Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
IN REINFORCED
CONCRETE BUILDINGS
______________________________________________
Lima – Peru
2017
1
NON-LINEAR PHYSICS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS
-Translated by:
Hinostroza Yucra, Johan James
Taype Acosta, Omar Jesús
Moreno Vivanco, Bill Carlos
Lucas Agreda, María del Pilar
-Follow us:
https://www.facebook.com/academiaestructural/
https://www.facebook.com/HIYU-INGENIEROS-ESTRUCTURALES-
291108347566048/
https://hiyuingenieros.wordpress.com
January, 2019
2
PROLOGUE
The present investigation is oriented to solve one of the current problems of Structural
Mechanics, specifically, the problem of the calculation methodology of reinforced concrete
buildings, considering the non-linear physics.
This calculation process is used very often in practice and it is considered an open field in
seismic research, representing the present work an important contribution in the updating of
calculation methods of reinforced concrete buildings considering non-linear physics.
The present investigation consists of 2 chapters, conclusions, bibliography and index.
The first chapter gives a summary of the research carried out, where the inelastic
behavior of the material is studied, the consideration of successive earthquakes in the structural
calculation, the non-linear models and the application of the LIRA program in the non-linear
analysis by Time-Stepping Methods.
The second chapter analyzes the dynamic methods of structural evaluation, the influence
of local damage on the dynamic characteristics of reinforced concrete buildings and the non-
linear dynamic method for buildings in the face of successive earthquakes. This chapter is a
summary of the doctoral dissertation of the Ph.D. Peraskovia Ivanovna Andreyeva, because it is
very important.
In the conclusions the results and the recommendations of use and scientific application
are discussed.
The present investigation is directed to civil engineers, graduates and investigators in the
area of Structural Mechanics.
This research is dedicated to my successor, my son GENNER ALEK VILLARREAL
CRISANTO, the most sublime thing of my life that God gave me, my motor and reason, my
source of inspiration, the greatest treasure of my life, the little person that makes me feel the
happiest man on earth, my eternal love, my king, the owner of my heart, my greatest pride and
the projection of my life to the international scientific community. That means my son to me. I
love you, my son, may God bless and enlighten yours steps forever, that your father will always
watch for you to achieve success and happiness.
3
INTRODUCTION
Peru is a highly seismic country and according to the world classification corresponds 9
degrees on the Modified Mercalli scale. About 31 millions peruvians live in seismic zones and
we are exposed to the constant threats of seismic occurrences. It should be noted that in
seismic investigations, we are still far from being able to solve seismic hazard, which increases
and we are exposed every day.
Current research
The constructions in seismic zones are increasing in our country. Consequently,
structural security has an important value in national development. The reduction of costs, with
the consequent safety of works in seismic zones, are the main problem of construction in our
country. The basic reason in the solution of this problem is the elaboration of seismic calculation
methodologies of buildings considering the occurrence of successive earthquakes in the same
area.
The non-linear physics is reflected in the internal forces and stress of the structure. In
general, this problem has not been investigated sufficiently and, therefore, it is a scope where
researchers can study more. The consideration of non-linear physics leads us to the precision
of the calculation scheme of the building.
The seismic calculation of buildings is complex, especially when it treats about the
damage accumulated by successive earthquakes, which changes the dynamic properties of the
structure.
For each construction there is a limit intensity of the earthquake, by which, the material
begins to work in an inelastic range and occur several stages of deformation until the structure
collapse, from a little non-linear to its collapse. That is a reason why some buildings collapse
due to the successive earthquakes, because the structural wear caused by the previous
earthquake.
Nowadays, the tendency is to model as close as possible to the real behavior, for this, the
soil-structure interaction, are considered the three-dimensional behavior, the non-linear physics,
geometric and constructive, which makes the analysis more complex.
The first earthquake is the most intense. Then, it comes successive earthquakes called
“aftershocks”. Experience indicates that the first two earthquakes are almost of the same
magnitude, but in the Seismic Design Regulations the successive earthquakes are not
considered, even worse the local damages generated by the first earthquake. For this reason,
the present investigation is current and transcendent for the modernization of the Seismic
Resistant Design Standards, considering the non-linear physics, the local damages by past
earthquakes and the methodology of calculation before successive earthquakes.
4
The advance of the dynamic methods of calculation of buildings in seismic zones, have
been studied by Ya.M. Aizenberg, A.A. Amosov, A.M. Belostotski, V.V. Bolotin, M.A. Dashevski,
G.A. Dzhinchvelashvili, B.G. Korenev, N.A. Nikolaenko, V.I. Zharnitski, K.S. Zavriev, V.B.
Zalishvili, I.L. Korchinski, A.M. Kurzanov, O.V. Mkrtychev, V.L. Mondrus, Yu.P. Nazarov, V.I.
Smirnov, A.E. Sargsian, A.G. Tiapin, E.I. Jachian, G.E. Shavlinski, Yu.T. Chernov, R. Klaf, J.
Penzien, G. Housner, A.K. Chopra, N. Newmark, G. Villarreal and others.
Scientific contribution
The scientific contribution consists of the following statements:
1. The current state of non-linear physics in reinforced concrete buildings was
investigated.
2. The influence on reinforced concrete buildings of local damages on the free
vibration frequency for the linear state was studied.
3. A seismic calculation methodology for reinforced concrete buildings to successive
earthquakes was proposed based on the non-linear dynamic method.
4. The state of the reinforced concrete frame buildings or structural walls before
successive earthquakes was investigated considering the non-linear physics.
5
Practical value of the investigation
The practical value of the present investigation consists in the possibility of the direct
application of the methodology, elaborated for the seismic calculation of concrete frame
structures
or structural walls considering the non-linear physics.
In addition, due to the insufficient development of calculation methods in our country, this
research can serve as a practical manual for engineers and researchers in this topic.
