INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1, pp.

39-47 JANUARY 2017 / 39

DOI: 10.1007/s12541-017-0005-8 ISSN 2234-7593 (Print) / ISSN 2005-4602 (Online)

Studying Control Strategies for Dimensional Precision in

Aerospace Parts Machining

Waqas Saleem1,#, Hassan Ijaz1, Muhammad Zain-ul-Abdein1, Aqeel Ahmed Taimoor2, and Wang Yunqiao3
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
2 Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
3 Department of Mechanical Manufacturing and Automation, Beihang University, China
# Corresponding Author / E-mail: wsaleem@uj.edu.sa, TEL: +966-12-695-2000(ext.74252), FAX: +966-12-695-2000(ext.52257)

KEYWORDS: Cutting simulations, Machining deformations, Residual stress, FEA, 7075-T6

Dimensional instability in machined aerospace parts is a complex engineering problem which is contributed by many factors. Mainly,
the machining stresses developed during the part’s material cutting, cause dimensional imperfections. The complex interaction of
mechanical, thermal, and metallurgical transformations makes it difficult to establish the exact reasoning of part’s desired dimensional
instability. The research work presented here deals with the investigations of machining stresses and subsequent dimensional
deformations in aerospace grade aluminum alloys. A commercial finite analysis code is applied to simulate the residual stresses and
machining process. The stress profiles developed from the numerical simulations are compared with standard curves. The actual
machined part’s deviations are measured on a CMM (coordinate measuring machine). The experimental and numerical results are
found consistent with each other. This validates the control strategies adopted to simulate the machining stresses and resultant
deformations.

Manuscript received: May 17, 2016 / Revised: July 18, 2016 / Accepted: August 2, 2016

1. Introduction
NOMENCLATURE
The machining forces redistribute the material-induced stresses and
Fi = Internal forces at equilibrium state
cause the dimensional deformations in complex machined parts.
Mi= Internal moment at equilibrium state
Especially, the large monolithic structures are susceptible to the
h = Thickness of removed material layer
machining induced-stresses and resultant deformations. Applications of
hn = Thickness before the nth layer
these types of parts are common in the aero and automotive industries.
hn+1 = Thickness after removal of nth layer
Mostly, these industries confront with the issues of imprecise part’s
σj = Residual stress of nth layer
dimensions. Since, these parts are deliberately designed to avoid the
E = Young’s modulus
riveting and welding operations, the final shape is attained by machining
h = Thickness of the removed layer
almost 90 percent of material. The removal of a large percentage of
Sn = Stress after removed material layer
material induces extensive stresses and enhances the part’s deformations
K (T) = Thermal conductivity, Wm−1 K−1
potential. The part’s imprecise dimensions cause the misallied assembly
ρ = Density, kgm−3
and hence discarded as a scrap.
c = Specific heat, J kg−1 K−1
Mostly, in the manufacturing industry, some typical efforts are
q = Internal heat generation in Wm−3
implemented to avoid the part’s post-machining deformations.16,35 Up
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion
until now, no convincing strategy could be established to control the
ε = Total strain tensor
post-machining deformations. The simultaneous interaction of
εe = Elastic strain tensor
mechanical, thermal, and metallurgical processes makes the machining
εth = Thermal strain tensor mechanics very elaborate to determine the exact causes of post-
εp = Plastic or inelastic strain tensor machining deformations. Moreover, after the machining, it becomes a

