, knowledge of soil
mechanics is required to determine the scour depth for the design of foundation of
the bridges.

Figure 1.11 and 1.12 below show a soil mass subjected to frost action. In cold
regions where heavy snowfall occurs and the snow remains on the ground for quite a
long time, the soil moisture within the upper layer freeze. The depth of frost
penetration depends on the duration, for which the snow remains on the ground.
Longer the duration, greater is the depth of frost penetration. Ice lenses are formed as
shown in the figure. Since the volume of water increases on freezing, the heaving of
the ground surface occurs. During supper season, thawing (melting) of the ice lenses
takes place and more water enters the space. The soil moisture increases and hence
the shear strength is decreased. In the next winter, the size of the ice lenses is further
increased.

Due to the seasonal freezing a thawing phenomena, the buildings are lifted up
in winter due to increase in volume of soil as a result of formation of ice lenses and
settle down during summer due to decrease in shear strength resulting from thawing.

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Eventually the buildings having foundation placed within the frost zone are subjected
to cracking.
Due to the similar phenomena of seasonal freezing and thawing, cracking and
consequential failure of the pavements occur. Therefore, knowledge of soil mechanics
regarding frost action in soil and its control is required for the design and construction
of buildings and pavements in cold regions.

Figure 1.13 below, shows a retaining wall along a highways in mountains

range. The wall is a crib type retaining wall. Whenever a sloping soil mass is not stable
at the required angle of slope, it is supported by retaining walls. A soil mass either in
cut of fill with flat slope angles does not require retaining walls. But the cut or fill with
flat slope angles along a highway require greater right of way, which require much
more funds for the purchase of land. The project economics most of the times do not
allow such an option. In urban areas the cost of land in much higher and often
requires relocation of property owners which sometimes also creates social and
political problems. Under these conditions to minimize the right way requirement it is
always advisable to adopt steep slope angles. If the soil is not strong enough (shear
strength) to allow stable steep slope angles, they need to be supported by retaining
walls. The selection of a particular type of retaining wall depends on many factors,
such as, project economics site location, height of the cut or fill, availability of
material, type of soil to be retained, hydrologic conditions of the site, etc. the pressure
exerted on the retaining wall, depends on the angle of plane of failure developed in
the soil mass retained. The angle of plane of failure in its turn depends on the shear
strength of the soil and the local conditions, a failure (landslide) may take place.
Landslides cause damage to property and life as well as serious threat to environment
and social life due to break of communication links between the cities.

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 Figure 1.14 above, shows a landslide (causing failure of the gravity type
retaining wall), which occurred mainly due to reduction in shear strength as a result of
percolation of storm water into the soil. Therefore, apart from the knowledge of the
local site conditions, a thorough knowledge of the shear strength of the soil and earth
pressure theories is required for the design of retaining walls.

Figure 1.15 above, shows a highway passing through a tunnel. Tunnels are
required to cut travel distances and ultimately to reduce the travel time. In
mountainous ranges, the roads running along the mountainsides, depending on the
topography, have steep and mil longitudinal grades and narrow curves. The travel
speed is greatly reduced and there is a much higher risk of accidents due to narrow
curves. Hilly areas mostly have cold climates and also bear heavy rainfall. The roads
along the mountainsides are subjected to quite frequent landslides and failure of
pavement structure due to frost action and increase of moisture content of the soil.
The construction of tunnels for highway has many advantages such as, reduction of
travel distances, increase of traveling speed, no risk of accident, no damage to
pavement structure due frost action or rains etc.
To reduce the travel distance and hence the travel time between cities across
the sea shores, tunnels are being constructed in the sea beds using State-of-the-Art
knowledge in Geotechnical Engineering. Shield machines are being used for tunneling
below the sea bottom.

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 A brief review of a project of excellence (Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway) completed
in the near past in Japan using State-of-the-Art technology is given below.

1.6 TRANS-TOKYO BAY HIGHWAY PROJECT

a. Project Scheme
The highway was constructed by the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Corporation
established exclusively for the project based on the investigation and studies
undertaken by the Ministry of Construction and the Japan Highway Public
Corporation.
A Brief Background of the Project
April, 1966 The Ministry of Construction started surveys for the Trans-Tokyo Bay
Highway.
August, 1976 Japan Highway Public Corporation took over the responsibility for
surveys from the Ministry of Construction.
December, 1985 The actual construction of the highway officially was approved and
funds were appropriated for the construction of the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway in the
draft budget for fiscal 1986.
April, 1986 The law to stipulate the terms of the construction of the Trans-Tokyo Bay
Highway was enacted.
October, 1986 The Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Corporation was established.
July, 1987 Environmental assessment was completed and the licenses for the project
given to the Japan Highway Public Corporation by the Ministry of construction.
July, 1987 The contractor for construction was signed between the Japan Highway
Public Corporation and the Company.
August, 1987 The Japan Highway Public Corporation and local public organizations
furnished funds to the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Corporation.
December, 1988 The Japan Highway Corporation concluded the fisher compensation
negotiation.
May, 1989 Construction Work Commenced.
July, 1997 The project was completed with a cost of 1,438.4 Billions Yen.

b. Location and Objectives

The Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway is a 15-km toll highway that runs across the central
portion of Tokyo Bay from east to west in connecting Kawasaki city and Kisarazu city.
The Highway has very much improved industrial activities as well as alleviated traffic
congestion in the area.
From the broader perspective, the trends of internationalization and
Informationizations are bringing about a series of remarkable transformations,
including a redistribution of urban functions and the development of multiple city
centers within the traditional metropolitan area. From this viewpoint, the Trans-Tokyo
Bay Highway has strengthened the cooperation between surrounding cities,
promoting the harmonious development of the entire Tokyo region.
The Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway has greatly reduced the driving distance and
time between the densely populated keihin area and the Boso area, which still offers
much room for development. For example, the driving distance from Kawasaki to
Kisarazu (measured between City Halls) has been reduced from 110 km to 30k, and

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the required time is reduced to only about/4. Likewise, the distance between Tokyo
and Kisarazu has been reduced by 45 km.

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 c. Outline of the Project
The Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway structure consists of two 10km long tunnels
under Kawasaki waters where surface traffic (navigating ships) is heavy, and a 5km
long bridge over Chiba waters where surface traffic is sparse, and two man-made
islands in between.
The size and scope of the structures were far beyond those of conventional
ones. In addition, the structures were to be constructed in very soft grounds under
deep water where the likelihood of large-scale earthquakes is high. Therefore, the
most advance technologies were required both for design and construction.

1.6.1 Salient Features of the Project

a. Ukishima Access
The Ukishima Access comprises the vertical shaft, which served as the
launching base for the shield tunnels, a ventilation tower, and a sloped embankment
approximately 700 meters in length through which the shield tunnels reached the sea
bottom. The soft soil under the embankment was improved to prevent settling and
ensure stable tunneling. The two sides of the embankment were secured by steel
jackets in the higher section and by steel pipe sheet pile and other protective works in
the lower section. The space between the revetments was covered with fill soil,

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riprap, and concrete blocks. Ground improvement and foundation pipe work were
also carried out under the vertical shaft, which functioned as the base for the shield
machines in excavating undersea tunnels. A box-shaped steel shell caisson was used
to from the vertical shaft.

b. Kisarazu Man-made Island

The Kisarazu Man-made Island is an artificial structure created using
reclamation techniques, and consists of the sloping embankment through which the
shield tunnels reached the sea bottom, a vertical shaft, and a level section extending
from the tunnels to the point where the bridge begins.
As the soft soil layer at the location selected for the Kisarazu Island was
relatively thin, the soft soils were dredged and replaced with selected sand and gravel.
The Island was subsequently reclaimed by constructing a mole structure and placing
an embankment. A braced-steel shell caisson was installed on the Kawasaki side of the
island as a launching base for shield machines.

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 After completion, the Island is accommodating ventilation facilities and a rest
area.

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 c. Kawasaki Man-made Island
The location selected for the Kawasaki Man-made Island is 5 km offshore from
the Ukishima Access, where the water is approximately 28 meters deep. Because the
seabed is soft to depth of about 30 meters, the ground was firstly stabilized by sand
compaction method and deep mixing method. A steel jacket serves as a combination
of retaining wall, mole structure, and work platform.
A diaphragm wall extending into the sea bottom was built between the inner
and outer jackets. The concrete structure of the ventilation shaft itself was then
constructed. During tunneling, it serves as a ventilation shaft. Provision for the future
expansion i.e. the construction of the third tunnel is also made.

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 1.6.2 State-of-the-Art Technology Used in Construction
In the past, sea-bottom tunnels such as the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway were designed
as sunken-and- buried tunnels. However, the remarkable technical progress and actual
results of the shield tunneling as a method for urban tunnels in recent years have
increased the possibility of applying this technology to large-diameter, long distance
tunneling under deep water.
Although the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway is initially a four-lane facility, provision
for expansion to six lanes has been made based on long-term forecasts of traffic load
and business profitability. Considering the ease with which the addition works can be
accomplished and the need to minimize the impact on shipping during construction,
the shield method was adopted as one of the world’s most innovative technologies.
The bridge from Kisarazu Man-made Island to the Kisarazu pier section, have a
superstructure of box girders with a steel deck forming a continuous multi-span
structure. In deep water, steel bridge piers were used as the substructure, providing
outstanding advantages in terms of construction cost, work time, and ease of
execution. In shallow water, concrete piers are used.
a. Shield Tunnel
To insure stability and water tightness at the tunnel face under the severest
geological conditions of high water pressure in very soft soils, the slurry shield
tunneling method was selected. The shield machines are cylindrical, with a diameter
of 14.14 meters. Cutting tools mounted on the forward surface rotate to cut away the
earth ahead of the shield, while high-pressure slurry prevents the earth face from
collapsing during work. The cut earth is reduced to slurry, which is then pumped away
from the work site. The tunnel wall was constructed by assembling ring-shaped
segments at the rear of the shield machine after each 1.5-meter advance. The entire
process of boring, slurry supply and discharge, and segment assembly was automated.
The twin tunnels starting from the Ukishima Access, Kisarazu Island, and the
two sides of the Kawasaki Island were dug simultaneously from both ends and meet
underground.
The substructure of the deep-water section of the bridge consisted of factory-
fabricated steel piers, which were transported by sea and set into place by a floating
crane. In the shallow-water section, the substructure was made up of the concrete
piers. The superstructure of the bridge comprised of box girder with a steel deck. After
assembly at yards, one of the following three methods of erection was applied,
depending on the depth of the water.
 Deep water: Large section of the deck structure were first assembled on
land then transported over water to the site, where they were erected
using floating cranes.
 Shallow water: Large section are loaded onto barges, and then jacked into
position directly from the barges at high tide.
 Shallow areas near shore: A temporary trestle was built, and sections were
lifted into positions using a crawler crane.

29
30
31
 1.6.3 Environmental Preservation
In the construction of the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway, every effort was made to
ensure harmony with the natural and social environment. Various environmental
preservation countermeasures were taken in order to absolutely minimize the impact
of the project on the environment, and environmental assessments were made.
a. Environmental Preservation countermeasures during Construction
Effective work methods were introduced wherever possible in order to
minimize the impact on the environment. For example, to prevent turbidity-
related ‘pollution, curtains were used at dredging sites and others.
b. Follow-up Environmental Assessments during Construction
Follow-up Environmental Assessment was conducted to prevent
environmental deterioration before it might occur, through early detection of
the effects of construction work on the neighboring environment and
reflection in project execution when necessary.
c. Water Quality, Condition of Currents, and Deposits
Periodic surveys were made in order to grasp the effects of dredging and other
work and actual road construction.

32
d. Air Quality, Noise, and Vibration
Periodic measurements were made of the SO2, NO2, and sound and vibration
levels attributable to construction machinery and construction vessels.

e. Natural Environmental
Long-term assessments were made covering land flora and fauna, marine life,
and topography and geological features.

33
34
 1.6.4 Navigational Safety
In consideration of the congested shipping conditions in Tokyo Bay, various
measures were actively promoted in order to completely guarantee navigational
safety, based on the opinions of a wide range of related parties.
a. Navigational Safety Center
A pair of centers was established for comprehensive implementation of marine
safety countermeasures. The Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Navigation Safety
Center at Higashi Ogishima in Kawasaki City and the Kisarazu Sub-center at
Nakajima Maeura in Kisarazu. Both were equipped with radar systems and
other equipment. The responsibilities of these centers included the collection
and dissemination of relevant information using a 24-hour-a-day system,
control of patrol ships and work vessels, and various duties pertaining to safety
emergencies when an accident occurred, all of which were carried out in
contact with Maritime Safety Agency and other marine-related parties.

35
b. Establishment of Construction Zones and Warning Measures
Construction zones were established in order to secure the safety of shipping
during the period of construction work. Zones were clearly marked by light
buoys and other equipment, and patrol ships were deployed in neighboring
area.
c. Safe Navigation of Work Vessels
A special navigational control system was adopted for use when large
structural components and work vessels were towed.

36
 d. Navigational Safety Countermeasures after Completion
Support measures for safe navigation include lights and signals.
Based on the above discussion about the projects, it is concluded that there is
an interaction between all structures (e.g. buildings, bridges, pavements, retaining
walls, tunnels etc.) and the soil. Transportation engineers face problems with cuts and
fills embankments and sub grade materials subjected to ever changing moisture
conditions throughout the lifetime. The lack of education and training among
professionals to properly deal with soil has resulted in frequent construction delays,
project cost increases, poor design, and deficient long-term performance of existing
transportation infrastructure.
A high degree of science and mathematics applied to the design of structures
of all types is wasted if the properties of the soil are not completely investigated and
the forces applicable are not fully analyzed. The acquisition of appropriate data, and
correct application of the knowledge of soil mechanics is a vital insurance against the
loss by failure of those structures and the very heavy amount of funds involved in
their creation.

1.7 OBJECTIVE OF SOIL MECHANICS

Various objectives of soil mechanics are listed below:
1. To perform engineering soil surveys.
2. To develop suitable oil sampling devices and soil sampling methods.
3. To develop suitable soil testing devices and testing methods.
4. To collect information about soil and their physical properties in the light of
fundamental knowledge of soil mechanics, earth work and foundation
engineering.
5. To determine physical properties of soil.
6. To evaluate and interpret test results and their application to the use of soil
as foundation support or construction material.
7. To try to understand the physical process which actually take place in soils
as foundation support or construction materials.
8. To select and adopt suitable soil conservation techniques.
9. To select and adopt the most suitable and economical methods to control
sedimentation of dam reservoirs.
10. To select suitable sites for disposal of solid waste (i.e. landfills) and to deal
with their design, operation and post completion problems.

37
 CHAPTER-II

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is designed to introduce the reader to the general terms and
definition routinely used by geotechnical engineer. These terms, and definitions,
primarily describe the important physical and index properties of soils. Most of the
physical properties are interrelated and simple equations have been developed so
that if some of the properties are known, the other can be determined by the use of
equations. Several of the equations will be used so frequently throughout the text
that it will be most appropriate to memorize them. However it is worthwhile to
mention that these equations are quite large in number and perhaps may be difficult
to remember them all. Therefore the students must practice to derive the required
relationships (equations) from the basic definitions.
The fundamental physical properties of soil are color, structure, particle size
and shape, specific gravity, unit weight, porosity, void ration, soil phases, moisture
content, and consistency. These properties are briefly discussed in the following
paragraphs.

2.2 COLOUR
It is the most common property of soil. Soil exist in nature in a wide variety of
colors depending upon the particular type of soil mineral, organic contents, the
amount of coloring oxides and the degree of oxidation. Black color of soil is due to the
presence of manganese compounds, green or blue color due to ferrous compound,
red, brown or yellow due to iron, and gray due to organic matter. For identification
purposes the color of moist soil in natural state is generally noted.

2.3 SOIL STRUCTURE

Arrangement of grouping of soil particles depending upon their size and shape
in various patterns of structural framework is called soil structure. This arrangement is
usually developed during the process of sedimentation or rock weathering.
Soil deposits at the face of earth have been developed by many natural
processes of accumulations of soil particles over historical period of time. During the
process of accumulation, soil particles arrange (group) themselves in different
patterns, depending upon their size and shape (mass to surface area ration). For
coarse grained or non-cohesive soil, mass to surface area ratio is relatively higher
therefore, the effect of gravity has major influence on the arrangement of particles,
and the effect of electrical charge on the particle surfaces is negligible.
The fine grained soil (mainly clay) because of their low mass to surface are
ratio is more affected by the electrical forces acting on their surfaces compared with

38
gravity forces, and therefore the particle arrange (group) themselves in different
patterns.
Terzaghi grouped the most common patterns of soil structure into the
following three principal groups.
I. Granular or single-grained structure
II. Flocculent structure
III. Dispersed structure
I. Granular or single-grained structure:
Cohesion-less soil (coarse-grained soils and silts > .01mm) tend to form a single
grained structure which may be loose or dense (fig 2.1) in single grained structure,
each grain is in contact with several of its neighbors in such a way that the aggregate is
stable even if there are no forces of adhesion at the point of contact between the
grains.
Singe grained soil structures are formed when soil grains independently settle slowly
in quite water. However experience indicates that it is possible for sands or silts to
develop an unusual loose or honeycomb structure (fig: 2.2). Honeycomb structure
may develop due to settlement of grains in soil-water suspension, or from a loosely
dumped moist soil, where grains develop a particle-to-particle contact that bridge
over relatively large void spaces and can resist the overburden pressure. Such deposits
in coarse-grained soil may be unstable when subjected to shock or vibrations,
resulting in quick volume reduction and loss of strength.

The risk of instability or loss of strength is reasonably reduced if some

cementing at points of particle contacts exit. The cementation over geologic time
period may occur as percolating water precipitates various carbonates and other
materials.
II. Flocculent Structure:
The clay minerals are extremely flaky in shape and have large surface area-to-mass
ratio. The clay particles carry a negative electrical charge on their surfaces. The affect

39
of electrical forces is more than the gravity forces. Clay deposits developed from
particles settling out of soil water suspension (either in fresh water or salt water)
tends to form a flocculent structure. A flocculent structure is developed when the
edge of one clay particle is attracted to the flat face of another (i.e. edge-to-face
contact) (fig 2.2). The structure of clay soil settling out in marine environment (salt-
water, which acts as an electrolyte) is more flocculent than clay in fresh water.
Clay deposits with flocculent structure have high void ratio, low density, high
water content and high permeability. The structure however is quite stable and
resistant to external forces that can be maintained as long as the electrical charges on
the edges of the particles remain opposite in sign to those on the faces. However, due
to change of environment surrounding the particles, such as the salt being leached
from the deposit, the inter-particle attraction and hence the strength is drastically
reduced.

III. Dispersed Structure:

The dispersed structure is developed when the edges and faces of the clay particles
have similar electrical charge. The particles repel each other and the orientation is
nearly parallel (fig: 2.3). The dispersed structure also develops as a result of remolding
by the transportation process (man-made-earth-fills). The particle arrangement that
develops from remolding has a more parallel orientation of particles. A flocculated
structure with the addition of moisture content and application of compaction energy
is changed to disperse structure. Dispersed structure is produced when compaction is
made on wet side of optimum moisture content. Dispersed structure exhibit low
permeability.

40
2.4 PARTICLES SHAPE AND SIZE
Particle size and shape very much influence the engineering properties of soil.
Particles of coarse-grained soil (sand, gravel, boulder etc.) are generally bulky in
shape, i.e. their length; width and thickness are approximately equal. Different shapes
are commonly termed as angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded and rounded (fig 2.4). The
shapes of the particles however depend on the rock type, their age, weathering and
transportations processes. The newer particles are generally angular and rough
surfaced. With the passage of time and as a result of weathering and transportation
processes, the edges are broken and the particle change finally to rounded shape.
Sub-angular and sub-rounded are the transition stages. The angular and rough
surfaced particles possess better engineering properties compared with those of
rounded and smooth particles. Some of the rocks, upon weathering produce flaky
particles. The presence of flaky particles in a granular soil mass has significant effect
on the engineering properties e.g. void ratio, density and compressibility. The flaky &
elongate particles bridge over open spaces, which can resist overburden pressure.
Therefore they produce relatively large void ratios and loose sol mass (Fig 2.5). The
flakes, however, are incapable of resisting the applied loading. They bend or break and
allow rearrangement of particles under applied loading, which sometimes produce
undesirable deformations.
41
The silt particles although classified as fines are still bulky in shape and have the same
mineralogical composition as the coarse grained soil.
The clay particles are flaky in shape (flat-plate-like shape). Their length and
width are many-many times greater than the thickness. The clay particles originate
from crystalline minerals. Due to their distinct mineralogical composition they exhibit
inter particle attraction and bonding with water molecules. As a result the behavior of
clay soil drastically changes with change of moisture content. At different moisture
contents, but at the same void ratio, a clay soil may behave as liquid, plastic or a solid
mass.

Individual clay particle seldom exists. Due to cohesive forces, they group
together, to form a cluster. The clay particles are very small in size (less than .002mm
or 2u). However it must be kept in mind that the properties of clay (cohesion and
plasticity) are due to the type of the mineral (i.e. clay mineral) and not due to its small
size. The particles of non-clay minerals although smaller than .002mm, do no exhibit
the clay properties (i.e. cohesion and plasticity).
Actual soil deposits consist of soil particles having variation in particle sizes.
The variation of particle sizes may be small to large. An ideal particle size distribution
(wee-graded) produces and optimum particle arrangement and upon compaction
42
produce a dense and strong soil mass. While a mass of soil having particles of nearly
the same sizes (uniformly or poorly-graded), produces a loose packing due to absence
of small particles to fill the voids between bigger particles.

2.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity of any substance is defined as the ratio of the unit weight
of the substance, to the unit weight of water at 4 0C.
The above definition simply means that how many times a substance (or
material) is heavier than water. For example the specific gravity of mercury of 13.6
means that if equal volumes of mercury and water are taken than mercury will be 13.6
times heavier than water. Similarly specific gravity of gold is 19.3 or one can say that
gold is 19.3 times heavier than water. A geotechnical engineer is commonly interested
in the specific gravity of the soil grains (solids), which is defined as the ratio of unit
weight of soil grains, to the unit weight of water. It is denoted by Gs and expressed as:

GS = YS = WS
(2.1)
YW VSYW

Where, YS = unit weight of soil solids (no pores)

YS = WSVS
(2.2)
Where WS is the weight of soil solids, which is equal to the dry weight. And V S is the
volume of soil solids (No pores).
The term bulk specific gravity or mass specific gravity is also used and it is
expressed as

43
G = YB/YW
(2.3)

Where YB = bulk density of soil.

Average value of Gs for soil solids range from 2.50 to 2.70, and it depends on
the mineral making of soil particles. If the mineral composing the soil is heavier the
specific gravity will be greater. A soil mass may be composed of a single mineral or
have been developed by a mixture of various minerals. Any mineral soil has a unique
value of specific gravity, which is independent of state of soil deposit (i.e. moisture
content, compaction etc.).
The bulk specific gravity however depends on the state of soil deposit. It is
variable i.e. lower for loose soil and higher for dense soil but can never be more than
the specific gravity of soil solids.
The specific gravity is a very important soil property and is extensively used for
the determination and calculation of many other soil properties; some of them are
listed below.
Particle size analysis by hydrometer test
Porosity and void ratio
Unit weight
Critical hydraulic gradient in studying the quick condition especially to check piping
failure of hydraulic structures, or heaving of soil while excavating below water table.
Degree of saturation or zero-air-voids in the studies of compaction soil.

It is therefore very important to pay serious attention and care to the determination
of specific gravity of soil.
Specific gravity of some common soil minerals and various soils are given in the table
below.

Table: 2.1 Specific Gravity of some Minerals and Soil Types.

Minerals Specific Gravity Soil-type Specific Gravity

Dolomite 2.8-2.9 Bentonite clay 2.13-2.18
Feldspar 2.5-2.6 Chalk 2.63-2.73
Gypsum 2.2-2.4 Clay 2.45-2.90
lllite 2.60 Humus 1.37

44
Quartz 2.60-2.65 Loess 2.65-2.75
Talc 2.7-2.8 Peat 1.26-1.8
Kaolinite 2.6-2.63 Silt 2.68-2.72
Magnetite 5.17-5.18 Quartz sand 2.60-2.65
Calcite 2.8-2.9 Lime 2.7

2.6 SOIL PHASE

A soil phase is a collection of solid particles of different sizes and shapes, which
form a porous medium. Depending upon seasonal variations these pores may be filled
with air or water or both. The phase of soil means any homogeneous part of a soil
mass different from other parts in the mass and clearly separated from them.
Since soil is a porous medium consisting of three different homogenous parts
(e.g. solid particles, water and air), a given volume of soil mass may be regarded as a
mass consisting of three fundamental phases, namely: Solid phase, Liquid Phase and
Gaseous or vapour phase.

In cold regions, the pore water in the upper soil layers freezes due to
accumulation of snow on the ground surface.
In the studies of these soils, four phases can be defined as under.
Solid phase
Liquid phase
45
Gaseous phase
Ice phase
The volumetric proportion of different phases can be studied by phase diagram. It
must be kept in mind that there is no real means of separating the soil phases as
shown in the Fig 2.6.

2.7 POROSITY
A soil is a porous medium consisting of solid particle, and the pores or voids.
The total volume of soil mass is the summation of volume of solid particles and the
volume of pores or voids. The volume of the pores or voids depends on the soil
density or degree of packing and is reduced considerable by compaction.

V = VS +VV
(2.4)
V = Total volume of soil mass
VS = Volume of solid particles of soil
VV = Volume of voids, which may be filled with air or water or both.

The ratio of volume of all the voids “VV” to the total volume of the soil mass “V” is
known as the porosity. It is denoted by “n” and expressed in %age.

n = VV X 100
(2.5)
V
In the above basic formula, it is difficult to determine the term “V v” by any
simple means. The porosity “n” may be expressed in terms of other physical
properties of soil and then it will be easily determined. The relationships can be
developed as follows.

n = VV = V-Vs
(2.6)
V V

n = 1 – Vs
V

The specific gravity, G = Ys

Yu

G = WS While YS = WS
VS YS VS

46
Vs = Ws / GYu while Ws = dry weight of soil
Putting the value of Vs in Eq – 2.6
N = 1 – Ws / GYwV
All the terms on the right hand side of Eq – 2.7 can be easily determined and
hence “n” can be calculated. Porosity varies in the range of 0<n<100.
Since it is practically impossible to eliminate all the voids therefore porosity
can never be zero. The increase in the volume of voids increases the total volume by
the same amount therefore porosity can never be 100%.
Porosity helps in the studies of seepage through soil.
2.8 VOID RATIO
It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids present in the soil to the volume of
solid particles in a soil mass. It is denoted by “e”.

e= volume of voids in soil = Vv / Vs

Volume of solids in soil
Relationship with other soil properties.

e = VV /VS = V-VS / VS = V / VS -1
e = VGYW /WS -1 while VS = WS /GS YW
The values on the right hand side of the equation (2.10) can be determined
easily and hence “e” can be calculated.
Again from Eq 2.9
V+e = V / VS
1 / 1+e = VS /V = V – Vs / V
1 / 1+ e = 1 – VV / V = 1 – n
n=1–1/1+e
n=1+e–1/1+e=e/1+e
Similarly it can be derived that
e=n/1–n
The void ratio is expressed as a number and the values vary within the range
0<e<< ∞
The common values however may range from 0.5 to 1.3. The values are lower
for sand and higher for clay, but also depend on compaction. The void ratio is
extensively used in calculating the following important soil parameters.

I. Unit weight Yb = (es + G) Yw

1+e
Y sat = (e + G) Y w / 1 + e

Yd = Gy w /1 + e
Y sub = (G – 1) Y w / 1 + e

47
 II. Critical hydraulic gradient, ie = G – 1 / 1+ e
III. Relative density D = emax – e / emax - emin
IV. Modulus of compressibility, my = e1 – e2 / (p2 – p1) (1 + e1)
V. Theoretical maximum dry density, Ydmax = GYw / 1 + e
VI. Final settlement, ∆ H = (∆e / 1 + e1) H
Void ratio further plays an important role to understand the process of
consolidation of soil and in the settlement analysis of structures. Practically, void ratio
“e” cannot be reduced to zero but it can be more than one.
2.9 MOISTURE CONTENT
The amount of water present in the voids of soil in its natural state is termed
as the moisture content of soil. It is denoted by”m” and expressed as %age. It is
numerically expressed as under:
m = weight of water x 100
Weight of dry soil
It is an important physical property since the behavior of soil is very much
influenced by changes of moisture content. At large changes of moisture content the
behavior of soil is entirely changed e.g. a soil which behaves a s solid at low moisture
content is changed to liquid state at high moisture content and the shear strength is
practically reduced to zero. Increase in soil moisture always increases the unit weight
of a dry soil.
The moisture or water in the voids of a soil mass can occur in a variety of
forms. Depending upon the form of occurrence they are given different names e.g.
2.9.1 Hygroscopic Moisture
It is also known as absorbed moisture, contact moisture or surface bound
moisture. This form of soil mixture exists as a very thin film of moisture surrounding
the surfaces of individual soil particles and is held by the force of adhesion. Practically
the moisture present in an air dried soil sample may be termed as hygroscopic
moisture. The value of hygroscopic moisture however depends on the atmospheric
temperature, relative humidity and the type of soil. In fine grained soil such as clays,
due to large specific surface, hygroscopic moisture is high (up to 20% or more) while in
coarse grained soil (sand) it is relatively low due to limited amount of specific surface.
The approximately values of hygroscopic moisture for various soils are as
under:
1. Sand 1-2%
2. Silt 7-9%
3. Clay 17-20%
The values are just approximate and vary with humidity and temperature etc.
Hygroscopic moisture is not affected by gravitational forces, capillary forces
and air drying at ordinary temperature. Hygroscopic moisture film is bound so rigid to
the particle surfaces that it cannot be removed even by centrifugation. It does not
exert any hydrostatic pressure.

