Report

Today, geotechnical engineering uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to
investigate subsurface conditions and materials. These principles determine the relevant physical and
chemical properties of soils and evaluate the stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits.
Geotechnical engineers perform geotechnical investigations includimg surface exploration and subsurface
exploration of the site to obtain information on the physical properties of the soil and rock underlying a site
to design foundations for proposed structures.
In general, a Geotechnical Engineer is responsible for the following tasks in a project:
Estimate the magnitude and location of the load points of the structure, which need to be supported on the
ground.
Develop an investigation plan to explore the subsurface, including plotting the locations of the bore holes
on the overall layout, so that none of the bore holes is directly under the load supporting point in the
ground.
Determine necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing or make necessary
calculations/inferences from the geotechnical report regarding the soil characteristics and behaviour.
Design the foundation system in the safest and most economical manner based on the finding of the soil
investigation report and lab testing.
Propose the construction sequencing or any special arrangement that may be required to carry out the
excavation & foundation works and get approval from the required authorities.
Pavement design as flexible or rigid and its performance, based upon the subsoil on which it rests.
Analyze the effects of excavation and construction on the nearby and adjoining structures and recommend
the safety precautions and methods to be adopted for their safety.

Objectives of A Foundation Investigation

The objective of foundation investigation is to determine the nature of subsurface soils and their expected
behavior under structure loadings. These details permit savings in design and construction costs. The
investigation will also provide information about the adverse subsurface conditions that could lead to
construction difficulties, excessive maintenance, or possible failure of the structure. The scope of the
investigation depends on the nature and complexity of subsurface materials and the size and cost of the
structure or project.
Report of Subsurface and Design Investigations
The geotechnical report contains a description of the field and laboratory investigations, subsurface
conditions, typical test data, basic assumptions, and recommendations for the final design. The amount and
type of information to be presented is consistent with the scope of the investigation. For major structures,
the following outline can be used as a guide:
General description of the site and a plan map that shows the surface contours, the location of the
proposed structure, and the location of all borings.
2. Local geology description of the site, including the results of the geological studies.
3. The results of field investigations, including graphic logs of all foundation and borrow borings,
locations of and pertinent data from piezometers, and a general description of subsurface
materials, based on the borings.
4. Groundwater conditions, including data on seasonal variations in groundwater level and results
of field pumping tests, if performed.
5. A general description of laboratory tests performed, range of test values, and detailed test data
 on representative samples.
6. Foundation designs, types of foundations considered, together with evaluation and cost data for
each.
7. A table or sketch showing the final size and depth of footings or rafts and lengths and types of
piles, if used.
8. Basic assumptions for loadings and the computed factors of safety for bearing-capacity
calculations.
9. Results of settlement analyses and the effects of computed differential settlements on the
structure.
10. In places having a high water table, an estimate of the dewatering requirements.
11. Any special precautions or recommendations for construction along with the compaction
requirements.

Report in Borehole log

A boring or bore log will detail the soil layers by depth from the surface or by elevations. It also
contains information on soil classification, relative density of the soil, sampling points, sample recovery,
water content, dry unit weight, blow counts per foot, ground water depth, drill refusal and if well casing was
needed. Boring logs are an important place to start to understand the soil’s properties. While basic data like
the site’s existing surface level and ground water table are clearly mentioned, the other data are inferred
through graphs and test reports.
The most important property included in the bore log is the ‘N-value’ or ‘blow counts per foot’. It is the result
of a “standard penetration” test where the N value represents the number of blows required by a 140-pound
weight dropping on a point to advance by 1 foot. The greater the number of blows, the harder the soil.
Loose or soft soils will show blow counts of less than 10. Blow counts of 10 to 50 blows per foot usually
mean the ground will be fairly easily excavated. Thus, the value of N increases with increase in the depth of
the borehole and can be observed from the bore log.
The bearing capacity of the soil is a direct function of the N-value. But, before using this for evaluating the
bearing pressure, the
N-value must be corrected for water submergence and other factors. A graph, which represents the
corrected values of the N against the experimental values of blow count per foot, is provided in the report
and is used by the engineers/designers for arriving at the safe bearing pressure for the soil under
observation. A typical comparison graph is shown:
geotechnical report
Another important property indicated in the bore log is the soil description along with the grain size analysis.
These values show the grain size distribution of the various soils. A well-graded soil will have a uniform
grain size distribution from gravel to clay. A poorly graded soil will have the grain concentrated around a
single grain size. Dry sands and gravels that contain less than about 10% clay can be almost completely
“cohesionless”, meaning they are easy to excavate compared to clay.
The other important data mentioned in the bore log include:
Atterberg Limits: It determines the plasticity index and liquid limit of the soil. These are a concern since the
backfill and embankment materials should be under a limited plasticity and liquid limit. This requirement is
designed to control swell and settlement as the moisture content of the soil changes. This can force the
disposal of the excavated soil and the import of more suitable soil.
Moisture Content: Optimum compaction moisture is usually between 8 and 15% of the dry weight of the
soil. Optimum water content in the soil causes some cohesion, helps to control dust, and allows easy
compaction effort. When the moisture content is more than about 15%, the ground is too wet. Clean sands
and gravels are usually not a problem unless the excavation is below the water table. These soils usually
“free drain” enough that no special effort is required to dry them out.
Dry Soil Density: Normal soils will have dry densities between 95 and 130 pounds per cubic foot (pcf). Solid
rock and heavy metallic ores can have densities exceeding 150 pcf. Loose cohesionless sand will usually
have a density of about 90 pcf. Volcanic cinders can be as low as 50 pcf. Soil density by itself tells little
about the soil properties. The dry density is an important function of the soil as it helps in determining the
bearing capacity, slope stability calculation and other important calculations.

