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THEME 6. DESIGN STRENGTH ANALYSIS

Lecture #15(14). CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIC STRENGTH
Plan:
1. Strength property of a structure
2. Ultimate loads
3. Factor of safety.
4. Strength reserve
5. Analytical models for calculation of airplane strength
6. Classification of the analytical models
7. The recommendations at the choice of the analytical models
8. Recommendations for wing designing.

1. Strength property of a structure

Strength properties of a structure can be characterized values of destructive or
failure load Рd and load Рr, at which arise residual strains.
If external loading reaches value Рr after its removal structure will have residual
strains. If external loading will reach value Рd - there will be a structural failure. Рr and
Рd are the properties of a particular structure determined by selection of shapes, the
sizes and materials of separate elements. As load at which there are residual strains, it is
less than Рd that
Рd Pr (1)
Pd =Pf

Pr

l
0

0.2
Fig. 1. Diagram of panel deforming

The value Pd fits σut as for material, and Pr corresponds σr=σ0.2.

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Ratio Рd  Рr can be approximately appreciated on ratio of ultimate tension ut and

conditional yield strength 0.2. For steel, Al, titanium alloys ratio
ut / 0.2  1.5
Hence, ratio
Pd
 1.5
Pr

ut

ut

Fig. 2. Stress strain diagram.

2. Ultimate loads

At strength analysis of airplanes value of so-called ultimate load Pu is used. It gets

out from the following reasons. The maximum load operated in each critical loading
condition refers to as limit load – Pl as already it was spoken earlier. At action of limit
loads it is inadmissible not only a structural failure, but also appearance of residual
strains. Therefore the airplane should be designed so that loads Рr and Рd, being by
property of the aggregate, were more the maximum load in operation
Pu Pl,
Pu Рd
РdРl (2)
РrРl

Inequality
РdРl
it is executed on the basis inequality (1).
At designing the shape, sizes and their material for structural members are
determined on prescribed value of ultimate load.
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That the requirement about absence of residual strains was executed, ultimate load
should be more Pl PuPl so that under selection of the sizes of structural members
determining strength it was executed not only the second, but also first of inequalities
(2). Therefore value Рu, should be more Pl at least in ratio
 ut
f min   1.5 ,
 02
that is
Рumin= Pl fmin,
where f – is safety factor.
As always calculations contain some inaccuracy, properties of materials and
semimanufactured materials have some dispersion, and all structure can have some
deviations on value Рd. at designing on values Рumin it can appear, that the first
inequality (2) actually is not executed.
Sometimes it can receive, that real Рd will be less Pl that is there can be a
structural failure in flight. It is necessary to take into account, that strength of airplanes
in operation decreases because of wearing, corrosion, an aging, a fatigue. To take into
account it, calculation is made on Рu:
Рu = Рl f, (3)
Here f > fmin.
Except static interpretation safety factor f has statistical interpretation on a curve
of density probability for distribution loading in operation and dispersion of structural
strength. By consideration Pl and Рu as random processes the factor f is got out so that
the probability of structure destruction in operation would be less prescribed value. This
value is estimated by order F=3  10-3 -5  10-3 for 10000 hours of flight.

f (density probability)
probability of
structural strength destruction

load in
operation

Pl Pu

Fig. 3. Probability of destruction

3. Factor of safety.

From AR the factor equal to ratio Рu to Pl refers to as safety factor.

Pu
f  l .
P
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From here
Рu= f  Pl.
It is got out so that to take into account all mentioned factors, on the basis of in-
service experience and is established АR. As a rule, f 1.5 and also it changes within
the limits of 1,5 < f < 2,5.
The safety factor is equal f =1.5 for aggregates and the units from metal by
cutting, extrusion.
The bigger values f are established for more responsible units, for units which
strength properties are more difficult for supervising and for less investigated loading
conditions.
Units manufactured by a casting from metal, plastic and CM have the greater f,
taking into account greater dispersion Рd. To them it is applied f > 2. For the CM
depending on a kind is established 2 < f < 4. So, that notwithstanding what a CM have
higher specific strength because of big f and therefore Рu a structure weight can be more
from the CM, than from metal. The task of technologists is to provide quality,
homogeneity to reduce dispersion of strength, an aging of CM, to improve technological
effectiveness, to save labor, the cost a CM and then they will find broad application. It
is similarly with aluminum. In 1860 it was more expensive than gold, and now basically
airplanes are manufactured from it and it is cheap and technological.