48
 The difference between the weight of an air dried sample to its weight after
oven dry at + 105oC gives the amount of hygroscopic moisture present in the soil.
2.9.2 Film Moisture
The thickness of the moisture film around soil particles varies depending upon
the condition such as weather etc. the moisture film attached to the soil particles,
above the layer of hygroscopic moisture film, is known is film moisture. It is held by
the molecular forces and is not affected by gravity. It can move from points of higher
potentials (heat or electric) to lower ones or from points of thicker to thinner films.
The amount of film moisture depends on the specific surface i.e. higher the specific
surface higher will be the film moisture and vice-versa.
2.9.3 Capillary moisture
It is defined as the moisture, which is held within the voids of capillary size. The
capillary moisture is continuously connected to the groundwater table. It rises above
the water table and is held by the surface tension force of the menisci at the top of
water columns in capillary tubes formed due to interconnected pores in soil. The voids
are completely filled with water and the soil is fully saturated. The height or thickness
of capillary saturated zone above the groundwater table depends on the size of soil
particles. Finer the particle, greater is the thickness of capillary zone.
2.9.4 Chemically Bound Moisture
It is the moisture contained chemically within the mineral particles and can be
removed only by chemical process, which breaks the crystalline structure of the
mineral. The chemically bound water does not influence the physical properties and
behavior of soil and therefore is not commonly determined.
The moisture content determined through oven drying method (or any other
method) by Eq- 2.22 includes adsorbed moisture, film moisture and only that portion
of capillary moisture, which is held within the voids by surface tension forces. All other
forms of water (not discussed here) will be drained out by gravity as the soil sample is
extracted from the ground (from surface or sub surface layers). Chemically bound
moisture is not important for common soil engineering problems and therefore is not
determined.
The range of moisture content is
0≤m<<∞
It is not unusually for some soils (marine or organic lake soil) to have moisture
content up to 300-400%. The common range of moisture content for most soils is
about 20-40%. Oven dried soil has zero % moisture and the soils which appear dry (i.e.
air dried soil) often have 2 to 4 % moisture content.
2.10 DEGREE OF SATURATION
The most content in a soil mass is variable. It continues changing depending
upon the climatic conditions. In rainy season it is high, while in dry weather it is low.
The condition when voids are partially filled with water is expressed by the degree of

49
saturation or relative moisture content. It is the ratio of actual volume of water in
voids “Vw” to the total volume of voids “Vv”.
It is denoted by “S” and is express by the following relationship.
S + VW / VV = WW / WV = m / msat
WW – is the weight of water actually present in the voids.
WV – is the weight of water that can fill all the voids
M – Actual moisture content.
Msat – moisture content when all voids are totally filled with water.
The range of “S” is expressed as follows\
0 ≤ S ≤ 100
For an oven dried soil, S = 0, which means that all the voids in the soil mass are
filled with air i.e. Vw = 0. For fully saturate soil, S =1, which means that all the voids are
filled with water i.e. Vw = Vv. Remember! For air dried soil the value of “S” is seldom
equal to zero but is always more than zero, the value however depends on the type of
soil, atmosphere temperature and humidity etc.
2.11 AIR VOID RATIO OR AIR CONTENT
In fully dried or partially saturate soil, the voids are fully or partially filled with
air. When the soil is considered for engineering purposes the volume of air should be
reduced as much as possible, since it contributes nothing to the strength when the soil
is subjected to loading (e.g. highway embankment or foundation support etc.)and
obstruct the seepage flow when the soil is being used as a permeable medium (e.g.
filters etc).
The air void ratio or air content is defined as the ratio of the volume of air
present in the voids to the total volume of a soil mass.
Av or A = Va / V = Vv – Vw / Vv + Vs
A = Vv – SVv / Vs (1 + Vv / Vs) while, Vw = SVv
A = Vv (1 – S)/ Vs (1 + e)
A = e(1 –S) / 1 + e
A = n (1 – S) while, n = e / 1+ e
A study of Eq-2.27 indicate that for fully saturate soil, the air content will be
zero and for fully dried soil the air content will be equal to porosity. Air content falls
within the range of
0 ≤ A < 100
2.12 ATTERBERG OR CONSISTENCY LIMITS
The term consistency is related to fine grained soils (i.e. clay). In clay soil the
shape (i.e. flaky shape) of the particles has greater influence on engineering properties
rather than the size. The properties and behavior of clay is very much influenced due
to moisture variation. The electrical charge on the flakes plays an important role in
changing the behavior. It is daily life experience of even a common man that the
strength of clay varies widely with changes of moisture content. It is very hard in dry
state while it behaves as a viscous fluid (almost zero shear strength) at high moisture
50
content. The consistency of a soil means its physical state with respect to the moisture
content present at that time.
Four consistency states are commonly defined for clays (cohesive soils)
1. Solid state
2. Semi solid state
3. Plastic state
4. Liquid state
Atterbergs a Swedish soil scientist defined the boundaries of the above four
states in terms of limits as follows.
1. Shrinkage Limit: it is the moisture content at which a soil changes from
solid state to semi solid state.
2. Plastic Limit: it is the moisture content at which a soil changes from semi
solid state to plastic state.
3. Liquid Limit: it is the moisture content at which a soil changes from plastic
state to liquid state.
The transition from one state to the next however is gradual, and according to
above definitions it is quite difficult to know the value of moisture content at which
the change of state occurs. The definition that clearly states the moisture content at
which the change of state occurs will be given later.
The most important of these limits are the liquid and the plastic limits, which
indicate the range of plastic state. The range of plastic state means, the upper and
lower bounds of moisture content within which the soil behaves similar to a plastic
material. It is the numerical difference between the liquid and plastic limits and is
known as plasticity index.
Due to the plastic behavior of fine grained soils, these limits relate to the
plasticity, which is a major characteristic of fine grained (clay) soils. It is defined as the
property that enables a material to undergo large irrecoverable deformations without
cracking or crumbling. Since the plasticity, greatly influence the engineering properties
such as shear strength and compressibility, it is therefore used as a basis for the
classification of fined grained soils.
As discussed earlier the plasticity does not depend on the size of the particles.
Rock flour, for example practically exhibits no plasticity, where as clay having the same
size will exhibit a marked plasticity. Bentonite and kaolinite clays having almost similar
particle sizes have different plasticity values. Actually many factors, such as, the size,
shape nature of the clay mineral and the nature of the adsorbed layers, control the
plasticity. Where the average specific surface is high (more fine and flaky e.g.
Montmorillonite clay having approximate size, length = 0.1 -0.5, and thickness = 0.001
– 0.01 цm), the plastic may be extremely high and the soil extremely compressible.
2.12.1 Shrinkage Limit
It is defined as that moisture content at which a reduction in moisture will not
cause a decrease in the total volume of soil mass, but an increase in moisture will
result in an increase in volume of soil mass.
This happens due to the face, that at a certain point during the drying process,
air begins to enter the soil mass and the volume decrease becomes appreciably less
than the volume of water lost. The process of drying can be better explained by the
following diagram: -

51
 During drying process form point “E” to point “B” the reduction in total volume
of soil mass is equal to the volume of moisture lost and the soil shrinks. As the drying
continues from point “B” to point “A” i.e. up to zero % moisture content, no
appreciable color from dark to light. It should be kept in mind that, at shrinkage limit
the degree of saturation is 100%.
The shrinkage limit is not given much importance and not commonly
determined, since it s not used in classification of soil. The shrinkage limit however
gives some idea about the soil structure e.g. a dispersed structure will generally
produce a low shrinkage limit while a flocculated structure show a high shrinkage
limit. It is also of much importance for certain soil types, which exhibit considerable
volume change (i.e. shrinkage & swell) with changes in moisture content. It should be
noted that smaller the shrinkage limit, the larger will be change in volume of soil due
to moisture changes. For moisture content exceeds this value the soil will begin to
expand. And during the drying cycle will continue shrinkage until the moisture content
reduces back to 10% (i.e. shrinkage limit). A soil with shrinkage limit of less than 10%
will shrink more.
The concept of shrinkage limit of cohesive sol is helpful in studying the
behavior of slopes of dames, highway embankments and cuts, especially to check the
possibility of development of shrinkage cracks. In rainy seasons these cracks get filled
with water, which increase the weight of earth mass due to saturation and exert soil,
higher is the shrinkage potential.
With the increase of moisture in a soil mass, the thickness of moisture film
around the clay particle increases, until at a certain state the cohesion is reduced to

52
such a low level that soil behaves like a liquid. At this stage the soil particles are
separated by water so widely that the shear strength of the soil mass is almost lost
and the particles tend to flow under the influence of gravity. When this soil is
subjected to drying, it loses its moisture and the particles, which were separated by
water, get closer due to decreases in thickness of moisture film and the soil shrinks.
During drying process the surface tension forces of the pore water, compress the
particles together into a compact mass and the volume continues down to the
shrinkage limit moisture content. When this moisture content is attained, no further
decrease in volume or shrinkage takes place. At this stage the menisci of the moisture
tear off (Fig: 2.8) and air begins to enter the voids and further drying causes no
volume change.
Due to fine particles of clay soil, the break of meniscus and air entry occurs at
considerable low moisture content resulting in low shrinkage limit for clay soil. Since
clay soils have high liquid limit, the amount of moisture loss up to the shrinkage limit
and the resulting volume decrease is very high, and therefore very big cracks develop.

It is worth bearing in mind that very high compressive stresses are developed
during drying due to large number of soil pores simultaneously being subjected to
surface tension forces of pore water. Due to these shrinkage stresses the soil is
densified to such a degree as if it has been subjected to an overburden pressures of
the order of 200 to 900 kpa. (Tschebotarioff, 1936).
A series of polygonal cracks as shown in (Fig: 2.9) develop on the surface due
to shrinkage of cohesive soil. These cracks may extend to a great depth (couple of
meters). Upon wetting, the soil swells due to increase in volume and the cracks

53
disappear. Shrinkage susceptible soils cause serious engineering problems mainly due
to their volume change character. The annual economic loss in United States, where
nearly 25% of the land area is covered with shrinkage susceptible soil was about 5.5
billion dollars in the year 1980 (Holtz, 1980).
The soils, which show higher shrinkage upon drying, also swell more upon
wetting and are known as expansive soils. Expansive soils are very dense and hard in
dry state due to very high shrinkage stresses.
Even at low moisture contents the soil is sufficiently dense and hard, such that
it is often difficult or impossible to obtain thin walled tube samples for laboratory
testing. Test results are considerably affected due to presence of cracks or cracks filled
with silt or other foreign material.

Volume change is directly related to the shrinkage limit and to some extent to
the plasticity index. If the plasticity index is greater than 20%, the volume change may
cause engineering problems, which require precautionary measures. The following
table may be used as reference in predicting the occurrence of volume of change.

Table: 2.2 Relationship between Atterberg limits and volume change

Volume change Plasticity index

Shrinkage limit
potential Arid area Humid area
Little 0 – 15 0 – 30 > 12
Moderate 15 – 30 30 – 50 10 – 12
High > 30 >50 <10
*From Holtz and Gibbs (1956)

54
 The expansion problem can be avoided only when the soil is protected against
water infiltration by the use of surface or sub surface drainage, landscaping and
impervious membranes.
Shrinkage limit is determined by a simple test. A test sample is prepared by
filling a paste of saturated soil (passing No. 40 sieve) in the shrinkage mould. The
weight of the sample and volume is determined. The sample is then dried in an oven
and dry volume is determined.
Let,
Initial weight of saturated sample (paste) = Wi
Initial volume of saturated sample = Volume of mould = Vi
Final volume of sample after drying = Vf or Vd
Dry weight of sample = Wd
Initial (Total) weight of water in the sample = Wi - Wd
Weight of water lost during the process of drying of the original sample up to
the shrinkage limit = (Vi – Vf) Yw
As the drying starts, there is a loss of moisture and the volume decreases,
which continues to decrease up to the shrinkage limit and the sample still
remains saturated. Further drying reduces the moisture but keeping the volume
constant equal to Vd, since air begins to enter the voids.
Weight water at shrinkage limit = (Wi – Wd) – (Vi – Vf) Yw
Moisture content at shrinkage limit = (Wi – Wd) – (Vi – Vf) Yw / Wd

SL = m – (Vi – Vf / Wd)Yw x 100

Where m is the moisture content of sample at the start of test

Alternate Method for determination of Shrinkage Limit:
Shrinkage limit may also be defined as the moisture content just sufficient to
saturate a dry sample at constant volume.
Volume of soil in dry state (Vd) = Volume in saturated state at shrinkage limit
Volume of void in dry state (Vv) = Volume of water (Vw) at shrinkage limit (saturated
soil)
Volume of voids in dry state (Vv) = Vd - Vs
= Vd – Wd /Ys
Hence,
Volume of water (Vw) at shrinkage limit = Vd – Wd /Ys
Weight of water at shrinkage limit = (Vd – Wd / Ys) Yw
Moisture content at shrinkage limit (SL) = (Vd –Wd /Ys) Yw / Wd
Sl =Vd Yw / Wd – Wd Yw / WdYs
SL = Yw /Yd – 1 /G
2.12.2 plastic limit
It is defined as the moisture content at which a soil can be rolled into thread of
1/8” (3.2mm) diameter without cracking and crumbling. Threads thinner than 1/8”
(3.2mm) diameter are possible, if the moisture is higher than the plastic limit. And if
the moisture is less than plastic limit the thread will crumble before reaching the
required diameter of 1/8” (3.2mm).

55
 Above the plastic limit for a specific range of moisture content, depending on
the type of soil, a soil mass behaves as a plastic material. A soil for that range of
moisture content allows a change in shape, without a noticeable change in volume
and without rupture involving a complete rearrangement of particles and will retain
this shape when pressure is removed.
Sandy soil do not have plastic limit, and are known as non plastic soils. Fine
grained soils (silt and clay) have plastic limits, and are known as plastic or cohesive
soil. The plastic limit depends on the amount and nature of clay minerals present in
the soil mass. Higher clay contents usually give higher plastic limits. The plastic limit
increases as the grain size decreases.
At plastic limit moisture content, the shear strength (load carrying capacity) of
soil is very low. The shear strength of cohesive soil varies considerably with changes of
moisture content. Therefore the earth work structures e.g. pavements and
Embankments, which are open to seasonal changes of moisture content , should be
designed on the basis of worst soil condition, and (i.e. at maximum possible moisture
content expected during the life time).
Plastic limit is used to find the Plasticity index, Liquidity index and the Activity
soil. It is used in the classification of soil and is also useful in predicting the optimum
moisture content.
2.12.3 Liquid Limit
It is defined as that moisture content at which 25 blows of Casagrande
apparatus closes a standard groove in the soil paste, along a distance of 12.7 mm (0.5
in). It is also defined as the moisture content, which gives a penetration depth of
20mm of the standard cone (fall cone test) into the soil, when the cone is released for
5 seconds.
It is the cohesion, which retards the flow of soil to close the groove. Liquid limit
therefore gives an indication of the soil cohesion. Liquid limit increase as the grain size
decreases. A higher value of liquid limit therefore indicates higher cohesion and a
higher %age of clay, which further indicates that upon wetting, the load bearing
capacity of the soil will be drastically reduced.
According to Casagrande, the number of blows required to close the groove
represent a relative measure of shearing resistance of soil. He concluded that each
blow in the apparatus corresponds to shear strength of about 1.0 g/cm 2 (≈ 2.5 kN/m2).
In other words the shear strength of all soils at their liquid limits is constant, i.e. 25.0
g/cm2.
The liquid limit is used in the classification of soil and sometimes is used to
estimate the consolidation material. It is also useful in predicting the optimum
moisture content of soil in compaction studies.
2.12.4 Plasticity index
Plasticity index indicates the range of moisture through which a cohesive soil
behaves as a plastic material. It is simply defined as the numerical difference between
liquid and plastic limits. It is expressed as
P.I = L.L – P.L (%)
By definition it is clear the P.I can never be negative. The plastic index gives an
idea about the plastic behavior of soil and indicates the degree of cohesiveness of the
soil, e.g. the smaller the plasticity index, the less plastic is the soil. When the plasticity

56
index is zero (Liquid limit = Plastic limit), the soil is termed as non cohesive or non
plastic.
Atterberg defined the range of plasticity index as under:
P.I = 0 The soil is non plastic and non cohesive
P.I < 7 The soil is low plastic and partially cohesive.
P.I. 7-17 The soil is medium plastic and cohesive.
P.I. > 17 The soil is highly plastic and very cohesive.
Fig: 2.10 shows that with a decrease in plastic properties of soil, the liquid limit
increase faster than the plastic limit and ultimately for non plastic soil the liquid and
plastic limits coincide. Fig: 2.10 also reveals that upon drying, the sandy (non plastic or
non cohesive) soils do not pass through the plastic state and change from liquid state
to semi solid state (or vice versa) abruptly, resulting in a non coherent material. This is
the reason that fine sands and silts are very sensitive with respect to saturation and
flow pressure (quicksand phenomenon).
Plasticity index is used for the classification of fine grained soils. Plasticity index
helps in evaluating a soil for use as a structural fill .e.g. dams, embankments, landfills,
and pavements sub grade and for foundation support. Higher the plasticity index,
higher will be the loss of strength upon wetting. Therefore many construction
companies in highway engineering recommend that the plasticity index should not
exceed “6” for the sub grade soil, used close to the pavement structure (i.e. upper
layer of sub grade).

57
 The plasticity index is an indicator of the suitability of the clay fraction in a
stabilized soil mixture. Sand clay mixture or clay gravel mixture, in which the plasticity
index of the binder (clay) fraction is too high, tends to soften in wet weather. A
pavement constructed of such material develops ruts under the traffic and may show
other signs of instability. When a pavement of this type is used without a bituminous
wearing surface, a high plasticity index indicates that the surface will become slippery
in wet weather. On the other hand, if the plasticity index is too low or the mixture is
non plastic, it will become friable in dry weather, ravel at the edges and abrade
severely under traffic.
2.12.5 Liquidity index
It is defined as the ratio of difference between the moisture content and
plastic limit to the plastic index. It is also known as consistency index or relative
plasticity index and is expressed as under.
L.I = m – P.L = m – P.L
L.L – P.L P.I

58
 The natural moisture content by itself actually gives very little idea about the
consistency of soil. However, its value relative to the value of liquid and plastic limits is
very significant, and indicates whether a cohesive soil is in the solid state, plastic or in
the liquid state.
When L.I < 0, (i.e. a negative value) the field moisture content is less
than the plastic limit, and hence the soil is in a semi solid state.
When 0 ≤ L.I ≤ 1, The soil is in a plastic state
When L.I > 1, The soil is in a liquid state.
The liquidity index gives a direct indication of the state of consistency of a soil
at its natural moisture content.
When
L.I < 0, the soil is in a semi soli or solid state
0.00 < L.I ≤ 0.25, the consistency is stiff or hard
0.25 < L.I ≤ 0.50, the consistency is medium
0.5 < L.I ≤ 0.75, the consistency is soft
0.75< L.I ≤ 1, the consistency is very soft
L.I > 1, the soil is in a liquid state
The liquidity index helps to know the possibility of a flow or slide of
embankment slopes. When the natural moisture content in a soil approaches to liquid
limit, the liquidity index approaches to unity. Therefore liquidity index can be
considered as a slide or flow coefficient. Hence, the liquidity index indicates in which
part of its plastic range a given soil sample lies and helps to assess its natural moisture
content.
2.12.6 Flow Index
The slope of the flow curve (gaps between log N and moisture content drawn
for the determination of liquid limit) is known as the flow index. It is expressed by the
following Eq.
F. I = m.e /Log N = m1 – m2 / log N1 /N2
Its numerical value is the difference of two moisture contents intercepted by
the flow curve for the two values of number of blows in one log-cycle.
F. I = m1 – m2 / log N1 – log N2
For one cycle of logarithmic scale, e.g.
If, N1 = 10 ten, N2 = 1 – One cycle
Or,
If, N1 = 100 then, N2 = 10 – one cycle
F.I = m1 –m2 / log10 – log1 = m1 –m2 / log 10
F.I = m1 – m2/ 1.00 =m1 –m2 = ∆m for one log – cycle
As discussed in the preceding section, the number of blows required to close
the groove represent a relative measure of shearing resistance of soil, therefore flow
index gives an indication of the shearing strength of soil.

59
 Any two soil, although having the same plasticity indices and/or the liquid
limits may have different values of flow index, and hence may possess varying degrees
of cohesiveness and shear strength.
For example consider the following two cases.
Case – I: Two soils having the same values of plasticity index.
The flow curves of two soils having same plasticity index indicate by curve-1
and curve-2 are shown in Fig: 2.11. The curve-1 is steep and gives a higher flow index
as compared to curve-2, which is comparatively flat (lower flow index). From the
curves it can be seen that a decrease in moisture content “∆m” in both the soils by the
same amount, the soil with flat curve-2 required greater number of blows, i.e. n2 > n1.
A comparison of the two flow indices therefore indicates that the soil with higher flow
index (steep curve 1) possesses lesser shear strength than the soil with lower flow
index (flat curve-2).

Case-II: Two soils having the same value of liquid limit.

The flow curves of two different soils having same liquid limit indicated by
curve-I and curve-2 are shown in Fig: 2.12. The curve-1 is steep and has a higher flow

60
index while curve-2 is flat with a lower value of flow index. Although the liquid limits
of the two soils are the same, but for the same decrease is moisture content “∆m”
curve-2, which is flat requires greater number of blows as compared to curve-1 (i.e. n2
> n1). This again indicates that the soil of curve-2 (lower flow index) has higher shear
strength than the soil of curve-1 (higher flow index)

2.12.7 Toughness Index

Soils having same value of plasticity indices may vary in toughness. This
property of a soil is expressed by the toughness index.
It is defined as the ratio or plasticity index to the flow index.
Thus,
T.I = P.I / F.I
Toughness and dry strength increases with increase in toughness index.
2.13 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
A soil mass is a collection of particles having a large variation in sizes and may
rang from relatively massive Boulders, Cobbles, Gravel down to very tiny particles of
Clay. The physical and geotechnical properties of soil, very much depend on the

61
percentage of various particle sizes in soil. Since each of the particle fractions has a
unique effect on the soil properties, it is therefore important to find the particles size
distribution in order to classify a soil for any engineering use.
Particle size analysis provides very useful information regarding the behavior
of a soil mass is used for the following purposes.
I. Engineering classification of soils.
II. Selection of the most suitable soil to be used for the construction of
road, airfield, levee, dam and other embankments.
III. To predict the seepage through soil (although permeability tests are
more generally used)
IV. To predict the susceptibility to frost action.
V. Selection of most suitable filter material.

Particle size analysis is performed by sieving or by sedimentation.

I. Sieving method – when particle size ≥ .074 mm

II. Sedimentation method – when particle size < .074mm.
The particle size distribution f a soil is better explained in the form of particles
size distribution curve or gradation curve. A gradation curve is drawn by plotting the
percentage finer than various equivalent particles seizes (percentage passing) as
ordinary against the sizes as abscissa. The x-axis, which shows the sizes being
commonly on logarithmic scale, to accommodate quite a wide range of particle sizes
on a sizeable (small) sheet of paper.
The gradation curves indicate the type of soil and provide very important
information related to the properties and behavior of soil as a construction material
(e.g. embankments) or foundation support. A simple look on the gradation curve gives
a very clear idea about the gradation of soil, e.g. well graded, uniformly graded or
poorly graded as defined below.
2.13.1 Well graded soil
The gradation curve of a well grade soil stretches, approximately at a uniform
slope covering a wide range of particle sizes (e.g. Curve-a Fig: 2.14). A well grade soil
therefore is defined as a soil containing an assortment of particles with a wide range
of sizes. A well grade soil produces an ideal particle size distribution for optimum
packing, because the smaller particles always remain available to fill the voids
between comparatively bigger particles (Fig: 2.13)

62
 A well graded soil therefore has the following merits:
1. Higher shear strength, because there is more particle contact.
2. Higher density, since the voids are almost eliminate due to the presence of
successive smaller particles filling the voids between the next bigger
particles.
3. Reduced compressibility, since there are no or least available voids to allow
volume changes.
4. Higher stability, because of lesser tendency for particles to roll and slide to
new equilibrium positions under applied pressure.
5. Higher bearing capacity due to the particles being densely packed.
6. Low permeability due to smaller voids.
2.13.2 Uniformly Grade Soil
The gradation curve of a uniformly graded soil is steep and covers a narrow
range of particle sizes i.e. it contains particles of nearly the same size (e.g. curve-b Fig:
2.14). A uniformly grades soil is therefore defined as a soil containing an assortment of
particles having a limited range of sizes. Such soils give low density with higher voids
and therefore possess lower strength but high permeability.
2.13.3 Poorly grade soil
The gradation curve of a poorly graded soil show steps indicating and excess of
certain particle sizes, and a deficiency of other (e.g. curve – C, Fig: 2.14). Such soils
give lower density and lower strength.
The gradation curves have great importance in civil engineering and are
extensively used for the following purposes.
1. Determination of effective grain (Particle) Size.
2. Determination of Uniformity co-efficient.
3. Determination of co-efficient of Curvature.
4. Determination of %age of different soil types in a soil sample e.g. sand, silt,
and clay.
5. Determination of %age larger or finer than a given size.
6. Classification of soil.
7. Design of filters
8. Concrete mix design.
1. Effective Grain (Particle) Size
A soil mass is a mixture of particles of varying sizes. The determination of soil
properties (e.g. capillarity, permeability etc), require the soil mass to be designated by
a size, known as Effect Grain size, which is determined by the gradation curve. It is the
size, read on the x-axis of the gradation chart against 10-% passing line on the
gradation curve and is denoted by D10.
2. Coefficient of Uniformity
Coefficient of uniformity is determined from the gradation curve. It is attributed
to Allen Hazen, denoted by “Cu” and defined as follows.
Cu = D60 / D10
The coefficient of uniformity “Cu” gives information about the gradation of soil.
For a single sized soil (all the particles having the same size) the value of C u will be
unity. When the value of Cu is less than 4, the soil is generally considered as uniformly
graded. However a higher value of the coefficient represents a wide range of particle
size and the soil is termed as well graded.

63
3. Coefficient of Curvature of Co-efficient of Concavity
Coefficient of curvature is denoted by Cc and is expressed as under.
Cc = (D30)2 / (D60) (D10)

64
 It is determined from the gradation curve. It is also known as coefficient of
gradation. A value of Cc = 1, represents that all the soil particles have the same size,
and the soil is uniformly graded.
The values of Cc between 0.2 and 2.0 indicate well graded or poorly graded soil.
However as discussed earlier, the exact nature of gradation is better known by
a look at the gradation curve.
2.14 RELATIVE DENSITY (DR) OR DENSITY INDEX (LD)
The term relative density is used to express the state of compactness of a
granular soil. Depending upon the state of compaction, the void ratio of a soil will be
between the possible minimum and maximum values, i.e. emin and emax. The following
relationship between the void ratio values is termed as the relative density.
Dr = ID = emax – e / emax – emin
Or
D r =ID = Ydmax / Yd Yd – Ydmin / Ydmax – Yd min

Where,
emax = void ratio of soil in loosest state.
emin = Void ratio of soil in densest state.
e = Void ratio of soil deposit (in-situ state)
or, void ratio of the soil whose relative density is required.
Ydmax = dry density of soil in densest state.
Ydmin = dry density of soil in loosest state.
Yd = dry density of soil deposit (in-situ state)
Or, the dry density of soil whole relative density is required.
The determination of void ratios, required Vs (volume of solids) which is
difficult to measure by any direct method, the determination of relative density by Eq-
2.34 is therefore not convenient. However it is quire simple to determine the relative
density by Eq-2.35, since the measurement of dry density is much easier.
The dry density in the densest state (Ydmax), is determined by vibrating sand
subjected to a surcharge weight (ASTM D-2049-69).
The dry density in the looses state (Ydmin) is determined by pouring dry sand
into a mould from a fixed height (ASTM D-2049-69).
The in situ density (Yd) is commonly used to indicate the in situ state of
compactness, which reflects the stability of granular soil strata. For example, a loose
granular soil indicated by smaller value of Dr is unstable, especially when subjected to
shock or vibration and give large settlement of embankments and foundations. The
vibratory loads however compress the soil to a denser a more stable formation.
The range of values for relative density and commonly referred state of
compaction are given in Table : 2.3.
Relative density is also determined by the standard penetration test (SPT).
Empirical co-relation between SPT value and relative density is given in Table: 2.3.

Table: 2.3 Commonly referred state of compaction and relative densities for granular
soil.

65
State of compaction : Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very
dense
Relative density (%): 0-15 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-
100
SPT N-value: <4 4-10 10-30 30-50 >50

2.15 EXAMPLES
Example-2.1 A moist sample of soil with container had a weight of 252.4 gm, and the
container when empty, had a weight of 142.0 gm. After drying in an
oven for 24 hours, the container and soil sample had a weight of 2.16.2
gm. Find, the moisture content of the soil.
Solution: Given Data
W1 = weight of container = 142.0 gm
W2 = weight of container + wet soil = 252.4 gm.
W3 = weight of container + dry soil = 216.2 gm.