6
CHAPTER 1
NON-LINEAR PHYSICS
7
I.M. Rabinovich investigated systems with a degree of freedom consider impulse
loads for stresses above the proportionality limit. Stiffness of the system characterized
it through the Pradtl diagram for ideal elasto-plastic materials. For the solution of the
differential equations of the movement he used advanced mathematical methods. The
ideas of I.M. Rabinovich were continued by the investigations of S.S. Darbinian, R.K.
Kabulov and Yu.A. Koval.
In the research of V.V. Moskvitin the longitudinal vibrations of bars in the elasto-
plastic state were analyzed. In their investigations the elasto-plastic properties of the
material were formulated by the law of linear simplification. In addition, the author
obtained simple mathematical relations between stress and strain, which immediately
allow to integrate the differential equations of motion for various states of charge and
discharge.
The elasto-plastic behavior of systems with a degree of freedom considering the
forces of internal friction was investigated by I.I. Goldenblat and N.A. Nikolaenko. The
relation between force-displacement was presented through the Prandtl diagram and
simplified diagrams. As an external action for systems with a degree of freedom they
proposed the cases of sinusoidal damping, semi-sinusoidal impulses and loads that
varied by behavior of exponential damping. For systems with two degrees of freedom,
they only analyzed the case of instantaneous impulse.
The dynamic problems about the movement of elasto-plastic elements were
solved using the mathematical formulation of the theory of plasticity, investigated by
G.A. Geniev, V.A. Kotliarevski, Yu.N. Rabotni, Yu.V. Suvorova and others.
The investigations related to the seismic analysis of buildings considering the
plastic deformations were investigated by I.L.Korchinski, R. Tanabasi, D. Jauzner and
S. Jacobsen. In these investigations, they demonstrated that in the face of action of
loads, that it change along time when the material of the building works in the plastic
zone, the building can or cannot collapse, if the work of the external forces is less than
the work of the internal forces. Subsequently, these ideas were expanded by the
investigations of G. Berg, J. Blume, D. Penzien and others.
Several questions about the calculation of buildings before dynamic loads
considering the plastic deformations were investigated by Ya.M. Aizenberg, V.V.
Bolotin, I.I. Goldenblat, V.A. Bijovski, S.S. Darbinian, G.N. Kartsivadze, L.Sh. Kilimnik,
B.A. Kirikov, R. Klaf, J. Penzien, M.G. Korf, A.G. Nazarov, N.A. Nikolaenko, A.A.
Petrov, S.V. Polyakov, O.O. Andreyev, B.E. Denisov, B.A. Kirikov, G.I. Popov, N.N.
Popov, B.S. Rastorguev, A.R. Rzhanitsin, A.P. Sinitsin, N.N. Skladnev, I.S. Palian, R.
Tanabasi, A.S. Tian, S.T. Uzlov, D. Jauzner, E.E. Jachian, T.N. Chachava, J. Blume,
T. Kobori, P. Minai and others.
8
Between 1960-1980 abroad, the Ramberg-Osgood diagram (figure 1.1) was
commonly used, as well as the diagram with a transitional parabolic curve (figure 1.2).
Those diagrams were used by the scientists J. Borges, A. Ravar, G. Berg, R. Clough
and P. Jennings.
R 3
Ry X1 R 1
1
2
(X , R )
y y
(XX , RR )
2
y
2
y
K1 = tg
5
K2 = tg
X Xi R R i K 1
1 R R i (1.1)
2X y 2R y 2R y
Where:
X y , R y - characterize the limit of elastic work
, K - system parameters
9
Section 1: R K 1 (1.2)
Section 2:
R R 0 K 2 0 (1.3)
Section 3: R R 1 K1 1 (1.4)
R R 1 K1 1 2 a 1
2
Sections 4 y 5: (1.5)
Where:
1 , R 1 - coordinates of the initial point of the stretch
a - coefficient that is determined by the equations:
For the section 4:
K 2 K1 2
a (1.6)
4K 2 1 0 R 0 R 1
For the section 5:
K 2 K1 2
a (1.7)
4K 2 1 0 R 0 R 1
10
The vibration of systems with several degrees of freedom and bilinear
deformation diagrams were analyzed by S.S. Darbinian. In general, the author gave
the solution for systems with two degrees of freedom before the action of
instantaneous impulses, not having considered the dissipation of the system. In the
work of K.S. Zavriev, A.G. Nazarov, Ya.M. Aizenberg, S.S. Darbinian and other
authors, they proposed a general algorithm for the solution of differential equations for
systems with several degrees of freedom. It was suggested that the opposing forces
are proportional to the speeds and displacements of the story.
A.A. Borodin studied the elasto-plastic vibrations of systems with different
degrees of freedom. The displacements of the foundation base were formulated as
simple sinusoidal equations. The author made several efforts to consider certain
characteristics for the practical calculation considering the energy reserves of the
system.
As a result of the investigation, it was concluded that the forms of deformation of
elasto-plastic systems are similar to the elastic systems. It was clarified that the
intensity of wear of the internal energy in the zones of inelastic deformation decreases,
proportionally, the increase of these zones.
D. Penzien analyzed a six stories reinforced concrete frame structure, with
different masses and heights of story, after assigned the masses in the center of mass
of each level, come to the conclusion that during the vibration their center of mass
moves parallel to the foundation base. For this analysis, he used the elasto-plastic
deformation diagram and as a real accelerogram the “El Centro” earthquake. The
vibration differential equations of the system were integrated by numerical methods.
Another of the conclusions, is that the plastic deformations generate the dissipation of
the vibration. If stiffness is decreased, expressed as the relation between the basal
shear and the weight of the building, it allows to dissipate the plastic deformations,
which decrease the energy and the displacements. This generally happens until an
optimum value equal to 0.1 for flexible buildings (T˃0.8s) or 0.2 for rigid buildings
(T˂0.8s).