4. Strength reserve

After designing of a structure, a strength calculation and experimental check of its

strength is carried out. Actual values Рd are determined in result of these tests. Ratio
Pd
η u
P
refers to as - a strength reserve factor (or excess of strength). The strength reserve
factor characterizes reliability of a structure on strength and expenses of weight.
If η< 1, the structure is insufficiently strength and it should be strengthened. If
 the structure is excessive strength and it is a parameter of a superfluous expense
of weight. The structure should be facilitated, that will give economy of weight. It is
usually considered acceptable
0.95   1.15.
In designing practice the engineering error is supposed at maintenance of strength
in 5 %, that is the structure is considered strength if it maintains 95 % Рu. It allows to
save weight of a structure and to increase its profitability, if to create a structure with
Рd.=0.95Рu. On the other hand, if we created a structure too much strength we do not
know where the "superfluous" material is located and it is difficult to update a structure.
So consciously a structure is projected on loads a little bit below ultimate (0.9-0.95)Рu,
and then during tests airplane is made in-test development to the necessary level of
strength. Thus, an airplane is received with the minimal weight.
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5. Analytical models for calculation of airplane strength

In the mechanic of constructions, strength of materials the analytic models of

objects were given.
At calculation of an airplane on strength it is necessary to choose the analytical
models both for the construction as a whole, and its parts. This selection is necessary to
make from the set of the available analytical models. It is the especially important at
design-theoretical research of strength.
The analytical model integrates in itself the simplified representation of a primary
structure, laws of the mechanic of constructions and simplifying hypotheses about
behavior of a construction and its elements.
The analytical models are necessary for selection of critical loading conditions
and for formation of the strength criteria. Without the analytical models the statement of
experiment (recovery of efforts, processing of sensors) is impossible. At study of the
various strength criteria the analytical models even for the element is accepted different.
There is necessary to have the set of the analytical models. At calculation of
normal stresses of the stringer there is permissible to represent it as a thread without
flexural stiffness at tension. But this analytical model is not proper for study of stability
at compression.
The different analytical models are used at calculation of local and general,
displacement (for example, wing deflection and sinuosity of a skin).
The different analytical models are used at calculations on limit loads Рl and
ultimate loads Рu (second usually with the large number of simplifications, as the
systems before destruction usually are nonlinear, nonelastic).
The analytical models differ by a different degree of a detail at the description of a
design. The so-called global analytical models are used at calculation of an airplane as a
whole or his main assembly’s wing, fuselage, tail unit). Any small-sized details thus are
not considered, as the main SSS is studied that shows allocation of the main power
flows. Local analytical models are used for study local SSS near to concentrators in
every details.
By maximum simplifications of structure behavior are differences the designing
analytical models that are used for calculation of the geometrical characteristics for any
construction units. Thus on the basis of a qualitative analysis of structure behavior for a
projected element, designer indicates the determining critical load condition, and the
value of internal efforts in elements are estimated.
It is necessary to distinguish the analytical models of elements and analytical
models of systems. Last model consists from elements, included in a system, and from
the analytical models of binders united them. Such combined analytical models are
applied at specified calculations of systems (for example, the wing is considered as a
system from plates and rods).
The various analytical models are used for aggregates, parts and details of an
airplane.
There are a large number of the analytical models distinguished by a detail of the
description of internal forces, presence or absence of kinematics hypotheses,
completeness of the description of considered structures, physical laws for materials,
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and field of application. It is necessary to choose from this set that analytical model,
which to the greatest degree corresponded features of strength research of the given
airplane.

6. Classification of the analytical models

In the main classification covers the analytical models of elements and
systems, not dismembered on elements, (and if the system is not dismembered on
elements, then it is possible to look it as an element). The classification goes to
following attributes:
1). Issue a ratio of the main geometrical dimensions of an element
(The application of basic hypotheses depends from it)
2). Issue a detail of the description of internal forces, presence of
kinematics hypotheses;
3). Issue a detail of the object description;
4). Issue a method of the description of a structure - as continuous functions
or as some set of parameters (the analytical models accordingly refer to as
continuous or discrete);
5). Issue purpose of the analytical models - on checking (confirmatory) and
designing the analytical models.

Classification issue geometrical attributes

Issue ratio of the main geometrical dimensions there are distinguished 3 main
classes of the analytical models of elements:
1. Solids - all dimensions are neighbors; the problems of calculations are three-
dimensional, they are decided by methods of the theory of elasticity;

2. The shells and plates - one dimension is much less than others (  0 .02 for
R
shells), the plates (a) have the flat median surface before deformation; a basic
hypothesis is hypothesis Kirgofa – Lava about not deformable normal; problems of
calculation are two-dimensional.
3. The beams - 2 dimensions are much less than third; a basic hypothesis is about
flat allocation of axial deformations. Problems of calculation are one-dimensional.