Required
Moisture content = Ww/Wd
m = W2 –W3 /W3 – W1 X 100%
m = (25.24 – 216.2) / (216.2 – 142.0) X 100% = 49%
m = 49%
Example-2.2 A base course layer for highway construction was compacted by
contractor. To find the field density of the compacted layer, the results
form the sand replacement test,
Weight of soil excavated from hole 4.0
kg
Moisture content of soil 18%
Weight of dry sand to fill hole 3.1
kg
Weight of dry sand to fill container of volume=4.2 liters 5.8
kg
Calculate the wet and dry densities of the soil. If the specific gravity of
the solid particles is 2.68, find the degree of saturation of the soil.
Solution: Given data
As above
Required
Weight density = Yb
Dry density = Yd
Degree of saturation = S
Density of sand = weight of sand / volume of sand
= 5.8 / 4.2 x 10-3 = 1380kg/m3
volume of hole = weight of sand to fill hole / density of sand
= 3.1 / 1380 = 2.25 x 10-3m3
Wet density, Yb = weight of soil excavated / volume of hole
= 4.0 / 2.25 x 10-3 = 1780 Kg /m3
Yb = 1780 Kg/m3

66
 m = Ww / Ws x 100 = 18 or Ww /Ws = 0.18 or Ww = 0.18 Ws
Weight of soil = W = Ww + Ws = 4.0 Kg
Putting the value of Ww
0.18 Ws + Ws = 4.0
Ws = 3.39 Kg
Dry density Yd = 3.39 / 2.25 x 10-3
Yd = 1510 Kg/m3
V s = Ws / Y wG
Vs = 3.39 / 100 x 2.68 = 1.275 x 10-3m3
Where Yw = 1000 Kg/m3
Ww = m x Ws = 0.18 x 3.39 = 0.61 Kg
Vw = 0.61 / 1000 = 0.61 x 10-3m3, where, Va = V-Vw – Vs
-3 3
= 0.365 x 10 m
Vv = (0.365 + 0.61)10-3, where (Vv = Va + Vw)
= 0.975 x 10-3m3
S = Vw/Vv = 0.61x10-3 / 0.975x 10-3 = 0.625 or S = 62.5%
S = 62.5%

Example: 2.3 A saturated soil sample has a moisture content of 27% and a bulk
density of 1970 Kg/m3. Determine the dry density and the void ratio of
the soil, and the specific gravity of the solid particle.
What would be the bulk density of a sample of this soil with the same
void ratio, but only 90% saturated?
Solution: Given data
Moisture content m = 27%
Bulk density = Yb
Initial degree of saturation = 100%
Reduced degree of saturation = 90%
Required
Dry density = Yd
Void ratio = e
Sp. Gravity = G
Bulk density = Yb
m = Ww /Ws x 100 = 27 or Ww /Ws = 0.27
Ww = 0.27Ws
Let the volume of sample = V = 1.0m3
Yb = Ww + Ws = 1970Kg/m3
0.27 Ws + Ws = 1970
Ws = 1550 Kg and since 1 m3 of soil is being considered
Dry density = Yd = 1550 Kg/m3
Ww = 0.27 x 1550 = 420 Kg
∆ Vw = Ww / Yw = 420 / 1000 = 0.420m3
Vs = 1 – 0.42 = 0.58m3 where, Vs = V-Vw for saturated soil.
e = Vv /Vs = 0.42 /0.58 = 0.724 Vw =Vv where, S = 100%
e = 0.724
Gs = Ws / VsYw Ws = Yd, where, V = 1m3

67
 ∆ Gs = 1550 / 0.58 x 1000 = 2.68
Gs = 2.68
If voids are 90% saturated
Ww = 420 x 0.90 = 378 Kg
Ws = 1550 Kg
Ww + Ws = 1928 Kg/m3
Yb = 1928 Kg/m3 since the volume of the soil = 1m3
Yb = 1928 Kg/m3

Example: 2.4 A complete saturated sample of clay has a moisture content of 39.3%
and a specific gravity of soil mass of 1.84. Find,
a – Void ratio
b – Specific gravity of solids
Solution: Given data
m = 39.3%
Gm = 1.84% Gm means specific gravity of soil mass.
S = 1.0
Required
Void ratio = e
Sp. Gravity of solids = Gs
e = mGs / s
S = Gsm/e
e = Gsm As S = 1.0
Yb = Ys (1 + m) / 1+ e
e = 0.393.Gs
Yb = Gm x Yw Yw = 1g/cc.
Yb = 1.84 g/cc
1.84 = Ys (1 + m) / 1 + e
1.84 = Gs x Yw (1 + ) / 1 + 0.393 Gs as Ys = Gs Yw, e = 0.393 Gs
1.84 = Gs / Gs Yw (1+m) / 1
(Gs + 0.393)
1/Gs + 0.393 = 1.393 / 1.84
1.84 = 1 x (1+ 0.393) / 1/Gs + 0.393
1/Gs = 1.393/1.84 – 0.393
1/Gs = 0.364
Gs = 2.74
e = 0.393Gs
e = 1.079
e = 1.079
Alternate solution:
Let V =Icm3
Gm = Yb /Yw, Yb = Gm Yw = 1.84 gm/cc as Yw =1
W = Yb x V = 1.84 gm
As V m = W – Wd / Wd = W /Wd -1 = 1cm3
1+0.393 = 1.84 / Wd Wd = 1.32 gm
Ww = 1.84 – 1.32 = 0.52 gm
Yw = Ww /Vw i.e. Vw = 0.52 cm3

68
 Vs = V- Vw where Vv = Vw as the soil in fully saturate.
Vs = 1 – 0.52 = 0.48cm3
e = Vv/Vs = 0.52 / 0.48 = 1.083
e = 1.083
Gs = es / m = 1.083 / .393 = 2.75
Gs = 2.75
Example: 2.5 A sample of clay with initial void ratio 1.193 is subjected to compressive
load. After complete consolidation thickness of sample is reduced from
0.75 to 0.705 inches. Estimate final void ratio.
Solution: Given data
e 1 = 1.193
H 1 = 0.75”
H 2 = 0.705”
Required
Final void ratio = e2
e 1 = Vv /Vs = V 1 – Vs / V s = V1 /Vs -1
V 1 /Vs = 1+ e 1
Vs = V1 / 1+e1 during consolidation test, volume of sample changes
only due to change in thickness, while the area remains constant.
V1 = Area x H1
Vs = Area x 0.75 / 1 + 1.193
Vs = Area x 0.75 / 2.193
Vs = 0.342 x area
e 2 = V v / Vs
= V2 – Vs / Vs =V2 / Vs – 1
= area x 0.705 / 0.342 x area – 1 as V2 = area x H2
e 2 = 1.06
Alternate solution
e 1 = 1.193, H1 = 0.75, H2 = 0.705
e2=?
∆H = 0.75 – 0.705 = 0.045
∆ H = H (e1 – e2) / (1+e1)
0.045 = 0.75 (1.193 – e2) / 1+1.193
0.045 x 2.193 / 0.75 = 1.193 – e2
0.1315 = 1.193 – e2
e 2 = 1.061
Example: 2.6 A soil sample has mass specific gravity of 1.9, specific
gravity of solid particles of 2.6, and moisture content of 30%.
Determine the following for the sample.
(a) void ratio, (b) Porosity, (c) Degree of saturation.
Solution: Given data
Specific gravity of soil mass = G = 1.9
Specific Gravity solids = Gs = 2.61
Moisture Content = m = 30%
Required
Void ratio = e
Porosity = n

69
 Degree of saturation = S
Yb = GYw Ys = Gs Yw
=1.9 x 1 = 2.61 x 1
1.9g/cc = 2.61 g/cc
Yb = Ys (1+m) / 1+e
1+e = Ys (1+m)/Yb
1+e = 2.61 (1+ 0.30)/1.9 1+e = 1.7875
e = 0.7875
n = e/1+e = 0.7857 / 1.7857
n = 43.99
soil is partially saturate
Gs = Se/m
S = m Gs /e
S = 0.3 x 2.61 / 0.7857
S = 99.65%
Example: 2.7 A sample of completely saturate clay along with the container ahs a
weight of 68.5g. After drying in an oven the weight is 62g. Weight of
the empty container is 35g and the specific gravity of solid particle is
2.8. Determine,
(a) Void ratio (b) Porosity (C) Moisture content (d)
Degree of saturation
Solution: Given Data
Wt of saturate clay + container = 68.5g
Wt of dry clay + container = 62.0g
Wt of container = 35.0g
Specific gravity of solids = Gs = 2.8
Required
Porosity = n
Void ratio = e
Degree of saturation = S Moisture Content = m

Wt of saturated soil = 68.5g

= 33.5g
Wt of dry soil. = 62 – 35
= 27.0g
Weight of water = 33.5 – 27
= 6.5g.
Moisture content = m = Ww / Wd
m = 6.5 /27 = 0.2407
m = 24.07%
S = 100% as given in the statement
Gs = es /m or e = mGs /s
e = 0.2407 x 2.8
e = 0.6740
n = e / 1+e = 0.674 / 1 + 0.674
n = 0.4026
n = 40.26%

70
Example: 2.8 a completely saturated sample of clay has a volume of 31.25 cm3 and
weight 58.5 g. after drying, the sample has a volume of 23.90 cm3 and
weight 42.8g. Compute,
(a) Porosity (b) Specific Gravity (c) Shrinkage limit

Solution Given Data

Initial volume of sample = V1 = 31.25 cc
Initial weight of sample = Wi = 58.5g
Final volume after drying = Vf = 23.9cc
Final weight after drying =Wd = 42.8 g
Degree of saturation = S = 100%
Required:
Porosity =n
Specific gravity = Gs
Shrinkage limit = S.L
m = W1 – Wd / Wd = 58.5 – 42.8 / 42.8 = 0.3668
S.L = m - V1 – Vf /Wd Yw

S.L = 0.3668 - 31.25 – 23.9 / 42.8 x 1

SL = 0.195 = 19.5%
S.L = Yw Vd /Wd – 1 /Gs
0.195 = 1 x 23.9 /42.8 – 1/Gs
1 / Gs = 0.3634
Gs = 2.75
e = mG /S = .3668 x 2.75 /1 = 1.0087
n = e /1+e = 1.0087 / 1+1.0087 = 0.502

Example: 2.9 To qualify a borrow area for the construction of pavement sub grade,
liquid limit test was made on the borrow area sample. The following
observations were made during the test using Casagrande apparatus.
No. of blows. 8 12 26 28 31
Moisture Content (%) 52.3 48.2 40.00 38.8 37.1
The initial moisture content of the soil is 30% and its plastic limit is 28%.
Determine, liquid limit, plasticity index, liquidity index and classify soil
according to USC.
Solution: Given data
Moisture content = mi = 30%
Plastic limit = P.L = 28%
Required
Liquid limit = L.L
Plastic index = P.I
Liquidity index = L.I
Classify the soil according to USC.

71
 From the graph between log N and moisture content as drawn above,
the liquid limit = 39.8%.
L.L = 39.8
P.I = L.L – P.L = 39.8 – 28.0 = 11.8
P.I = 11.8
L.I = m – P.L /P.I = 30.0 – 28.0 /11.8 = 0.17
L.I = 0.17
The above value of liquidity index indicates that the soil is in plastic
state. For classification according to USC system, refer to the plasticity
chart in chapter – 3.
The soil is classified as ML soil.

Example: 2.10 A sandy soil has a wet density of 1.8 g/cm3. The moisture content of
sample is 17%. The specific gravity is 2.65.
Find,
(a) Void ratio
(b) Dry density
(c) Degree of saturation
(d) Porosity
Solution: Given data
Yb = 1.8g/cm3
m = 17%
Gs = 2.65
Required
Void ratio = e
Degree of saturation = S
Dry density = Yd
Porosity = n
Ys = 2.65 g/cm3
Yb = Ys (1+m) /1+e
(1+e) = Ys /Yb (1+m)
1 + e = 2.65 /1.8 (1+0.17)
E = 0.728
n = e /1+e = 0.723 / 1.723
n = 0.419 = 41.9%

72
 S = mGs/e = 0.17 x 2.65 / 0.723
S = 62.30%
Yd = Yb /1+m = 1.8 /1+0.17
Yd = 1.538 g/cm3
2.16 PROBLEMS
Problem: 2.1 A soil has a moisture content of 15%, specific gravity of
2.66 and porosity of 36%. Determine the weight of water required to
be added to 10m3 of the soil to make it fully saturated.
Problem: 2.2 The tests on a borrow area soil showed that the specific
gravity is 2.66, moisture content is 8% and void ratio is 0.65. It is to be
used for the construction of a highway embankment with moisture
content of 12% and dry density of 1.75g/cc. calculate the volume of soil
required per cubic meter of embankment.
Problem: 2.3 A soil sample was placed in an odometer ring of 50mm
and 20mm height. The sample was initially saturated with a moisture
content is 20%. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.64. the sample was
then consolidated to a final height of 11mm. find the initial void ratio,
the final void ratio and the moisture content.
Problem 2.4 a soil has bulk density of 1900Kg/rn3, specific gravity of
2.71 and a water content of 10%. Calculate the void ratio and degree of
saturation of the soil. What would be the values of density and water
content if the soil was fully saturated at the same void ratio.
Problem: 2.5 Calculate the dry unit weight, the saturate unit weight
and the buoyant unit weight of a soil having a void ratio of 0.72 and
specific gravity of 2.68. calculate also the unit weight and moisture
content at a degree of saturation of 90%.
Problem: 2.6 A specimen for tiralxial compression test is 38mm in
diameter and 76mm long and has weight of 168g. after drying in an
oven the weight is reduced to 130g.the specific gravity is 2.71. find the
degree of saturation of the specimen.
Problem: 2.7 In an embankment the bulk density of soil is 2175Kg/m3
and the moisture content is 13%. The specific gravity is 2.66. determine
the dry density, porosity, degree of saturation and air content.
Problem: 2.8 A sample taken from a soil mass has a bulk density of
1.75g/cc and moisture content of 6%. How much water in liters should
be added to one cubic meter of this soil to raise the moisture content
to 15%. Assume that the void ratio remains unchanged.
Problem: 2.9 A test specimen was prepared by compacting soil in a
mould of 100mm. diameter and 200mm height. The weight of the
specimen was 3250 gm and its moisture content was 23%. Find the dry
density and void ratio of the sample.
Problem: 2.10 The minimum and maximum dry densities of a sand
sample were found to be 1.43g/cc and 1.75g/cc respectively, the
specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. calculate the dry densities
corresponding to the relative densities of 50, 60, and 70%.
Problem: 2.11 Tests on a soil sample gave the following results: Specific
gravity of soil mass = 1.85, Specific gravity of solids = 2.65, Moisture

73
content = 31%. Determine; void ratio, porosity, bulk density, unit
weight and degree of saturation.
Problem: 2.12 A soil sample has a volume of 500 cc in natural state and
its weight is 850gm. After oven drying the weight is 795 gm, the specific
gravity of solids is 2.68. determine; void ratio, porosity, moisture
content, and degree of saturation.
Problem: 2.13 A sample of completely saturated clay have a moisture
content of 39.0% and a mass specific gravity of 1.9. determine; void
ratio, porosity, bulk density, unit weight, and degree of saturation.
Problem: 2.14 A saturated sample of soil has a volume of 0.31m3, and
weight of 61.5 kg. The specific gravity of solids is 2.70. determine; void
ratio, porosity, bulk density, unit weight, moisture content and degree
of saturation.
Problem: 2.15 A sample of clay has an initial void ratio of 1.19. After
complete consolidation the thickness of sample is reduced from 2.0cm
to 1.8cm. Determine the final void ratio.

74
 CHAPTER -III

3 INTRODUCTION
The common soil types include clay, silt, sand and gravel. The classification is
primarily based on the size of particles. Accordingly a soil may be classified as coarse-
grained or fine-grained and cohesion-less or cohesive soil. Natural soil deposits
seldom comprise of a single soil type, rather they are mixture of different soil types.
The %age of different soil types in a soil mass varies considerably, and a soil may b
classified as silty-Clay or Clayey-Sand etc. Such classifications, however, are not based
on character of soil which influence engineering behavior, and hence do not clearly
identify whether the soil is suitable for use as a construction material or foundation.

The purpose of soil classification is to arrange soil into groups and label them.
According to certain characteristics and engineering behavior. The same of a group
gives useful information about the behavior of soil as a construction material and
foundation support. In order to subdivide soil into groups of specific engineering
properties and behavior, different engineering organization have devised classification
systems. Some of these are very useful and are extensively employed in engineering
practice. Different classification systems, classify soil on the basis of physical
properties e.g. particle size, gradation, consistency and plasticity. In order to predict
the true behavior of soil for engineering use, additional information based on
geotechnical properties, may therefore be required. It means that classification of soil
based on any classification system does not eliminate the need for detailed soil
studies. Many of the important information which influence soil behavior, e.g. unit
weight, compaction permeability etc, are not directly included in any of the
classification systems.

3.1 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (SCS)

The following are the classification systems that have been included by
different organizations.
1. Unified soil classification system.
2. AASHTO (American Association of state Highway and Transportation Officials)
soil classification system
3. FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) soil classification system.
4. Textural soil classification system.
5. USDA (U.S Department of Agriculture) soil classification system.
Out of the above mentioned classification systems, the following two are
currently used in engineering practice and will be discussed in this chapter.
1. Unified Soil Classification System (USC)

75
 It is the most widely used system to classify soil for use in foundation
engineering i.e. when the soil is to be used as a foundation support for
buildings and other structures. The system is also adopted in dam engineering.
2. AASHTO Soil Classification System
This system is most widely and exclusively used for roads, highways and
airfields (runways, taxiways) construction.
The soil tests required for classification of soil based on the above two systems
are.
1. Liquid and plastic limit tests.
2. Particle size analysis test.

3.2 UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (USC)

The unified soil classification system was first developed by Professor A.
Casagrande, for use in airfield construction. It was then modified and adopted jointly
by the Army Corps of Engineers and U.S Bureau of Reclamation in 1952, for
application to dams and other construction. The system is most popular and widely
used by engineers. It has also been adopted by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM designation D-2487-00). This system classifies soil under two broad
categories i.e. coarse-grained and fine-grained soil.
According to this system all the soils are classified into fifteen groups, each
group being designated by group symbol consisting of two capital letters. The letters
are based on main soil type and their gradation and plasticity characteristics. The first
letter indicates the main soil types, given in the table as follows.

Table: 3.1 Symbols for main soil types.

G- Gravel
Coarse grained soil
S- Sand
M- Inorganic Silt
C- Inorganic Clay Fine grained soil
O- Organic Silt and Clay
P t- Peat, Humus, Swamp
The second letter indicates the subdivision of these groups. Each coarse-
grained soil is subdivided into two subgroups based on gradation, which gives the
second letter to classify the soil. The sub groups are designated by the symbols
(capital letters) as follows.
W, for Well-graded soil
P, for poorly-graded soil
Each fine graded soil is subdivided in two subgroups based on their plasticity
characteristics and are designated as follows.
L, for low plasticity soil (liquid limit <50)
H, for high plasticity soil (liquid limit >50)

76
 Since natural soil deposits generally comprise of different soil types mixed
together in varying proportion, the dominating fraction defines the main soil group.
When more than half of material is larger than No. 200 sieve, the soil will be termed
as coarse-grained i.e. Gravel or Sand. Out of the coarse fraction as determined above
if more than half of the material is larger than No. 4 sieve, the main group is Gravel (G)
and when more than half of the coarse fraction is smaller than No. 4 sieve, the main
soil group is Sand (S).
The soil will be termed as fine-grained i.e. Silt, Clay, Organic soil and Peat
(fibrous soil) if more than half of the material is smaller than No.200 sieve. Accordingly
a soil can be classified into fifteen groups as follows.

Table: 3.2 Group symbols for soil classification

Classification
Main Soil Type Symbols Subgroup Symbols
Group symbols
Well-graded W GW
Poorly-graded P GP
Gravel G
Silty M GM
Clayey C GC
Well-graded W SW
Poorly-graded P SP
Sand S
Silty M SM
Clayey C SC
LL < 50% L ML
Silt M
LL > 50% H MH
LL < 50% L CL
Clay C
LL > 50% H CH
LL < 50% L OL
Organic O
LL > 50% H OH
Peat Pt Pt
Soil possessing characteristics of two groups are known as borderline soils and
designated by dual symbols e.g. GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-CG, SC-SM, SW-
SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC, CL-ML. The total number of soil groups in the Unified Soil
Classification System, therefore are twenty six (26), if groups designated by dual
symbols are also included. The Unified Soil Classification System is based on the
following:
1. Textural characteristics of coarse-grained soils with such a small amount of
fines, that the fines do not affect the behavior.
2. Plasticity characteristics of fine-grained soils where the fines affect the
engineering behavior.

77
 The textural characteristics area evaluated by the particle-size analysis. And
the plasticity characteristics are evaluated by the plasticity chart. To classify a soil, the
following information based on particle size analysis and Atterberg limits should be
available.
1. %age of gravel, that is, the fraction passing the 3-in. (76.2mm) sieve and
retained on the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve.
2. %age of sand, that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75mm) and
retained on the No. 200 (0.074mm) sieve.
3. %age of silt and clay, that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 (0.75mm)
sieve.
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc), which
actually depend on the shape of particle-size-distribution curve.
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing No. 40 sieve,
plotted on the plasticity chart shown in the Fig: 3.1.
Based on the above information, different soils (i.e. gravely, sandy and fine
soils) are classified and are presented in the tables 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5, respectively. The
classification of different soils in a more detailed form, based on specific ranges of
material %age and their plasticity indices along with their group names are presented
in table 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9. The soil groups and their characteristics with respect to
their use in roads and airfields are given in table 3.10.

78
 Table: 3.3 Group Symbols for Gravelly Soil

Major Laboratory Classification

Group Symbol Typical Names
Division Criteria
1 2 3 4 5
Well-graded gravels,
- No 200 < 5% : Cu ≥ 4 and 1
GW gravel-sand mixtures with
≤ Cc ≤ 3
little or no fines.
- No. 200 > 5%: and not Poorly-graded gravels,
meeting both criteria for GP gravel-sand mixtures with
GW little or no fines.
- No. 200 > 12%: Atterberg’s
Gravel – More than half of coarse soil is retained on No. 4 sieve.

limits plot below “A” line Silty graves, gravel-sand-

Coarse soil-more than half of soil is retained on No. 200 sieve.

GM
and plasticity index less than silt mixture.
4.
- No. 200 > 12%: Atterberg’s
limits plot above “A” line Clayey gravel, gravel-
GC
and plasticity index less than sand-clay mixtures.
7.
- No. 200 > 12%: Atterberg’s
Clayey-silty gravel,
limits fall in hatched area GC-GM
Gravel-silt-clay mixtures.
marked CL-ML
- No. 200 is 5-12%: and Well graded gravels with
meets the criteria for GW GW-GM silt, Gravel-sand-silt
and GM mixtures.
- No. 200 is 5-12%: and Poorly-graded gravels
meets the criteria for GP GP-GM with silt, Gravel-silt
and GM mixtures.
- No. 200 is 5-12%: and Poorly-graded gravels
meets the criteria for GP GP-GC with clay, Gravel-clay
and GC. mixtures.
- No. 200, means passing No. 200 sieve.

Table 3.4 Group Symbols for Sandy Soil

Major Laboratory Classification
Group Symbol Typical Names
Division Criteria
1 2 3 4 5
- No 200 < 5%; Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Well-graded sands,
pass
ined
coar
Mor
Mor

reta

siev
siev
half
half

200
San

No.
No.
d—

SW
soil

soil
tha
tha

on
—

se

es
of
of

e.
e.

Cc ≤ 3 gravelly sands with little

is
n
n

4
e
e

79
 or no fines.
Poorly-graded sands,
- No. 200 > 5%: and not
SP gravelly sands with little
meeting both criteria for SW
or no fines.
- No. 200 > 12%: Atterberg’s
limits plot below “A” line in Silty sands, sand-silt
SM
the plasticity chart or mixtures.
plasticity index less than 4.
- No. 200 > 12%: Atterberg’s
limits plot Above “A” line in Clayey sands, sand-clay
SC
the plasticity chart or mixtures.
plasticity index less than 7.
- No. 200 > 12%: Atterberg’s
limits fall in hatched area Clayey silt sand, sand-silt-
SC-SM
marked CL-ML on the clay mixtures.
plasticity chart
- No. 200 is 5-12%: and
Well graded sands with
meets the criteria for SW SW-SM
silt, sand-silt mixtures.
and SM
- No. 200 is 5-12%: and Well-graded sand with
meets the criteria for SW SW-SC clay, sand-silt-clay
and SC mixtures.
- No. 200 is 5-12%: and
Poorly-graded sand with
meets the criteria for SP and SP-SM
silt, sand-silt mixtures.
SM
- No. 200 is 5-12%; and
Poorly-graded sand with
meets the criteria for SP and SP-SC
clay, sand-clay mixtures.
SC
- No. 200, means passing No. 200 sieve.

Table: 3.5 Group Symbols for Silty and Clayey Soil

Major Laboratory Classification

Group Symbol Typical Names
Division Criteria
1 2 3 4 5
Inorganic; LL < 50; PI> 7; and Inorganic clays of low to
soil - -
more than

on No. 200
half of the
soil passes
Silt & Clay,

plots on or above “A” line medium plasticity,

grained

CL
LL < 50
sieve.

(see CL zone in plasticity gravelly clay, sandy clay,

Fine

chart) silty clay, lean clays.

80

Inorganic; LL < 50; PI < 4, or
plots below “A” line (see ML
zone in plasticity chart)
Organic; (LL for oven dried
sample)/(LL for no dried
sample) < 0.75; and LL < 50
(see OL zone in plasticity
chart)
Inorganic; plot in the
hatched zoned in the
plasticity chart.
Inorganic; LL ≥ 50; and PI
plots above “A” line (see CH
zone in plasticity chart)
Inorganic; LL ≥ 50; and PI
plots below “A” line (see
Silt & clay, LL > 50
Inorganic silts and very
fine sands, rock flour, silty
ML or clayey fine sands or
clayey silts with slight
plasticity.
Organic silts and organic
OL
silty clays of low plasticity
CL-ML Silty clay of low plasticity
Inorganic clays of high
CH
plasticity, fat clays.
Inorganic silts, micaceous
or diatomaceous fine
MH
sandy or silty soils, elastic

MH zone in plasticity chart)

silts.
Organic; (LL-ove-dried)/(LL-
Organic clays of medium
not dried) < .75 and LL ≥ 50
OH to high plasticity, organic
(see OH zone in plasticity
silts
chart)
Highly
Peat, muck and other highly Peat and other highly
organic Pt
organic soils organic soils.
soils
-No. 200, means passing No. 200 sieve.

3.3 DESCRIPTION OF USE-GROUPS

3.3.1 Coarse-Grained Soils
The coarse-grained soils are subdivided into two groups, names gravels and gravelly
soils. Designated by group symbol (G), and sands and sandy soils (S). Both the grave
(G) and sand (S) groups are divided into four secondary groups as discussed below:
1. GW and SW groups:
These groups comprise of well-graded gravelly soils and sandy soils with little
or no fines (less than 5% passing the No. 200 sieve). The presence of fines must not
noticeable change the strength properties of the coarse-grained fraction, and must
not interfere with its free-drainage characteristics. In areas prone to frost action, the
material should not contain more than about 3% of soil grains smaller than 0.02mm in
size.

81
 2. GP and SP groups:
These groups include poorly graded gravels and sands with little or no fines.
These materials may be termed as uniform gravels, uniform sand or gap-graded
materials. Gap-graded materials are non-uniform mixtures of very coarse material and
very fine sands with intermediate sizes lacking.
3. GM and SM groups:
These groups comprise silty sands with fines (more than 12% passing No. 200
sieve), having low or no plasticity. The liquid limit and plasticity index (based on minus
No. 40 sieve fraction) should plot below the “A” line on the plasticity chart. Both well-
graded and poorly-graded materials are included in these two groups. Normally these
soils have little to no dry strength, but occasionally the fines or binder material will
contain a natural cementing property, which will increase dry strength.
The basic soil groups, GM and SM, have each been subdivided into two groups
designated by the suffixes “d” and “u” which have been chosen to represent desirable
and undesirable base materials respectively. This subdivision applies to roads and
airfields only and is based on field observations and laboratory tests on the behavior
of the soils in these groups. The subdivision is based on the liquid limit and plasticity
index of the fraction of the soil passing the No. 40 sieve. The suffix “d” is used when
the liquid limit is 25 or less and the plasticity index is 5 or less: the suffix “u” is used
otherwise. Typical symbols for soils in these groups are GMd and SMu.
4. GC and SC groups
These groups comprise gravelly or sandy soils with fines (more than 12%
passing the No. 200 sieve) that are more clay-like. The fines range in plasticity from
low to high. The liquid limits and plasticity indices of soils in these groups should plot
above the “A” line on the plasticity chart. Both, well and poorly-graded materials are
included in these groups.
3.3.2 Fine-Grained Soils
The fine-grained soils are subdivided into three groups, namely silt with symbol
(M), clay with symbol (C) and organic soil with symbol (O). Silts are those fine-grained
soils, which have liquid limits and plasticity indices that plot below the “A” line. And
the clays are those that plot above the “A” line on the plasticity chart. Organic clays
are the exception to the above rule, as the liquid limits and plasticity indices of these
soils plot below the “A” line.
The silt, clay and organic fractions are further sub-divided on the basis of
relatively low (L) or high (H) liquid limits. The arbitrary dividing line between the low
and high liquid limits has been set at 50 shown by the thick line on the plasticity chart.
Representative soil types for each of these groups (ML, MH, CL, CH, OL, and OH) can
be found in Table 3.5, in column-5. A brief description of these groups is given below.
1. ML and MH groups:
These groups are described as sandy silts, clayey silts, or inorganic silts with
relatively low plasticity. Loess-type soils, rock flours, micaceous and diatomaceous

82
soils are also included. Some types of kaolinite and illite clay also fall under these
groups. An arbitrary division between the two groups has been established where the
liquid limit is 50. Micaceous and diatomaceous soils generally fall within the MH group
but may extend into the ML group when their liquid limit is less than 50.
2. CL and CH groups:
The CL and CH groups include clays wit low and high liquid limits respectively.
They are primarily inorganic clays. The medium and high plasticity clays are classified
as CH. These include the fat clays, gumbo clays, bentonite, and certain volcanic clays.
The low plasticity clays are classified as CL and usually include lean clays, sandy clays,
or silty clays.

The glacial clays of the northern United States cover a wide band in the CL and CH
groups.
3. OL and OH groups:
These groups are characterized by the presence of organic matter. Organic silts
and clays are included in these two groups, and they have a plasticity range
corresponding to the ML, and MH groups.
3.3.3 Highly Organic Soils
These soils are designated by group symbol (Pt). They are usually very
compressible and have undesirable engineering characteristics. This group includes
peat, humus, and swamp soils with a high organic texture. Common components of
these soils are particles of leaves, grass, branches, or other fibrous vegetable matter.
3.4 FIELD CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE (FCP)
A stepwise field classification procedure is given below. All-important
descriptive information should be noted while performing these steps.
1. Obtain a representative sample of soil.
2. Estimate the size of the largest particle.
3. Remove the boulder and cobbles, i.e. particle larger than 3 inches, and
estimate their %age by weight, in the total sample.
4. Spread the dry sample on a flat surface or in the palm of hand, and classify
as coarse-grained or fine grained. Individual grains of a coarse-grained soil
can be distinguished by just having a look at the sample, whereas the
individual grains of the fine grained soil cannot be seen, since a number of
particles stick together due to cohesion.
5. If coarse-grained, classify as gravel or sand based on the dominating
fraction. An experienced person can differentiate by visual inspection
whether the material may be classified as gravel or sand. The basis for this
broad classification is given in column-2 of the tables 3.3 and 3.4.
6. If gravel or sand, classify as “clean” or with appreciable fines”. Fines are the
fraction smaller than 0.074mm (No. 200 sieve) and stain the hands.

