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Circuit Simulation
LAB MANUAL
Prepared by
Prof. K. P. Paradeshi
Associate Professor,
Electronics Engineering,
kpparadeshi@pvpitsangli.edu.in
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 01
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Design of Half Wave Rectifier using Proteus.
Aim:
Design & stimulate the half wave rectifier.
Objectives:
• To understand principal of working of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.
• To understand the circuit arrangement of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.
• To understand the simulation procedure of ―Half Wave Rectifier‖ circuit
using proteus.
• To observe & analyze the output waveforms
Outcomes:
• Able to understand principal of working of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.
• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Half Wave Rectifier circuit.
• Able to understand the simulaton procedure of Half Wave Rectifier circuit
using proteus.
• Able to observe & analyse the circuit.
Introduction:
The device which converts ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectifiers. In fact,
rectifiers produce unidirectional & pulsating voltage from ac source.
Rectifiers offers a low resistance to the flow of current in one direction & high
resistance to flow of current in opposite direction that is rectifier converts AC into DC. This
conversion is achieved by rectifier supplied with AC signal using step down transformer. The
output of contains pulsating DC (ripple voltage) which can be removed by using filter circuit.
we have to design the HWR using proteus. It is easy to design on the proteu
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit arrangement:
The circuit arrangement of half wave as shown in fig. It uses one transformer for
providing step down operation as well as to provide electrical isolation. In this type of
arrangement diode D, load resistance RL are used, the output is taken across load resistance
as shown in figure.
Theory:
When a single rectifier unit is placed in series with the load across an ac supply, it
converts alternating voltage into uni-directional pulsating voltage, using one half cycles of
the applied voltage, the other half cycles being suppressed because it conducts only in one
direction. Unless there is an inductance or battery in the circuit, the current will be zero,
therefore, for half the time. This is called half-wave rectification. As already discussed, diode
is an electronic device consisting of two elements known as cathode and anode. Since in a
diode electrons can flow in one direction only i.e. from cathode to anode so the diode
provides the unilateral conduction necessary for rectification. This is true for diodes of all
types-vacuum, gas-filled, crystal or semiconductor, metallic (copper oxide and selenium
types) diodes. Semiconductor diodes, because of their inherent advantages are usually used as
a rectifying device. However, for very high voltages, vacuum diodes may be employed.
The half-wave rectifier circuit using a semiconductor diode with a load resistance R L
but no smoothing filter is given in figure. The diode is connected in series with the secondary
of the transformer and the load resistance RL, the primary of the transformer is being
connected to the ac supply mains.
A transformer has been added to provide the desired voltage into the rectifier. For
high voltage DC power supplies this would obviously be a step-up transformer,but with many
solid-state equipment application voltages of 4.5,6,9,22.5,40volts are used. Thus necessitating
a step-down transformer. Hence,in HWR the step-down transformer is used.
DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE:-
DC OUTPUT CURRENT:-
Advantages:
• Simple circuit and low cost.
Disadvantages:
• The output current in the load contains, in addition to dc component, ac components
of basic frequency equal to that of the input voltage frequency. Ripple factor is high
and an elaborate filtering is, therefore, required to give steady dc output.
• The power output and, therefore, rectification efficiency is quite low. This is due to
the fact that power is delivered only half the time.
• Transformer utilization factor is low.
• DC saturation of transformer core resulting in magnetizing current and hysteresis
losses and generation of harmonics.
The type of supply available from a half-wave rectifier is not satisfactory for general
power supply. This type of supply can be satisfactory for some particular purposes such as
battery charging.
Circuit simulation
Conclusion:
By using Proteus we can understand working of half wave rectifier. During the
negative half cycles of the input ac voltage, diode D acts as open switch. Thus for the
negative half cycles no power is delivered to the load. The input voltage during the positive
half-cycles is directly applied to the load resistance R L and waveforms appears across diode
D.
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 02
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Aim:
To design and simulate bridge full wave rectifier circuit using proteus and observe the
waveforms.
Objectives:
• To understand principal of working of bridge full wave rectifier.
• To understand the circuit arrangement of bridge full wave rectifier.
• To understand the simulation procedure of bridge full wave rectifier circuit
using proteus.
• To observe & analyze the output waveforms
Outcomes:
• Able to understand principal of working of bridge FWR circuit.
• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of bridge FWR circuit.
• Able to understand the simulation procedure of bridge FWR circuit using
Proteus.
• Able to observe & analyze the circuit.
Introduction:-
The circuit arrangement made for bridge FWR is as shown in fig. It uses one
transformer for providing step down operation as well as to provide electrical isolation. In
this type of arrangement, four diodes (D1, D2,D3,D4) are connected in such a way , to form
a bridge. Hence it is called as ―bridge FWR‖. Here, two diodes are conducting at a time and
remaining two diodes are non-conducting. The output is taken across load resistance as
shown in fig.
During positive half cycle of AC input, the diode D1 and D3 becomes forward
bias, at the same time, diodes D2 and D4 becomes reverse bias. Thus, current flows through
the path : diode D1, load resistance RL , diode D3, to the second end of transformer‘s
secondary winding. In this situation, current through RL flows from top to bottom producing
positive output voltage across it.
Theory:.
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes
D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the
load is the same direction as before.
Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output
waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel capacitors can
be used) and the load current is not too large, the output voltage will be almost as smooth as
pure DC. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a ripple voltage of less than
100mV peak to peak.
The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not only
determined by the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load current,
and is calculated as:
Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice
the input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple
value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-
wave rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the
AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the
supply frequency (50Hz).
Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3-terminal
voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where "xx" stands for the output voltage rating) for
a positive output voltage or its inverse equivalent the LM79xx for a negative output voltage
which can reduce the ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet) while delivering a constant
output current of over 1 amp.
Components required:
RES Resistor(3.3K) 1
GND Ground 3
1. First of all, pick a bridge of diodes 1N4007 from the components list, and place it
properly on the screen
2. Pick the transformer having rating of 12-0-12 and place it as per the circuit diagram.
3. Pick a resistance of 3.3kilo ohm, and place it properly.
4. Connect the AC Source of 230V(freq.50Hz) volts source .
5. With the help of wires, connect all these components in a proper way, as shown in fig.
6. Connect voltage probes to the input & output positions.
7. open graph option and activate analogue analysis option to observe the output
waveforms.
8. By right clicking on the window, add the traces of each component. And then
simulate the graph. After that, you will get desired output waveforms of the bridge
FWR.
Advantages:
1.Smaller size of transformer is required due to higher value of transformer utilization factor.
Disadvantages:
CIRCUIT SIMULATION
RESULT
Conclusion:
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 03
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title :
Low Pass Filter & High Pass Filter .
Aim :
To Study & simulate frequency response of low pass & high pass filter.
Objectives:
To understand principal of working of low pass & high pass filter.
To understand the circuit arrangement of low pass & high pass filter.
To understand the procedure of low pass & high pass filter using
capacitor& register circuit using proteus.
To observe the frequency response waveforms and analyze the circuit.
Outcomes:
Students will be able to study low pass & high pass filter using capacitor&
register.
Students will be able to understand the circuit arrangement of pass & high
pass filter
Students will be able to understand the procedure of pass & high pass filter
using capacitor & register circuit using proteus.
Students will be able to observe the simulation and analyse the working of
circuit.
Introduction
Low Pass Filter :
A low-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes low-frequency signals and attenuates
(reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The
actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes
called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications. A low-pass filter is
the opposite of a high-pass filter. A band-pass filter is a combination of a low-pass and a
high-pass.
Low-pass filters exist in many different forms, including electronic circuits (such as
a hiss filter used in audio), anti-aliasing filters for conditioning signals prior to analog-to-
digital conversion, digital filters for smoothing sets of data, acoustic barriers, blurring of
images, and so on. The moving average operation used in fields such as finance is a particular
kind of low-pass filter, and can be analyzed with the same signal processing techniques as are
used for other low-pass filters. Low-pass filters provide a smoother form of a signal,
removing the short-term fluctuations, and leaving the longer-term trend.