the-importance-of-a-geotechnical-engineersoil-engineering-or-soil-mechanics-is-o/169227499941668/?
_rdc=1&_rdr
Boreholes

A borhole is used to determine the nature of the ground (usually below 6m depth) in a qualitative manner
and then recover undisturbed samples for quantitative examination. Where this is not possible, for in
gravelly soils below the water table, in-situ testing methods are used.

Obviously the information gained from a borehole is an extremely limited picture of the subsurface
structure. It is therefore essential to compare the results obtained with those that could have been expected
from the desk study. The greater the number of boreholes the more certain it is possible to be of the
correlation and thus to trust in the results.

The two principal types of boring machine used for Site Investigation in the United Kingdom are light
percussive and drilling machines.

Light Percussive is the process of making boreholes by striking the soil then removing it and the most
common method is the shell and auger. This is a general term to dscribe various tools suspended from a
triangular tripod incorporating a power winch. The tools are repeatedly dropped down the borehole while
suspended by wire from the power winch.

The different tools used include:

 Clay Cutter - Used in cohesive materials and is raised and lowered, using it's own weight to cut into
the material.

 Shell - Used for boring in silts and sands. Similar to the clay cutter, but has a trap door at the
bottom to catch material.

 Chisel - Used for breaking up hard material such as boulders or rocks. Additional payment is
required for chiselling as per the Bill of Quantities and permission is normally required from the
Resident Engineer before work can start.

Drilling is the process of boring normally by using a combination of a rotating action and a hydraulic ram.
There are many different types of rig depending on access and type of ground expected. Hollow drilling
rods enable a flush of water, air, foam or mud which is used to carry the cuttings to the surface as well as
lubricating and cooling the drill bit. The three main types of drill bit are:

 Double tube is where the outer tube rotates and allows for the removal of the cuttings while the
inner tube is stationary and prevents the core from shearing. There are different designs of tube
varying the location of the flush discharge so as to prevent sample erosion. It is necessary for the
hole to be bigger than the tube and so the diamond bits are attached to the outside of the hole,
thus allowing the flush to return to the surface.

 Triple tube in corporates a third tube to protect the core even further during extrusion and can have
either a split tube, which is removed, or a plastic tube to provide longer term protection. A less
effective alternative is to incorporate a nylon liner in a double tube.
  Retractable triple tube is a variation where the inner tube is attached to a retractor and can extend
beyond the cutting edge. This gives complete protection to the core in softer rock whilst in harder
rock where this is not necesary, it retracts to become a standard triple tube. This is used in
alternating soft/hard rock, typical of a weathered profile.

Core bits are usually diamond tipped and are either surface set, where diamonds are mounted into a
matrix, or impregnated where a fine diamond dust is used in the matrix. In softer rocks, the cuttings can
clog up the matrix so the softer the rock, the larger the diamonds need to be. Tungsten carbide bits can
also be used in the softer rocks.

https://community.dur.ac.uk/~des0www4/cal/roads/si/mainsi.htm

http://www.undp.ps/en/forms/callforproposals/2013/hebroncourtgeotechnical.pdf