83
 7. If the material does not stain the hands, then classify the gravel or sand as
clean. Check whether it is well-graded (W) or poorly graded (P), and assign
the appropriate group name (GW, GP, SW, or SP). Considerable skill and
experience is required to visually differentiate between well and poorly
graded soil.
8. If the gravel or sand contains appreciable fines it will stain the hands. Check
if the fines are silty (M) or clayey (C), and classify as GM, GC, SM, or SC. The
“teeth test: is sometimes used for this purpose by biting a piece of sample.
The clay tends to stick to the teeth while the silt does not. Also fine sand
may be differentiated from silt and clay by rubbing a small amount
between the fingers. Silt or clay feels smooth and will leave a stain, while
fine sand feels gritty and will not stain the fingers.
9. For fine-grained soil or for the fine-grained fraction of a coarse-grained soil,
the dilatancy, dry strength, and toughness tests are performed. In addition,
observations of color and odor are important, particularly for organic soils
(OL and OH groups have grey, brown, or almost black color and have a
distinct odor). By the use of the field test results, these soils are then given
the proper groups symbol and descriptive identification.
10. Highly organic soils (Pt) are characterized by un-decayed particles of leaves,
sticks, grass, and other vegetable matter giving the soil a fibrous texture.
They are spongy, dull brown to black in color, and have a characteristics
odor. Low-lying, swampy areas usually contain highly organic soils.
11. Soils having characteristics of two groups are given boundary classification
using a name most nearly describing the soil and are assigned two group
symbols as discussed earlier.

3.5 FIELD TEST FOR IDENTIFICATION OF FINE GRAINED SOILS

Following tests are performed on a fraction of sample passing sieve No. 40. For
field classification sieving is not done, simply coarse particles that interfere with tests
are removed hand.
1. Dilatancy (reaction to shaking)
After removing particles larger thane sieve No. 40, prepare a small pat of moist
soil by adding enough water to make the soil soft but not sticky. Place the pat in the
open palm of one hand and shake horizontally, sticking vigorously against the other
hand several times. A positive reaction consists of the appearance of water on the
surface of the pat, which changes to livery consistency and becomes glossy. When the
sample is squeezed between the fingers, the water and gloss disappear from the
surface, the pat stiffens, and finally it cracks or crumbles. The rapidity of appearance
of water during shaking, and its disappearance during squeezing, assists in identifying
the character of the fines in soil.

84
 Very fine clean sands give the quickest and most distinct reaction where as a
plastic clay has no reaction. Inorganic silts, such as typical rock flour, show a
moderately quick reaction.
2. Dry Strength (crushing characteristics)
After removing particles larger than sieve No. 40, prepare a pat of soil to the
consistency of putty. Allow the pat to dry completely by oven, sun, or air-drying, and
then test its strength by breaking and crumbling between the fingers. This strength is
a measure of the character and quantity of the colloidal or plastic fraction present in
the soil. The dry strength increases with increasing plasticity.
Higher dry strength indicates clays of the CH group and a very small dry
strength indicates inorganic silts or ML group. Silty fine sands and silts have about the
same small dry strength, but can be distinguished by the feel when powdering the
dried specimen. Fine sand feels gritty whereas silt has smooth feel of flour.
3. Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)
After particles larger than sieve No. 40 are removed, a small sample of soil
about one
inch cube in size is molded to the consistency of putty. If too dry, water is added and if
sticky, the sample should be spread out in a thin layer and allowed to loose some
moisture by evaporation. Then the sample is rolled out by hand on a smooth surface
or between the palms in to a thread of about one-eight inch in diameter. The thread is
then folded and re-rolled repeatedly so that the moisture is gradually reduced and the
sample stiffens, finally looses its plasticity, and crumbles when the plastic limit is
reached. After the thread crumbles, the pieces are lumped together and a slight
kneading is done until the lump also crumbles.
The tougher the thread near the plastic limit and the stiffer the lump when it
finally crumbles, the more potent is the colloidal clay fraction in the soil. Weakness of
the thread at the plastic limit and quick loss of coherence of the lump below the
plastic limit indicate either inorganic clay or low plasticity, or materials such as kaolin-
type clays and organic clays which occur below the “A” line. Highly organic clays have
a very weak and spongy feel at the plastic limit.

3.6 LABORATORY CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE (LCP)

The procedure for the laboratory classification is presented in Tables 3.3
through 3.9, and is briefly discussed below:
1. Determine whether the soil is coarse-grained, fine-grained, or highly
organic. This may be done by visual inspection or by determining the
amount of soil passing sieve No. 200. Refer column 1 of table 3.3.
2. If the soil is coarse-grained as determined by step-1, then proceed as
follows.
2-a. Perform a sieve analysis and plot gradation curve. Determine %age passing
sieve No. 4 and classify as gravel, if more than half of the soil is retained on

85
 the No. 4 sieve or sand when more than half passes the No. 4 sieve. Refer
to column-2 of table 3.3 and 3.4.
2-b. Determine the amount of material passing the No. 200 sieve. If less than
5% passes the No. 200 sieve and the fine fraction does not interfere with
the soil’s free-drainage properties, examine shape of the grain-size
distribution curve, and if well-graded, classify as GW or SW; if poorly-
graded, as GP or SP. If fines interfere with free-drainage properties, use
double symbol, such as GW-GM.
2-c.If between 5% and 12% of the material passes the No. 200 sieve, it is a
borderline case, and the classification should have double symbol
appropriate to grading and plasticity characteristics (GW-GM, SW-SM, etc.).
2-d.If more than 12% passes the No. 200 sieve, perform the liquid limit and
plastic limit tests on the minus No. 40 sieve fraction. Use the plasticity
chart to determine the correct classification (GM, SM, GC, SC, GM-GC, or
SM-SC).
3. If the soil is fine-grained (column 1 of table 3.5) as determined by step-1,
then proceed as follows.
3-a. Perform liquid limit and plastic limit tests on minus No. 40 sieve material.
If the liquid limit is less than 50, classify as “L” and if the liquid limit is
greater than 50, classify as “H”. Refer column 2 of table 3.5.
3-b. For “L”: if limits plot below “A” line and the hatched zone on the plasticity
chart, determine by color, odor, or the change in liquid limit and plastic
limit caused by oven-drying the oil, whether it is organic (OL) or inorganic
(ML). If the limits plot in the hatched zone, classify as CL-CM. if the limits
plot above the “A” line and the hatched zone on the plasticity hart, classify
as CL.
3-c. For “H”: if the limits plot below the “A” line on the plasticity chart,
determine whether organic (OH) or inorganic (MH). If the limits plot above
the “A” line, classify as CH.
3.7 USE OF DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR COMPLETE CLASSIFICATION
OF SOIL
Although the use of letter symbols is convenient, it does not describe a soil as
completely as is normally required. For this reason, descriptive terms should be used
and arranged in sentence form in addition to the letter symbols to give a more clear
soil classification.
For all types of soil, such things as color, odor, and homogeneity of deposit
should observed and included in the description.
For coarse-grained soil such terms as grain shape, degree of compaction,
mineralogical content, degree of weathering, and presence or absence of fines should
be noted and included. Commonly used adjectives such as rounded, angular, and sub-
angular are employed to describe grain shape. The degree of compaction is normally

86
obtained by observing the ease or difficulty encountered in excavating material, or in
penetrating it with devices designed for this purpose. Such terms as very loose,
medium dense and very dense are frequently used. A granular deposit which can, for
example, be excavated readily with hands would be considered very loose, whereas a
deposit of same material which requires power tools for excavation would be
classified as very dense.
For the fine-grained fraction, such items as natural moisture content,
consistency and remolded consistency should be noted should be noted and described
in words. Consistency is natural state corresponds in some respects to degree of
compaction in coarse-grained soils and is usually evaluated by noting the ease by
which the deposit can be excavated or penetrated. Such terms as very soft, soft,
medium and hard are employed to describe consistency. Most textbook on soil
mechanics include table or rules of thumb for determining and describing both the
consistency of fine-grained soil and degree of compaction of granular deposits.
In addition to the descriptive terms discussed above, it is sometimes desirable
to include geological terms, such as glacial lake-bed material, alluvial etc. if this
information is available. Such description may be helpful to a person who is familiar
with these terms.
3.8 ENGINEERING USE CHART
The engineers and contractors working on construction projects are often
interested to know the properties and behavior of the borrow materials classified
according to the USC system. The Bureau of Reclamation, United States Department
of the Interior, has prepared charts, given in tables 3.11 & 3.12 to provide this
information.
The tables give a rating of the important physical and engineering properties
when these materials are compacted. They also compare the desirability of the
different soil groups for use in rolled earth dams, canal sections, foundations, and
pavements. The numerical ratings given in the tables are approximately only. These
are intended to guide engineers and contractors in making a relative comparison of
soil for various purposes. The charts help in selecting the most suitable material for
use in any specific project if multiple materials and possibility of choice is available.
3.9 AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) sol classification was originally proposed by the Highway Research Board
Committee on classification of material for sub-grade and granular roads in 1945. This
system of soil classification is based upon the observed field performance of soils
under Highway pavements (flexible and rigid) and is widely used around the world for
Highway and Airfield construction.
According to this system, soils having approximately the same general load
carrying capacity and serviceability characteristics are grouped together and classified
into eight major groups, A-1 through A-8. The classification is based on their grain-size

87
distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity indices. The major groups – A-1, A-2, and A-3,
represent the coarse-grained soils, and the groups A-4, A-5, A6, A-7, represent the
fine-grained soils. Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils are classified under A-8.
They are identified by visual inspection.
In general, the best soil for highway sub-grades is classified as A-1, the next
best as A-2 and so on, and the poorest soil for the sub-grade is A-7. Thus, it may be
said that the thickness of pavement structure progressively increases as the soil
groups change from A-1 to A-7.
The AASHTO soil classification groups A-1 through A-7 are presented in Table
3.13. Note that under group A-7 there are two sub groups. For A-7-5 sub group, the
plasticity index of the soil is less than or equal to the liquid limit minus 30. And for A-7-
3 sub group, the plasticity index in greater than the liquid limit minus 30 (see Fig 3.2).
For qualitative evaluation of a given soil as a highway sub grade material, a
number referred the Group Index has also been developed. The higher the value of
group index for a given soil, the weaker will be the soil for the pavement sub-grade. A
group index of 20 or more indicates a very poor sub grade material. A soil with a group
index of zero is considered as the best sub grade material. The formula for group
index, GI, is given below.
GI= (F200-35) [0.2+0.005(LL-40)] + 0.01 (F200 – 15) (PI – 10)
Where,
F200 = % passing No. 200 sieve, expressed as a whole number,
LL = liquid limit and PI = plastic index

The first term of the above equation,

i.e. (F-35) [0.02 + 0.005 (LL – 40)], is the partial group index of soil determined from
the liquid limit.

And the second term of the equation,

i.e. 0.01 (F- 15) (PI – 10), is the partial group index determined from the plasticity
index.
Following are some rules for determination of group index:
a. If the equation for group index gives a negative value for GI, it is taken as zero.
b. The group index calculated from the equation is rounded off to the nearest
whole number (for example, GI = 4.4 is rounded off to 4; and GI = 4.5 is
rounded off to 5).
c. There is no upper limit for the group index.
d. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3
will always be zero.
e. When calculating the group index for soils belonging to groups A-2-6, and A-2-
7, the partial group index equation related to plasticity index (as given below)
should be used.

88
 GI = 0.01 (F200 – 15) (PI – 10)
In general, the quality of performance of soil used as a sub grade material is
inversely proportional to the group index.
The group index is rounded to the nearest whole number and written next to the soil
group in parentheses; for example, A-4 (5), where A-4 is the soil group and (5) is the
value of the group index.

Plasticity index of A-7-5 sub group is equal to or less than LL minus 30. Plasticity index
of A-7-6 sub group is greater than LL minus 30 (see Fig 3.2).
3.10 DESCRIPTION OF CLASSIFICATION GROUPS
A general description of the groups and sub groups of the AASHTO soil
classification are given as follows:
a. Granular materials
Group A-1: The typical material of this group is a well-graded mixture of
stone fragments or gravels, coarse sand, fine sand and a non-plastic or slightly
plastic soil binder. However this, group also includes coarse materials without
soil binder
Sub-group A-1-a: This group comprise of materials consisting
predominantly of stone fragments or gravels, either with or without a well-
graded soil binder.

89
Sub-group A-1-b: This group comprise of materials consisting
predominantly of coarse sand either with or without a well-graded soil binder.
Group A-3: This group comprise of materials consisting of sands deficient in
coarse material and soil binder. Typical material of this group is fine beach
sand or fine desert sand, without silt or clay fines or with a very small amount
of non-plastic silt. This group also includes stream-deposited mixtures of
poorly-graded fine sand and limited amounts of coarse sand and gravel. These
soils make suitable sub-grades for all types of pavements when confined and
damp. They can be compacted by vibratory, pneumatic-tired, and steel-wheel
rollers but not with a sheep-foot roller.
Group-A-2: This group includes a wide variety of “granular” materials which
are borderline between the materials falling in Groups A-1 and A-3 and the silt-
clay materials of Groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7.it includes all materials
containing 35% or less passing the No. 200 sieve which cannot be classified as
A-1 or A-3.
Sub-groups A-2-4 and A-2-5: These groups include various granular materials
containing 35% or less passing the No. 200 sieve and with that portion of
material passing No. 40 sieve having the characteristics of the A-4 and A-5
groups. These groups include such materials as graven and coarse sand with
silt contents of plasticity index in excess of the limitations of Group A-1, and
fine sand with non plastic silt content in excess of the limitations of Group A-3.
Sub-groups A-2-6 and A-2-7: These groups include materials similar to those
described under Subgroups A-2-4 and A-2-5, except that the fine portion
contains plastic clay having the characteristics of the A-6 or A-7 group. The
approximate combined effect of plasticity index of more than 10 and %ages
passing the No. 200 sieve of more than 15 is reflected by group index values of
0 to 4.
A-2 soils are given poorer rating than A-1 soils because of inferior
binder, poor grading, or a combination of the two. Depending on the character
and amount of binder, A-2 soils may become soft during wet weather and
close and dusty in dry weather when used as a road surface. If, however, they
are protected from these extreme changes in moisture content, they may be
quite stable. The A-2-4 and A-2-5 soils are satisfactory as base material when
properly compacted and drained, while a-2-6 and A-2-7 soils with low %ages of
minus No. 200 materials are classified as good bases, whereas these same soils
with high %ages of minus No. 200 and plasticity indices of 10 or higher are
questionable as a base material. Frequently the A-2 soils are employed as a
cover material for very plastic sub-grades.
b. Silt-Clay Materials
Group A-4: The typical material of this group is non-plastic or moderately
plastic silt, usually having 75% or more passing the No. 200 sieve. The group

90
includes also mixtures of fine silty soil and up to 64% of sand and gravel
retained on the N. 200 sieve. The group index values range from 1 to 8, with
increasing %ages of coarse material being reflected by decreasing group index
values. These predominantly silty soils are quite common in occurrence. Their
texture varies from sandy loams to silty and clayey loams. With the proper
amount of moisture present, they may perform well as a pavement layer.
However, they frequently have an affinity for water and will swell and loose
much of their strength and stability unless properly compacted and drained.
Moreover, they are subject to frost heave. Since these soils do no drain readily
and may absorb water by capillarity with resulting loss in strength, they
pavement structural design should be based on their strength when saturated.
The silty loams are often difficult to compact properly. Careful field control of
moisture content and pneumatic-tired rollers are normally required for proper
compaction.
Group A-5: The typical material of this group is smaller to that described
under Group A-4, except that it is usually of diatomaceous or micaceous
character and may be highly plastic as indicated by the high liquid limit. The
group index values range from 1 to 12, with increasing values indicating the
combined effect of increasing liquid limits and decreasing %ages of coarse
material. These soils don not occur as widely as the A-4 soils. They are subject
to frost heave, erosion, and loss of stability if not properly drained. Since these
soils do not drain readily and may absorb water by capillarity with resulting
loss in strength, the pavement structural design should be based on the
strength of these soils when saturated. Careful control of moisture content is
normally required for proper compaction.
Group A-6: The typical material of this group is a plastic clay soil usually
having 75% or more passing the No. 200 sieve. The group includes also
mixtures of fine clayey soil and up to 64 % of sand and gravel retained on the
No. 200 sieve. Materials of this group usually have high volume change
between wet and dry states. The group index values range from 1 to 16, with
increasing values indicating the combined effect of increasing plasticity indices
and decreasing %ages of coarse material. These soils are quite common in
occurrence and are widely used in fills. When moisture content is properly
controller, they compact quite readily with either a sheep-foot or pneumatic-
tired roller. They have high dry strength but loose much of the strength upon
absorbing water. The A-6 soils will compress when wet and shrink and swell
with changes in moisture content. When places in the shoulders adjacent to
the pavement, they tend to shrink away from the pavement edge upon drying
and thereby provide an access of surface water to the undesirable of the
pavement. The A-6 soils do no drain readily and may absorb water by

91
 capillarity with resulting loss in strength. Therefore, the pavement structural
design should be based on the strength of these soils when saturated.
Group A-7: The typical materials and problems of this group are similar to
those described under Group A-6, except that they have the high liquid limits
characteristics of the A-5 group and may be plastic as well as subject to high
volume changes. The range of group index values is 1 to 20, with increasing
values indicating the combined effect of increasing liquid limits and plasticity
indices and decreasing %ages of coarse material.
Group A-7-5: This group includes those materials with moderate plasticity
indices in relation to liquid limit and which may be highly plastic as well as
subject to considerable volume change.
Sub-group A-7-6: This group includes materials with high plasticity indices
in relation to liquid limit and which are subject to extremely high volume
change.
High organic soils such as peat and muck may be classified as and A-8 group.
Classification of these materials is based on visual inspection and is not dependent on
the %age passing the No. 200 sieve, liquid limit or plasticity index. The material is
primarily composed of partially decayed organic material, and generally has a fibrous
texture, dark brown color and odor of decay. Because of their many undesirable
properties, their use should be avoided, if possible, in all types of construction. They
are highly compressible and have low strength.

3.11 AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

The final soil classification group is obtained by using the result of the practice
size analysis and the Atterberg limits test. Using the test data, proceed from left to
right in Table 3.13, and the correct group will be found by process of elimination. The
first group from the left into which the test data will fit is the correct classification. All
limiting test values are show as whole number. If fractional numbers appear on test
reports, convert to nearest whole number for purposes of classification. Group index
values should always be shown in parentheses after group symbol as: A2-6(4), A-4(5),
A-6(11) and A-7-5(16).

3.12 COMPARISON OF THE AASHTO AND UNIFIED SOIL

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

The comparison is given in the following table.

Table: 3.14 Comparison of the AASHTO and unified soil classification systems

AASHTO Unified System

1. It is based on texture and plasticity of 1. It is also based on texture and plasticity
soil. of soil.

2. The soil is divided into two major

2. The soil is divided into two major categories i.e. coarse grained and fine
categories i.e. coarse grained and fine grained, as separated by the No. 200

92
grained, as separated by the No. 200 sieve.
sieve.
3. A soil is considered fine grained when
3. A soil is considered fine grained when more than 50% passes the No. 200 sieve.
more than 35% passes the No. 200 sieve.
(A coarse-grained soil having about 35%
fines behaves like a fine-grained material,
since there are enough fines to fill the
voids between the coarse grains and hold
them apart. In this respect AASHTO
system appears to be more appropriate.)
4. No. 10 sieve is used to separate gravels
4. No. 10 sieve is used to separate gravels from sand.
from sand. The No. 10 sieve is more
accepted as upper limit for sand.
(Therefore AASHTO system is more
appropriate.) 5. Gravely and sandy soils are clearly
separated.
5. Gravelly and sandy soils are not clearly
separated. The A-2 group in particular,
contains a large variety of soils. 6. The symbols such as GW, SM, CH and
others are more descriptive of the soil
6. The symbols A-1, A-2, etc of this group properties.
are not well descriptive of the soil
properties. 7. The classification of organic soils such
as OL, OH & Pt has been provided in this
system.
7. Organic soils are not well discussed in
this system.

3.13 COMPARISON OF THE AASHTO AND UNIFIED SOIL

CLASSIFICATION GROUPS
Liu (1967) made a comparison of the groups of the AASHTO and the Unified systems.
The comparison is presented in table 3.15 and 3.16

Table 3.15 Comparison of the systems

Soil group in Most Probable

AASHTO System Group in USCS
A-1-a GW, GP
A-1-b SW, SP, GM, SM
A-3 SP

93
 A-2-4 GM, SM
A-2-5 GM, SM
A-2-6 GC, SC
A-2-7 GM, GC, SM, SC
A-4 ML, OL
A-5 OH, MH, ML, OL
A-6 CL
A-7-5 OH, MH
A-7-6 CH, CL

Table 3.16 Comparison of the systems

Soil group in Most Probable groups in

Unified System AASHTO System
GW A-1-a
GP A-1-a
GM A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-7
GC A-2-6, A-2-7
SW A-1-b
SP A-3, A-1-b
SM A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-7, A-2-6, A-2-7
SC A-2-6, A-27
ML A-4, A-5
CL A-6, A-7-6
OL A-4, A-5
MH A7-5, A-5
CH A-7-6
OH A-7-6
Pt --

3.14 EXAMPLES

Example – 3.1 Classify the soil sample by the AASHTO classification system. The results
of the sieve analysis and the Atterberg limit tests are given as under.

U.S Sieve Size % Passing

No. 4 100
No. 10 93.2
No. 40 81.0
No. 200 60.2

Liquid limit = 41.2% Plastic limit= 15.5%

Required: Determine the AASHTO classification group

Solution:
94
 Plasticity index (PI) = Liquid limit – Plastic limit
PI = 41.2 – 15.5 = 25.7%
Entering the Table 3.13 and moving from left to right the sample is
classified as A-7. According to the AASHTO classification system, the
plasticity index of the A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the liquid
limit minus 30, and the plasticity index of the A-7-6 subgroup is greater
than the liquid limit minus 30.
Example- 3.2 The laboratory tests gave the following results on a soil sample.
Liquid limit = 31.6% Plastic limit = 12.8%
Sieve analysis data as under

U.S Sieve Size % Passing

3/8 in. 100
No. 4 76.5
No. 10 60.0
No. 40 39.7
No. 200 15.2
Required: Classify the soil according to the Unified Soil Classification System.
Solution:
The %age retained on the No. 200 sieve is 84.8% i.e. (100 -15.2 = 84. 8),
which is more than 50%. The soil is broadly classified as “Coarse-
grained” according to column-1 of Table 3.3.
The %age of the sample retained on the No. 4 sieve is 23.5% i.e. (100 -
76.5 = 23.5). Thus, the %age of the coarse fraction retained on the No.
sieve is 27.7%, i.e. (23.5/84.8) (100), and the %age of coarse fraction
that passed the No. 4 sieve is 72.3%. Since 72.3% is greater than 50%,
then according to column – 2 of the Table 3.4, the main classification
group is “Sand”.
Since the sample contains 15.2% passing the No. 200 sieve, which is
greater than 12% fines, the soil is termed as “Sands with fines: more
than 12% fines”
Now refer to the plasticity chart of Fig 3.1. With the liquid limit of
31.6% and plasticity index of 18.6% (31.6 -12.8 = 18.6), the sample is
located above the “A” line, and the fines are classified as CL or low
plasticity clay.
Thus according to columns -3 & 4 of the Table 3.4, the soil is classified
SC according to the Unified Soil Classification System.
Example – 3.3 A soil sample was tested in the laboratory and the following results
were obtained.
Liquid limit = NP (non-plastic)
Plastic Limit = NP (non- plastic)
Sieve analysis results as follows
U.S Sieve Size % Passing
1 in. 100
3.4 in. 86
½ in. 69
3/8 in. 61

95
 No. 4 48
No. 10 30
No. 40 17
No. 100 10
No. 200 2
Required: Classify the soil according to the Unified Soil Classification System.
Solution: The %age retained on the No. 200 sieve is 98% i.e. (100-2 = 98), which
more than 50%. According to column-1 of Table 3.3 the soil is broadly
classified as “Coarse-grained”.
The %age of the sample retained on the No. 4 sieve is 52% i.e. (100-48
=52).Thus, the %age of the coarse fraction retained on the No. 4 sieve is
53.1% i.e. [(52/98) (100) = 53.1]. Since 53.1% is greater than 50%, then
according to column-2 of the table 3.3, the main soil is “Gravel”
The sample contains 2% passing the No. 200 sieve, which is less than
5% fines, the soil lies in the first row of column-3 of table 3.3.
Now calculate the coefficients of uniformity (Cu) and curvature (Cc) by
the equations given below.
Cu = D60
D10
CC = (D30)2
D60d10
After drawing the gradation curve, the values of D60, D30, and D10 determined
from the curve (Fig 3.3) are 9.6mm, 2.00mm, and 0.16mm, respectively. Hence,

Cu = 9.6 = 60
0.16

Cc = 22 = 2.6
9.6 x 0.16

The value of Cu is greater than 4 and the value of Cc is between 1 and 3, the
sample therefore meets both criteria for well-graded gravel. Hence from table 3.3 the
sol is classified as “GW”.

96
Example 3.4 An inorganic soil sample was tested in the laboratory for classification
and the following results were obtained.
Liquid Limit = 44%
Plastic Limit = 18%
The results of the sieve analysis are as follows:
U.S Sieve Size %Passing
No. 4 100
No. 10 93.2
No. 40 81.0
No. 200 60.2

Required: Classify the soil by the Unified Soil Classification System.

Solution: The %age of the sample passing the No. 200 sieve is 60.2%, which is
greater than 50%. According to the column-1 of table 3.5, the soil is termed as “Fine-
grained”.
The liquid limits 44%, which is less than 50%, so go to the upper portion of column-2
of the table 3.5 “Silt and clays, LL < 50.”

Now since the soil sample is inorganic soil and the plasticity index is 44-18 = 26%,
which is greater than 7, refer to the plasticity chart of Fig 3.1. With a liquid limit of
44% and plasticity index of 26%, the sample is located above the “A” line. Thus,
according to column-4 of the table 3.5, the soil is classified as CL according to the
Unified Soil Classification System
Example-3.5 The tests for the classification of a soil gave the following results;
% passing No. 4 sieve = 85%
% passing No. 10 sieve = 70%
%passing No. 40 sieve = 66%

97
 %passing No. 200 sieve = 41%
Liquid Limit = 33%
Plasticity Index = 13%
Required: Classify the following soil by the AASHTO classification system.
Solution: from the Table 3.13, since more than 35% passes
through the No. 200 sieve, it is a silt-clay material, and it may be A-4, A-
5, A-6, or A-7. Now as the LL = 33% (i.e. greater than 11), it falls in
group A-6. Determine the group index by the equation given below.
GI = (F200-35) [0.02+0.005 (LL – 40)] +0.01 (F200 – 15) (PI – 10)
GI = (41 – 35) [0.02 +0.005 (33 – 40)] +0.01 (41 – 15) (13 – 10)
= 0.69 ≈ 0
Hence the soil is A-6 (0)
Example – 3.6 The test for the classification of a soil gave the following results;
% passing No. 4 sieve = 85%
% passing No. 10 sieve = 70%
% passing No. 40 sieve = 66%
%passing No. 200 sieve = 41%
Liquid Limit = 33%
Plastic Index = 13%
Required: classify the following soil by the Unified classification system.

Solution: The %age of the sample passing the no. 200 sieve is 41%, and retained
on the No. 200 sieve is 59% which is greater than 50%. According to the
column -1 of table 3.4, the soil is termed as “Coarse-grained”.
The %age of the sample retained on the No. 4 sieve is 15% i.e. (100 – 85
= 15). Thus, the %age of the coarse fraction retained on the No. 4
passed the No. 4 sieve is 74.6%. Since 74.6% is greater than 50%, then
according to column-2 of the Table 3.4, the main classification groups is
“Sand”.
Since the sample contains 41% passing the no. 200 sieve, which is
greater than 12% fines, according to column-3 of the table 3.4, the soil
is termed as “sand with fines” and it is either SM or SC.
Now refer to the plasticity chat of Fig 3.1. With the liquid limit of 33%
and plasticity index of 13%, the sample is located above the “A” line,
and the fines are classified as CL or low plasticity clay.
Thus, according to columns-3 & 4 of the Table 3.4, the soil is classified
SC according to the Unified Soil Classification System. For the group
name, refer to table 3.6. The gravel fraction (i.e. the %age retained on
the No. 4 sieve) is 100-85=15%; therefore the group name is clayey
sand with gravel.

98
 CHAPTER-IV

SOIL COMPACTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The soil is commonly used as a fill material for many civil engineering projects
such as roads, airfield, levee and dam etc. whenever soil is placed as a fill, it is always
in a loose state. Therefore it has to be compacted to a dense state in order to obtain
the required engineering properties. Compaction in the field is normally achieved by
mechanical means, such as rolling, ramming or by vibration.
Compaction may be defined as the process of bringing soil particles closer to a
dense state by mechanical means. The voids are reduced by expulsion of air, the
particles are packed close to each other, and therefore the unit weight is increased. It
is worth noting that by the process of compaction there is no significant change in the
volume of water in the soil. Compaction is done to improve the engineering properties
of soil. In general, higher the degree of compaction, higher will be the shear strength
and hence greater will be the stability and the bearing capacity. Compaction is also
done to reduce the compressibility, shrinkage, frost susceptibility and permeability of
soil. For the compaction of deep soil layers to decrease the amount of undesirable
settlement of structures, viobrofloat and dynamic compaction methods are employed.
This is however beyond the scope of this chapter.
The selection of most efficient compaction plant depends on the site
conditions and the type of soil to be compacted. For indoor and small area
compaction rammers or tempers are commonly employed. Rollers are used when
large areas are involved. Cohesive soil is compacted by means of rollers while non-
cohesive soils are better compacted by vibration. Smooth-wheel rollers, sheep-foot
rollers, rubber-tired rollers, and vibratory rollers are generally used in the field for soil
compaction. Vibratory rollers are used mostly for densification of granular soils.
4.2 USE OF SOIL AS A FALL
The soil is commonly used as fill material in the following cases.
1. To backfill an excavation e.g. for foundations.
2. To develop a made-up ground to support a structure.
3. As a sub-grade or sub-base for roads, railways, or airfields (runways,
taxiway).
4. As an earth dam.
5. To raise the floor level to the required height in buildings.
6. As a back fill behind retaining walls.
7. To develop a site (residential, industrial, recreational etc.) in a difficult
terrain (undulating topography) where substantial cutting and filling is
involved.
4.3 OBJECTIVES OF COMPACTION
The main objective of compaction is the improvement of engineering
properties of soil, which are listed below.
1. To increase the shear strength.