© KSPE and Springer 2017

 40 / JANUARY 2017 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1
challenging task to differentiate between pre- and post-machining
stresses.4,24 The tool’s cutting forces, machining sequence, part’s clamping
scheme, and heat dissipation contribute remarkably in machining
stresses.
Likewise, during the material heat treating cycle, the metallurgical
phase transformations severely affect the material surfaces and grain
structure.14 The stresses developed during these operations are relieved
by stress-relieving operations. After the stress relieving operations, a
significant amount of stress remains in the material which redistributes
during the part’s machining.1,17 This behavior can be explained with the
research conducted by Michael17 (2002). They performed experiments
on 7050-T74 squared plates. The plates were stress-relieved (uniaxial
stretching) in the rolling direction (uniform plastic strain). Firstly, they
machined some slots in a thick plate of 77.9 mm (without stress-relieved)
using a wire electric discharge machine. Then they machined the slots
in 75.8 mm thick stress-relieved plate (7050-T7451). They measured
the residual stresses using strain gauges and applying the series expansion
approach. Readers may refer their published curves for comprehending
the through-thickness residual stresses before and after the stress
relieving process.
There are a number of well-established methods to estimate the
magnitude and behavior of residual-stresses. For example, the contour
approach, layer removal methods, crack compliance method,19 slitting
method,9 and X-Ray diffraction methods12 are most common. An
extensive research has been conducted on the numerical and
experimental investigations of post machining deformations. For
example, Brown and Song5 (1992) performed a thermo-mechanical
analysis to predict the part’s deformation patterns. Jutta and Anders13
(2000) worked on the numerical simulations of material heat cycles and
resultant stress profiles. Fuh et al.11 (1995) proposed an empirical model
to predict the milling-induced residual stresses on 2014-T6 Aluminum
alloys. They also studied the effect of cutting parameters on residual
stress. Tsai and Liao28 (1999) worked on the surface errors due to
peripheral milling of thin-walled parts. Su et al.25 (2013) developed an
analytical model to predict the milling-induced residual stresses. Sabine
et al.23 (2002) investigated the quantitative evaluation of machining-
induced stresses due to material hardness. Walker and Hom31 (2002)
studied the machining-induced stresses in aluminum forgings. Ratchev
et al.22 (2003) studied the force and deflection modeling in milling of
low rigidity of complex parts. Yang34 (2011) studied the machining
deformations of Titanium alloys used in aircraft structures. Webster32
(2001) investigated the quenched-induced stresses and verified their
work through layer removal technique.
The FEM (finite element method) has been exploited successfully to
analyze the complex machining problems, for example; the micro-
cutting analysis, mechanical contact analysis, and thermo-mechanical
interactions. Similarly, the problem of post machining deformations can
also be studied in terms of a deformed geometrical model by removing
the material layers sequentially.26 In the commercial FEA software’s, a
symmetrical and non-symmetrical stress distribution can be developed
by means of fully-coupled thermo-mechanical analysis. A change in
the stress distribution can be simulated by removing the finite elements
at the selected domains.7,8
Generally, the numerical cutting simulations are classified into
micro- and macro-scales analysis. The macro-scale simulations deal
with the material removal effect by deactivating a set of elements in a
specified domain. The micro-scale simulations deal with the cutting
chip morphology, wearing of the tool’s tip, cutting chip temperature,
surface integrity, and effect of cutting feed etc. The micro-scale
numerical simulations are more common as compared to the macro-
scale simulations. This is because of the computational requirements
and fidelity of 3D cutting models. A limited number of research
publications are available on 3D macro-scale modeling and analytical
relationship of machining stresses.15 Walid et al.30 (2014) investigated
the orthogonal machining of Aluminum 7075-T651 and resultant stresses.
They used the disc-shaped test specimens with an outer diameter of 70
mm and thickness 4 mm. Dry-machining was performed on a 3-axis
CNC machine with uncoated carbide inserts. They measured the
machining stresses using X-ray diffraction with Proto iXRD® system.
Readers may refer their published curves for comprehending the
residual stress at different cutting speeds.
The research work presented here deals with the large-scale cutting
simulations of aerospace grade aluminum alloys, machining-induced
stresses, experimental evaluation, and part’s geometric inspection on a
coordinate measuring machine (CMM).
2. Analytical Modeling
2.1 Material removal modeling
Assume a rectangular block of material which is manufactured
through cold rolling process. This is shown in Fig 1(a). In case of cold
rolled strips and products, mostly the longitudinal residual stresses of
uniform magnitude exist in the axial and transverse directions along the
thickness. This is shown in Fig 1(b). It was further assumed that material
removal takes place without generating any significant residual stress at
exposed surfaces. In case of cold rolled sheets, layered material removal
process results the stress profiles in longitudinal and transverse directions
aligned longitudinally on the test samples.21 Generally, a good symmetry
about the mid-plane is observed. Due to this, it can be assumed that the
relaxation of residual stresses in cold rolled material takes place in a
linear elastic manner distributed linearly in vertical direction.29 It has
been further studied that if the stress is isotropic in the plane of the
surface then residual stress does not contribute to the shear stress and
the net section stress determines the relaxation criterion.10 The stresses
before and after the removal of first material layer are shown in Fig
1(c). Because of the absence of external forces, all the bending moments
and forces at any cross-section attain the equilibrium state when material
layer is removed:9
Fi = ∫ ∫ σ dA = 0 (1)
A
Mi = ∫ ∫σ x dA = 0 (2)
A
where; σ is the original residual stress, Fi is the internal force at an
equilibrium state, and Mi is the internal moment produced at the
equilibrium state, hn is the total thickness of workpiece, A is the total
thickness of peeled layers which varies from 0 to hn, dA is the smallest
thickness of peeled layer, x is the distance from any reference point
along x-axis for bending moment.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1 JANUARY 2017 / 41