B. Curu and A. Heiderbrecht investigated the parameters, which determine the
dynamic reactions of several stories reinforced concrete frame buildings in elasto-
plastic states. The stiffness ratios were chosen from the condition, that during loading,
the "force-displacement" curve has a horizontal stretch above the elastic limit of the
material. It was assumed that the plastic hinges can arise in any section when the
bending moment reaches the limit value of the moment in the plastic hinges.
11
It was concluded that the increase of the viscous damping coefficient does not
influence its parameters, the majority of energy dissipation arises in the plastic
deformation of columns and beams.
The calculation of frame steel buildings contributed in the elastic and plastic-
elastic states in the face of vertical loads and the seismic action, was investigated by
O. Buen. The author elaborated a method, oriented to the verification of the calculation
of the building considering extra moments to the permanent loads, which led him to the
later study of the structure until the conversion of the portal into an unstable kinematic
system.
D.K. Ukleba developed a methodology for calculating the plastic deformations of
buildings considering the soil-structure interaction in the face of the seismic action,
through the accelerometer of the “El Centro” earthquake, coming to the conclusion that
the plastic deformations of the building and the plastic properties of the soil are going
to influence the seismic scale.
In the Research Institute V.A. Kucherenko in Moscow, methods of calculation of
buildings in the face of the seismic action were elaborated, considering the seismic
reactions of the structural elements, that arise due to the movement of the base of
foundation, through the use of asynchronous accelerograms. It is assumed that the
structural elements have elasto-plastic properties, type bilinear diagram and was
considered the requirement of destruction, fulfilling the relation that the accumulation
of plastic deformations of the element are greater than the admissible deformation of
the same.
R.B. Dvalishvili investigated the spatial elasto-plastic deformations of buildings
in the face of seismic action through the use of accelerograms. In which, the
calculation scheme is presented and supported and its mathematical model is
elaborated considering the non-linear physics of the spatial system. Force-
displacement dependence was considered by the Prandtl diagram.
The plastic properties of the structure were considered punctual in the joints
connections of the elements. In addition, it was indicated that when the plastic state is
reached, the element achieves their initial stiffness. In this way, it is concluded that the
diagram in time of the rotations in the joints are analogous to the diagrams of their
displacements.
N.A. Nikolaenko and Yu.P. Nazarov elaborated a model of calculation
considering the spatial work of the structure in the face of the seismic action, based on
the methods of rigid body dynamics, which describes all the stages of the response of
the structure in the face of severe earthquakes, from linear behavior to collapse of the
structure, that is, the variation of the kinematic scheme of the building.
12
The deformation diagram of the connections that join rigid bodies resembles a
polynomial. For the diagram of the construction material, his behavior approached a
linear diagram in stages.
13
T. Hisada, K. Nakagawa and M. Hijara, conducted tests of reinforced concrete buildings
and determined that free vibration frequencies are reduced from 2 to 3 times for rigid
buildings and some flexible ones.
J. Akoyama, T. Endo and T. Minami investigated one story frame structure before
variable horizontal loads, analyzing the limit loads, the plasticity, the form of the damage and
the reduction of stiffness in the elasto-plastic state, obtaining a relation between the bending
moment and the slope for each critical section.
D. Blumen, A. Ravara, D. Borges, L. Esteba and M. Pristli, investigated Alaska (1964),
Lima (1966) and Caracas (1967) earthquakes, concluding that considerable damage occurs
with the reduction of structural stiffness, which increases the period of free vibration by 2 to
3 times.
S.V. Polyakov, Ya.M. Aizenberg, G.A. Shapiro, N.N. Popov, V.S. Rastorguev and M.A.
Mardzhanishvili, through experimental tests recommended to consider the flexibility of the
roof, the detailed connections, the response of the buildings and the soil-structure
interaction, to obtain the main dynamic characteristics of the structure.
According to the results of the latest research, it has been concluded that damage to the
structure not only increases the period of free vibration, but the properties of energy
dissipation.
Udvadia and M. Trifunok investigated experimentally the free and forced vibrations of a
steel frame structure to collapse, obtaining the reduction of frequencies by the loss of
connections and the increase in 2.5 times the logarithmic decrease of vibrations, due to
plastic deformations. They came to the conclusion that was due to the reduction of stiffness
of the elements by the height with the consequent increase in damage.
A. Ravara conducted experimental research on the vibrating table of multifamily housing
building in the face of dynamic loads, determining the frequency of free vibration in each
state of damage to the elements. In the elastic state a linear dependence was obtained
between the load "R" and the horizontal displacement "y". After the appearance of the
cracks, the R-y dependence becomes non-linear with a notable increase in the area of the
hysteretic curve.
G.A. Avanesov investigated the elasto-plastic response of reinforced concrete frame
buildings, determining the parameters of the limit state in the face of the seismic action,
through the diagram and law of deformation of framed structures. The deformation and
appearance of hinges was studied. To determine the variation of the dynamic characteristics
in the deformation process, tests were performed against high intensity loads, which brought
to the structure until collapse. The vibration period was increased by 3 times. The
logarithmic decrement of vibration and the coefficient of absorption of energy in the first load
cycles increased rapidly, then, its increase was reduced and when the system changed to
14
elasto-plastic state, it again increased rapidly. Finally, he concluded that for buildings
subject to severe earthquakes, it is necessary to consider non-linear and non-stationary
physics parameters in the calculation schemes.
x p - limit displacement where the stiffness variation of the system does not occur
15
in systems with unassembled connections bring to the reduction of seismic loads by 1.5 to 2
times, depending on the spectrum that characterizes the internal reserve of additional
capacity of the structure during an earthquake.
R. Klaf and S. Jhonson investigated the variation of the stiffness of frame structure by
the Prandtl diagram, relating the reduction of stiffness with the increase in damage,
obtaining the hysteretic bilinear loop of systems with degraded stiffness and they concluded
that the change in stiffness occurs in the case that the previous maximum displacement is
exceeded.
y
K K0 (1.9)
máx
Where:
K - new stiffness of the system
K 0 - previous stiffness
16
did not generate collapses, but they weakened the structure and accelerated the collapse
before the severe earthquake.