99
 It provides higher bearing capacity for foundation support, higher CBR for
pavement design and greater stability against landslides for natural or man-
made slopes.
2. To lower compressibility, and hence smaller settlement of building structures
and lesser deformation of earth structures.
3. To lower the permeability.
It reduces the water absorption and the resulting loss of strength, (which
always occurs due to increase of water content). It also reduces water
percolation there by reducing the seepage quantities.
4. To lower the frost susceptibility. It reduces the risk of frost heave.
5. To reduce the degree of shrinkage. It reduces the possibility of formation of
tension cracks.
4.4 FACTOR AFFECTING COMPACTION OF SOIL
Following are the important factors which affect the compaction of soil.
1. Moisture Content
Moisture content is the most important factor, which greatly influence the
compaction of soil. For a given amount of compaction, there exist for each soil, a
moisture content, known as the optimum moisture content at which the dry density
of the soil is maximum.

At low moisture content, the soil is stiff and difficult to compact thus low dry
densities and high air contents are obtained by compaction. When water is added to
the soil, it acts as a lubricant causing the soil to soften and become more workable.
Due to the film of water surrounding the soil particles, they slide over one another
more easily and move into a densely packed position. This results in higher dry density
and low air contents. For the same compaction energy, the dry density increases with
the increase of moisture content. With further addition of moisture beyond the
optimum value, the thickness of water film around the particles increases which tends
to keep the particles apart and causes the dry density to fall. This is because the water
takes up the space that would have been otherwise occupied by the solid particles.
The effect of moisture change or dry density is shown in Fig 4.1. It should be noted
that it is practically impossible to expel all the air from the voids by compaction.

100
 2. Compaction Effort or Energy
Compaction effort means the mechanical energy applied to a soil mass for
densification. Irrespective of the soil type and method of compaction, an increase in
the amount of compaction (i.e. the energy applied per unit volume of soil) result in an
increase in the maximum dry density and decrease in the optimum moisture content.
Figure 4.2 shows a comparison of standard AASHTO and Modified AASHTO
compaction tests performed on samples of the same soil.

The line joining the peaks (i.e. points of optimum moisture content) of the
moisture ~ density curves of different compaction efforts, follows the general trend of
the 100% saturation line, and corresponds to the saturation level of about 95% (Fig
4.2).
In the laboratory, compaction effort is usually applied by impact of hammer, while
kneading or static compression methods are also used in some cases. During dynamic
(impact) compaction a hammer of specified weight is dropped from a known height
for a number of times on several layers of soil sample in a mold of known volume.

The compaction energy per unit volume “CE” applied in a laboratory

compaction test is calculated by the following equation.
Number Number Weight Height
Of blows x of x of x of drop of
CE = Number of blows per
CE = per layer Layers hammer hammer
layer_______________________________________________
Volume of mold
Volume of mold

For the standard AASHTO test the compaction energy is calculated and given
below.

101
 CE = (25) (3) (5.5) (1) = 12375ft –lb/ft3 ( ~ 593kJ/ m3)
(1/30)
The amount of compaction energy applied in the laboratory tests by dynamic
compaction methods is given in the Table 4.1.

Table: 4.1 Specifications for Standard and Modified AASHTO Tests

Specifications
No. Item
Standard AASHTO Modified AASHTO
0.944 x 10-3 m3 0.944 x 10-3 m3
1 Volume of mold
(1/30ft3) (1/30ft3)
2.495 kg
2 Mass of hammer 4.536 kg (10 lb)
(5.5 lb)
304.8 mm 457 mm
3 Height of drop of the hammer
(12 in.) (18 in.)
Number of hammer blows per
4 25 25
layer of soil
5 Number of layers of compaction 3 5
3
593 kJ/m 2698 kJ/m3
6 Energy of compaction 3
(12,375 ft-lb/ft ) (56,250 ft-lb/ft3)
It should be noted that the degree of compaction is not directly proportional to
the compaction effort. In other words the maximum dry density does not go on
increasing indefinitely with increase in compaction effort. Initially when the soil is
loose the affect of increased compaction effort is significant. But with the continued
increase of compaction effort, the increase in the dry density becomes smaller and
smaller. Finally a stage is reached beyond which there is no appreciable increase in the
dry density with further increase in the compaction effort and the extra compaction
effort is almost waster. A qualitative relationship between dry density and compaction
effort is shown in the Fig 4.3.

In the file compaction effort depends on the weight and number of passes of
compaction roller. Since compaction effort in the field is very difficult to measure
therefore it is never mentioned in the earthwork specification, rather a value of
relative compaction is given in the specifications. Relative compaction is the ratio of

102
the field dry density to the maximum Lab. Dry density determined by the specified
Laboratory Compaction test (standard or modified AASHTO Test).
For kneading compaction a punching device is used to produce a kneading
action on the soil. In static compaction method a known volume of soil is compressed
by mechanical jack in a specified mold as single layer or number of layers. The
compaction energy for kneading and static compaction method is not readily
computed.
3. Soil Type
The soil type, based on particle size distribution, shape of the particles, specific
Gravity of soil solids and amount and type of clay minerals present in the soil
has a great influence on the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content.
Fig 4.4 shows typical compaction curves obtained for different soils, with laboratory
tests conducted in accordance with ASTM Test Designation D-698.

103
 It should be noted that both the shapes and the positions of the curves change
as the texture of the soils varies from coarse to fine.
Maximum dry densities may range from about 60 lb/ft3 (9.42 kN/m3) for
organic soils to about 145 lb/ft3 (22.78 kN/m3) for well graded granular material
consisting of sufficient fines to fill small voids. Optimum moisture contents may range
from about 5% for granular material to about 35% for plastic silts and clays. Finer the
soil grains higher will be the optimum moisture content. Higher optimum moisture
contents are generally associated with lower dry densities. Higher dry densities and
lower optimum moisture contents are achieved with well graded granular materials.

104
Uniformly grades sand, clays of high plasticity, and organic silts and clays typically
show poor response to compaction.
4. Method of Compaction
The dry density obtained by compaction depends to some extent on the
method of compaction. For the same amount of compaction energy, the dry density
will depend upon whether the compaction is applied by kneading, dynamic or the
static action. Different methods of compaction give different shapes of compaction
curves. Consequently the maximum dry densities and the optimum moisture contents
are also different.
5. Admixture
The properties of soil are improved by adding other minerals, known as
admixtures. The most commonly used admixtures are lime, cement and bitumen.
Some of the suitable waste materials (e.g marble industry waste, steel industry waste
etc.) are being used as admixtures. The dry density achieve by compaction depends
upon the amount and the type of the admixture.
Other factors, which affect compaction of soil, but only slightly are as follows.
Processing amount, By through mixing of moisture in the soil higher dry
density is achieved. Thorough mixing requires greater manipulation and curing time.
Energy distribution, Uniform distribution of blows on each layer gives better
compaction and higher dry density is obtained.
4.5 LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST
The laboratory compaction test was originally developed by Proctor in 1933 to
obtain the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content. It is commonly
known as standard proctor compaction test. Subsequent to the standard proctor test,
modified proctor compaction test was developed to obtain higher dry densities. It was
developed in response to the need for higher dry densities of pavement sub grades
required for heavy traffic, airfields, embankments and earth dams. The original
proctor methods were later standardized by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials. Accordingly they are know a days more
frequently known as Standard AASHTO compaction test and the modified AASHTO
compaction test. The test procedures are given below.
4.5.1 Standard AASHTO Compaction Test
The apparatus required for the test are the standard mould and the hammer
as shown in the Fig 4.5. During the test, the mould is attached to a base plate at the
bottom and a collar at the top. The soil is mixed with the varied amount of water and
then compacted in the mould in three approximately equal layers by the hammer.
Each layer is given 25 blows of the hammer evenly spread on the surface of the layer.
The hammer weighs 5.5 lb (2.5kg) with a free fall of 12 in (304.8mm). At least five
samples at different moisture contents are compacted in the mould. For each sample,
the bulk density ‘Yb’ after compaction is determined as follows.
γh = W
V (m)
Where, W = weight of the compacted sample in the mould
V (m) = volume of the mould = 1/30ft3
For each test, the moisture content of the compacted sol is determined by
oven drying, the dry density γd can then be calculated as follows.
γd = γh/1 + m(%)/100

105
Where, m(%) = the moisture content in percentage
The values of Yd are then plotted against the corresponding moisture contents
to obtain the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content for the soil. A
typical moisture ~ density curve is shown in the Fig 4.6. The peak value on the Y-axis
gives the maximum dry density or unit weight and on the x-axis it gives optimum
moisture content.

106
 The detailed procedure is given in the ASTM Test Designation D-698 and the
AASHTO Test Designation T-99.

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry density is obtained
when there is no air in the void that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%.
Thus, the maximum dry density at a given moisture content with zero air voids can be
given by the following equation.
γ zav = GSYW / 1+ e
Where, γ zav = Zero air-void dry density
Yw = density of water
e = void ration
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

For100% saturation, e = mGs

γ zav = GSYW/ 1+mGS = YW / m+1/GS
Where, m = moisture content
Fig 4.6 also shows the variation of zero air void dry density (Yzav) with moisture
content and its relative location with respect to the laboratory compaction curve.
Remember that for any type of soil, it is never possible foe any part of the compaction
curve to lie on the right of the zero air void curve.
4.5.2 Modified AASHTO Compaction Test
With the progress of the automobile industry heavy vehicles were
manufactured. The traffic speed also increased due to manufacturing of high speed
vehicles. Therefore the wheel loads as well as the impact loading increased which

107
required stronger pavements to withstand the heavy wheel loads. The construction of
stronger pavements was possible with heavy compaction rollers.
The heavy rollers and their use in field compaction required improvement in
the laboratory compaction standards for better representation of the filed condition.
The standard proctor test was modified. The modified test is commonly referred as
the modified proctor test or modified AASHTO compaction test (ASTM Test
Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T-180).
For the modified Proctor test, the same mould as in the case of the standard
Proctor test is used. However, the soil is compacted in five layers with a hammer
weighing 10lb 4.54 kg). the drop of the hammer is 18 in. (457.2 mm). the number of
compaction energy for the modified compaction test is given below.
CE = (5 Layers)(25 blows)(10lb weight)(1.5 ft drop)
(1/30 ft3)
= 56,250 ft-lb/ft3 (2693.3kJ/m3)
The compaction energy for modified compaction test (modified AASHTO test) as
indicated in table 4.1 is 4.545 timer higher than that of the standard proctor test
(standard AASHTO test). It should be noted that the maximum dry density achieved
with the compaction test rather it is only about 1.1 to 1.25 timers higher than that of
standard proctor compaction.
Because of higher compaction energy, the modified AASHTO compaction test
results in an increase in the maximum dry density of the soil, which gives improved
strength and stability of the pavement layers. The increase of maximum dry density
however is accompanied by a decrease of the optimum moisture content. For
pavement construction, the compaction of the layers is usually made with reference
to the modified AASHTO test.

108
109
110
4.6 COMPARISON OF AASHTO & MODIFIED AASHTO
COMPACTION
The compaction is given the following table:
Table 4.2 comparison of AASHTO & modified AASHTO compaction

Standard AASHTO Compaction Modified AASHTO Compaction

1- Volume of the mould is 1/30ft3
2- Weight of hammer is 5.5 lb.
3- Height of fall is 12 in.
4- Number of layers is three.
5- Number of blows is 25.
6- Maximum dry density is lower.
7- The optimum moisture content is
higher.
8- The compaction curve is below
and to the right of modified
AASHTO curve.
9- Compaction energy applied is
12375 ft-lb/ft3
10- Compaction energy is 4.545 times
lower than that of the modified
AASHTO test, but the maximum
dry density obtained is only
about 1.1 to 1.25 times lower
than that of the modified
AASHTO test.
11- The degree of saturation at
optimum moisture content for
the AASHTO & modified AASHTO
test is almost same.
1- Volume of the mould is 1/30ft3
2- Weight of hammer is 10 lb.
3- Height of fall is 18 in.
4- Number of layers is five
5- Number of blows is 25.
6- Maximum dry density is higher.
7- The optimum moisture content is
lower.
8- The compaction curve is above
and to the left of standard
AASHTO curve.
9- Compaction energy applied is
56250 ft-lb/ft3
10- Compaction energy is 4.545 times
higher than that of the modified
AASHTO test, but the maximum
dry density obtained is only
about 1.1 to 1.25 times lower
than that of the modified
AASHTO test.
11- The degree of saturation at
optimum moisture content for
the AASHTO & modified AASHTO
test is almost same.

4.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OMC AND ATTERBERG LIMITS

Jhonson and Sallberg (1962) produced chart which correlate optimum
moisture content with the Atterberg limits. The curve may be used to estimate the
optimum moisture content (OMC) of fine grained soil. The estimated OMC may be
used for field compaction or to decide the mixing moisture contents in the laboratory
compaction field test. The chart is shown in the Fig 4.8.

111
 Example: Given: Liquid Limit = 35
Plastic Limit = 20
Find: Average optimum moisture
Answer: 16%
4.8 ASTM AND AASHTO SPECIFICATIONS FOR COMPACTION
TESTS
The specifications for proctor tests adopted by ASTM and AASHTO regarding
the volume of the mould (1/30 ft3) and the number of blows (25 blows/layer), as
discussed in the preceding sections are commonly adopted for fine grained soils that
pass the U.S.No. 4 sieve. However, under each test designation, there are four
different suggested methods which specify the mould size, the number of blows and
the maximum particle size in a soil sample used for testing. A summary of the test
specifications is given in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Summary of compaction test specifications

ASTM D-698: AASHTO T-99 ASTM D-1557: AASHTO T-180
Description Method Method Method Method Method Method Method Method
A B C D A B C D
3
Mould Ft 1/30 1/13.33 1/30 1/13.33 1/30 1/13.33 1/30 1/13.33
3
Volume Cm 943.9 2124.3 943.9 2124.3 943.9 2124.3 943.9 2124.3
Mould In. 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58
Height mm. 116.33 116.33 116.33 116.33 116.33 116.33 116.33 116.33
Mould In. 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6
Diameter mm. 101.6 152.4 101.6 152.4 101.6 152.4 101.6 152.4
Weight of Lb. 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 10 10 10 10
Hammer Kg. 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4.54 4.54 4.54 4.54
Drop of In. 12 12 12 12 18 18 18 18
Hammer mm. 304.8 304.8 304.8 304.8 457.2 457.2 457.2 457.2
Number of 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5
layers
Blows per 25 56 25 56 25 56 25 56
layer

112
Soil passing No. 4 No. 4 ¾ in ¾ in No. 4 No. 4 ¾ in ¾ in
sieve
4.9 DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY
When the field compaction work is in progress, and a soil layer has been
compacted by a contractor, it is important to know whether the dry density given in
the specification has been achieved or not. If the specified dry density has not been
attained, additional compaction would be required. The standard procedures for
determination of field density of soil are as follows.
1. Drive cylinder method
2. Sand cone method
3. Rubber balloon method
4. Nuclear density method
A brief description of each of the above methods is as follows.
1. Drive Cylinder method (ASTM D-2937 or AASHTO T-204)
The apparatus consists of a steel drive cylinder, 85.7mm inside diameter and
108mm height with a cutting edge at the bottom (Fig 4.9). The volume of the drive
cylinder is 620cc.

The soil surface at the test location is cleaned of all loose particles. The drive
cylinder is placed on the soil surface. Drive head is seated on the cylinder. Driving of
the cylinder into the soil is accomplished by application of blows of the rammer.
Driving is continued till the top of the cylinder is about 12mm below the surface. Drive
head is removed and the cylinder along with the soil packed in to it is dug out of the
ground. Excess soil is trimmed off with a straight edge. The weight of soil sample in
the cylinder and its moisture content is determined. With the volume of the soil (equal
to volume of the cylinder) already known, the bulk density and hence the dry density
is calculated. The detailed procedure can be seen in the ASTM or the AASHTO
standards.
The drive cylinder method is not applicable for very hard soil or the soil
containing gravels that can not be easily penetrated. Neither is it suitable for low
plasticity or cohesion-less soils which are not readily retained in the cylinder.

113
 2. Sand-Cone Method (ASTM D-1556 or AASHTO T-191)
The sand-cone apparatus (Fig 4.10) consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone
attached at its top. The jar with the cone is filled with uniformly graded dry sand. The
weight of the jar, cone and the sand filling the jar is determined (W1). A small hole is
excavated at the test location and the weight of the soil excavated from the hole, (W 2)
is placed over the hole ( Fig 4.10). Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the hole
and the cone. After that, the weight of sand cone apparatus and the remaining sand in
the jar (W3) is determined. Then the weight of sand to fill the hole and cone is
calculated = W4=W1-W3
The volume of the hole excavated can now be determined as
V = W4 – Wc / Yd(sand)
Where, Wc is the weight of sand to fill the cone only.
Yd(sand) is the dry density of used.
The values of Wc and Yd(sand) are separately determined in the laboratory.
The bulk density of the filed compacted soil is determined as follows:
Yb = W2/V

The moisture content (m) of the soil excavated from the hole is also determined.
The dry density of the field compacted soil is finally calculated as follows.
Yd = Yh / 1+m

114
 3. Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM D-2167 or AASHTO T-205)
The procedure for the rubber balloon method (RBM) is similar to the sand cone
method, in that a test hole is made and the weight of soil excavated from the hole and
its moisture content are determined. However, the volume of the hole is determined
by introducing into it a rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated cylinder,
from which the volume is read directly. The dry density of the field compacted soil is
determined by dividing weight of excavated soil by the volume of hole. The rubber
balloon apparatus is shown in the Fig: 4.11.

4. Nuclear Density Meter (ASTM D2922 or AASHTO T-238)

Nuclear density meter (NDM) is now used in several large projects for
determination of field dry density of soil. The density meters operate either in drilled
holes or form the ground surface. The instrument measures directly the bulk density,
dry density, moisture content and also the relative compaction of the soil if the
laboratory dry density is already entered in the meter’s memory. Fig 4.12 shows a
photograph of a nuclear density meter.

115
 It is a nondestructive method for determination of in-situ dry density and other
relevant parameters for compaction control. During testing, the instrument is placed
on the test location and emits gamma rays through the soil. Some of the gamma rays
will be absorbed; other will reach a detector. Through proper calibration, nuclear
count rates received at the detector can be translated into values of bulk density of
soil. Calibration curves are normally provided by the manufacturer. The nuclear
apparatus also determines moisture content by emitting alpha particles that bombard
a beryllium target, causing the beryllium to emit fast neutrons. Fast neutrons that
strike hydrogen atoms in water molecules loose velocity; the resulting low velocity
neutrons are thermal neutrons. Thermal neutron counts are made, from which soil
moisture content can be determined. The dry density can then be calculated by the
common equation.
The nuclear method is considerably faster to perform than the sand cone and
rubber balloon methods. It has the disadvantage, however of potential hazards to
individuals handling radioactive materials. The nuclear apparatus is also considerably
more costly than the apparatus used in the other two methods.

116
117
118
 The advanced version of the instrument (Geo-test nuclear gauges)
manufactured by the Seamen have the following unique advantages, which have
made their use widespread and highly respected.
 Safest possible nuclear design as the source never leaves the meter. There
is also automatic shielding when carried.
 Faster testing time.
 Larger samples tested: using a new back scatter technology permits test
samples up to 20 times larger than direct transmission units.
 The factory set density calibration to eliminate need for special operator
error.
 The built in brain and memory virtually eliminates need for special
operator skills. The keyboard is used for all tests. The meter is factory
calibrated for all materials.
The following features speed up testin.
 Separate systems take moisture and density reading simultaneously to cut
time half.
 Immediate display of wet and dry densities.
 Lab. Densities can be entered and stored in memory bank.
 Immediate display of relative compaction as a % of laboratory dry density.
 Storage and display of previous contact, air gap, or moisture counts for
subsequent reuse if new data is not needed.
 No charts or tables.
 No elaborate soil preparation or hole punching.
 No field calibration.

119
 4-a Use of Air Gap Method
Optimum air gap technology has been developed to find density and moisture
more accurately in a completely non destructive test. Since the source never leaves
the meter, there are no holes to punch or drill in the soil or pavement. The base
material is left un disturbed. The exclusive Seaman Technology only result in more
accurate testing, but also safer and faster testing.

In this method the meter is placed in contact with the sol or pavement and a
test is made. Then the air gap stand is placed under the meter and a second test is
made. The meter holds both test data in its memory and automatically makes a
calculation that eliminates chemical effect of the soil or base material to makes a true
density determination. And when the appropriate buttons are pressed the meter will
display wet or dry density, moisture content and relative compaction as a percent of
laboratory density previously entered in its memory.

120
4.10 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE FILED DENSITY METHODS.
1. The drive cylinder method is easy and quick. The cutting edge is easily
damaged and need re sharpening. The method is best suited for soft and
cohesive soil.
2. The sand cone method is relatively slow, but it can be used for any type of
soil.
3. The water displacement method is lengthy process and it can only be used
on cohesive soil. The sample must not be allowed to loose moisture
between the time when they are cut form the ground and when their
volume is determined.
4. The Rubber-Balloon method is easy and quick, but the results are not very
reproducible owning to the difficulty of controlling the air pressure and
ensuring that the balloon confirms to the shape of the hole. The method is
not applicable to very stony soils.
5. The nuclear method is considerably faster to perform than the sand cone
and rubber balloon methods. It has the disadvantage, however, of
potential hazards to individuals handling radioactive materials. The nuclear
apparatus is also considerably more costly than the apparatus used in the
other two methods.
4.11 FIELD COMPACTION
The compaction in the field is commonly made by means of rollers. The type of
roller used depends on the type of soil and the degree of compaction required. For
high degree of compaction required forimportant highways, heavy weight roller is
needed to achieve the desired density. The roller may be self propelled or twoed. The
most common types of rollers are:
1. Smooth wheel roller
2. Pneumatic rubber tired rollers
3. Sheep foot roller
4. Vibratory roler
5. Grid roller

1. Smoot Wheel Rollers

These consist of hollow steel drums, one drum on the front steeting axle and
two drums on the rear axle. The weight of the roller can be increased by filling the
drums with water or sand. These are used for all types of soil except when large
boulders are present. They are commonly used for finish rolling of sub grades and
base courses and also compacting asphalt pavements. A smooth surface is produced
on the compacted layer which results in relatively poor bonding between successive
layers and the fill as a whole will be laminated. For good bonding the compacted
surface must be scarified before laying the next layer. They provide 100% coverage
under the wheel with ground contact pressure as high as 45 to 55 lb/in 2 (310 to 380
kN/m2). They are not suitable for producing high dry densities when used on thicker
layers. These rollers included the following types.
a. Double drum type vibratory smooth wheel roller (Fig :4.17)
b. All wheel driven and independent steering tandem smooth wheel roller
(Fig: 4.18)
c. Triple drum smooth wheel roller, rear wheels driven (Fig: 4.19)

121
 d. Triple drum smooth wheel roller, all wheel driven (Fig: 4.20)
e. All drums driven and vibratory smooth wheel roller (Fig: 4.21)
f. Triple drum (different diameter) smooth wheel roller (Fig: 4.22)
Different types of smooth wheel rollers manufactured by the SAKAI heavy
industries Japan are shown in the following figures.

122
123
124
 4.11.1 Advantages of the Improved Design of the SAKAI Rollers
The following features of the improved design of the SAKAI road rollers
give smooth steady rolling and excellent maneuverability for high class compaction
work. These features ensure high performance capabilities. The rollers with these
features provide better, economical and more effective compaction.
1. Equal drum diameter
2. Center pin steering
3. Independent steering for front and rear drums (axles)
4. All wheels driven
The advantages of each of the features are listed below.
1. Equal Drum Diameter
All the drums of equal diameter apply uniform pressure of the material and
thus provide uniform compaction of the total width of layer covered by the roller.

2. Center Pin Steering

The center pin steering permits a minimum turning radius. It means that all
wheels follow their own track even on turns. The center pin steering therefore allows
smooth steady rolling and gives uniform density of entire rolled width.

3. Independent Steering for Front and Rear Drums (Axles)

A roller steered independently by the front and rear wheels or drums has the
following advantages.
 The front and rear wheels give uniform pressure which guarantees a
uniform finish. The dual steering also allows unobstructed all round
visibility.

125
  The turning circle is extremely small. A differential gear midway between
the front and rear wheels prevents the steering mechanism from being
distorted, even when making a sharp turn.
 The rolling width can be increased up to 50%, by relocating the front and
rear wheel. This is most suitable for initial rolling immediately after
spraying the finisher.
 Additionally, smooth and safe operations are insured even when rolling
sloping roads or right up to the edges of road shoulders. With the front and
rear wheels expanded, the machine can be steered by either the front or
rear wheel, and thus can easily roll curves. (Fig: 4.23)


4. All Wheels Driven

A roller driven by all the wheels does not leave any wave marks or cracks in
rolled asphalt. The rolling effect is consistent, since the driving force applied to each
wheel is the same. Thus, the roller can perform uniform rolling with out leaving any
wave marks or roller marks. Due to the least relative movement between the wheels,
there is no possibility of waving or scuffing.

126
 The rollers is specially designed to prevent the “Push out” phenomenon, thus
leaving no wave marks or cracks when rolling sub grade, sub base and asphalt
surfacing. The double up driving force permits the roller to compact sub grade, sub
base and asphalt surfacing easily, even on steep slopes.
1. Pneumatic Rubber Tire Rollers
These are suitable for wide range of coarse and fine soils. The tires are closely
spaced mounted on several axles, commonly two axles (four to six tires per axle). The
rear wheels overlap the lines of the front wheels to ensure complete coverage of the
soil surface. The tires are relatively wide with a flat tread so that the soil is not
displaced laterally. The tires are sometimes misaligned vertically (wobbly wheel), to
produce a kneading action on the soil.
The finished surface is relatively smooth, resulting in low degree of bonding
between the layers. For good bonding the compacted surface must be scarified before
laying the next layer. The contact pressure under the tires can range from 85 to 100
lb/in2.(585 to 690 kN/m2), and they produce about 70% to 80% coverage.
Pneumatic tired rollers can be used for compaction of sandy and clayey soil.
Compaction is achieved by a combination of pressure and kneading action. Increased
compaction effort can be obtained by increasing the tire inflation pressure. The roller
manufactured by the SAKAI heavy industries Japan is shown in the following figure.

127
 2. Sheep-foot, Tamping-foot or Pad-foot rollers
These rollers consist of hollow drums with a large number of tapered or club
shaped feet projecting from their surfaces. Different manufacturer give different
names but essentially all of them have projecting feet. The end area, length and shape
of the feet may vary. A roller named as sheep foot by one manufacturer may be
named as pad foot by the other.
The weight of roller can be increased by filling the drum with water or sand.
The arrangement of the feet can vary but hey usually range from 200 to 250mm in
length. The area of the projections may range from 4 to 3 in2. (25 to 85 cm2). They are
most effective in compacting clayey soils. The contact pressure under these
projections ranges from 200 to 1000 lb/in2 (1380 to 6900 kN/m2). During compaction
in the field the initial passes compact the lower portion of a lift. Initially when the soil
layer is loose, the drums are in contact with the soil surface. Subsequently, as the fee
penetrating below the surface compact the soil and it becomes sufficiently dense to
support the high contact pressure of the projecting feet, the drums raise above the
soil. Sheep foot rollers are most suitable for fine soils, especially at moisture content
dry of optimum. They are also suitable for coarse soils with more than 20% of fines.
The action of the feet causes significant mixing of the soil, improving its homogeneity,
and will break up the lumps of stiff material. Due to the penetration of the feet,

128
excellent bonding, which is an important requirement for water retaining structures, is
produced between successive soil layers. These rollers include the following types:
a. Self propelled vibratory pad foot roller (Fig: 4.25, 4.26)
b. Tractor towed pad foot roller (Fig: 4.27, 4.28)
Different types of these rollers manufactured by the SAKAI heavy industries
Japan are shown in the following figures.

129
 3. Vibratory Rollers
Vibratory rollers are very effective in compacting granular soils. Power driven
vibration mechanism can be attached to smooth wheel, pneumatic rubber tired, or
sheep foot rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil. The mass of the roller and
the frequency of vibration must be matched to the soil type and layer thickness. The

130
lower the speed of the roller the fewer the number of passes required. These rollers
include the following types.
a. Smooth drum and tire type vibratory roller (Fig: 4.29)
b. Pad foot drum and tire type vibratory roller (Fig: 4.30)
c. Double drum type vibratory roller (Fig: 4.31)
d. All drum drive an vibration vibratory roller (Fig: 4.32)
e. Tractor towed vibratory roller (Fig: 4.33)
f. Hand guided vibratory roller (Fig: 4.34)
Different types of these rollers manufactured by the SAKAI heavy industries Japan
are shown in the following figures.

131
132
133
 4. Grid Rollers
These rollers have surface consisting of a network of steel bars forming a grid
with square holes. Kentledge can be added to the body of the roller to increase its
weight. Grid rollers provide high contact pressure (from 1400 to 6000 kN/m 2) but little
kneading action and are suitable for coarse grained soils. These produce only 50%
coverage.
A tractor towed grid roller is shown below.

134
 4.11.2 Indoor Compaction
Rollers can not be used for limited areas, indoor compaction and compaction
in trenches. For these cases the following two equipments are commonly used.
1. Vibrating Plates
These consist of a steel plate with upturned edges, or curved plate, on which a
vibrator is mounted. Vibrating plates are commonly used for compaction of granular
soils over limited areas and are also suitable for other soil types. The unit, under
manual guidance, propels itself slowly over the surface of the soil.

2. Power Rammers
Manually controlled power rammers, generally petrol driven are used for the
compaction of small area where access is difficult or where the use of large equipment
would not be justified. They are also used extensively for the compaction of backfill in
trenches.
4.12 COMPACTING CAPABILITY OF ROLLER
The amount of material (weight or volume) compacted to the specified density
by a given roller per unit time is known as the capability of roller. It depends on the
following factors.
Working width (W)
Speed of roller (S)
Number of passes (N)
Thickness of layer (D)
Specific gravity of material (G)
A certain amount of production is lost due to the required overlap between
side by side passes. Working width is equal to the width of roller multiplied by the
rolling width efficiency. The rolling width efficiency varies from 75% for asphaltic
materials where an overlap of 25% is provided, to 90% for soil with a rolling width
overlap of 10%.