One simple electrical circuit that will serve as a low-pass filter consists of a resistor in
series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel with the load. The capacitor exhibits reactance,
and blocks low-frequency signals, causing them to go through the load instead. At higher
frequencies the reactance drops, and the capacitor effectively functions as a short circuit. The
combination of resistance and capacitance gives the time constant of the filter
(represented by the Greek letter tau). The break frequency, also called the turnover frequency
or cutoff frequency (in hertz), is determined by the time constant:
One way to understand this circuit is to focus on the time the capacitor takes to charge. It
takes time to charge or discharge the capacitor through that resistor:
At low frequencies, there is plenty of time for the capacitor to charge up to practically the
same voltage as the input voltage.
At high frequencies, the capacitor only has time to charge up a small amount before the
input switches direction. The output goes up and down only a small fraction of the
amount the input goes up and down. At double the frequency, there's only time for it to
charge up half the amount.
Another way to understand this circuit is with the idea of reactance at a particular frequency:
Since DC cannot flow through the capacitor, DC input must "flow out" the path marked
(analogous to removing the capacitor).
Since AC flows very well through the capacitor — almost as well as it flows through
solid wire — AC input "flows out" through the capacitor, effectively short circuiting to
ground (analogous to replacing the capacitor with just a wire).
The capacitor is not an "on/off" object (like the block or pass fluidic explanation above). The
capacitor will variably act between these two extremes. It is the Bode plot and frequency
response that show this variability.
In the operational amplifier circuit shown in the figure, the cutoff frequency (in hertz) is
defined as:
The gain in the passband is −R2/R1, and the stopband drops off at −6 dB per octave (that is
−20 dB per decade) as it is a first-order filter.
Discrete-time realization
Many digital filters are designed to give low-pass characteristics. Both infinite impulse
response and finite impulse response low pass filters as well as filters using fourier
transforms are widely used.
Finite impulse response filters can be built that approximate to the ideal sinc time
domain response. In practice the time domain response must be time truncated and is often of
a simplified shape; in the simplest case, a running average can be used giving a square time
response.[3]
pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-
zero average voltages or RF devices. They can also be used in conjunction with a
low-pass filter to make a bandpass filter.
Because this filter is active, it may have non-unity passband gain. That is, high-
frequency signals are inverted and amplified by R2/R1.
Advantages:
Low pass filter
1. The gain of integrater decreases with frequency whereas gain of differentiator increases
linearly with frequency,so it is easier to stabilize the output of integrators.
2. Due to limited B.W,integrator are less sensitive to noise voltage than differentiators.
3.It is more convenient to introduce the initial conditions in an integrator circuit.
Disadvantages:
For lower frequency reactance offered by capacitor C is very high & hence these frequencies
are not passed at output.
Result
Result
Conclusion:
We can understand working of low pass & high pass filter. By using proteus
we can observe simulation of circuit & analyses the waveform taken across capacitor
C1.
In Low pass filter the frequency is passes below cut off region And in high
pass filter the frequency passes above the cut off region.
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 04
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Aim:
Objectives:
To understand principal of working of regulated power supply.
To understand the circuit arrangement regulated power supply.
To understand the procedure of regulated power supply circuit using proteus.
To observe the simulation of circuit.
Outcomes:
Able to understand principal of working of regulated power supply circuit.
Able to understand the circuit arrangement of regulated power supply circuit.
Able to understand the procedure of regulated power supply.‖ circuit using
proteus.
Able to observe the simulation of circuit.
Principle:
7805 is a 5V fixed three terminal positive voltage regulator IC. The IC has features
such as safe operating area protection, thermal shut down, internal current limiting which
makes the IC very rugged. Output currents up to 1A can be drawn from the IC provided that
there is a proper heat sink. A 9V transformer steps down the main voltage, 1A bridge rectifies
it and capacitor C1 filters it and 7805 regulates it to produce a steady 5voltDC.
Introduction:
The stepdown transformer, down-converts the high voltage AC input (230V,50Hz) to
a 9V,2A; because the transformer we used here having a specification of 9V/A. The
alternating voltage from secondary terminal of the transformer is given to a bridge rectifier.
The bridge rectifier converts alternating voltage to unidirectional voltage with the switching
action of diodes. This voltage is finally fed to a 5V regulator IC through a 470uF,50v
electrolytic capacitor, which eliminates the ripples and make the output stable. After
regulation we get a 5V DC voltage at the output of 7805 IC.
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit arrangement:
The circuit arrangement of IC 7805 is as shown in fig. It uses one IC 7805 to generate
+5V output . In this type of arrangement two resistors and two capacitors are used, the output
is taken across pin no 3 of IC 555 as shown in figure.