the nth layer at the top and bottom surfaces respectively.

After removing the nth material layer, the stress state at top surface
(Sn) is:

Sn = Yu E ⎛ ----- – -----⎞
1 1
(5)
⎝ R1 R2⎠

Where,

hn + 1 ( 3hn + hn + 1 )
Yu = --------------------------------------
-
6hn (6)
YA + YL = hn + 1

After removing the nth material layer (with thickness h), the Eq. (4)
takes the form:
YA Sn YL S ′n
σj h + ----------
- + ------------ = 0
2 2
YA Sn YL S ′n
j = n – 1 ⇒ ----------
- + ------------ = 0 h = 0 ⇒ YA Sn + YL S ′n = 0
2 2

YL Sn
S ′n = ----------
- (7)
YA

hn + 1 ( 3hn + hn + 1)
YA = --------------------------------------
- (8)
6hn

The stress state at bottom surface (Sn+1) and curvature:

Sn + 1 = –YA E ( 1/R1 – 1/R2 ) (9)

[hn + 1 ( 3hn + hn + 1 ) ] [E ( 1/R1 – 1/R2 ) ]

Sn + 1 = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (10)
6hn

Fig. 1 (a) Initial material (b) Initial residual stress (c) Initial and A correction term Snj is introduced to equate the effect of unbalanced
redistributed stress stresses produced during the removal of nth layer:27

In Fig. 1, h is the thickness of removed material layer; hn is the
thickness of specimen at the initial-stress state (with nth layer); hn+1 is
the thickness of specimen at the relaxed-stress state (without nth layer);
σj is the residual stress of nth layer. When the first layer (h) is removed,
a new equilibrium state is achieved. The relationship between bending
moment and change in radius of curvature is expressed as:27
1 1 6hhn σj
----- – ----- = --------------------
- (3)
R1 R2 E ( h )3
n+1
where; E is the Young’s modulus, h is the thickness of removed material
layer, 1/R1 is the radius of curvature about midsection before the removal
of nth layer, 1/R2 is the radius of curvature about new midsection (hn−
h / 2) after removal of nth layer.
A change in the radius of curvature is calculated by taking the location
of new neutral-axis (mid-section) and deformations in longitudinal and
transverse directions:33
YA Sn YL S′n
σj h + ----------
- + ------------ = 0 j = n–1 (4)
2 2
where; YA is the vertical height from top surface to the midsection (new
neutral-axis) of material after removing nth layer, YL is the vertical height
from bottom surface to the midsection (new neutral-axis) of material after
removing nth layer, Sn and S´n are the stresses produced after removing
Sn + 1
- ( Y – 0.5h )
Sn + 1 = --------- (11)
YA A
The correction terms are the stresses which would be created in the
middle of each layer of the remaining body to retain back the shape of
remaining body prior to the removal of any further layer. After removal
of any material layer, the redistributed stress Snj can be calculated by
subtracting the sum of correction terms (S1j, S2j, S3j, …, Snj) from the
stress of particular top most layer which is considered to be removed.
In order to calculate the redistributed stress σj at the top most layer of
material block, the sum of correction terms Snj is computed when
modifying the original residual stress present in the corresponding top
most layer. Similarly, for the other material layers, correction terms may
also be calculated using Eq. (11). After the removal of each kth layer (1
< k < j layers), the remaining material attains a new equilibrium stress.
σ11 = σ 2 – S11
σ 21 = σ 3 – ( S12 + S22)
σ 31 = σ 4 – ( S13 + S23 + S33)
(12)
…
j
σnj = σ j +1 – ∑ Snj
n=1
Where S1j, S2j, S3j, …, Snj are the correction terms and σnj is the
redistributed residual stress of nth layer.
 42 / JANUARY 2017 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1