In 1952, an earthquake occurred in California with less severe aftershocks, which
caused major damage or collapse due to the previous damages generated by the severe
earthquake.
In 1959, two earthquakes occurred in the Kamchatka, the first was on May 4 th of intensity
VII and the second on June 19 th of intensity IX. After the second earthquake some villages
were completely destroyed. The reason was the destructive effects occurred due to the
partial damage of the first earthquake on May 4 th.
In 1966, in Tashkent a severe earthquake occurred and then many aftershocks,
generating damage in the structures and some buildings collapsed due to the aftershocks.
In 1967, in the same area another earthquake happened again, which caused new faults
and collapsed walls, something that had not happened with the previous earthquake.
In 1976, two intense earthquakes occurred in the town of Gazli, the first on April 8 th and
the second on May 17 th. In the first earthquake 220 of the 240 existing buildings were
damaged and as a result of the second earthquake, which was the most intense, these
buildings collapsed completely.
Of all these earthquakes, we can conclude that the collapse of certain elements and the
damages generated, happen as a result of accumulated or successive damages due to
repetitive earthquakes in the same area.
Gathering this information, we noticed a necessity to consider in the calculation the
behavior of the material and structural elements before successive earthquakes, as well as
the probability of occurrence of earthquakes during the entire time of its useful life,
determining the seismic hazard in the project area. The seismic hazard is determined by the
expected earthquakes in the project area and the probability of occurrence in a given return
period.
It is recommended that in seismic zoning maps, apart from the Z seismic zone factor, it
is important to indicate the return period, because it is necessary for determine the
recurrence of destructive earthquakes in a determinate period of time and to invest in
protection systems.
Nowadays, it is important to consider in the structural calculation, the inelastic range in
the face of severe and repetitive earthquakes, with the intention of determining the reserve
of additional capacity of the structure. For this, it is necessary to elaborate a theory,
methodology and calculation algorithm.
17
1.5 NON-LINEAR MODELS
Experimental investigations have shown us that the load-displacement dependence has
a non-linear character. The non-linear work of the structure influences the reaction
parameters of the structure before severe earthquakes. To describe the non-linear
dependence, are used the Prandtl diagram, bilinear and trilinear diagram and the Ramberg-
Osgood diagram.
For construction materials, non-linear work is characterized by the fact that the loading
and unloading goes through different trajectories, also, in the face of earthquakes, there is a
change in stiffness and energy dissipation. That is a reason, to describe the characteristics
of the load-displacement diagram, is used the following relations:
1 u 2
R (u ) o2 u (1.10)
1 u 2
Where:
o - Frequency of free vibration of the linear system
, - non-linear parameters of experimental tests
The differential equation for non-linear elastic systems, when the loading and unloading
have the same law, will be:
2 2 1 u
2
u Ku o u u o ( t ) (1.11)
T 1 u 2
Where:
u o ( t ) - soil acceleration due to the real accelerogram of the earthquake
The integration of equation 1.11 is done by the Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg method with
automatic step selection.
The differential equation for non-linear systems, that is, when loading and unloading
have different trajectories, is:
2 2
u Ku o 1 C
u u 1 u u 2
1
T
1 u u 2
C u
u
u o (1.12)
Where:
- parameter that shows the start of the loading or unloading section
In Equation 1.12, the values of u and C are determined as follow:
u u 1 u 1 u 2
1 u 1 u 2
2
Where 2,4,6,....
1 u 1 u 2 2
C 0 when 0,2,4,...
C 1 when 1,3,5,...
18
From the engineering point of view, it is necessary to know the expected damages
before a severe earthquake and from that, to make a more real and safe design. Another
important factor to consider, is to analyze the behavior of a structure before a series of
different intensity earthquakes, which can generate levels of damage, this means, the
structure reach the limit state before repetitive earthquakes in a certain area.
T. Amankulov in his doctoral dissertation concluded that if we consider the inelastic
behavior of the material, the seismic force is reduced compared to the elastic system.
19
The non-linear physics modeling of the materials is done with help of finite non-linear
physics elements, entering the information of an advanced library of deformation laws of the
materials (dependence ). The large library of laws of deformation, practically allows to
consider any non-linear physics property of the material. This library is open and can be
entered other required non-linear properties.
The Step Processor allows us to obtain the effort-deformation state, considering the non-
linear effects, both for the mono-material structures, as for the bi-material structures. For
the latter type of structures, is allowed the entry of the characteristics of the second type of
material (structural steel), offering an extensive library of properties.
Likewise, the non-linear physics finite element library contains elements that allow us to
model on one side, the work of the rigid body and the external environment - ground in
compression with displacement by the flat deformation scheme in accordance with the
Coulomb's Law.
20
The non-linear physics linearized stiffness matrix of the system is formed based on the
integrals of variable stiffness, calculated at the points of integration of the finite element,
during the elastic calculation in the specific step. The scheme of the numerical integration in
the region of the finite element and the choice of stiffness used are determined by the type
of finite element. In order to obtain the corresponding choice of stiffness integrals, the finite
element section at the integration points is divided into a series of elementary sub-sectors.
In the centers of these subsectors, the new physico-mechanical values of the
characteristics of the material are determined, in accordance with the deformation diagram
given. In each step the linearized problem is solved forming the vectors of displacement,
internal forces and new integral of stiffness by the tangential module for the next step. The
number of steps and load coefficients is given by the user. The geometric interpretation of
the Time-Stepping Method for the case of central tensile (compression) is shown in figure
1.3
i
The step processor allows to combine linear and non-linear elements of the structural
system. In addition, it allows to calculate by superelement schemes, as long as the non-
linear elements exist only in the main scheme.
In each step the stress-strain state is analyzed. In the point of the results of calculation
"State of the materials" the information is given about the advance or obtaining of the limits
states, appearance of the hinges or state of destruction.