Theory:
Theory of IC 78XX
Transformer:-
A bridge rectifier coupled with a step down transformer is used for our design. The
voltage rating of transformer used is 0-12V and the current rating is 500mA. When AC
voltage of 230V is applied across the primary winding an output AC voltage of 12V is
obtained. One alteration of input causes the top of transformer to be positive and the bottom
negative. The next alteration will temporarily cause the reverse.
Rectifier:-
In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid state diode.
Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily at one direction at proper biasing
condition. Bridge rectifiers of 4 diodes are used to achieve full wave rectification. Two
diodes will conduct during the negative cycle and the other two will conduct during the
positive half cycle.
Filtering unit:-
Filter circuit which is usually a capacitor acts as a surge arrester always follows the
rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a bypass capacitor, is
used not only to short the ripple with frequency to ground but also leave the frequency of the
DC to appear at the output.
Regulators:-
The voltage regulators play an important role in any power supply unit. The primary
purpose of a regulator is to aid the rectifier and filter circuit in providing a constant DC
voltage to the device. Power supplies without regulators have an inherent problem of
changing DC voltage values due to variations in the load or due to fluctuations in the AC line
voltage. With a regulator connected to DC output, the voltage can be maintained within a
close tolerant region of the desired output. IC 7805 and 7812 regulators are used in this
project for providing a DC voltage of +5V and +12V respectively.
Technical Details:-
Transformer: 230/12 volts step down transformer, 1 ampere
Diodes: IN 4007
7805: The 7805 supplies 5 volts at 1 amp maximum with an input of 7-25 volts
Electrolytic Capacitors: 100pF, 330pF and 100μF, power rating of 25V.
Features:-
· Gives a well regulated +12V and +5V output voltages
· Built in overheating protection shuts down output when regulator IC gets too hot.
· Very stable output voltages, reliable operation
ADVANTAGES:
78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated
source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of
space. Other voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output
voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as
a switched-mode power supply) may need substantial engineering expertise to
implement.
78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They
have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most
applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide
protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.
DISADVANTAGES:
The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum
amount (typically 2 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some
devices from certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires
5 volts using 6-volt batteries will not work using a 7805).
As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the
same as the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output
voltage, this means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the
78xx will be more than the output power provided. The extra input power is dissipated as
heat. This means both that for some applications an adequate heatsink must be provided,
and also that a (often substantial) portion of the input power is wasted during the process,
rendering them less efficient than some other types of power supplies. When the input
voltage is significantly higher than the regulated output voltage (for example, powering a
7805 using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a significant issue.
Even in larger packages, 78xx integrated circuits cannot supply as much power as many
designs which use discrete components, and are generally inappropriate for applications
requiring more than a few amperes of current.
Each specific model of 78xx is designed to produce only one fixed voltage output, so
they may not be suitable for applications requiring a configurable or varying output (For
such applications, the LM317 series of ICs are available, which are similar to 78xx ICs
but can produce a configurable voltage).
1. From main page of Proteus, click on ‗P‘ to click device from library.
2. In pick device, insert the component which has to be selected & click on ‗OK‘.
3. Then place the all components on the Proteus screen.
4. Right click the component properties to change the required value
5. Add voltage probe at input and output of diagram.
6. Select the graph mode & choose AC sweep analysis option
7. Right click in the graph window and select add traces(input & output trace).
8. Right click & activate simulate graph
9. Observe input & output waveforms and analysis the results.
CIRCUIT SIMULATION
Result
Conclusion:
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 05
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Study and Analysis of Non inverting amplifier.
Aim:
Design, simulate and analyze non inverting amplifier using IC 741 using following
tools
1) Analogue analysis
2) Frequency analysis
3) Noise analysis
4) Distortion analysis
Objectives:
• To understand principal of working of Non inverting amplifier
• To understand the circuit arrangement of Non inverting amplifier
• To understand the simulation procedure of Non inverting amplifier circuit
using proteus.
• To observe & analyze the output waveforms using different analysis tools.
Outcomes:
• Able to understand principal of working of Non inverting amplifier circuit.
• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Non inverting amplifier circuit.