By assuming a total number of n elements, the relationship takes the

form:

f1 D1 u1
f2 D2 u2
x 0 x
= Di ui (18)
fi Di ui
x 0 x
fn Dn un

If D is the overall stiffness matrix, then transformation matrix:

F = Du
When element death feature is activated to the selected elements,
then their stiffness matrices ki are multiplied by a stiffness factor gi. Then
a new state is attained, which can be described as:
Fig. 2 Correction terms for removal of material layers
fi = Di gi ui (19)

2.2 Thermal residual stress modeling The modified stiffness matrix is converted into:
In this study, a coupled-field thermo-mechanical analysis is performed
to generate the initial residual-stresses in 3D models. The transfer of g1 D 1
heat in an isotropic solid is expressed as: g2 D2
0
∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T D= (20)
ρc ( T ) ------ = q + ----- K ( T ) ------ + ----- K ( T ) ------ + ----- K ( T ) ------ (13) gi kDi
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
0
where; T is the temperature, t is the time, K is the thermal conductivity gn Dn
as a function of temperature (Wm-1 K-1), ρ is the density (kgm-3), q is
the internal heat generation in Wm-3 which is taken as zero since there In case of element deactivation, the selected elements stiffness factor
is no heat generation in our case. “g” attains a zero value and consistent properties (for example, stress,
The temperature distribution and elastic-plastic strains develop a new temperature, specific heat etc.) associated to these elements are zeroed
stress state. The following relationship explains this behavior: out. When these elements are activated, the stiffness factor gi equals to
th p one and associated properties are resumed according to the new state.
σ = Eε = E (ε + ε +ε ) (14)

where; σ is the stress in the model, E is the elastic modulus, ε is the

total strain. 3. Case Studies
The total strain (ε) is composed of elastic (ε e), thermal (ε p) and
plastic (εth) parts as follows: The experimental testing and numerical simulations have been carried
e p th out to evaluate the post-machining deformations in aerospace grade
ε = ε +ε + ε (15)
Aluminum alloys. The cutting operation is performed on a high speed
A thermal boundary condition is defined by the surface convection. CNC machine and dimensional inspection is accomplished with a
This is expressed as: coordinate measuring machine (CMM). The material cutting simulations
are executed using the commercial available code; ANSYS. By the
qconv = hconv ( T + To ) (16)
element’s deactivation feature, a change in the pre-defined stresses is
where; qconv is the convection heat flow per unit area, hconv is the established, which eventually caused the dimensional deformations in
convection film coefficient; T is the temperature at outer surface. x, y and z-directions. In the element deactivation feature, an element’s
presence is isolated by multiplying its stiffness with a severe reduction
2.3 Element activation/deactivation model factor. The effect of deactivated-elements is cumulatively transferred to
Element activation-deactivation feature available in the commercial all the active-elements and they attain a new equilibrium state.
available codes may be applied to simulate the material removal
operation. In deactivated state, the element’s stiffness is virtually ignored 3.1 Case study-1
by multiplying with a sever reduction factor. The relationship between In this study, three 2A70 aluminum squared plates are selected and
stiffness and force can be established as:2 machined with different cutting schemes. The resultant deviations are
evaluated with numerical cutting.
Fi = Di ui (17)