Classification by a detail of the description of internal forces and kinematical

hypotheses

This classification is most essential to shells and plates.

1. Completely moment a shell or plate has 8 internal unknown forces; 5 equations
of equilibrium;
2. The semi-moment analytical model has 5 internal forces; 3 equations of
equilibrium;
3. The momentless analytical model with an absolutely rigid contour (but here
frames have moment) has 2 internal forces, 1 equation of equilibrium.
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4. The momentless analytical model of a shallow shell with a pliable contour

(there is necessarily taken into account curvature in 2 directions) has 3 internal forces, 3
- equation of equilibrium.
With the help of kinematics hypotheses it is possible to avoid application of
conditions continuousness (their approximate fulfillment is provided by hypotheses).
The thin-walled rods are shells, at which with the help of kinematics hypotheses
there is provided static definability.
5. Thin-walled rod with a closed contour (basic hypotheses are about an
absolutely rigid contour and about flat allocation of elongation).
6. Thin-walled rod with the open contour (basic hypotheses about an absolutely
rigid contour and about absence of shear in the median surface)

Classification by a detail of the description of object

On a detail there are distinguished the global and local analytical models.
The global analytical models are applied to calculation of large objects and do not
take into account:
1. The small and mean cut-outs (as they are usually compensated);
2. Dutchman,
3. Discrete character of fastening of stringers and ribs to a skin,
4. Particular kind of ribs, frames, stringers, spars,
5. Method of association for longitudinal and transversal framework elements,
6. Particular mean of transfer of efforts on the aggregate,
7. Design of joint units,
8. Presence of skin joints,
9. Mean of fastening of walls to longitudinal and transversal caps (belts).
The local analytical models serve for calculation of small sites of the structure and
its elements - for calculation of edgings, joints, and stress concentrations.

The continuum and discrete analytical models

The geometrical and power characteristics of a shell and plate are described by
functions of two coordinates х, S) and (х, S). In a structure they can be connected to
rods, at which these characteristics are one-dimensional. The application of the main
laws of the mechanic of construction results to intricate problems of mathematical
physics. Substantially it is possible to avoid difficulties at use of the discrete analytical
models. It allows reducing a problem to the solution of a system of linear algebraic
equations.
Such analytical models were considered in the mechanic of constructions (torsion
box), where the thin-walled rods with a skin working resisting only on shear were
studied. On such sites SF (shearing flow) is constant q= const.
The idea of a discretization is looked through in reception of reduction of the skin,
which has lost stability. More detail the discrete analytical models - DAM - will be
considered at analysis FEM – finite elements modeling
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The analytical models for designing calculations

The special set of the analytical models is represented by the analytical models for
designing calculations, destination for initial selection of cross sections and mutual
arrangement of loaded elements. In the basis of these analytical models (AM) there is
the qualitatively correct analysis of a structure which allows to estimate forces, accepted
any element, at main for him the critical loading condition.
Example. The approximate calculation of the torque box type 2-spar swept wing
is AM of a 4-belt swept-back torque box, which is used in final design.

7. The recommendations at the choice of the analytical models

Some most general recommendations are given. More in-depth they will be given
in process of study of a course.
1. AM the momentless shell with a rigid contour is good for global calculations of
thin-walled structures having transversal ribs (wing, tail unit, and fuselage).
2. Half momentless AM of a shell is recommended for global calculations of
fuselages.
3. Momentless AM with a pliable contour is used for global calculations of the
bottoms, blunted of noses, covers of balloon.
4. The analytical model of thin-walled rods is recommended for calculations of
spars, edgings of cutouts and so on.
5. An analytical model of a beam is recommended for calculations of general
stability, oscillations of a body, belt of spars, ribs, and landing gear.
6. Moment AM is recommended for local calculations of edge effects (joint of the
bottoms with a shell, joint of branch pipes with the bottoms).
7. Analytical models of a plate with flat SSS are recommended for local
calculations SSS near concentrators.
8. Analytical models of farm are recommended for calculations fuselage, landing
gear, ribs, and spars.
9. Analytical models of frame are recommended for calculations engine mount,
fixing frame of reduction gearboxes, fuselage and so on.
10. If there are ready checked programs FEM they are recommended for
calculation of the large cutouts, large irregularities as wing-to-fuselage joint, frame, and
truss. It is desirable to conduct the parallel account on other method for comparison of
results and assessment. At the large differences (> 20 %) designer must to conduct
additional researches (another FEM, experiment).