• Able to understand the simulation procedure Non inverting amplifier circuit
using Proteus.
• Able to observe & analyse the circuit.
Introduction:
Non-inverting amplifier is one of the most popular op amp circuits similar to Op amp
inverting amplifier circuit. It provides a gain to the input signal without any change in the
polarity. If a sine wave is fed to the input of this op amp non inverting amplifier, the output
will be an amplified sine wave with zero phase shift.
Here the input is applied to the non inverting terminal of the op amp. The non
inverting amplifier gain is given by the expression A=1+R3/R2 where R2 is the feedback
resistance and R3 is the input resistance. The input impedance of non-inverting amplifier is
extremely large, typically 100MΩ.
The voltage gain of the amplifier is determined by the ratios of R3 and R2 since Gain,
A=1+R3/R2
So the amplitude of the output voltage signal can be varied by varying either of the
resistors R2 or R3
Theory:-
1) Non-inverting amplifier
2) Inverting amplifier
3) Differential amplifier
1. Non-inverting amplifier
Af=Vo/Vin . . . . . . . . . . . .(1)
Vo=A*(Vid)
=A*(V1-V2) . . . . . . . . . (2)
where V1=Vin
V2=Vf
Vf=(R2/R2+Rf)*Vo . . . . . . . . . . (3)
Vo=A*(Vin-Vf)
Vo=A*(Vin-R2*Vo/R2+Rf)
Vo(1+AR2/R2+Rf)=AVin
Vo/Vin=A/(R2+Rf+AR2/R2+Rf)
Af=A(R2+Rf)/(R2+Rf+AR2) . . . . .(4)
R2+Rf+AR2=AR2
Therefore Af=(R2+Rf)/R2
Af=1+Rf/R2 . . . . . . . . . . .(5)
The gain of voltage seriers feedback amplifier is determined by the two resistances R2& Rf.
Vf=(R2/R2+Rf)*Vo
Vf/Vo=R2/R2+Rf
Vf/Vo=B=R2/R2+Rf . . . . . . . . . . . .(6)
Af=A(R2+Rf)/(R2+Rf+AR2) . . . . . . (7)
Af=A/(1+AB)
where B=R2/R2+Rf
Let Rf is the feedback resistance & Ri is the input resistance of op-amp.So the input
resistance of op-amp with feedback is given by,
Rif=Vin/Iin . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(8)
where Iin=Vid/Ri
Rif=Vin/(Vid/Ri) . . . . . . . . .(9)
However,
Rif=Vin/(Vo/ARi)
=Ri*Vin/(Vo/A)
=Ri*Vin/((A/1+AB)*(Vin/A))
=Ri*(1+AB) . . . . . . . . .. . . (11)
So from Eq (11), we conclude that the input resistance of non-inverting amplifier with
feedback is (1+AB) times Ri.
The output resistance (Ro) wiyh feedback is the resistance that is observed backward
from the output terminal.
The analysis is done by using thevenin's theorem of circuit. In this the independant
source is reduced to zero and apply external voltage Vo and current Iois calculated.
Rof=Vo/Io . . .. . . . . . . .(12)
Io=Ia+Ib . . . . . . . . .. . (13)
vo-RoIo-AVid=0
Io=Vo-AVid/Ro . . . . . . . .(14)
However, Vid=V1-V2
where V1=0
V2=Vf
therefore Vid=-Vf
=-(R2/R2+Rf)*Vo
=-BVo . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15)
Io=Vo-A(-BVo)/Ro
Io=Vo+ABVo/Ro . . . . . . . . (16)
Rof=Vo/(Vo+ABVo/Ro)
=Ro/1+AB . . . . . . . . . . (17)
From Eq (17), we can conclude that the output resistance of voltage series
feedback amplifier is 1/1+AB times Ro.
Components Required :
IC IC 741 1
RES Resistor(10K) 3
PULSE As Input 1
GND Ground 1
1) Selection of OP-AMP:-
2) Selection of Resistors:-
3) Selection of batteries:-
Step 2:-Simulation
Graph Analysis:-
Conclusion:
we have studied operation of non-inverting amplifier. We have observed input and
output waveforms for the given gain parameter. Also with the help of analogue, frequency,
noise and distortion options and different graphs we have analysed the noninverting
amplifier.