Where, Di is the stiffness of ith element, Fi is the nodal force which 3.1.1 Experimental investigations
causes a nodal displacement ui at ith node In this study, water quenched aluminum plates are used. The
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1 JANUARY 2017 / 43

Table 1 Machining parameters

Cutting Depth of cut Feed Maximum
Plate No
scheme (mm) (mm/z) Def (mm)
1 1.0 0.12 0.6
2 1.0 0.12 0.68
1 3 1.0 0.12 0.5
4 1.0 0.12 0.6
5 1.0 0.12 1.2
6 0.5 0.12 0.6
2 7 1.2 0.12 0.9
8 1.5 0.12 1.0
9 1.2 0.08 1.2
Fig. 4 Post-Quenching deformations
10 1.2 0.18 0.8
3
11 1.2 0.20 0.7
12 1.2 0.25 1
Average 0.815

Fig. 5 Machining-Induced stresses (removal of 1 mm layer)

Fig. 3 Quenched-Induced residual stress

quenching was performed at 75-85oC. The length of plates is 250 mm.

Plates vary in thickness by 5, 15, 25, 35 and 50 mm. The machining
was done on a high speed CNC milling machine at a constant speed of
1600 rpm. Each plate was machined separately up to one-fifth of the
material thickness using 30 mm milling cutter, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 mm
respectively. The cutting parameters selected for 12 different plates are
given in Table 1. The minimum, maximum and average deformations
observed after the machining are 0.5, 1.2 and 0.8 mm respectively.

3.1.2 Numerical simulations

Using the symmetry of square plates, only one-fourth of the finite
element model is developed. Before executing the numerical simulations,
quenching-induced stresses are generated into the model. This is
accomplished by means of a fully coupled thermo-mechanical analysis.
The material properties used in the thermo-mechanical analysis1 are;
Elastic modulus: 72 GPa, Poisson's ratio: 0.3, Thermal conductivity: 130
WK-1m-1, Specific heat: 0.96g-1oC-1 and Convective heat coefficient: 23
WK-1m-2.
For thermo-mechanical analysis, a thermal analysis is performed
first by using the SOLID87, 10-nodes tetrahedral elements. The model
is constrained by applying the symmetry constraints and restraining axial
movements at the bottom surface. The initial temperature condition is
defined as 25oC. A temperature of 85oC is applied to all the nodes. Then
a convection load is applied at the outer surfaces. After attaining the
initial temperature distribution, a non-linear structural analysis is
performed by switching the thermal elements to structural Solid187
Fig. 6 Post-machining deformations (removal of 1 mm layer)
elements. Thermal strains achieved after the thermal analysis are also
applied during the structural analysis. The stress distribution attained in
3D model is found symmetrical. This is shown in Fig. 3.
The maximum value of stress was observed as 227 MPa at the middle
of the plate. The deformations occurred due to the quenching induced
stresses are shown in Fig. 4. It is observed that part tends to bend
downward to equate the effect of quenching stresses and to attain the
new equilibrium state. This is explained with a vector contour plot in
Fig. 4. After developing the quenching stresses, the numerical cutting
simulations are performed by applying the element deactivation feature.
First, the model is analyzed by deactivating the set of elements present
at the top surface (1 mm). The new stress state and resultant deformations
 44 / JANUARY 2017 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1

Fig. 7 Residual stress Vs resultant deformations

Fig. 9 Deformations in X, Y and Z-directions (mm)

Fig. 10 Pre-Machined finite element model

Table 2 Material properties Al7075-T6

Temperature (Co) K(T) α
-50 to 20 242 21.6
20 to 100 240 23.4
20 to 200 238 24.3
20 to 300 233 25.2