For the finite element of bars, is analyzed the stress-deformation state of the cross
sections of the bar at the points of its division is analyzed. The stress-strain state in the flat
and volumetric finite elements, is analyzed the central point of the element.
The library of non-linear physics finite elements allows the analysis of structures,
consisting of different finite elements, considering the non-linear physics of the material.
21
PROBLEM 1.1 For the frame structure shown in figure 1.4, whose cross sections are those
shown in figure 1.5 a) for columns, and figure 1.5 b) for beams; subject to the load states of
figure 1.6. Consider E c 3.10 6 T / m 2 for the entire structure and the distances for the 2nd
load state of 0.5m until the start of the trapezoidal load and 3.5m until the end of the action
of the same. Perform the calculation of non-linear physics, due to:
- Show the procedure of inclusion of the parameters, which characterize the non-linear
behavior of the reinforced concrete in the charging loading.
- Demonstrate the step process technique of solving the problem.
a)
Z
60
4m
40
b)
20
6m
40
X
4m 3m 10 20 10
Fig. 1.4 Scheme of the flat framed structure Fig. 1.5 Cross sections in cm
22
1er Estado de carga 2do Estado de carga
Z g3=3T/m Z
g =1,5T/m
2
g =4,67T/m
4
g1=2T/m g5=2T/m
X X
P2 =1,5T P4 =1,125T
P1 =1T P3 =0,75T
Fig. 1.6 Load states: 1st state of charge (dead load), 2 nd state of charge (live load), 3 rd
state of charge (wind load)
SOLUTION:
We model the structure by the different load states and record the problem with the name
NL Physics.
CALCULATION PARAMETERS FOR NON-LINEAR PHYSICS
We click on and analyze the case of the columns, clicking on the type of section and
then on , to change its characteristics through NONLINEAR PARAMETERS (figure
1.7) and then on MATERIAL PARAMETERS (figure 1.8), entering the properties non-linear
of the main material, in this case the concrete, as is the case of the law of non-linear
deformation, class and type of concrete, drawing it through DRAW.
23
Fig. 1.7 Input of non-linear parameters
Now, we must enter the information of the non-linear physics characteristics of the steel, by
clicking on REINFORCEMENT and entering the law of non-linear deformation and then the
characteristics of the material, such as its modulus of elasticity and stress in tensile and
compression (figure 1.9), clicking on OK and returning to the previous window (figure 1.7)
24
Fig. 1.8 Characteristics of concrete
25
Subsequently, we enter the parameters of the steel, by clicking on ,
appearing the window of the "non-linear physics characteristics of the bars" (figure 1.10),
choosing the reinforcement by points (POINT REINFORCEMENT) and as a type of division
of the cross section (TYPE OF CROSS-SECTION DIVISION) and entering the following
characteristics (areas of cross section and coordinates y, z):
Steel Nº 1: Fa = 2,22cm2; y = 17cm; z = 3cm
2
Steel Nº 2: Fa = 2,22cm ; y = 17cm; z = 57cm
2
Steel Nº 3: Fa = 2,01cm ; y = -17cm; z = 3cm
Steel Nº 4: Fa = 2,01cm2; y = -17cm; z = 57cm
Steel Nº 5: Fa = 1,13cm2; y = 17cm; z = 30cm
2
Steel Nº 6: Fa = 1,13cm ; y = -17cm; z = 30cm
In each case, you can draw with DRAW and go to the next bar, remaining as shown in
Figure 1.10, then click OK and again OK.
In an analogous way, we proceed to analyze the beams, doing the same for concrete and
steel (Figures 1.8 and 1.9). For the case of reinforcement steel bars we enter the following
information:
26
Steel Nº 1: Fa = 1,36cm2; y = -7cm; z = 3cm
2
Steel Nº 2: Fa = 1,36cm ; y = 7cm; z = 3cm
2
Steel Nº 3: Fa = 2,58cm ; y = -17cm; z = 57cm
Steel Nº 4: Fa = 2,58cm2; y = 17cm; z = 57cm
Now, we select all the elements of the framed structure through the icon , analogous to
the previous problems and change the type of finite elements by clicking on and select
the finite element "FE TYPE 210 - NONLINEAR PHYSICS ARBITRARY 3D BAR",
accepting it with .
NON-LINEAR LOAD MODELING
To perform the modeling of the 1st load status, click on LOADS → MODEL NONLINEAR
LOADINGS, entering the following information:
Number of the state of charge – 1
Calculation method - Simple step (STEP) 1
Obtaining of results - Displacement and forces after each step
Number of steps – 7
27
Characteristics of loads by Time-Stepping Method – 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1
Finally, we accept and go to the next state of charges.
For the 2nd state of charges we enter the following information:
Number of the state of charge – 2
Consideration of the previous history (ACCOUNT OF PREVIOUS LOADINGS)
Calculation method - Simple step (STEP) 1
Obtaining of results - Displacement and forces after each step
Number of steps – 10
Characteristics of charges by Time-Stepping Method – 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1
0,1 0,1
Once again we accept and go to the 3rd state of charges, for which we enter the same
information as for the 2nd state of charges.
All the information is shown in figure 1.12, thus leaving the problem ready to run through
the program.
Now, we analyze the results, which are shown in figures 1.13 to 1.15, with their values
being a bit high, because the 3 combined load states act, and both the concrete and the
steel work until the breaking process.
28
Fig. 1.13 Axial or normal force N for the 1 st load state by non-linear physics analysis
29
Fig. 1.14 Shear force V for the 1 st load state by the non-linear physics analysis
30
Fig. 1.15 Bending moment M for the 1 st charge state by the non-linear physics analysis
Now, we analyze the sequence of faults in the structure, due to the sequence of charges.
As you can see in Figure 1.16, the structure subjected to the 1 st state of charge,
corresponding to the 5th step, where there is flection, but there are no structural failures.
Figure 1.17 shows the 7 th step, corresponding to the 2 nd state of loads, where one can see
the faults in one of the beams of the 1st story, but it still does not reach collapse.