8. Recommendations for designing of wing

Strength calculation is carried of a wing as well as other aggregates of an airplane

with method approximation by iteration at various stages of creation it.
First of all description of airplane is made which based on the technical project
and statistics, there are its geometry, tactical, technical data, mass distribution.
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Under this description, it agrees AR, airplane loading is determined - diagrams Q,

Мb, T on construction. At this design stage loads and external geometry of airplane (its
outlines) are known, and also on statistics the structure weight is appreciated. At the
following stage it is necessary to choose a material of a structure, type of a structure.
Materials are the most widespread types 2024, 7075, steel, titanium alloys, and CM.
Type of structures are truss, frame, a monocoque, a semi-monocoque. Now the most
widespread type of a structure is a semi-monocoque.
Further on known loads, on the type of the structure chosen earlier, the chosen
materials and known external outlines designing calculation is carried out on the known
heaviest critical load condition. As a rule it is flight on maximum speed with maximum
maneuverable load factor or maximum load factor from air gusts. This calculation
serves for initial definition of cross-sections for all load-bearing elements of a wing,
fuselage. It is carried under the simplified designing computational schemes and can not
serve for issue of the conclusion about strength.
On the known geometry of a primary structure received in designing calculation,
at stage of design engineering under AR, checking strength calculations are carried
already on all critical load conditions and strengthening of a structure is carried if it is
required. The strength conclusion is given only by results of verifying calculations and
tests.
In view of requirements of longevity and reliability to a structure of transport
airplanes on the basis of long-term experience it is recommended to use in zones of
possible fatigue destruction more viscous material - a material, such as 2024, and it is
especial its more modern modification 2028. Last material has the increased chemical
cleanliness and therefore it has longevity increased approximately by 10 %. The lower
wing surfaces and a skin of a fuselage are concerned to such zones first of all.
For maintenance of fail-safe it is recommended to design a wing with three and
more spars. The center spar is recommended to be established in a place of the greatest
structural depth and thus it should not incur more than 30 % of all loading. With same
purpose the wing skin is made not single-piece, and has the longitudinal joint on a
center spar. Further it is desirable, that loading between two panels of a skin and three
spar belts was distributed approximately in regular intervals so that any of elements of
cross section did not incur more than 30 % of loading. Then destruction of any
configuration item will not be catastrophic, and the airplane can finish flight with such
destruction safely. Division of a lower skin of a wing into two panels is desirable to stop
progress of a fatigue crack when it will arise. Concerning a skin for transport airplanes it
is possible to tell, that now the most widespread is thick-walled all-mill skin. It allows
improving smoothness of a surface, tightness of wing, decreasing of manufacture labour
content. Lack of such skin is rather the high speed of fatigue cracks propagation.
Manufacturing techniques of puff bonded skins are now developed. In this case the skin
on thickness is composed from several (2-3) layers which are bonded together among
them. Glue interferes with transition of fatigue cracks from one layer in another and
survivability of skin grows.
Once again it is necessary to emphasize, that now structures of transport airplanes
are designed so that under ultimate load in a structure so-called directive stresses dir
should be which are lower than destroying stresses. As it was considered above the level
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of these stresses is established on the basis of experimental data for maintenance of the
given service life. These directive stresses are established separately for various
elements of a wing: panels, spars, longitudinal joints, transversal joints, edgings and
other strengthening. Thus, directive stresses act in a role of criteria of strength both for
service life and for static strength. Thus it is necessary to notice, that directive stresses
are not the characteristic only a material, and they are the characteristic and structure
and material and technology. Therefore their value can be received now only
experimentally and only for particular structures. The data received in one design office
cannot be used at designing airplanes in others as they differ on a structure and on
technology.
Requirements of maintenance of static strength prevail for normal category
airplanes as they have higher limit load factor and less duration and intensity of
operation. In these airplanes composite materials are used more widely.
Concerning military airplanes it is necessary to tell, that now in view of increase
of their cost, small fighting application and small fighting losses the factor of their
service life has essentially increased, and they also began to be projected on directive
stresses. Frequently these airplanes fly on supersonic speeds and are subjected by
aerodynamic heating so frequently they are made from titanium alloys and stainless
steels.