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 06
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Transient response analysis using RLC components.
Aim:
Design a simple circuit using RLC Component to observe transient response using
Proteus.
Objectives:
• To understand principal of working of Transient Response of RLC Circuit
• To understand the circuit arrangement of Transient Response of RLC Circuit
• To understand the procedure of Transient Response of RLC Circuit circuit
using proteus.
• To observe the simulation of circuit
Outcomes:
• Able to study Transient Response of RLC Circuit.
• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Transient Response of RLC
Circuit.
• Able to understand the procedure of Transient Response of RLC Circuit in
proteus.
• Able to observe the simulation of circuit.
Introduction-
An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit or CRL circuit or RCL circuit) is an electrical circuit
consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The
RLC part of the name is due to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance,
inductance and capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current
and will resonate in a similar way as an LC circuit will. The main difference that the presence
of the resistor makes is that any oscillation induced in the circuit will die away over time if it
is not kept going by a source. This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence of
the resistance also reduces the peak resonant frequency somewhat. Some resistance is
unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically included as a component. A
pure LC circuit is an ideal which really only exists in theory.
There are many applications for this circuit. They are used in many different types
of oscillator circuits. Another important application is for tuning, such as in radio receivers or
television sets, where they are used to select a narrow range of frequencies from the ambient
radio waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can
be used as a band-pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass filter. The tuning
application, for instance, is an example of band-pass filtering. The RLC filter is described as
a second-order circuit, meaning that any voltage or current in the circuit can be described by
a second-order differential equation in circuit analysis
Circuit diagram –
Circuit arrangement:
The circuit arrangement of An RLC circuit as shown in fig. It uses one Resistor,
Inductor and Capacitor connected in series or in parallel. Output is taken across the capacitor
of 10uF.
Theory:
Transient response-
a transient response or natural response is the response of a system to a change from
equilibrium. The transient response is not necessarily tied to "on/off" events but to any event
that affects the equilibrium of the system. The impulse response and step response are
transient responses to a specific input (an impulse and a step, respectively
Plot showing underdamped and overdamped responses of a series RLC circuit. The critical
damping plot is the bold red curve. The plots are normalised for L=1, C=1 and
The differential equation for the circuit solves in three different ways depending on the value
of . These are underdamped ( ), overdamped ( ) and critically damped ( ). The
differential equation has the characteristic equation.
The general solution of the differential equation is an exponential in either root or a linear
superposition of both,
The coefficients A1 and A2 are determined by the boundary conditions of the specific problem
being analysed. That is, they are set by the values of the currents and voltages in the circuit at
the onset of the transient and the presumed value they will settle to after infinite time.[7]
Properties-
RES Resistor 1
CAP Capacitor 1
INDUC Inductor 1
PULSE As Input 1
GND Ground 1
RESULT
Conclusion:
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 07
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Simulation of Astable Multivibrator using transistor using Proteus.
Aim:
Design & simulate the Astable Multivibrator using transistor.
Objectives:
• To understand principal of working of Astable Multivibrator.
• To understand the circuit arrangement of Astable
Multivibrator
• To understand the procedure of Astable Multivibrator using transistor circuit
using proteus.
• To observe the waveforms and analyze the circuit
Outcomes:
• Able to study Astable Multivibrator using transistor.
• Able to understand the circuit arrangement of Astable Multivibrator
• Able to understand the procedure of Astable Multivibrator using transistor
circuit using proteus.
• Able to observe the simulation and analysis of circuit.
Introduction:
An astable multivibrator is a regenerative circuit consisting of two amplifying
stages connected in a positive feedback loop by two capacitive-resistive coupling networks.
The amplifying elements may be junction or field-effect transistors, vacuum tubes,operational
amplifier or other types of amplifier. The example diagram shows bipolar junction transistors.