Figure 1.18 corresponds to the 9th step of the 3rd load state, where it can noted that the
beam that failed in figure 1.17 already collapsed and the central column and the other
beams began to fail.
31
Fig. 1.16 5th step of the 1st state of charges
32
Fig. 1.18 9th step of the 3rd state of charge
If you want to analyze the state of the material in percent of destruction by steps, you must
close the problem and click on , selecting the state of the material, previously choosing
the type of analysis, which in this case is STEP-TYPE, the name of the file and , then
select the type of file required for the state of the material, which has the extension (* _13.*)
and the destruction percentages will appear automatically in each step and in each element
that is failing.
33
CHAPTER 2
CALCULATION OF BUILDINGS BEFORE SUCCESSIVE SEISMS
CONSIDERING LOCAL DAMAGES
34
In this direction the assessment of the state of the constructions by theirs dynamic
characteristics is applied the method elaborated by the Center of Investigation of Extreme
Situations of Moscow, which elaborates, controls, regulates and makes the diagnosis of the
technical state of the buildings. In this Research Center have been developed and
modernized the packages such as "Cuerda" and "Flecha", which have a wide application,
made up of state-of-the-art devices and technology, for the determination of the main
dynamic characteristics and their corresponding stiffness and stability analysis.
The structural diagnostic package called "Cuerda" was developed by researchers from
the Moscow Extreme Situations Research Center, S.P. Sushev, V.I. Larionov, V.N. Sotin
and N.N. Jlapov, for the determination of damage before an earthquake. This package is
formed by three devices, in which there are three thin flat bars, which respond to the
direction of the vibration of the device and consequently of the building. The weight of the
package "Cuerda" is 0,150kg and measures the frequencies in a range of 0,1 – 150Hz. On
the package "Cuerda" is mounted a radio transmitter that directs the signals to a base
station, which can be located up to a distance of 1km. The signals in the base are
processed with help of a transformer and transmitted to the portable computer, which has a
special software for the analysis of results and determination of stability, seismicity and
physical damage of the building. The devices measure the environmental vibration and
frequency of free vibration of the building, which can be visualized in the computer. If the
building moves as a block, this indicates its structural stability during an earthquake. If parts
of the building move in different ways, this indicates that there is damage to the building.
After this, with help of basic instrumental methods we can determine the vulnerability of the
building.
The "Flecha" package is designed for the determination of the technical state of the
building, determination of the danger of collapse and the possibility of evacuation of people
in areas of risk before imminent collapse.
In this way, in recent years a series of investigations have appeared related to the
determination of the dynamic characteristics of buildings in the event of an earthquake and
the assessment of their structural safety as a time limit of service.
Under the direction of D.Sc., Prof. G.E. Shavlinski was developed a calculation
methodology for in-situ dynamic measurements, through the following devices:
Modernization of a single-component speedometer called SM-3, often in the range of
0,5 – 100Hz. The principle of the action of the device is based on electromagnetic
induction.
Guralp brand has a three-component analog speedometer called SMG-6TD, often in
the 0,033 – 100Hz range. The principle of the action of the device is the location of
three sensors that measure the vibration in the three orthogonal directions.
35
Eentec brand has a three-component seismometer called SP400, often in the range
0,067 – 100Hz. The principle of the work of the electromolecular seismic signals is
based on the external mechanical signal that generates the work of the fluid, which in
turn is converted into an electrical impulse with the help of the electrode system.
For the validation of these devices several measurements were made in an 18-stories
building of the National University of Civil Engineering of Moscow, a Russian aviation
building, as well as in the atomic power stations of Rostov and Balakovsk, whose results by
the three devices were very similar, being the most practical, functional and reliable
seismometer SP400 (figure 2.1).
36
Fig. 2.2 Frame building modeled with the LIRA software
The building was calculated without damage and then, considering the different variants
of local damage of the first floor columns. The local damage scenarios are shown in figure
2.3
Table 2.1 shows the results of the first three frequencies of free vibration without
considering and considering the local damages, as well as its percentage variation.
37
Table 2.1
Mode 1 2 3
Initial scheme 0,920Hz 0,938Hz 1,028Hz
Corner column destruction 0,906Hz 0,930Hz 1,018Hz
Percentage variation (%) 1,52% 0,85% 0,97%
Destruction of eccentric column 0,911Hz 0,932Hz 1,024Hz
Percentage variation (%) 0,98% 0,64% 0,39%
Central column destruction 0,914Hz 0,932Hz 1,027Hz
Percentage variation (%) 0,65% 0,64% 0,10%
Stiffness reduction of 1/3 of corner 0,920Hz 0,938Hz 1,028Hz
column at height 1.1m from base
Percentage variation (%) 0,00% 0,00% 0,00%
30% stiffness reduction of corner column 0,919Hz 0,937Hz 1,026Hz
Percentage variation (%) 0,11% 0,11% 0,19%
From the results obtained, we can indicate that the most critical case is when the corner
column collapses.
To verify the calculation, the same building was modeled with the LS-DYNA software, as
shown in figure 2.4, with a special interest in the comparative analysis, shown in table 2.2,
whose results give reliability to the calculation.
38
Table 2.2
Frequency of free vibration (Hz) Percentage
Mode LS-DYNA LIRA variation (%)
1 0,928 0,920 0,86%
2 0,946 0,938 0,85%
3 1,035 1,028 0,68%
As a second calculation model, we analyzed a five stories building with structural walls of
0,20m in both directions, with dimensions of 30m x 18m, beams are 0,35m x 0,45m, and
0,18m story slab. The scheme of the building modeled with the LIRA software is shown in
figure 2.5
Fig. 2.5 Building with shear walls modeled with the LIRA software
The building was calculated without damage and then, considering the different variants
of local damage to the walls of the first story. The local damage situations are shown on the
next page in figure 2.6.