135
 An approximate relationship for compacting capability is given below
Practical capability = Theoretical capability x Rolling width efficiency x Working
ratio
Where:
Working ratio is commonly assumed to be 0.85 (51 minutes of work per 1
hour). A certain amount of time is required to shift from forward to backward
movement of the roller and to start and stop.
a. Asphalt Compaction
For asphalt compaction the relationship for Theoretical capability is terms of
weight of material compacted per hour is given below.
Theoretical Capability = W x S / N x D x G
The equation will give theoretical capability in terms of weight of asphalt per
unit time.
b. Soil Compaction
For soil compaction the relationship for Theoretical capability is terms of
volume of material compacted per hour is given below:
Theoretical Capability = W x S / N x D
The equation will give theoretical capability in terms of volume of soil per unit
time.
The heavy rollers will have height compaction capability, since they will require
less number of passes to produce the specified density. Knowing the capability of one
roller, the number of rollers required to be employed for a project can be determined
so that the job can be completed within the specified time.
4.13 FIELD CONTROL OF COMPACTION & INSPECTION
The results of laboratory compaction tests are not directly applicable to field
compaction. The mode and amount of compaction efforts in the laboratory tests are
different from those of the field compaction. Compaction in the field (wide area) is
produced by moving compaction equipments, while laboratory compaction commonly
is made by blows of rammer where the soil is confined in small metallic mould.
Further, the laboratory tests are carried out only on material smaller than either
20mm or 37.5 mm size. However, the maximum dry densities obtained in the
laboratory tests AASHTO T-99, using the 2.5 kg rammer and AASHTO T 180, using 4.5
kg rammer cover the range of dry density normally produced by field compaction
equipment. Therefore it is common to specify a value of relative compaction in the
contract document. The required field dry density divided by the maximum laboratory
dry density expressed as a percentage is called the relative compaction.
After a fill layer of soil has been compacted, a field density tests is usually
performed to determine whether the specified dry density has been achieved. For
example, if the maximum dry density obtained from ASTM or AASHTO compaction
test in the laboratory is 100 lb/ft3 and the relative compaction specified is 95%
according to the contract, a field dry density of 95 lb/ft 3 (of higher) would be
acceptable.
Theoretical it looks very simple, but there are some practical considerations
that must be taken in to account. For example, the type of soil or compaction
characteristics of soil take from borrow areas may vary from one location to another.
Also, the degree of compaction may not be uniform throughout. To deal with the
problem of non uniformity of soil from borrow areas, it is necessary to conduct the

136
laboratory compaction tests to find the maximum dry density and the optimum
moisture content for each type of soil encountered in a project. Then, as soil is
transported from the borrow area and subsequently placed and compacted in the fill
area, it is imperative that the results of each field dry density test be checked against
the maximum laboratory dry density of the respective type of soil. For inspection it is
common practice to specify a minimum number of field density tests. For example, for
a dam embankment, it might be specified that one test be made for every 2000 m 3
(loose measure) of fill placed.
To ensure that the required field density is achieved by the field compaction, a
specifications contract between the client and the contractor is prepared. The
contract will normally specify the required relative compaction and minimum number
of field density tests.
For compaction adjacent to structure, where settlement is a serious matter, a
higher value of relative compaction and a higher minimum number of tests may be
specified than for example, the compaction of a parking area. The specifications
contract may also include additional items, such as the maximum thickness of loose
lifts (layers) prior to compaction, laboratory density tests to determine the maximum
dry density (e.g. ASTM D 698 or D 1557 or AASHTO T 99 or T 180) and the methods to
determine field density (e.g. ASTM D 1556 or AASHTO T 191).
A soil engineer appointed by the client is responsible for ensuring that contract
specifications are met precisely and completely. He is responsible for the testing and
must see that the specified dry density is achieved. If a test on any particular location
indicates that the required dry density has not been achieved, he must instruct the
contractor for additional compaction, possibly including and adjustment in the field
moisture content. The moisture will be added if the field moisture is below the
optimum value4, or the soil will be dried if the existing moisture is on the wet side of
the optimum moisture.
4.14 FACTORS AFFECTING FIELD COMPACTION
Following are the factors, with affect the field compaction.
1. Type of the compacting equipment.
2. Field moisture content
3. Number of passes of the compacting equipment
4. Thickness of the lift (layer)
5. Speed of the compacting equipment
6. Soil type

1. Compacting Equipment
Type of the compacting equipment (roller) is selected based on the soil type
and the compacted dry density required. Based on the pressure applied by the
compacting equipment and field dry density required, thickness of the lift is decided.
This is because the pressure applied at the surface decreases with depth, resulting in a
decrease in the degree of compaction of soil. In general the thicker the oil layer the
heavier the roller required to produce an adequate degree of compaction.
2. Moisture Content
The moisture content of the soil for field compaction should be close to the
optimum moisture content. In case of compaction during hot summer days the
moisture applied to the soil may be slightly above the optimum moisture content. The

137
moisture is commonly applied by spraying form a tanker. Ploughing is then made for
through mixing. If the moisture content is close to the optimum value and mixed
thoroughly, fewer numbers of passes will give the required dry density. If the amount
of moisture added is not proper, it is not possible to get the required compaction even
after making a large number of passes of compacting equipment (roller or rammer).
3. Number of passes
The dry density of soil is also affected by the number of passes of compacting
equipment. Initially the dry density of soil at specified moisture content increases
rapidly up to a certain point with the number of passes. Above a certain number of
passes no significant increase in the dry density is obtained and it remains
approximately constant (Fig: 4.37). If the equipment chosen is not appropriate for a
project the required dry density will never be obtained, no matter how many number
of passes are made. A minimum number of passes must be made with the chosen
compaction equipment to produce the required value of dry density. The number of
passes, which depend on the type and mass of the equipment and on the thickness of
the soil layers, is usually within the range 3 to 12.

4. Thickness of the lift (Layer)

The compaction of soil increases with a decrease in the thickness of layer. The
thickness of the soil or asphalt layer compacted to the specified density depends on
the type and weight of compacting equipment. Heavier the compacting equipment,
thicker is the layer compacted. However, for economic considerations, the thickness is
never kept less than 15cm.
5. Speed of the Compacting Equipment
The compaction depends to some extent on the speed of roller. The speed
should be so adjusted that the maximum affect is achieved. For efficient compaction,
the rolling speed for asphalt compaction is generally 6 km/h, and for soil compaction
is 5 km/h.

138
 6. Soil Type
Compaction in the field is very much influenced by the type of soil. Well graded
soils give very high density by compaction as compared to the uniformly or poorly
graded soils. Also the clayey soils and sandy soils have entirely different compaction
characteristics. Table (4.5) presents some general compaction characteristics of
various soils along with their values as embankment, sub grade and base material, for
soils classified according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). Table (4.4)
gives anticipated embankment performance for soil classified according to the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AAHSTO) system.

Table: 4.4 General Guide to Selection of AASHTO groups Based on Anticipated

Embankment Performance

Maximum Dry Optimum Anticipated

AASHTO Visual
Density lb/ft3 Moisture Embankment
Groups Description
(kN/m3) Content Performance
115-142
A-1-a Granular material 7-15 Good to excellent
(18-22.3)
Granular material 110-135
A-2-4 9-18 Fair to excellent
with soil (17.3-21.2)
Fine sand and 110-115
A-3 9-15 Fair to good
sand (17.3-18)
Sandy silts and 95-130
A-4 10-20 Poor to good
silts (14.9-20.4)
Plastic silts and 85-100
A-5 20-35 Unsatisfactory
clays (13.3-15.7)
95-120
A-6 Silt – Clay 10-35 Poor to good
(14.9-18.8)
85-100
A-7-5 Plastic silty clay 20-35 Unsatisfactory
(13.3-15.7)
90-115
A-7-6 Clay 15-30 Poor to fair
(14-18)

Table 4.5 Compaction Characteristics and Ratings of the Unified Soil Classification
(USC) Groups

Max. Dry
Density
Value as Value as Value as
USC Compaction Standard Compressibility
Embankment sub grade Base
Group Characteristics AASHTO and Expansion
3 material Material Course
lb/ft
3
(kN/m )
Good: Rubber
tired, smooth
125-135
GW wheel or Almost none Very stable Excellent Good
(19.6-21.2)
vibratory
roller
Good: Rubber
tired smooth
115-125 Reasonably Excellent Poor to
GP wheel or Almost none
(18-19.6) stable to good fair
vibratory
roller

139
 Good: Rubber
tired or light 120-135 Reasonably Excellent Fair to
GM Slight
sheep foot (18.8-21.2) stable to good poor
roller
Good to fair:
Rubber tired 115-130 Reasonably Good to
GC Slight Good
or sheep foot (18-20.4) stable fair
roller
Good: Rubber
tired, or 110-130 Fair to
SW Almost none Very stable Good
vibratory (17.3-20.4) poor
roller
Good: Rubber
Reasonably
tired, or 100-120 Good to
SP Almost none stable when Poor
vibratory (15.7-18.8) fair
dense
roller
Good: Rubber Reasonably
100-125 Good to
SM tired or sheep Slight stable when Poor
(15.7-19.6) fair
foot roller dense
Good to fair:
Rubber tired 105-125 Slight to Reasonably Good to Fair to
SC
or sheep foot (16.5-19.6) medium stable fair poor
roller
Good to poor: Poor
Rubber tired 95-120 Slight to stability, high Fair to Not
ML
or sheep foot (14.9-18.8) medium density poor suitable
roller required
Good to fair
sheep foot or 95-120 Good Fair to Not
CL Medium
rubber tired (14.9-18.8) stability poor suitable
roller
Fair to poor:
Unstable,
sheep foot or 80-100 Medium to Not
OL should not Poor
rubber tired (12.6-15.7) high suitable
be used
roller
Fair to poor:
sheep foot or 70-95 Poor stability Not
MH High Poor
rubber tired (11-14.9) not be used suitable
roller
Fair to poor: Fair stability,
80-105 Poor to Not
CH sheep foot Very high may soften
(12.6-16.5) very poor suitable
roller on expansion
Fair to poor Unstable
65-100 Not
OH sheet foot High should not Very poor
(10.2-15.7) suitable
roller be used
Should not Not Not
PT Not suitable -- Very high
be used suitable suitable

4.15 SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIELD COMPACTION

Most of the specification for earth work required the contractor is to achieve a
compacted field dry density of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry density determined in
the laboratory either by the standard or modified AASHTO tests. Different methods to
check, whether the specified field density is achieved or not, are given in Section 4.9.

140
the raio of the field and lab. Density is called the relative compaction R, which is given
in the specification. The relative compaction can be expressed as

R(%) = Yd(field) / Yd(max) x 100

Where, R = relative compaction

For the compaction of granular soils, specifications are sometimes written in
terms of the required relative density Dr. The relative density should be confused with
relative compaction. The definition of Dr is as follows

Dr = Yd(field) – Yd(min) / Yd(max) – Yd(min) Yd(max) / Yd(field)

Comparing Equations, 4.9 and 4.10, following equation is obtained

R = Ro / 1-Dr (1-Ro)
Where Ro = Yd (min) / Yd (max)
Based on the observation of forty seven (47) soil sample, Lee and Singh (1971)
gave the following correlation for granular soils between R and Dr.
R = 80 + 0.2Dr
The specification for field compaction based on relative compaction or on
relative density is an end product specification. The contractor I bound to achieve the
required field dry density regardless of the field compaction procedures adopted. The
most economical compaction condition can be explained with the help of Fig: 4.38.
The compaction curves A, B and C, are for the same soil with varying compaction
effort. Let curve A represent the condition of maximum compaction effort that can be
obtained from the existing equipment. Let it be required to achieve a field dry density
of Yd(field) = Ryd(max). To achieve this, the moisture content m needs to be between m
and m2 however, as can be seen from compaction curve c, the required Yd(field) can be
achieved with a lower compaction effort at a moisture content of m = m 3 however, for
most practical condition, a compacted field dry density of Yd(field) = Ryd(max) cannot be
achieved by the minimum compaction effort. Hence, an equipment giving a slightly
higher than the minimum compaction effort should be used. The compaction curve B
represents this condition. Now it can be seen from Fig: 4.38 that the most economical
moisture content exists between m3 and m4. Note that m = m4 is the optimum
moisture content fro curve A, which is for the maximum compaction effort.

141
 The concept described in the preceding paragraph, along with Fig: 4.38, is
attributed to Seed (1964). It is elaborated in more detail by Holtz and Kovacs (1981)
4.16 EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON PROPERTIES OF COHESIVE SOIL
The properties of soil are improved by compaction. Compaction induces
variations in the structure of cohesive soils. These structural variations cause changes
in permeability, compressibility, and strength.
1. Permeability
Sample of soil compacted by the same compaction effort but at varying
moisture contests induce changes in soil structure, which eventually affect the
permeability. The coefficient of permeability which means how easily water flows
through soil decreases with the increase of moisture content. It reaches a minimum
value when the molding moisture content is approximately equal to the optimum
moisture content. The high value of coefficient of permeability on the dry side of the
optimum moisture content is due to the random orientation (flocculent structure) of
clay particles that results in larger pore spaces. And the low value of permeability at
high moisture content (wet of optimum) is due to higher degree of particle orientation
(dispersed structure) of clay particles which results in smaller pore spaces.
Permeability decreases with increase of compaction effort, because at given
moisture content increasing the compaction effort tends to give a more parallel
orientation of particles.

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 2. Soil Structure
The results of the work of Lambe (1958) regarding the effect of the compaction
on the structure of clay soils are illustrated in Fig: 4.39. If clay is compacted wit
moisture content on the dry side of optimum, as represented by Point A, it will
possess a flocculent structure. This is because, at low moisture content, the diffuse
double layers of ions surrounding the clay particles cannot be fully developed; hence
the inter particle repulsion is reduced. This results in a more random particle
orientation (flocculent structure) and a lower dry density.
When the compaction moisture is increased, as shown by Point B, the diffuse
double layers around the particles expand, thus increasing the repulsion between the
particles and giving a lower degree of flocculation and higher dry density. A continued
increase of moisture content from B to C will expand the double layers more and this
will result in a continued increase of repulsion between the particles. This will give a
still greater degree of particle orientation and am ore or less a dispersed structure.
However, the dry density will decrease because the added water will dilute the
concentration of soil solids per unit volume.
At given moisture content, higher compaction effort tends o give a more
parallel orientation to the clay particles, thereby giving a more dispersed structure.
The particles are closer and the soil has a higher density of compaction. This can be
seen by comparing Point A with Point E in Fig: 4.39.

3. Swelling
A soil compacted on the dry side of optimum moisture content has high water
deficiency. Consequently, it absorbs more water than the sample compacted wet of
optimum, and therefore indicates greater swelling. This is attributed to combination
of the flocculated fabric, sensitivity of additional water at the contact points, and the
lower reference water content for swelling.

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 4. Shrinkage
Soils compacted dry of the optimum shrink less on drying compared with those
compacted wet of the optimum. The soil compacted wet of the optimum have
dispersed structure and shrink more. The soil particles in the dispersed structure
having nearly parallel orientation can pack even more efficiently on drying and thus
show higher shrinkage.
5. Compressibility
Compressibility of compacted clays seems to be a function of both the method
of compaction and pressure subsequently applied on the soil mass. Under lower
pressure clay compacted on the wet wide of optimum is ore compressible due to its
low shear strength than a clay compacted on the dry side of optimum which has
comparatively high shear strength. With higher applied pressure, clays compacted wet
of optimum are less compressible. An explanation according to Lambe (1958) is that ht
flocculated structure produced on the dry side of optimum has a large accumulation
of interparticle bonds from a water deficiency compared to the dispersed structure on
the wet side of optimum. Applications o flow pressures on the dry side are not
sufficient to overcome the particle bonding to:
1. Reorient the fabric to a more dispersed state and then
2. Squeeze particles closer together,
So, the compressibility (reduction in void ratio) is low. On the wet side, step 1 has
already been done in the compaction process so that the step 2 effects predominate
and the compressibility is larger. At higher pressure such that inter-particle bonds are
broken, and both steps 1 and 2 occur simultaneously for the flocculated (dry side)
structure and result in a large amount of compressibility. For the wet side with a
dispersed structure, only step 2 predominates so that less compressibility is produced.
Compressibility characteristics of clay soils compacted on dry and wet sides of
optimum are shown in Figs: 4.40 & 4.41. The pressure void ratio curves at low
consolidation pressure for samples compacted dry and wet of the optimum are shown
in Fig: 4.40. Under high pressure, the trend is exactly the opposite, and this I shown in
Fig: 4.41. For samples compacted on the dry side of optimum, the high pressure
(pressure high enough to break the edge to face bond of the flocculated structure)
tends to orient the particles to produce a dispersed structure. And further the space
between the particles is also reduced which results in large compressibility at high
pressure. However, for samples compacted on the wet side of optimum, pressure
merely reduces the space between the clay particles. At very high pressure, it is
possible to have identical structures for samples compacted on the dry and wet sides
of optimum.

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 6. Shear Strength
The strength of compacted clays decreases with increase of molding moisture
content. This is shown in Fig: 4.42. Note that at approximately optimum moisture
content there is a great loss of strength. The means that if two samples are compacted
to the same dry density one of them on the dry side of optimum and the other on the
wet side of optimum, the specimen compacted on the dry side of optimum (that is,
with flocculent structure) will exhibit greater strength.

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 7. Stress~ strain behavior
The strength of cohesive soils is also dependent on the moisture content
during compaction and the moisture at test time. Strength is also dependent on the
strain level. The strength at large stains (e.g., more than 20%), is relatively
independent of molding water content. Apparently the large amount of sample
remolding during large strain produces the same ultimate fabric (structure) in the
failure zone.

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 At low strain say, at 5%, clays compacted on the dry side of optimum produce
larger strengths. When clays compacted on the dry side of optimum are later
saturated, the strength is also higher than for clay compacted o the wet side (and
saturated), but at high strains strengths are about equal (fig 4.43). At high strains most
soils converge to a limiting strength as qualitatively shown above. At low strains the
molding moisture content has significant affect on strength.
This means where strength at low deformation is critical (such as a pavement
sub grade) and swell is not a problem, the soil should be compacted dry of optimum.
For a dam core (which will later saturate), which relies on a shell and mass for stability
rather than strength, compaction should be on the wet side of optimum so that
settlement deformation may be accommodated without cracking.
4.17 DEALING WITH UNDESIRABLE SUB GRADE SOIL
It is very important that the pavement sub grade should behave adequate
stability. Proposed rod alignment may encounter weak sub grade soil (e.g.
waterlogged soil, highly plastic soil, expansive soil, peat etc.) in some areas. At some
other locations the sub grade soil may get affected during the life time by such factors
as, frost action and capillary rise from shallow groundwater table. All these soil
conditions and factors may cause ultimate failure of pavement, mainly due to
excessive settlement, frost heave and instability of fill and cut slopes. For most of the
cases, replacement of soil and the change of alignment may not be possible for
economic reasons. Other considerations, such as soil improvement and changes in the
existing field conditions may be required. Weather conditions are beyond the control
of a man. Improvement of the soil properties and/or dealing with the aggressive
factors is therefore inevitable for long term performance of a pavement.
4.17.1 Highly Plastic or Expansive Soil
The highly plastic soil such as A-6 and A-7 soils (according to AASHTO
classification) and expansive soils are considered poor sub grade material. These soils
have sufficiently high strength at low moisture content. But as the moisture content
increases beyond the plastic limit the strength is drastically reduced. Volume changes
and also the change of strength due to wetting and drying are the major problems of
concern. The volume and the strength changes of the sub grade under the pavement
structure are not uniform. The no uniform volume and strength changes results in
differential settlement of the sub grade. This causes the bituminous roads to develop
crazing and unevenness in the surfacing and the concrete roads to become severely
cracked.
A reduction in moisture content of the sub grade may also cause as much
damage to the pavement s an increase in the moisture content. During summer the
shoulders are usually drier than the sub grade while in the winter they may be wetter.
They effect of these moisture changes in the shoulders extends to the edges of the
pavement. The moisture content under the crown is not much affected due to
weather changes and is comparatively remains stable. In such cases the edges of the
road are subjected to seasonal rise and fall with respect to the center of the road.
During drought, these movements are greater and result in severe cracking of the
pavement.
Considerable loss of strength of these soils occurs due to increase of moisture
content. The possible source of moisture increase is the capillary rise from the
groundwater table or flooding of the pavement due to rains or any other cause. The

147
problem can be minimized if the stub grade in maintain in a stable condition at a
constant moisture content.
Coarse grained soils such as gravels and sands are highly permeable. In
general, highly permeable soils make excellent sub grade material, as coarse grained
soils are stable whether dry or saturated. However, permeable soils may carry
seepage water and create serious stability problems by furnishing a source of supply
for capillary moisture, or by lubricating slippage surface.
4.17.1-a Problems Due To Capillary Rise
Capillarity permits the rise of free water through the pores of the soil. Capillary
action is most pronounced in ‘dirty gravels’ or sols composed mainly of fine sands,
silts, or silty clays and clays. There is evidence that large amounts of water can rise to
considerable heights (up to tens of meters) in soils subject to capillarity. If the surface
of soil is open to atmosphere and this moisture evaporates as fast as it rises, no
damage may result. But, if evaporation is low as compare to capillary rise or the
surface is sealed by pavement or some other impervious blanket, this capillary water
accumulates and saturates the sub surface layers. Capillarity coupled with ground
freezing creates very serous problems.
4.17.1-b Recommended Solution
i. Subsurface drainage
The high water table shown in the figure would be a source of capillary
moisture which, on rising, would saturate the sub grade and base course and cause
weakness or lead to frost heave. The installation of deep under drains would lower the
water table so that capillary moisture would not raise high enough to be troublesome.
The Recommendation for lying of sub drains are as follows:
1. Pipe always should be used to carry away the collected water. Perforated
or unperforated pipes, laid with open joints, can be used. The number, size
and location of opening into the pipe must be studies carefully to prevent
excessive entrance velocity which will cause silting of the pipe.
2. Filter material with which the trench is backfilled, or the opening in the
filter cloth, should be fine enough that the adjacent soil is not washed in to
the drain.
3. The top of the sub drains should be sealed with an impervious soil to
prevent the entrance of surface water.
4. Pipe must be laid with the flow line at least 48in. below the finished grade
and be carefully bedded in gravel or filter material.
ii. Controlling capillary rise
Any one or a combination of the following measures can be taken to control
capillary rise.
1. Remove the soil that is subject to capillary action for a considerable depth
and replace it with a granular non capillary material. The practice varies
among the highway agencies. Some of agencies remove susceptible
materials to the full depth of frost penetration, while other remove op to
one half this depth.
2. Lower the groundwater below the reach of extensive capillary action by
installation of sub drains.
3. Excavate the soil to the expected depth of frost penetration and place an
impervious seal such as an asphaltic membrane or a layer of granular non

148
 capillary material at this level to cut off the rise of capillary water. Then
replace the original material.
4. Eliminate or reduce the depth of frost penetration by providing and
insulting layer. For example, layers of extruded polyester foam.
5. Increase the effective grain size of frost susceptible materials using
chemicals. This solution may be economical and advisable when the supply
of frost-free material becomes exhausted.
4.17.2 Peat or Soft Clay
When a pavement is to be constructed on unstable ground, such as peat or
soft clay, it essential either to remove the soft material or its complete consolidation
before the pavement structure is completed. The methods for removal include the
following:
1. Total excavation
2. Partial excavation and partial displacement
3. Removal by suction pumps
4. Displacement by blasting
4.17.3 Frost Susceptible Soil
Frost heaving, frost boils, and spring breakup often occur when freezing and
thawing of soils subject to capillary action take place.
Frost heaving phenomenon is explained as follows:
1. When the soil temperature falls below the freezing point, water in the
larger voids freezes, while the moisture in the capillary tubes because its
comparatively low freezing point does not freeze and the flow of water to
the frost zone continues.
2. This capillary water is drawn to the frozen particle with tremendous force.
Tensions as high as 8000 cm of water have been reported.
3. When this water comes in contact with the ice lenses, it freezes and
increases the size of the ice lenses, thus raising the overlying pavement
structure. Expansion pressure as high as 200 lb/in2 can be developed,
which far exceed the usual superimposed load, thus heaving occurs.
4. Water is continuously supplied by capillary action from the groundwater
below, and ice lenses grow in size.
5. When the growth of one lense is halted, another below it begins to form
when the temperature between them becomes low enough to freeze the
capillary moisture. The rate oat which cooling takes place governs the
number and thickness of lenses.
4.17.3-a Problems Due To Frost Heave
Some of the damaging effects of the frost heave to the pavement structure are
listed below.
1. Heaving is commonly non uniform, since it occurs only in stratified layers or
pockets of fine sand, silts, or silty clays. Thus a small selection of the road
surface will rise and create a serious accident hazard. Differential heaving
where the grade line passes from cut to fill is common. Sometimes, a rock
gragment may thrust upwards and protrude through the surface.
2. In wide pavements (multiple lanes), vertical heaving as well as lateral
expansion due to formation of ice lenses may cause wide longitudinal crack
in the pavements.

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 3. Due to pavement cover, the freezing depth for shoulders and under the
pavement will be different which results in differential heaving between
the travelled lanes and the shoulder.
4. Heaving occurs due to freezing. But due to thawing, the ice lenses melt and
free water under the surface escapes through cracks, which is known as
‘frost boils’. Harmful settlement of the road surface occurs. When the free
water remain under the pavement surface and vehicles move over, the
water spurt up through the cracks or joints. The action is described as
‘spring breakup’. Frost action also cause slope instability.
5. Even if the freezing does not cause frost heaving, a drastic strength loss
results due to thawing of a frozen sub grade and base course. As thawing
presses downward from the surface, strength falls rapidly and may
decrease as much as 50% by the time all frost is out of the ground. This loss
of strength is attributed, to an increase in the degree of saturation and
pore pressure.
4.17.3-b Recommended Solution
1. Remove the soil is subject to capillary action for a considerable depth and
replace it with a granular non capillary material. The practice varies: Some
agencies remove susceptible materials to the full depth of frost
penetration: other stop at one half this depths.
2. Install sub drains to lower the groundwater below the reach of extensive
capillary action.
3. Excavate the soil to the frost line and place and impervious blanket such as
an asphaltic membrane or layer of granular, non capillary material at this
level to cut off the rise of capillary water. Then replace the original
material.
4. Eliminate or reduce the depth of frost penetration by providing and
insulting layer. For example, layers of extruded polyester foam have bee
effective in small experimental installation.
5. Increase the effective grain size of frost susceptible materials with
chemicals. This solution may be economical when supplies of frost free
materials to the site become expensive due to large distance or some other
reasons.
4.18 BORROW AREA PROBLEMS
Following are the very commonly occurring problems related to borrow
material.
1. Mixing of Borrow Soil
Soil to be used in compacted fill (pavement sub-grade) is commonly excavated
from borrow areas. The borrow areas may be either near or several kilometers away
from the site. Power shovels, draglines, and self propelled scrappers are used to
excavate the borrow material. These devices may cut through layers of different
materials, allowing ht several soils to become mixed. The power shovel mixes the soil
by cutting along a vertical surface, while the scraper mixes the soil by blading across a
surface where different soils may be exposed.
Various equipments are used to transport and spread the soil on the fill area. It
is preferable to spread the material when dumping to save spreading time. The
borrow soil often requires processing prior to compaction. This may include thorough

150
mixing of sol, adding water, or drying the soil. The layer of loose soil dumped over a
previously compacted layer is called a lift. Lifts range from 15 to 50cm depending on
the size and type of equipment and the type of soil to be compacted.
If mixing of different soils from borrow area is expected, the sample for the
determination of laboratory density (for compaction control) should be collected from
the fill site (i.e. after mixing of soils) the laboratory density tests performed on
different soils from borrow area will not be representative for the compaction control.
2. Change of volume
On excavation, the volume of the in situ soil increases. Swell values may range
from 15% for a gravelly material to 40% for clay; for rock swell is of the order of 60 to
65%. The soil is dumped at the site, processed as required, and compacted to a new
void ratio ef > ei since broken rock can never be compacted back to its initial void
ratio. This may produce some computation problems to relate final compacted
quantities to borrow or cut quantities uses ad fill for royalty payments. Therefore to
avoid royalty payment problems the in situ void ratio or density of the borrow area
should be determined accurately and the rates of payment for cut and fill volumes
should be decided separately.
3. Payment Rates
The market rate schedule (MRS), or composite schedule of rates (CSR) indicate
rates of excavation for different soils, commonly referred as soft soil or hard soil. If
borrow areas not properly investigated, dispute between contractor and the client
department commonly arise regarding decision of rates. Contractors usually claim
rates for hard soil. To avoid disputes resulting in construction delays and eventually
increasing project cost, borrow areas should be thoroughly investigated prior to award
of contract.
4.19 EXAMPLES
Example-4.1 during construction of an embankment, a sand cone test was
performed in the field. The following data were obtained:
1. Weight of sand to fill test hole and funnel of sand cone apparatus =
870g.
2. Weight of sand to fill funnel = 322g
3. Density of san= 98.0 lb/ft3
4. Weight of wet soil from the test hole = 750g
5. Moisture content of soil from test hole = 13.8%
Solution
Given Data / as above
Required
Dry density of the compacted soil = Yd
Weight o sand in test hole = weight of sand to fill test hole and funnel,
minus the weight of sand to fill funnel
= 870-322 = 548g
= 548/453.6 = 1.208lb
Volume of test hole = 1.208 / 98.0 = 0.0123ft3
Bulk density of soil in place, Yb= 750/453.6 / 0.0123 = 134.42lb/ft3
Yd = Y b / 1 + m
Yd = 134.42 / 1+ 0.138 = 118.12 lb/ft3
Yd = 118.12 lb/ft3

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Example-4.2 for construction of an embankment, a soil from a borrow pit gave the
following laboratory results when subjected to the ASTM D 6987
Standard proctor test.
Maximum dry unit weight = 120.5 lb/ft3
Optimum moisture content = 13%
The contractor, during construction of the embankment, achieved the
following
Dry density achieve by field compaction = 118.0lb/ft3
Actual field moisture content = 12.9%
Determine the relative compaction achieved by the contractor.
Solution:
Given Data
Maximum laboratory dry density (Yd max) = 120.5 lb/ft3
Field dry density (Ydfield) = 118.0 lb/ft3
Relative compaction = Field dry density (Yd field) / maximum
laboratory dry density (Ydmax) x 100
= 118.0 lb/ft3 / 120.5 lb/ft3 x 100
= 97.92%
4.20 PROBLEMS
Prob. 4.1 The following results were obtained from a standard AASHTO
compaction test on a soil:
Weight (g) 2015 2092 2114 2100 2055
Water content (%) 13.0 14.5 15.6 16.8 19.2
The value of G is 2.66. Plot the dry density verses moisture content
curve and find the optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density. Plot also the curves of zero, 5% and 10% air voids and find the
value of air voids at maximum dry density. The volume of the mold is
1000cm3.