Fig. 8 Part fixing, clamping and inspection scheme
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6 respectively. It is observed that part tends
to curl upward about the top layer. Similarly, the other material layers
are removed by deactivating the elements. The deformations observed
after removing the specific set of elements are found consistent with the
experimental result. The through thickness deformations observed during
the quenching and machining induced stresses are shown in Fig. 7.
3.2 Case study-II
This work deals with the machining-induced stresses and resultant
deformations in aluminum 7075-T6 beam structure. This part is used in
the aircraft’s tail fin assembly. It is machined with tight tolerances to
match the assembly requirements.
3.2.1 Experimental investigations
The part is machined on a high speed 5-axis CNC milling machine
from an initial material block of 700 × 300 × 350 mm. The part’s fixing
and clamping scheme is shown in Fig. 8. The machined part’s thickness
varies from 5 to 10 mm. This is shown in Fig. 8. After the machining,
part is inspected on a 5-axis coordinate measuring machine (CMM) with
REVO 5-axisprobing technology. The geometric locations (inspection
points) fed into the CMM (captured by the REVO drive system) are
shown in Fig. 8. Using the CMM results, deviations measured in x, y
and z-directions are shown in Fig. 9.
3.2.2 Numerical investigations
The part’s scaled-down FE (finite element) model was developed and
tailored according to the actual machining sequence. Cross-sectional
view of the model is shown in Fig. 10. The scheme used in case study-
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1
Fig. 11 Machining/Cutting simulations
I is followed again to develop the initial stresses. The material properties
used in the thermo-mechanical analysis include; Elastic modulus: 72
GPa, Poisson's ratio: 0.3 and Convective heat coefficient: 23 WK-1m-2.
The temperature-dependent material properties are given in Table 2.
Model was discretized into 74122 numbers of elements with3D 10-
Node tetrahedral Solid187 elements. An element size of 4 mm was
selected and free meshing was adopted due to complex features of the
JANUARY 2017 / 45
Fig. 12 Pre-Machined residual stresses (transverse and longitudinal
directions)
model. The model is constrained by applying the symmetry constraints
and restraining axial movements at the bottom surface. The loading
scheme is also kept same as defined in case study-I. After developing
the initial stresses, the numerical cutting simulations are performed by
applying the element deactivation feature. The cutting evolution shown
in Fig. 11 is accomplished in the following steps:
Step 1: elements deactivated from the top surface (T-layer)
Step 2: elements deactivated from inside-pockets (P-I)
Step 3: elements deactivated from the middle-pockets (P-II)
Step 4: elements deactivated from the side-pockets (P-III)
Step 5: elements deactivated from the bottom-face (P-IV)
Step 5: elements deactivated from the bottom-face (B-layer)
4. Results and Discussions
The cutting scheme plays a vital role in deciding the deformation
trend. The stress contours in the thickness and longitudinal directions
are shown in Fig. 12.
The values of resultant deformations observed after the each cutting
simulation step are given in Table 3. The maximum deformation is
observed in z-direction (thickness). The deformation keeps on decreasing
in the x-direction till step 4 and then increases in the final step. The
overall deformation trend observed during the cutting evolution is shown
in Fig. 9.
The maximum deformation (deformation) is observed at the final
stage (2.8 mm) after deactivating the bottom layer elements. The
 46 / JANUARY 2017 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 18, No. 1

Table 3 Simulated deformations (mm) REFERENCES

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Fig. 13 Post-machining residual stresses (longitudinal and transverse
directions)
deformation estimated through CMM are found less as compared to the
obtained numerical results. This is because of the approximations and
assumptions selected in the cutting simulation model. Moreover, some
factors were also neglected to simplify the problem. The part’s clamping
scheme also plays an important role in determining the deformation
pattern. During the cutting evolution, the deformation keeps on increasing
consistently since the active elements tolerate the stresses of deactivated
elements. The stress concentrations (tensile) at the top surface cause
part’s ends to deflect upward. But, when the bottom surface elements
are deactivated, the resultant deformations become strong enough to
balance the undue deformations of top surface.
The pre-machined and post-machined stresses in longitudinal and
transverse directions are given in Figs. 12 and 13, respectively. The
maximum and minimum values of machined stresses are found as 53.5
MPa and 31 MPa respectively. These profiles are found consistent with
the standard profiles.1
5. Conclusions
The research work presented here deals with the machined part’s
deformations due to initial residual stresses. The machined part’s
deformations measured through CMM are found consistent with the
simulated deformations. The methodology implemented in this research
is suitable for predicting the post machining deviations in large plates
and thin-walled structures.
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