Table 2.3 shows the results of the first three frequencies of free vibration without
considering and considering the local damages, as well as their percentage variation.
Table 2.3
Mode 1 2 3
Initial scheme 3,209Hz 3,627Hz 4,222Hz
Destruction of the wall in the axis 6A-B 3,200Hz 3,476Hz 4,222Hz
Percentage variation (%) 0,28% 4,16% 0,00%
39
Destruction of the wall in the axis 4A-B 3,047Hz 3,245Hz 3,511Hz
Percentage variation (%) 5,05% 10,53% 16,84%
Destruction of 0,6m (1/5 of 3m) of the 3,209Hz 3,580Hz 4,222Hz
wall on the 6A-B axis for the entire height
Percentage variation (%) 0,00% 1,30% 0,00%
Destruction of 2,4m (2/5 of 6m) of the 3,205Hz 3,545Hz 4,222Hz
wall on the 4A-B axis for the entire height
Percentage variation (%) 0,12% 2,26% 0,00%
Reduction of wall stiffness 6A-B by 30% 3,207Hz 3,606Hz 4,222Hz
Percentage variation (%) 0,06% 0,58% 0,00%
Reduction of wall stiffness 4A-B by 30% 3,208Hz 3,605Hz 4,222Hz
Percentage variation (%) 0,03% 0,61% 0,00%
From the results obtained, we can indicate that the most critical case is when the wall
collapses on axis 4A-B.
To verify the calculation realized, the same building was modeled with the LS-DYNA
software, as shown in figure 2.7, with special interest in the comparative analysis, shown in
table 2.4, whose results give reliability to the calculation.
40
Fig. 2.7 Building with shear walls modeled with the LS-DYNA software
Table 2.4
Frequency of free vibration (Hz) Percentage
Mode LS-DYNA LIRA variation (%)
1 3,182 3,209 0,84%
2 3,572 3,627 1,52%
3 4,244 4,222 0,52%
Where:
u k - casual value or decomposition coefficient
41
k - deterministic function
For this, the coefficient u k must be uncorrelated, in other words, the correlation
coefficient must be zero.
M(u k u L ) 0 , cuando k L (2.2)
Then, you will have:
M(u k ) 0 (2.3)
M( y(t )) 0
If instead of using system of functions, the system of functions of the integral 2.4 is
taken, is guaranteed the correlation of the coefficients u k
TM
K
0
y ( t 1 , t 2 ) k ( t 2 )dt 2 k k ( t 1 ) (2.4)
Where:
K y ( t 1 , t 2 ) - determined correlation function
Where:
0 t TM , T TM
T - period of the eventual process
2
S y k
2
2 T
T 0
k
2
K y () cos d
(2.7)
T 2T
42
Where:
k 1,2,3,...
S y () - spectral density of process modeling y( t )
In the canonical decomposition method of the eventual process it is determined in a
discontinuous time interval. In some cases it is enough to determine the time process. To
determine an effective algorithm of stationary process mode for computer calculation, the
modified method of canonical decomposition is applied, which is based on the change of the
discontinuous series to a complex discrete series and the use of fast transformation
algorithm of Fourier.
We express the series 2.5 in the following way:
2
y( t ) c k exp i kt (2.8)
k
T
Where:
c k - Fourier complex coefficient, expressed through the coefficients u k , k in the following
way:
1 1
ck u k ki (2.9)
2 2
The function of the eventual correlation process 2.8 will be:
2
K y (t) ~ 2
k exp i kt (2.10)
k T
Where:
~ 2 - dispersion of the eventual magnitude expressing the Fourier coefficient of the series
k
2.10
Considering T k it will be:
2
2
T 0
k
~ 2
K ( t ) exp i
y T kt (2.11)
The transformation of equation 2.8 to a discrete Fourier function is expressed in
equation 2.12
N 1
2
y(n ) c(k ) exp i kn (2.12)
k 0 N
Where:
N - number of time values
43
~ 2 exp i 2 kn
N 1
K y (n ) k (2.13)
k 0 N
The spectral density of the process and the dispersion will be:
N 1
2
S y (k ) K y (n ) exp i kn (2.14)
n 0 N
S y (k )
2k 2 (2.15)
N
When the coefficients are generate u k , k as non-correlated eventual values of Gauss
with dispersion 2k , the function is constructed c(k ) by the formula 2.9 and through a fast
and inverse Fourier transformation is generated the eventual stationary process y(n ) .
In the modified method of canonical decomposition, are generated eventual elements
with dispersion, which determine the spectral density and then, by these elements, the
eventual stationary process is synthesized. In this way, this methodology is much faster and
more effective than the classical method of canonical decomposition.
Now, we analyze the five story frame building with the LS-DYNA software, subjected to
successive seisms. The choice of the type and dimensions of the finite element, as well as
the integration interval depends on the accuracy and time of the calculation. For this case,
the optimum dimension of the finite element was 0,3m and for the behavior of the material
was assumed a bilinear diagram with admissible plastic deformation adm 0,003 .
Rc
c1 c0 c2
Fig. 2.8 Bilinear diagram of concrete
44
of the LS-DYNA software for the non-linear dynamic analysis, this is considering the non-
linear physics, non-linear geometric and non-linear constructive.
The different variants under seismic loads was analyzed and with the results obtained in
the analysis was assessed the seismicity of the building in the face of successive seisms.
The results of the investigation for earthquakes with different magnitudes and different
dominant frequencies, is shown in table 2.5.
45
Table 2.5
Variant Magnitude Dominant frequency ¿ Did the building
collapse?
1 9 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z Yes
2 8+8 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z No
3 8+8+8 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z Yes
4 8+8+7 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z No
5 8+8+8 2Hz in X and Y; 3,5Hz in Z Yes
6 8 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z Yes
7 7 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z No
8 7+7 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z Yes
9 7+6 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z No
10 8 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z Yes
11 7 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z Yes
12 6 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z No
From the results obtained, we can indicate that the most unfavorable variant is when the
accelerogram has a dominant frequency of 1Hz. If the dominant frequency is 3Hz, the
building does not collapse before two successive earthquakes of magnitude 8 and then an
earthquake of magnitude 7. If the dominant frequency is 1,5Hz the building supports
successive seisms of magnitudes 7 and 6.