Prob. 4.2 The following is the data obtained from a standard AASHTO
compaction test:
Moisture content % 5.0 9.0 14.0 23.0 27.5 30.0
Wet soil weight (kg) 1.79 1.92 2.03 2.15 2.13 2.12
If the volume of the mold is 950 cc and specific gravity of the soil s 2.65,
plot the curve showing moisture content versus dry density.
Prob. 4.3 The undisturbed soil from a pit has a moisture content of 15%, void
ratio 0.61 and specific gravity of 2.71. The borrow soil is to be used to
construct a rolled fill having a finished volume of 35500 m 3. The soil is
to be transported from the pit to the construction site by trucks having
a net carrying capacity of 6000kg. After compaction, the fill soil has a
moisture content of 18% and a dry density of 1.70 g/cm 3. Calculate the
total number of trips the truck will have to make to construct the rolled
fill.
Prob. 4.4 laboratory compaction test data is tabulated as follows. The test was
conducted in accordance with the ASTM D 698 Standard Proctor Test.

152
 Sample Number 1 2 3 4 5
Dry density (lb/ft3) 112 116.7 118.3 115.2 109
Moisture Content (%) 7.1 10.0 13.4 16.7 20.1

Plot dry density versus moisture content curve and determine the
maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
Prob. 4.5 A Standard Proctor compaction test (ASTM D 698) was conducted in a
soil laboratory. The weight of a compacted soil specimen plus mould
was determined to be 3820 g. the volume and weight of the mold were
0.0333 ft3 and 2050 g, respectively. The moisture content of specimen
was 9.3%. Compute wet and dry density of compacted specimen.
Prob. 4.6 results of the Standard Proctor Test (AASHTO T 90) on a soil sample,
taken from the site of a proposed borrow pit are given below: plot
moisture content versus dry density curve and determine the maximum
dry density and optimum moisture content.

Sample Number 1 2 3 4 5
Dry density (lb/ft3) 107 109.8 112 111.6 107.3
Moisture Content (%) 9.1 11.8 14.0 16.5 18.9

Prob. 4.7 using the results of the test of Problem 4.5, determine the range of
water content most likely to attain 95% or more of the maximum dry
density.
Prob. 4.8 A laboratory compaction test was performed on a soil sample taken
from a selected borrow area. The maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content were determined to be 110.5 lb/ft 3 and 19.8,
respectively. Estimate the possible type (or classification) of soil for this
sample.
Prob. 4.9 during construction of a highway project, a sand cone test was
performed on the compacted earth fill. The following data was
obtained:
1. Wight of sand used to fill test hole and funnel of sand cone
apparatus = 850g.
2. Weight of sand to fill funnel = 328g
3. Unit weight of sand = 100lb/ft3
4. Weight of wet soil from test hole = 650g
5. Moisture content of soil from test hole = 15%
Determine the dry density of the compacted earth fill.
Prob. 4.10 A soil sample was taken form a proposed borrow area for highway
construction project. The standard AASHTO compaction test gave the
following data.
Maximum dry density = 115.2 lb/ft3
Optimum moisture content = 15.3%
The contractor, during construction of the embankment, achieved the
following:
Dry density achieve by filed compaction = 107.1 lb/ft3

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 Actual field moisture contest = 16.1%
Determine the percent compaction achieved by the contractor.
Prob. 4.11 soil having a void ratio of 0.68 in a borrow pit is to be excavated and
transported to a fill site where it will be compacted to a void ratio of
0.45. The volume of fill required is 3000m3. Determine the volume o
soil to be excavated from the borrow pit to construct the fill of the
required volume.
Prob. 4.12 Calculate the zero air void densities (i.e. theoretical maximum density)
for a soil having G = 2.67 at moisture content of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%.
Plot a graph between theoretical maximum density and the moisture
content.

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 CHAPTER-V

FIELD AND LABORATORY TEST

5.1 INTORDUCTION
The soil extensively is used as a construction material (e.g. as embankments for
dams or roads) or as a foundation support. The designers must know the behavior of
soil under the action of loads, gravitational forces, and water. Physical and
engineering properties of soil are required to predict the behavior. Field and
laboratory tests are always performed to now the properties.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American
Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has standardized
procedures for tests on materials including the soil. These standards have been
accepted around the world and adopted for material testing. This chapter includes the
following field and laboratory tests:
1. Determination of liquid limit of soil.
2. Determination of plastic limit and the plasticity index of soil.
3. Determination of field density by core cutter (drive cylinder method)
4. Determination grain size distribution –sieve analysis.
5. Determination of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content by
standard AASHTO compaction test.
6. Determination of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content by
modified AASHTO compaction test.
7. Determination of field density by sand replacement method.
8. Determination of field density by rubber balloon method.
9. Determination of specific gravity.
10. Determination of modulus of sub grade reaction.
11. Determination of California Bearing Ration (CBR)
The ASTM and AASHTO procedures of various tests differ in some minor to
major details. The test designations for both the standards are given but the test
procedures confirm to the latest AASHTO standards. Only brief test procedures for the
above mentioned tests are described here. The detailed procedures are beyond the
scope of this chapter and can be seen in the books of Standards. The application of
tests is discussed in the preceding chapters.
5.2 DETERMINATION OF THE ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
5.2.1 Determining the Liquid Limit of Soil
(AASHTO T 89-96) (ASTM Designation: D4318)
Scope
The liquid limit of a soil is that moisture content, as determined in accordance
with the following procedure, at which the soil passes from a plastic to a liquid state.
Apparatus
The apparatus for the rest consists of the following.
1. A porcelain dish.
2. A spatula or knife.
3. Liquid limit device (Casagrande Apparatus). This device consists of a brass
cup and carriage as shown in Fig 5.1a.
4. Grooving tool as shown in Fig 5.1b.

155
 5. Balance.
6. Containers for moisture content determination.
7. Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 110 ± 5 oC for drying
moisture samples.

Sample
A sample with a mass of about 100g shall be taken from thoroughly mixed
portion of the material passing the No. 40 sieve i.e. 0.425 mm sieve.
Procedure
1. The liquid limit device shall be inspected to check that the device is in good
working condition.
2. Adjust the height of drop of cup so that the point on the cup that comes in
contact with the base rises to a height of 10 ± 0.2mm.
3. The soil sample shall be placed in the mixing dish and thoroughly mixed with
distilled water to form a consistent paste.
4. Once testing has begun, no additional dry soil should b added to the wet soil.
5. The cup of the liquid limit device shall not be used for mixing soil and water.
6. When sufficient water has been thoroughly mixed with the soil to form a
uniform paste of stiff consistency, a sufficient quantity of this paste shall be
placed in the cup and shall be squeezed and spread with the spatula so as to
get a depth of 10mm at the point of maximum thickness.
7. As few strokes of spatula as possible shall be used, care being taken to prevent
the entrapment of air bubbles within the past.
8. The excess soil shall be returned to the mixing dish and covered to retain the
moisture in the sample.

156
 9. The soil in the cup of the device shall be divided by a firm stroke of the
grooving tool along the diameter so that a clean sharp groove of the proper
dimensions will be formed.
10. To avoid tearing the sides of the groove or slipping of the soil paste on the cup,
up to six strokes from front to back or from back to front counting as one
stroke, shall be permitted. The depth of the groove should be increased with
each stroke and only the last stroke should scrap the bottom of the cup.
11. The cup containing the sample prepared shall be lifted and dropped by turning
the lever at the rate of approximately two revolutions per second until the two
sides of the sample come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a
distance of about 13mm.
12. The number of shocks (blows) required to close the groove shall be recorded.
13. The base of the machine shall not be held with the free hand while the lever is
turned.
14. A slice of the soil approximately the width of the spatula, extending from edge
to edge of soil cake at right angles to the groove and including that portion of
groove which closed together, shall be taken and placed in a suitable
container.
15. The soil in the container shall be dried in an oven to determine the moisture
content and record the results.
16. The soil remaining in the cup shall be transferred to the mixing dish. The cup
and the grooving tool shall then be mashed and dried in preparation for the
next trial.
17. The foregoing operations shall be repeated for at least two additional portions
of the sample to which sufficient water has been added to bring the soil to
more fluid condition.
18. The object of this procedure is to obtain samples of such consistency that at
least one determination will be made in each of the following ranges of shocks
blows 25-35, 2-30, 15-25, so that the range in the three determinations is at
least 10 shocks (blows).
Calculation
The moisture content of the soil shall be expressed as the percentage of the
mass of the oven dried soil and shall be calculated as follows:

Percentage moisture = mass of water x 100

Mass of oven dried soil
Calculate the percentage of moisture to the nearest whole percent.
Preparation of Flow Curve
A “ Flow Curve” representing the relation between moisture content and
corresponding number of shocks (blows) shall be plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph
with the moisture contents as ordinate on arithmetical scale and number o shocks
(blows) as abscissa on logarithmic scale. The flow curve shall be straight line drawn as
nearly as possible through the three or more plotted points.
Liquid limit
The moisture content corresponding to the intersection of the flow curve with
the 25 shocks (blows) abscissa shall be taken as the liquid limit of soil.

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 5.2.2 Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils (AASHTO
T90- 96), (ASTM Designation: D 4318)
Scope
The plastic limit of a soil is the lowest moisture content determined in
accordance with the following procedure at which the soil remains plastic. The
plasticity index of a soil is the range of moisture content, expressed as a percentage f
the mass of the oven dried soil, within which the material remains in a plastic state. It
is the numerical difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit of the soil.
Apparatus
1. Dish,
2. Spatula or knife,
3. Surface for rolling,
4. Container for moisture content determination,
5. Balance,
6. Drying oven capable of maintain temperatures of 110 ± 5 0C for drying
samples,
7. Standard 3mm diameter needle to check the size of the rolled thread,
Sample
Take a quantity of soil with a mass of about 20g from the thoroughly mixed
portion of material passing the 0.425 mm sieve. Place the air dried soil in a mixing dish
and thoroughly mix with distilled water until the mass becomes plastic enough to be
easily shaped into a ball. Take portion of this ball with a mass of about 8g for the test
sample.

Procedure
1. Squeeze and deform the 8g test sample taken into an ellipsoidal shape mass.
2. Roll this mass between the fingers or plan on the ground glass plate or a piece
of paper laying on a smooth horizontal surface with just sufficient pressure to
roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length.
3. The rate of rolling shall be between 80 & 90 strokes per minute, counting a
stroke as one complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting
position again.
4. When the diameter of the thread becomes 3mm, break the thread into six or
eight pieces. Squeeze the pieces together between the thumbs and fingers of
both hands into a uniform mass roughly ellipsoidal in shape and re roll.

158
 5. Continue this alternate rolling to a thread of 3mm, in diameter, gathering
together, kneading and re rolling, until the thread crumbles under the pressure
required for rolling and the soil can no longer be rolled into thread.
6. The crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter greater than 3mm.
this shall be considered a satisfactory end point, provided the soil has been
differently with the various types of soil. Some soils fall apart in numerous
small aggregates of particles; other may form and outside tubular layer that
starts splitting at both ends. The splitting progresses toward the middle, and
finally, threads falls apart in many small platy particles. Heavy clay silts require
much pressure to deform the thread particularly as they approach the plastic
limit, and finally, the thread breaks into a series of barrel shaped segments
each about 6 to 9mm in length.
7. Gather the portion of the crumbled soil together, place in a suitable container
and dry in an oven to determine the moisture content and record the results.
Calculations
Calculate the plastic limit, expressed as moisture content in percentage of the
mass of the oven dry soil as follows:
Percentage moisture = mass of water x 100
Mass of oven dried soil
Report the plastic limit to the nearest whole number. Calculate the plasticity
index of soil as the difference between its liquid limit and its plastic limit as follows:
Plasticity index = Liquid limit – Plastic limit
Report the difference calculated as plasticity index except under following
conditions:
 When the liquid limit or plastic limit cannot be determined, report the
plasticity index and NP (non-plastic)
 When the plastic limit is equal to, or greater than, the liquid limit, report the
plasticity index as NP.
5.3 DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY OF SOIL BY DRIVE
CYLINDER (CORE CUTTER) METHOD (AASHTO T 204-90)
Scope
The drive cylinder method of determining in place density of soils can be used
satisfactorily in moist, cohesive, fine grained material only. The sample is obtained by
forcing a small, thin walled cylinder into the material with a driving head and hammer
or other suitable apparatus. The method is not applicable to the coarse grained soil.
Sandy soil will not be retained in the cylinder while gravelly soil will damage the
cutting edge of the cylinder or will obstruct the driving.
Apparatus
1. Drive cylinder,
2. Detachable drive head,
3. Drive hammer,
4. Weighing balance,
5. Stove or oven for drying moisture of samples,
6. Shovel for digging out cylinder,
7. Steel straightedge to flush sample with cylinder,
8. Container for moisture content determination.

159
Procedure
1. The surface to be sampled is smoothed and brushed clean of loose particles.
2. The drive cylinder is given light coating of motor oil and is placed on the soil
surface.
3. Drive head is seated on the cylinder. Driving of cylinder is accomplished by
raising the drop hammer and allowing it to fall, striking the driving head, by
keeping it in vertical position. Driving should be continued until the top of the
cylinder is about 12mm (0.5 in) below the surface.
4. The drive head is removed and the cylinder dug out from the ground. Digging
should be accomplished by cutting the soil several centimeters away from the
cylinder and undercutting the cylinder several centimeters.
5. Excess soil is trimmed off with straightedge, taking care that ends of sample
are flush with the ends of cylinder.
6. The mass of cylinder and sample is determined as quickly as possible to
prevent the loss of moisture.
7. The sample is then removed from the cylinder and the moisture content of the
soil is determined and recorded.
8. The mass of empty cylinder is also determined.
Calculations
Volume of cylinder = πd2/4 x h
Where,
h = height of cylinder
d = internal diameter of cylinder
Moisture content (m) in percent,
m= mass of water x 100
Mass of dry soil
Mass of wet soil = mass of cylinder & wet soil – mass of empty cylinder
Wet density of soil in place = Yb = mass of wet soil
Volume of cylinder
Dry density of soil in place = yd = yh / 1+m/100

5.4 PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS (SIEVE ANALYSIS) OF SOIL (AASHTO T

88-97), (ASTM DESIGNATION: D 4318)
Scope
The method describes a procedure for the quantitative determination of the
distribution of particle sizes in a soil mass.
Apparatus
1. Balance
2. Set of sieves conforming to the requirements of AASHTO.
The sieves normally required are as follow:

160
 Standard Alternate
Designation (mm) Designation (in)
(75) 3 in
(37.5) 1 ½ in.
(19) ¾ in.
(9.5) 3/8 in.
(4.75) No. 4
(2.00) No. 10
(0.840) No. 20
(0.420) No. 40
(0.250) No. 60
(0.15) No. 100
(0.075) No. 200

Procedure
1. Take about 500g of ample. Weight of sample however depends on the
maximum particle size in soil.
2. Sieves are arranged in descending order i.e. the biggest size sieve at top and
the smallest size sieve at bottom with a pan provided beneath it.
3. The sieving operation shall be conducted by means of a lateral and vertical
motion of the sieve, accomplished by jarring action so as to keep the sample
moving continuously over the surface of sieve.
4. The fragments of the sample shall not be turned or manipulated through the
sieve by hand.
5. Sieving shall be continued until not more than 1 percent by mass of the residue
passes any sieve during 60 seconds.

Calculations
The results of the sieve analysis shall be reported as follows:
Sieve size (mm) Weight retained Weight passed Percentage passing
(gm) (gm) (Weight Passed/Total Weight X 100)

(75)
(37.5)
(19)
(9.5)
(4.75)
(2.00)
(0.840)
(0.420)
(0.250)
(0.15)
(0.075)
Pan
The percentage passing shall be plotted on semi logarithmic paper to obtain a
curve known as gradation curve.

161
 Gradation curves are the best representation of soil nature i.e. it is well
graded, uniformly graded or poorly graded soil.
Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and Coefficient of curvature (Cc) can also give us an
idea of soil nature. They are calculated as follows:
Cu = D60 / D10
Cc = (D30)2 / (D10) (D60)
Where,
D10, D30, or D60 are diameter or sizes for 10%, 30% and 60% passing
respectively.
Now,
If Cu > (5), the soil is well graded
If Cu < (5), the soil is uniformly graded
And
If Cc lies between (0.5) & (2), the soil is well graded.
5.5 DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY BY SAND-CONE METHOD
[AASHTO T 191-93)], [ASTM D 1556-64 (1982)]
Scope
This method of test is intended for determining the in place density of soils the
apparatus used normally in restricted to tests in soils containing particles not larger
than 50mm (2 in ) in diameter.
Apparatus
1. Sand cone apparatus (bottle or cylinder)
2. Tray, 300mm square with 150mm diameter hole for sand cone cylinder
apparatus, and base plate with 6.5in, diameter central hole for the sand cone
Bottle apparatus,
3. Balance,
4. Oven,
5. Hand chisels, or spoons for digging test hole,
6. Container for drying moisture samples (tin cans)
7. Container for retaining excavated soil,

162
Material
Any clean, dry, free pouring, un cemented uniformly grade sand, (may be
taken as passing 0.85mm sieve and retained on 0.60mm sieve)
Procedure
1. Determine the volume of the jar and attachment up to and including the
volume of the valve orifice on follows.
a. Weight the assembled apparatus.
b. Place the apparatus uptight and open the valve.
c. Fill the apparatus with water until it appears over the valve.
d. Close valve and remove excess water.
e. Weight the apparatus and water.
f. Repeat the procedure described in steps (a) to (e) at least thrice. Convert
the mass of water, in grams, to millilitres.
The volume used shall be the average of three determinations with a maximum
variation of 3ml.
2. Determine the bulk density of the sand to be used in the field test as follow:
a. Place the empty apparatus up right on a firm level surface, close the valve
and fill the funnel with sand.
b. Weigh apparatus with the sand and determine the net mass of sand by
subtracting the mass of the apparatus.
c. Divide the mass of sand filling the apparatus by the volume as determined
in step 1.
3. Determine the mass of sand required to fill the funnel as follows:
a. Put sand in the apparatus and determine mass of apparatus and sand.
b. Seat the inverted apparatus on a clean, level, plane surface and open the
valve, the sand will pour down and fill the funnel.
c. Close the valve sharply, weigh the apparatus with remaining sand and
determine the loss of sand. This loss represents the mass of sand required
to fill the funnel.
d. Replace the sand removed in the funnel determination and close the valve.
4. Determine the density of soil in place as follows:
a. Prepare the surface of the location to be tested so that it is a level plane.
b. Seat the base plate on the prepared plane surface and mark the outline of
the hole in the base plate.
c. Excavate a hole at least 150mm deep in the soil. Carefully secure the soil
excavated from the hole.
d. Seat the apparatus on the base plate already sitting on the hole, open the
valve and after the sand has stopped flowing, close the valve.
e. Weigh the apparatus with remaining sand and determine the mass of sand
used in the test.
f. Weight the soil that was excavated from the test hole (W1).
g. Mix the material thoroughly and weigh a representative sample for
moisture determination.
Calculations
a. Calculate the volume of the density apparatus as follows:
V1 = G
Where,

163
 V1 = Volume of density apparatus, in cubic centimetres.
G = Grams of water required to fill the apparatus.
Apply temperature correction if required.
b. Calculate the density of the sand as follows:
Ysand = W/V1 Where,
Ysand = Density of sand.
W = Grams of sand required to fill the apparatus.
V1 = Volume of apparatus in cubic centimetres as determined in step-a
c. Calculate the in place density of the soil as follows:
V = W2 – W3 / Ysand
Yb = W1/V
Where,
V = Volume of test hole or volume of the excavated soil.
W2 = Weight of sand used to fill the test hole and funnel.
W3 = Weight of sand in funnel
W1 = Weight of soil excavated from the test hole.
d. Calculate the dry density of the test soil as follows:
Dry Density of soil = Yd = Yb / 1+ m/100
Where, “m” is the moisture content determined as follows from the sample
taken at step (4-g).
m= mass of water x 100
mass of dry soil
5.6 FIELD DENSITY OF SOIL BY RUBBER-BALLOON METHOD
[AASHTO T 205-86(1996)] [ASTM DESIGNATION D2167 – 66
(1984)]
Scope
This method covers the determination of the field density of compacted or
natural soil using a rubber balloon apparatus. This apparatus (method) is not suitable
for very soft soil which will deform under slight pressure or in which the volume of the
hole cannot be maintained at a constant value.
Apparatus
1. Rubber balloon apparatus: Consisting of a calibrate vessel designed to contain
a liquid within a relatively, thin, flexible, elastic membrane (rubber balloon) for
measuring the volume of test hole. The apparatus shall be equipped so that
externally controlled pressure or vacuum can be applied.
2. Balance
3. Drying oven
4. Miscellaneous Equipment: Chisel for digging test holes; plastic bags, buckets
with lids, or other suitable metal containers that can be closed for retaining the
soil excavated from the test holes.

164
Procedure
1. Prepare the surface of the test location so that it is reasonable plan.
2. Set the apparatus on the test location and take an initial reading on the
volume indicate of the calibrated vessel using the same pressure on the liquid
in the vessel and the same amount of surface weight as on which the
apparatus was calibrated.
3. After taking this initial reading on the volume indicator, mark the outline of the
apparatus on the test location.
4. Record the pressure used, the amount of surcharge, and the initial volume
reading.
5. Remove the apparatus from the test location and dig a hole centred within the
outline marked for the apparatus, without disturbing the soil around the top
edge of the hole.
6. Place all the soil excavated from the test hole in an airtight container for mass
and moisture content determinations.
The test hole shall be of the minimum volume as shown in table below.
Table A: Minimum field test-hole volumes and minimum moisture content sample
sizes based on maximum size of particle

Min. Moisture
Max. Particle
Min. Test hole Volume Content
Size
Sample Size
(mm) (cm3) (cu. ft) (gm)
4.75 (No. 4 700 0.025 100

165
 sieve)
12.5 (1/2 in) 1400 0.050 250
25.0 (1 in) 2100 0.075 500
50 (2in) 2800 0.100 1000
63 (2 ½ in) 3800 0.135 1500
7. After the test hole has been dug, place the apparatus over the test hole in the
same position used for initial reading and inflate the flexible membrane in the
hole.
8. Apply the surcharge mass and pressure on the liquid in the vessel according to
calibrations requirement.
9. Take and record the reading on the volume indicator. The difference between
this reading and the initial reading obtained is the volume of the test hole.
10. Determine the mass of all the moist soil excavated from the test hole.
11. Mix this soil thoroughly, select a moisture content sample in accordance with
table (A), and determine it’s mass.
12. Dry the moisture content sample to a constant mass at a temperature of 100 oC
and determine the dry mass.
13. Determine the % moisture content.
Calculations
 Calculate moisture content of soil as follows

m= mass of water x 100

mass of dry soil
 Calculate wet density (Yb) of the soil removed from the test hole, as
follows:

(Yb) = mass of wet soil

Volume of test hole
 Calculate dry density of soil (Yd) removed from the test hole, as follows:

(Yd) = (Yb) x 100

m + 100
5.7 THE MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATIONS OF SOILS [AASHTO
COMPACTION TEST (AASHTO T 99-97)] USING 2.5 KG (5.5LB)
RAMMER AND 305MM (12 IN) DROP [ASTM DESIGNATION D
698-70]
Scope
This method is intended for determining the relation between the moisture
content and the dry density of soils compacted in a mould of a given size with a 2.5 kg
(5.5 lb) rammer dropped from a height of 305 mm (12in).
Apparatus
1. Mould with a detachable collar and a detachable base plate as shown in Fig:
5.6.
2. Manually operated rammer with a mass of 2.5 kg (5.5lb), having a flat circular
face of 2 in diameter. The rammer should be equipped with a suitable guide

166
 sleeve to control the height of drop to a free fall of 12 in, above the elevation
of soil.
3. Sample extruder: a jack, lever, frame or other device adopted for the purpose
of extruding compacted specimens from the mould.
4. Weighing Balance.
5. Drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 110 ± 5 oC for drying
moisture samples.
6. Straightedge for trimming the soil.
7. Sieve No. 4 (4.75mm)
8. Containers for moisture content determination.

Samples
If the soil sample is damp when received from field, dry it in air or by use of a
drying apparatus with temperature not exceeding 600C. Then thoroughly break-up the
aggregates in such a manner as to avoid reducing natural size of individual particles.
Sieve and adequate quantity of soil over 4.75m (No. 4) sieve. Select 3 kg mass
of soil passing from sieve.

167
Procedure
1. Thoroughly mix the selected representative sample with sufficient water to
dampen in to approximately four % below expected optimum moisture
content.
2. Compact the soil in 4 in mould with collar attached, in three approximately
equal layers to give a total compacted depth of 125 mm (5 in)
3. Prior to compaction, place the loose soil into the mould and spread into a layer
of uniform thickness.
4. Lightly tamp the soil prior to compaction until it is not in a loose or fluffy state,
using either the manual compaction rammer or similar device.
5. Following compaction of each of the first two layer, any soil adjacent to the
mould walls that has not been compacted or extends above the compacted
surface shall be trimmed using a knife or other suitable device, and be evenly
distributed on top of the layer.
6. Compact each layer by 25 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer
dropping free from a height of 305 mm (12in) above the elevation of the soil.
7. During compaction, the mould shall rest firmly on a dense, uniform rigid, and
stable foundation or base. This base shall remain stationary during the
compaction process.
8. After compaction, remove the extension collar, carefully trim the compacted
soil even with the top of the mould by means of the straightedge, and
determine the mass of the mould and the wet soil in kilograms or pounds.
9. For mass recorded in kilograms, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen
and the mould, minus the mass of the mould, by 1060, and record he result as
the wet density, Yb, in kilograms per cubic meter, of compacted soil.
10. Remove the material from the mould and slice vertically through the centre.
11. Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically through the centre.
12. Take a representative sample of the material from one of the cut faces, weigh
immediately and place in the oven.
13. Throughtly break the remaining portion of the molded specimen until it will
pass a 4.75 mm (No.4) sieve as judged by eye, and add to remaining portion of
sample being tested.
14. Add water in sufficient amount to increase the moisture content of

168
5.8 THE MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATIONS OF SOIL [MODIFIED
AASHTO COMPACTION TEST T 180-97] (USING 4.54 KG (10LB)
RAMMER AND 457 MM (18 IN) DROP) [ASTM DESIGNATION D
1557-70]
Scope
This test is intended to determine the relationship between the moisture
content and dry density of soil when compacted in a given mold of a given size with a
4.54 kg (10lb) rammer dropped from a height of 457 mm (18 in).

169
Apparatus
1. Mold with a detachable collar and a detachable base plate as shown in Fig: 5.8.
2. Manually operated rammer with a mass of 4.54 kg (10lb), having a flat circular
face of 2-in diameter. The rammer should be equipped with a suitable guide
sleeve to control the height of drop to a free fall of 18 in, above the elevation
of soil.
3. Sample extruder, for the purpose of extruding compacted specimens from the
mold.
4. Weighing balance.
5. Drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 110 ± 5 oC for drying
moisture sample.
6. Straightedge for trimming the soil.
7. Sieve No. 4 (4.75mm)
8. Containers for moisture content determination.
Sample
Dry the soil sample in air or by use of a drying apparatus with temperature not
exceeding 60 oC, if it is wet when received from field. Then thoroughly break-up the
aggregates in such a manner as to avoid reducing natural size of individual particles.
Sieve an adequate quantity of soil from 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve. Selected 3 kg mass of
soil passing from sieve.
Procedure
1. Thoroughly mix the selected representative sample with sufficient water to
dampen it to approximately four percent below optimum moisture content.
2. Compact the prepared soil in a 4 in mold with collar attached, in 5
approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of 125 mm (5 in).
3. Prior to compaction, place the loose soil into the mold and spread into a layer
of uniform thickness.
4. Lightly tamp the soil prior to compaction until it is not in a loose or fluffy state,
using either the manual compaction rammer of similar device.
5. Following compaction of each of the first two layers, any soil adjacent to the
mold walls that has not been compacted or extends above the compacted
surface shall be trimmed using a knife or other suitable device, and be evenly
distributed on top of the layer.
6. Compact each layer by 25 uniformly distributed blows of the rammer with a
height of free fall of (475 mm) 18 in above the soil surface.
7. During compaction, the mold shall rest firmly on a dense, uniform, rigid, and
stable foundation or base.
8. After compaction, remove the extension collar, carefully trim the compacted
soil even with the top of the mold by means of a straightedge, and determine
the mass of the mold and the wet soil in kilograms or pounds.

170
 9. For mass recorded in kilograms, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen
and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 1060, and record the result as
the wet density, Yb, in kilogram per cubic meter, of compacted soil.
10. For mass recorded in pounds, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen
and the mold , minus the mass of the mold, by 30, and record the result as wet
density, yb, in pounds per cubic feet, of compacted soil.
11. Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically thoroughly the center.
12. Take a representative sample of the material from one of the cut faces, weigh
immediately and place in the oven.
13. Thoroughly break the remaining portion of the specimen until it will pass a
4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve as judged by eye, and mix with the remaining portion of
sample being tested.
14. Add sufficient water to increase the moisture content of the soil by one to two
percent and repeat the above procedure for each increment of water added.
15. Continue the series of determination until there is either a decrease or no
change in the wet density (bulk density) of compacted soil.
16. In instances where the soil material is fragile in character and will be reduced
significantly in size by repeated compaction, a separate and new sample shall
be used in each compaction test.
Calculation
Calculate the moisture content and the dry density of the compacted soil for
each trial, as follows:
m = A – B x 100
B–C
and
Yd = Yb / m + 100 x 100
Where
M = Percentage of moisture content of the specimen.
A = mass of container and wet soil.
B = mass of container and dry soil.
C = mass of container.
Yd = Dry density, in kilograms per cubic meter of compacted
soil, or pounds per cubic foot of meter of compacted soil.
Yb = wet density, in kilograms per cubic meter of compacted
soil, or pounds per cubic foot of compacted soil.
Moisture-Density Relationship
The above calculations are made to determine the moisture content and
corresponding dry density in kilograms per cubic meter or pounds per cubic foot of
the compacted samples. The dry densities of the soil shall be plotted as ordinates and
the corresponding moisture content as abscissas.