Figure 2.10 shows the building when it start to collapse in the face of successive
earthquakes of magnitude 7, with dominant frequency 1,5Hz in X and Y; 2Hz in Z (variant 8
of table 2.5)
46
Figure 2.11 shows the variation of the plastic deformations i for a column before three
successive earthquakes (variant 3 of table 2.5)
In Figure 2.12 it is shown a nine story building with structural walls, which has as free
vibration frequencies 1,240 Hz for the first mode; 1,349Hz for the second mode and
1,701Hz for the third mode.
47
Different variants of the seismic action were analyzed and with the results obtained in
the analysis was assessed the seismicity of the building in the face of successive
earthquakes. The results of the investigation for earthquakes with different magnitudes and
different dominant frequencies, are shown in table 2.6
Table 2.6
Variant Magnitude Dominant Frequency ¿Did the building
collapse?
1 8+8+8 3Hz in X and Y; 4Hz in Z No
2 8+8+8 2Hz in X and Y; 2,5Hz in Z Yes
3 8+8+7 2Hz in X and Y; 2,5Hz in Z No
4 8 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z Yes
5 7 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z No
6 7+7 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z Yes
7 7+6 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz in Z No
Of the results obtained, we can indicate that in spite of have three successive
earthquakes of magnitude 8 with dominant frequency of 3Hz, the building does not collapse.
On the other hand, for the same case, but with a dominant frequency of 2Hz, the structure
collapses. However, for the same case, if the third successive earthquake is of magnitude 7,
with dominant frequency 2Hz, collapse does not occur.
In figure 2.13, the different moments of destruction of shear elements are shown, for two
successive earthquakes of magnitude 7, with dominant frequency of 1Hz in X and Y; 1,3Hz
in Z.
48
Fig. 2.13 Isolines of the moment of destruction of the wall by plastic deformation (t = 7,1s)
Figure 2.14 shows the variation of the plastic deformations i for a column in the face of
two successive earthquakes (variant 6 of table 2.6)
49
CONCLUSIONS
1. A seismic calculation methodology for buildings was developed considering the non-linear
physics of the material and the local damages in theirs elements in the face of successive
earthquakes.
2. For the 5-story reinforced concrete frame building, of the 5 variants of local damage
(destruction of the corner column, destruction of the eccentric column, destruction of the
central column, reduction of stiffness of 1/3 of the corner column at height 1,1m from the
base and 30% stiffness reduction of the corner column), the most critical case is when the
corner column collapses.
3. For the 5-story reinforced concrete frame building, the maximum percentage deviation of
free vibration frequency results between LS-DYNA and LIRA softwares is minimal, the
difference is only 0.86%.
4. For the 5-story reinforced concrete frame building, for the time-history analysis, we can
indicate that the most unfavorable variant is when the accelerogram has a dominant
frequency of 1Hz. If the dominant frequency is 3 Hz, the building does not collapse in the
face of two successive earthquakes of magnitude 8 and then an earthquake of magnitude
7. If the dominant frequency is 1,5 Hz, the building supports successive earthquakes of
magnitudes 7 and 6.
5. For the 5-story reinforced concrete building with structural walls, of the 6 variants of local
damage (destruction of the wall on the 6A-B axis, destruction of the wall on the 4A-B axis,
destruction of 0,6m (1 / 5 of 3m) of the wall on the axis 6A-B for the entire height,
destruction of 2,4m (2/5 of 6m) of the wall on the axis 4A-B for the entire height, reduction
of wall stiffness 6A- B by 30% and wall stiffness reduction 4A-B by 30%), the most critical
case is when the wall collapses on axis 4A-B.
6. For the 5-story reinforced concrete building with structural walls, the maximum percentage
deviation of free vibration frequency results between LS-DYNA and LIRA softwares is
minimal, the difference is only 1,52%.
7. For the building of 9 floors of concrete reinforced with structural walls, for the analysis time-
history, we can indicate that in spite of be submitted three successive earthquakes of
magnitude 8 with dominant frequency of 3Hz, the building does not collapse. On the other
hand, if the dominant frequency is 2Hz, the structure collapses. For the same previous
case, if the third successive earthquake is of magnitude 7, with dominant frequency of 2Hz,
the building does not collapse.
8. Based on LS-DYNA and LIRA softwares, a form of modeling reinforced concrete buildings
was elaborated, considering the non-linear physics and the local damages in theirs
elements in the face of before successive earthquakes.
50
9. The use and application of the methodology proposed in the present investigation is
recommended, because it is the one that best fits Peruvian seismic conditions, for the case
of seismic design of buildings considering non-linear physics.
10. The effect of non-linear physics in the seismic analysis of reinforced concrete buildings is
notorious, and Peruvian Standard E030-2017 should be improved, including the
requirement of this type of analysis, which perfectly describes the real behavior of the
building in the face of earthquakes.
51
FUTURE RESEARCH LINES
1. Apply different variants in local damage methodology for other types of structural systems.
2. Perform a comparative analysis of experimental measurements in situ after severe
earthquake with the results of numerical calculation.
3. Incorporate the soil-structure interaction considering a non-linear behavior of the foundation
soil and their effect on the non-linear physics of reinforced concrete buildings.
4. Add geometric non-linear to the calculation of high buildings of reinforced concrete,
considering their non-linear physics.
5. Incorporate seismic protection systems and their effect on the non-linear physics of
reinforced concrete buildings.
52
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53
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56
INDEX
PROLOGUE…………………………………………………………..………….………………….…. 03
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………..………….…………………….…. 04
CONCLUSIONS…………………….…...………………………………………....……………......... 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………....…………………………………………….................…. 53
57