171
Optimum Moisture Content
When the densities and the corresponding moisture contents for the soil have
been determined and plotted, it will be found that by connecting the plotted points
with a smooth line, a curve is produced. The moisture content corresponding to the
peak of the curve shall be termed the “optimum moisture content” of the soil for the
above compaction.
Maximum Density
The dry density of the soil at optimum moisture content shall be termed
“maximum density” for the above compaction.

5.9 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOILS (AASHTO T 100) (ASTM

DESIGNATION: D 854)
Scope
This method covers the determination of specific gravity of soils by means of a
pyconmeter. When the soil composed of particles larger then the 4.75 mm sieve, the
method outlined in AASHTO: T85, test for specific gravity and absorption of coarse
aggregate, shall be followed. When the soil is composed of particles both larger and

172
smaller than the 4.75 mm sieve, the sample shall be separated on the 4.75mm sieve
and the appropriate test method be used on each portion. The specific gravity value
for the soil shall be the weighted average of the two values.
Significance and use
Specific gravity is the ratio of mass in air of a given volume of a material at a
stated temperature to the mass in air of the same volume of gas free distilled water at
a stated temperature.
Apparatus
1. Pycnometer: Either a Pycnometer jar with conical top or a stoppered bottle
having a capacity of at least 50 ml.
2. Balance.
3. Oven.

Sample
The mass of the test sample on an oven dry basis shall be at least (125 g) when
the pycnometer jar is to be used, and at least (10 g) when the stoppered bottle is to
be used.
When an oven dry sample is to be used, the sample shall be dried for at least
(12 hours), or to a constant mass, in an oven maintained at (100 o ± 50C), cooled to
room temperature, the weighed and transferred to pycnometer jar or transferred to
stoppered bottle and then weighed.
Distilled water shall be added into pycnometer in an amount that will provide
complete sample coverage. The sample shall be soaked for at least (12 hours).
Procedure
1. The sample prepared as above shall have distilled water added to a level that
will cover the soil to a maximum of about three fourths full in the jar, or about
one-half full in the stoppered bottle.

173
 2. Remove entrapped air by either of the following methods:
i. Apply a partial vacuum of 13.33 kPa (100mm Hg) or less absolute pressure
to the contents in the jar or the bottle, or
ii. Gently boil the soil-water mixture for at least 10 min; while occasionally
rolling the pycnometer to assist in the removal of air.
The reduced air pressure may be applied either by connecting the
pycnometer directly to an aspirator or vacuum pump.
Some soils boil violently when subjected to reduced air pressure. It will be
necessary in those cases to reduce the air pressure at a slower rate or to
use a larger flask.
3. Samples that are heated shall be cooled to room temperature.
4. Fill the pycnometer with distilled water to its calibrated capacity, clean the
outside and dry with a clean, dry cloth.
5. Determine the mass of the pycnometer and the contents as “Wb”.
Calculations
Calculate the specific gravity of the soil, as follows:
Specific gravity = GS = WO / [WO+(Wa-Wb)]
Where,
WO = mass of sample of oven dried soil in grams.
Wa = mass of pycnometer filled with water in grams.
Wb = mass of pycnometer filled with water and soil in grams.
The method gives the specific gravity of soil based on water at observed room
temperature. When it is desired to report the specific gravity value based on water at
4oC, or 20oC, such a specific gravity value may be calculated by multiplying the specific
gravity value at the observed temperature “Tx” by the relative density of water at
temperature “Tx”.
5.10 PLATE LOAD TEST TO DETERMINE MODULUS OF SUB-GRADE
REACTION [NON-REPETITIVE STATIC PLATE LOAD TEST OF
SOILS AND FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT COMPONENTS, FOR USE IN
EVALUATION AND DESIGN OF AIRPORT AND HIGHWAY
PAVEMENTS, AASHTO T 222-81]
Scope
This method covers the making of non repetitive static plate load test on sub
grade soil and flexible pavement components, in either the compacted condition or
the natural state, and is intended to provide data for use in the evaluation and design
of rigid and flexible type airport and highway pavements.
Apparatus
1. Loading platforms of sufficient size and strength to supply the estimated total
load required.

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 2. Hydraulic or mechanical jack assembly of sufficient capacity to provide and
maintain the maximum estimated load for the specific soil conditions involved,
but not less than 50 tons in any case, and a device, such as pressure gauge,
electronic load cell or proving ring for measuring the force exerted by the jack.
3. Bearing plates: three circular steel bearing plates, not less than 1 in (25mm) in
thickness and varying in diameter from 12 to 30 inch.
4. Settlement recording devices such as dial gages to measure settlement to an
accuracy of at least 0.01 in (0.25mm).
5. Equipment required to prepare the test pit.
6. Miscellaneous tools include a sprit level for use in preparing the surface to be
tested and for leveling the bearing plates, dial gauge clamps or holder, a
stopwatch, fine sand and plaster of Paris.
Procedure
1. Selection of test areas: Make the load test at the elevation of the proposed
pavement and under the same conditions at which the proposed pavement
will be subjected.
Where unconfined load tests are to be made at a depth below the surface,
remove all the surrounding material to provide a clearance equal to one and a
half plate diameter from the edge of the bearing plate.
For confined test, the diameter of the excavated circular area must be just
sufficient to accommodate the selected bearing plate.
2. Test Pits: Carefully level and clean the areas to be loaded by the test plates so
that the loads are transmitted over the entire contact areas on undisturbed
soil.
3. Loading Platforms: Support the loading platforms by cribbing or other suitable
means, at points which are preferable 8 ft away from the test area.
4. Dead Load: Weigh and record as dead weight all the equipment used, such as
steel plates, loading column and jack etc. that are to be placed on test area
prior to the application of load increments.
5. Reference Beam: Independently support the beam supporting dial gages as far
as practicable, but not less than 8ft from the center of the loaded area.
6. Seating Procedure: After the equipment has been properly arranged, with all
of the dead load (jacks, plates etc) acting, seat the bearing plate and assembly
by the quick application and release of a load sufficient to produce a deflection
of not less than 0.25mm or more than 0.50mm as indicated by the dials. When
the dial needles come to rest following release of this load, reseat the plate by
applying one half of the recorded load producing the 0.25 to 0.50mm
deflection. When the dial needles have then again come to rest, set each dial
accurately at its zero mark.
7. Load Application Procedure: Apply loads at a moderately rapid rate in uniform
increments. After each increment of load has been applied, allow its action to

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 continue until a rate of deflection of not more than 0.2mm/min has been
maintained for three consecutive minutes.
Apply two loads increments of 1605 kg (3535 lb), 34.5 KPa (5Psi) each, with
load increment being held until deformation averages less than 0.02mm/min
for ten consecutive minutes. Read all three dial gages at the end of each load
increment. Following the completion of the 3210 kg (7070 lb), 69.0 KPa (10 PSI)
load increment, determine the average deflection by averaging the total
movement between the “zero” and 10 Psi increment for each dial.
8. Compute a value of K (modulus of soil reaction) using the following formula:
K= 69.0 KPa (10 Psi)
Average Deflection
Calculations and Plotting Of Load Deflection Relationships:
When the K value is less than 200 Psi/in, load deformation curves need not to
be prepared. However, when the K value is 200 Psi/in or greater, a load versus
deformation curve is plotted. The following correction, correction if straight line
portion is not available, correction for bending of plate and correction for saturation
case, if necessary are applied.
The plate load test can be used to determine the strength at any elevation in
an asphalt pavement structure; at surface of the sub grade, top of sub base, top of the
base course, or surface of the finished pavement. Like all other soil strength tests,
plate load test will not provide a representative measure of the sub grade strength
unless it is made in the same condition as that expected after equilibrium with the
environmental influences of moisture, density, frost, drainage and traffic. Equilibrium
is attained until sometime after the pavement ahs been superimposed over it. When
the strength of the sub grade soil for a new highway or airport pavement is required,
this may be determined by one of the following methods.

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i. Perform the plate bearing test on the sub grade beneath the existing
asphalt pavement where the same sub grade soil occurs, and the pavement
has in place long enough for the sub grade to have reached equilibrium
with the environment.
ii. Perform the plate bearing test on a specially constructed test section of the
soil, where an adequate depth has been processed to duplicate the
conditions expected after it reaches equilibrium with its environment
following the pavement operation.

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5.11 THE CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST (AASHTO T 193-98),
[ASTM DESIGNATION D 1883-73]
Scope
This test method covers the determination of CBR of pavement sub grade, sub
base and base course materials from laboratory compacted specimens. The test
method is primarily intended for but not limited to, the evaluation of strength of
cohesive materials having maximum particle sizes than 19mm (3/4 in).
CBR is used to evaluate the potential strength of sub grade, sub base and base
course material, including recycled materials for use in road and airfield pavements.
This test method provide for the determination of CBR of a material at
optimum moisture content or a range of moisture content from a specified
compaction test and a specified dry density.
Unless specified otherwise, all the specimens shall be soaked prior to testing to
simulate the worst possible conditions expected during the life time of the pavement
service.

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Apparatus
1. Molds: Cylindrical mold with and internal diameter of 6 in. and a height of 7 in.
with an extension collar of 2 in. height and perforated base plate.
2. Space Dick: A circular disk of metal 5-15/16 in. diameter and 2.146 in. height.
3. Rammer: A rammer of mass 4.54kg (10 lb).
4. Apparatus for measuring expansion: This consists of a swell plate with
adjustable stem and a tripod support for a dial indicator.
5. Surcharge weights: Several slotted or split metal plates of 149.2mm. diameter,
and 5 lb weight.
6. Penetration piton: A metal piston of circular cross section having diameter of
1.954 in, Area= 3 in2 and note less than 4 inches in length.
7. Loading device: A compression type apparatus capable of applying a uniformly
increasing load up to 10,000 lb at a rate of 1.3mm/min.
8. Soaking tank: A tank suitable for maintain the water level 1 in. above the top of
specimen.

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 9. Drying oven: Oven capable of maintain a temperature of 110 ± 5 oC for drying
samples.
10. Moisture content containers.
11. Miscellaneous: Tools such as mixing pans, spoons, straightedge, filter paper,
balances etc.
Sample
Sample is prepared in accordance with T 180 for compaction in 6 in. mold.
Moisture Density Relation
Optimum Moisture Content and Maximum Dry density are determined by
using Modified AASHTO compaction test T 180. For this 10 lb rammer is used with a
height of fall of 18 in. and in 5 layers. Number of blows for each layer are 56.
Procedure
1. Soil at optimum moisture content is compacted in five layers by applying 10,
30 & 65 blows respectively in three CBR molds using 10 lb rammer having 18
in. height of fall. The compacted densities of the three specimens range from
95 percent to 100% of the maximum dry density already determined by the T
180 compaction test.
2. Soaking: Place the swell plate with adjustable stem on the soil sample in the
mold and apply sufficient annular weights to produce and intensity of loading
equal to the mass of sub base and base courses and surfacing above the tested
material, but not less than 4.54 kg (10lb). Place the tripod with dial indicator
on top of the mold and make and initial dial reading.
Immerse the mold in water to allow free access of water. Place the sample in
water for 96 hours (4 days).
3. Make a dial reading on soaked specimen and calculate swell as a percentage of
initial sample height.
4. Remove the sample from tank and allow to drain for 15 minutes.
5. Penetration Test: Place the mold on the loading frame and adjust its position
until the piston is centered on the specimen.
6. Seat the penetration piston with a 44 N (10lb) load, and set both the load dial
and strain dial to zero. The initial load is required to ensure the satisfactory
seating of the piston and should be considered as the zero load when
determining the stress penetration relationship.
7. Place the surcharge weights on the specimens equal to that used during
soaking. Apply load at rate of 1.3mm/min and record the load for penetration
of 0.025 in, 0.5in .075 in, 0.10 in. and so on up to 0.5 inches.
8. Stress Strain curve: Plot curves between load and penetration for each
specimen apply the correction to the curves if required. Take the readings of
load for 0.1 in. & 0.2 in. penetration and find CBR for both penetrations. The
greater value is the required CBR for that specimen. Also find dry densities for
each specimen.

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9. CBR = Test load value, divided by the Standard load, multiplied by 100.
10. Design CBR: it is calculated by plotting graph between CBR values and dry
densities of all the three specimens and then calculating the design CBR
against value of 95% of maximum dry density.

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GLOSSARY

A
Abrasion: Wearing away by rubbing action
Acidic Rocks: Rocks like granite which contain a high proportion of silica
Absorbed Water: Water bound to soil particles because of the attraction between
electrical charges existing on soil particle surfaces and (dipole) water molecules.
Aeolian: A soil type borne by wind, for example sand dunes.
Alluvium: Material transported by water movement and deposited when velocity falls.
Aquifer: Soil or rock layer (stratum) in which ground water flows easily (i.e. a stratum
which is carried of, or subsurface travel route for, ground water). Typically, aquifers
consist of coarse-grained soils or fractured, seamy rock.
Aquitard: Type of soil or rock layer (stratum) that restricts or prevents the movement
of subsurface water. Typically, aquitards consist of fine grained soils such as silts and
clays or sound rock (solid, not fractured or seamy).
Artesian well: A borehole intersecting the lower portion of a confined aquifer so that
the water rises in the well up to the surface by its own pressure.
Atterberg limits: The liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit for soil. The moisture
content where the soil behavior changes from the liquid to the plastic state is the
liquid limit; from the plastic to the semisolid state is the plastic limit; and from the
semisolid to the soli state is the shrinkage limit.
B
Backfill: Soil material placed back into an area that has been excavated, such as
against structures and in pipe trenches.
Bearing capacity: The pressure that can be imposed by a foundation onto the soil or
rock supporting the foundation.
Boring: The method of investigating subsurface conditions by drilling into the earth.
Frequently, soil or rock samples are also extracted from the boring fro classification
and testing.
Borrow material: Soil or rock material obtained form an off site source for use as fill
on construction projects.
C
Caisson: Large structural chamber used to keep soil and water from entering in a deep
excavation or construction area. Caissons may be installed by being sunk in place or by
systematically excavating below the bottom of the unit to the desire depth.
Capillarity: The movement of water, due to effects other than gravity, through very
small void spaces that exit in a soil mass. Water movement occurs in very small
channels such as capillary sized opening because of the affinity between soil and
water, which acts to increase the boundary of contact between the two materials, and
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the surface tension property developed by water in contact with air. Capillary flow can
occur in direction opposite to that of the pull of gravity.
Chemical weathering: The process of weathering whereby chemical reaction such as
hydration, solution, oxidation, and ion exchange break down and possible change rock
and soil materials.
Clays (clay mineral): Very small soil particles having a crystalline (layered) structure,
created as the result of the chemical alteration of primary rock minerals. Most clay
particles, because of their mineralogical composition, are flat or plate like in shape,
with a large surface area to mass ratio. Clay particle dimensions are often smaller than
2mm.
Coarse-grained soil: Those soil types having particles large enough to be seen without
visual assistance. The coarse grained materials include the sand and gravel (or larger)
soil particles.
Cohesion: The bonding or attraction between particles of fine grained soil that creates
shear strength.
Colluviums: A deposit of rock fragments and soil material accumulated at the base of
steep slopes due action of gravity.
Compaction: The process of increasing the density or unit weight of a soil (frequently
fill soil) by rolling, tamping, vibrating or other mechanical means.
Compressibility: The change, or tendency for change, that occurs in the thickness of a
soil mass when it is subjected to compressive loading.
Consolidation: The process by which compression of a newly stressed clay soil occurs
simultaneously with the expulsion of water present in the soil void spaces. Initially, the
newly imposed stress acting on the clay is imparted onto the water in the soil voids
(pore water), and not onto the soil particles. Because of the increased pressure, the
water is gradually forced out of the soil. As the pore water pressure is reduced, the
magnitude of stress being imposed onto the soil particles is correspondingly
increased. Compression of the clay layer occurs only as rapidly as pore water can drain
from the soil, and this is related to the permeability of the soil layer.
Contamination (groundwater, soil): degradation or lowering of the quality of
groundwater or soil which affects suitability for conventional usage. The condition
occurs because of exposure to, inclusion of or mixing with undesirable biological,
chemical, or radioactive substances.
Creep: Slow movement of surface rock or soil under gravity.
D
Density: The mass per unit of volume. In reference to soil, the term often also
indicates weight per unit volume and is synonymous with unit weight.
Delta: An alluvial deposit formed where a stream or river drops its sediment load
upon entering a quieter body of water.
Detritus: Rock fragments resulting from natural breakdown of previously existing rock.

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Dewater: The procedure used to remove water from a construction area, such as
pumping from an excavation or location where water covers the planned working
surface; the procedure used to lower the groundwater table in order to obtain a “dry”
area in the vicinity of an excavation that would otherwise extend below water.
Disintegration: Natural breakdown of otherwise intact rock.
Dispersive clays: Clay soils that deflocculate in still water and erode when exposed to a
low velocity flow of water. A clay pore water system that has a high concentration of
sodium ions tends to have high dispersivity.
Drawdown: The lowering of the level of the groundwater table that occurs in the
vicinity of a water well (on dewater equipment) when it is pumped.
Drift: Material of any sort deposited by geological processes in one place after having
been removed from another. Glacial drift includes material moved by the glaciers and
by the steams and lakes associated with them.
Dunes: Sand hills, usually unstable and shifting due to wind, and having very small
vegetation.
Dynamic compaction: Procedure whereby surface and near surface zones of soil or fill
are compacted by dropping a heavy weight (commonly 5 to 15 tons) from a relatively
great height (drops of 30 to 100 ft are typical). Multiple poundings are provided at
each drop location, and closely spaced drop locations are utilized to improve a
construction site.
E
Earth pressure: The lateral pressure or force imposed by a soil mass against an
earth supporting structure such as retaining wall or basement wall.
Earth pressure coefficient: The coefficient of earth pressure is the ratio of
lateral pressure to vertical pressure existing at a point in a soil mass.
Earthquake: The shaking and movement of the earth which results when a
release of energy occurs because of deep rock fracturing or shifting, volcanic
eruption, or a large explosion.
Earthquake intensity: A numerical scale of reference to indicate the damage
and other effects resulting at a given geographical location because of an
earthquake.
Earthquake magnitude: Value used to indicate the relative severity of
earthquake events; the numeric value is obtained by taking the logarithm (base
10) of the maximum seismic wave amplitude (in 0.001 mm) recorded by a
seismographs positioned 100 km from and earth quake epicenter.
Effective stress: The actual particle to particle contact stress (or pressure)
existing between soil grains. This stress compensates for the possible buoyancy
influence of water pressure. Effective stress relates directly to the shear
strength possessed by a soil.

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Erosion: 1. The wearing away of the land surface by running water, wind, ice, or
other geological agents, including such processes as gravitational creep.
2. Detachment and movement of soil or rock by water, wind, ice, or gravity. The
following terms are used to describe different types of water erosion.
Erosion Accelerated: Erosion much more rapid than normal, natural, geological
erosion; primarily as a result of the activities of humans or, in some cases, of
animals.
Erosion Gully: The erosion process whereby water forms narrow and deep
channels, ranging from 0.5-1.0 m to as much as 23-30m.
Erosion Natural: Wearing away of the Earth’s surface by water, ice, or other
natural agents under natural environmental conditions of climate, vegetation,
and so on, undisturbed by man.
Erosion Rill: An erosion process in which numerous small channels of only
several centimeters in depth are formed; occurs mainly on recently cultivated
soils.
Erosion Sheet: The removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil from the land
surface by runoff water.
Erosion Splash: The spattering of small soil particles caused by the impact of
raindrops on very wet soils. The loosened and separated particles may or may
not be subsequently removed by surface runoff.
Estuary: Moth of river at entrance to sea.
Expansive clays: Clays soils that experience significant volume expansion in the
presence of water and shrink upon drying. Clays including the montmorillonite
mineral are especially noted for their volume change characteristics.
F
Fill: Earth placed in an excavation or other area to raise the surface elevation. It is also
termed earth fill or soil fill. Structural earth fill refers to the material that is placed and
compacted in layer s in order to achieve a uniform a dense soil mass which is capable
of supporting structural loading.
Fines or Fine grained: Refers to silt and clay sized particles that exist in a soil mixture.
Flow line: The path of travel traced by moving water as it flows through a soil mass.
Flow net: A pictorial method used to study the flow of water through a soil. Used to
indicate the paths followed by moving water and the subsurface pressures resulting
from the presence of water.
Footing: Type of foundation typically installed at a shallow depth and constructed to
provide a relatively large area of bearing onto the supporting soil.
Friction, internal: The particle (solid to solid) friction developed by cohesion less soils,
and the property responsible for most of the shear strength which this type of soil can
develop. The angle of internal friction, φ, refers to the arc tan value of the sloped line

185
that results form graphing the relationship between shear strength and the imposed
normal stress for a soil. This strength property also applies to fine grained soils when
the effect of consolidation or drainage on the shearing resistance of those soils ins
being studied.
G
Gabions: Stone filled steel wire baskets which can be assembled or stacked like
building block to act as retaining walls or provide slope and erosion protection.
Geosynthetics: Sheet like materials along with other shapes manufactured of durable,
non-degradable synthetics such as polyester, polypropylene, polyethylene, butyl
(synthetic) rubber, etc to be used in construction assemblies which are in contact with
the ground or included in earth fill, to provide functions which enhance the
performance of the construction, such as reinforcement or drainage.
Groundwater table: The surface of the underground soil water.
H
Head: Shortened form of the phrase pressure head, referring to the pressure resulting
from a column of water or elevated supply of water. Pressure would be computed
from YW h, where YW is the unit weight of water and h is the height of elevation of the
water supply. The h term is the pressure head.
Heave: Upward movement of soil and foundation supported on soil, caused by
expansion occurring in the soil as result of such factors as freezing or swelling due to
increased water content. Frost heave refers to the vertical soil movement that occurs
in freezing temperatures as ice layers or lenses form within the freezing soil and cause
the soil mass to expand.
Hydraulic gradient: Mathematical term indicating the difference in pressure head
existing between two locations divided by the distance between these locations.
I
In situ: Refers to soil when it is at its natural location in the earth and in its natural
condition.
L
Landslide: The relatively rapid lateral and downhill movement of a generally well
defined earth mass or land form due to gravitational forces.
Leachate: Liquid flowing from a solid waste landfill (usually, mostly water) which
includes contaminants or becomes polluted because of contact with the solid waste.
Limit equilibrium: A method of analysis used to evaluate the stability of soil mass
(such as in a slope or foundation support) that could be involved in movement
associated with failure. The method involves determining the soil shear strength on a
an assumed failure surface as required to maintain equilibrium or stability, and
compares this value with the actual shear strength of the soil; this comparison
indicates if equilibrium will exist or if the limits of equilibrium will be exceeded.

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Liquefaction: Loss of strength occurring g in saturated cohesion less soil exposed to
shock or vibrations when the soil particles momentarily lose contact. The material
then behaves as a fluid.
M
Mechanical weathering: The process of weathering whereby physical forces, such as
frost action and temperature changes, break down or reduce rock to smaller
fragments without involving chemical changes.
Mineral: A naturally formed chemical element or compound having a definite
chemical composition and usually a characteristic crystal form.
Mudstone: Rock of the consistency of shale but without the jointing and fissuring of
shale.
O
Outcrop: Natural exposure of a rock stratum on the topography of the land.
Over break: In civil engineering and tunneling sections, unnecessary excavation
beyond planned perimeter.
P
Peat: A dark brown or black fibrous highly compressible material of vegetable origin,
usually found in a very wet state.
Penetration test: Term generally applied to sub surface investigation methods for
determining a strength related property of a soil by measuring the resistance to
advancement of penetration or boring equipment.
Permafrost: The permanently frozen ground located in the northern regions of the
earth.
Permeability: The ability of water (or other fluid) to flow through a soil by travelling
through the void spaces. A high permeability indicates flow occurs rapidly, and vice
versa.
Pier: Category applied to column like concrete foundations, similar to piles. The pier is
generally considered the type of deep foundation that is constructed by placing
concrete in a deep excavation large enough to permit manual inspection. Pier is also
used frequently to indicate heavy masonry column units which are used for basement
level and sub structural support.
Pile: The relatively long, slender, column like type of foundation that obtains
supporting capacity from the soil or rock some distance below the ground surface.
Piping: Erosion by sub surface water moving through a soil zone, which results in the
formation of continuous tunnels or pipes, through which water then moves rapidly.
Progressive erosion or cave in of the ground then occurs. The condition is associated
with the movement of water through permeable dam foundations.
Plane strain: A state of strain in which all displacements that arise from deformation
are parallel to one particular plane.

187
Plasticity: Term applied to fine grained soils (particularly clays) to indicate the soils
(plus included water’s) ability to flow or be remolded without reveling or breaking
apart.
Pore pressure: Water pressure developed in the voids of a soil mass. Excess pore
pressure refers to pressure greater than the normal hydrostatic pressure expected as
a result of position below the water table.
Porosity: The term to indicate the relative volume of open space (pores or voids)
existing within the total volume occupied by a soil or rock mass. Mathematically,
porosity n is equal to the volume of void spaces divided by total volume of the soil or
rock material (the total volume consists of the volume of void spaces plus the volume
of solids).
Pressure meter: An instrument used to determine the in situ strength of a soil zone
through measurement of the pressure related lateral expansion of a flexible cylinder
that is at a known depth in borehole.
R
Reinforced earth: Earth structures such as embankments, retaining walls, and dams
which are constructed in layers reinforced with fabrics, strips, or fibbers to increase
the strength of the soil mass.
Relative density: Term applied to sand deposits to indicate a relative state of
compaction compared to the loosest and most dense conditions possible.
Retaining wall: A vertical structure design to resist the lateral pressure of soil and
water behind it.
Revetment: a facing or layering of stone, concrete, or other durable material built to
protect and embankment or shore structure from wave erosion.
Rollers, compaction: The category of construction equipment utilized to compact soil
by rolling it. The compaction force typically results from the heavy weight of the
equipment and/or vibrations transmitted from the equipment into the soil.
S
Sand: 1. The category of coarse grained soil whose particle sizes range between about
0.06mm and 2mm in diameter.
2. Durable mineral grains, usually broken crystal of quartz ranging in size from 0.06
mm to 2.0mm.
Sand dunes: Small sand hills usually unstable and easily transported by wind.
Sandstone: Intact sedimentary rock consisting of sand in natural cementing agent.
Seepage: Generally refers to the quantity of water flowing through a soil depositing or
soil structure such as an earth dam. Also may refer to the quantity of subsurface water
leaking into a building’s underground (basement) area.
Seismic: Pertaining to an earthquake or earth vibration, including one that is artificially
induced.
Seismic exploration: The method of determining sub surface soil and rock conditions
(without excavation) by inducing a shock wave into the earth and measuring the

188
velocity of the wave’s travel through the earth material. This seismic velocity indicates
the type of earth material.
Settlement: The downward vertical movement experienced by structures or a soil
surface as the underlying supporting earth compresses.
Scour: Removal of sediment by river flow or tidal waves.
Scree: Heaps of weathered rock accumulated (coarse debris) at the foot of slope.
Shear strength: The ability of a soil to resist shearing stresses developed within a soil
mass as a result of loading imposed onto the soil.
Sheet piling: A pile with a generally flat cross section made to interlock with adjoining
sections to form a thin diaphragm wall or bulkhead; used to resist the lateral force of
retained earth or water when apart of temporary and permanent structures.
Sieve: Pan or tray like equipment having a screen or mesh bottom; used in laboratory
or field work to separate particles of a soil sample into their various sizes.
Silt: The category of fine grained soil particles (individual soil grains whose particle size
is smaller than 0.07 mm or too small to be seen without visual aid) whose
mineralogical composition remains similar to the rock they were derived from.
Silting: The depositions of water borne sediments in streams, channels, lakes,
reservoirs, or on floodplains, usually resulting from a decrease in the velocity of the
water.
Soil sampler: The equipment used to extract soil samples from boring or test pits
made in sub surface investigation.
Soil stabilization: Treatment of soil to improve its properties; includes the mixing of
additives and other means of alterations such as compaction or drainage.
Solid waste: Solid throwaway or disposable materials such as garbage and trash (non
liquids) generated by the residential and commercial sector of civilization, and the non
usable residue or remains or mining and manufacturing operations.
Solid waste (or sanitary) landfill: Area or project where solid waste is buried as a
means of disposal. Typically, small volumes of solid waste such as a daily supply
discharged into an open excavation, then covered with a layer of soil; a landfill site
consists of many buried zones or cell of waste, each enveloped with soil. Modern solid
waste landfills will include a man made bottom liner to function as a barrier to prevent
the solid waste from contamination the surrounding earth, and a man made capping
cover when the site is filled to function as a top seal.
Sump: small excavation or pit provided in the floor of a structure, or in the earth, to
serve as a collection basin for surface water and near surface underground water.
T
Terra probe: A method of compacting thick surface sand zones through the use of a
vertically vibrating tubular probe; the probe is vibrated to the desired depth, then
slowly withdrawn while countinuing to vibrate. Closely spaced probe locations are
utilized to compact a contruction site.

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Till: Description given to glacially transported soil formations consisting of a
heterogeneous mixture of fine grained and coarse grained material.
U
Unite weight: The weight per unit volume of a material such as soil, water, concrete,
etc. typically expressed as pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft 3), grams per cubic centimeter
(g/cm3), or kilonewtons per cubic meter (kN/m3).
V
Vadose zone: The subsurface soil zone which lies directly above the position of the
ground water table. Usually, this zone is partially saturated with water which has
migrated upward via capillary movement from the water table.
Vibroflotation: A method of compacting thick surface sand zones through the use of a
horizontally vibrating cylinder termed a vibroflot. The vibroflot is jetted to a desired
depth and slowly brought to the surface while it continues to vibrate. The process
typically compacts the soil in a 5-ft zone surrounding the vibroflot, and a series of
penetrations are provided to compact a construction sire. Sand is added to the zone
surrounding the Vibroflot to make up the volume lost by compaction.
Void ratio: The total volume occupied by a soil mass includes the soil particles plus
void spaces (which in nature always exist between the particles because of their
irregular shape). The void ratio is the ratio of the void space volume to the volume of
soil solids.
W
Water or moisture content: The ratio of the quantity of water in a soil (by weight) to
the weight of the soil solids (dry soil),

190