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
Operation:
The circuit has two stable states that change alternatively with maximum transition
rate because of the "accelerating" positive feedback. It is implemented by the coupling
capacitors that instantly transfer voltage changes because the voltage across a capacitor
cannot suddenly change. In each state, one transistor is switched on and the other is switched
off. Accordingly, one fully charged capacitor discharges (reverse charges) slowly thus
converting the time into an exponentially changing voltage. At the same time, the other
empty capacitor quickly charges thus restoring its charge (the first capacitor acts as a time-
setting capacitor and the second prepares to play this role in the next state). The circuit
operation is based on the fact that the forward-biased base-emitter junction of the switched-
on bipolar transistor can provide a path for the capacitor restoration
State 1 (Q1 is switched on, Q2 is switched off):
In the beginning, the capacitor C1 is fully charged (in the previous State 2) to the
power supply voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q1 is on and connects the left-
hand positive plate of C1 to ground. As its right-hand negative plate is connected to Q2 base,
a maximum negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q2 base that keeps Q2 firmly off. C1 begins
discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R2, so that the voltage of its
right-hand plate (and at the base of Q2) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V. As Q2
base-emitter junction is backward-biased, it does not conduct, so all the current from R2 goes
into C1. Simultaneously, C2 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the
previous State 2) quickly charges via the low-value collector resistor R4 and Q1 forward-
biased base-emitter junction (because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1). Thus C2
restores its charge and prepares for the next State 2 when it will act as a time-setting
capacitor. Q1 is firmly saturated in the beginning by the "forcing" C2 charging current added
to R3 current; in the end, only R3 provides the needed input base current. The resistance R3
is chosen small enough to keep Q1 (not deeply) saturated after C2 is fully charged.
When the voltage of C1 right-hand plate (Q2 base voltage) becomes positive and
reaches 0.6 V, Q2 base-emitter junction begins diverting a part of R2 charging current. Q2
begins conducting and this starts the avalanche-like positive feedback process as follows. Q2
collector voltage begins falling; this change transfers through the fully charged C2 to Q1 base
and Q1 begins cutting off. Its collector voltage begins rising; this change transfers back
through the almost empty C1 to Q2 base and makes Q2 conduct more thus sustaining the
initial input impact on Q2 base. Thus the initial input change circulates along the feedback
loop and grows in an avalanche-like manner until finally Q1 switches off and Q2 switches on.
The forward-biased Q2 base-emitter junction fixes the voltage of C1 right-hand plate at 0.6 V
and does not allow it to continue rising toward +V.
State 2 (Q1 is switched off, Q2 is switched on):
Now, the capacitor C2 is fully charged (in the previous State 1) to the power supply
voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q2 is on and connects the right-hand positive
plate of C2 to ground. As its left-hand negative plate is connected to Q1 base, a maximum
negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q1 base that keeps Q1 firmly off. C2 begins discharging
(reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R3, so that the voltage of its left-hand plate
(and at the base of Q1) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V. Simultaneously, C1 that
is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 1) quickly
charges via the low-value collector resistor R1 and Q2 forward-biased base-emitter junction
(because R1 is less than R3, C1 charges faster than C2). Thus C1 restores its charge and
prepares for the next State 1 when it will act again as a time-setting capacitor...and so on...
(the next explanations are a mirror copy of the second part of Step 1).
Output pulse shape
The output voltage has a shape that approximates a square waveform. It is
considered below for the transistor Q1.
During State 1, Q2 base-emitter junction is backward-biased and the capacitor C1 is
"unhooked" from ground. The output voltage of the switched-on transistor Q1 changes
rapidly from high to low since this low-resistive output is loaded by a high impedance load
(the series connected capacitor C1 and the high-resistive base resistor R2).
During State 2, Q2 base-emitter junction is forward-biased and the capacitor C1 is "hooked"
to ground. The output voltage of the switched-off transistor Q1 changes exponentially from
low to high since this relatively high resistive output is loaded by a low impedance load (the
capacitance C1). This is the output voltage of R1C1 integrating circuit.
To approach the needed square waveform, the collector resistors have to be low resistance.
The base resistors have to be low enough to make the transistors saturate in the end of the
restoration (RB < β.RC).
Component:
RES Resistor 4
CAP Capacitor 2
VDC Dc voltage 1
source
TRANS. Transistor 2
GND Ground 1
RESULT
Conclusion:
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 08
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Simulation of Astable Multivibrator using 555 using Proteus.
Aim:
Design & stimulate the Astable Multivibrator using 555.
Objectives:
To understand principal of working of Astable Multivibrator.
Introduction:
Astable Multivibrator can be designed by using 555 timer IC, Op Amps and also
using transistors. The 555 IC provide accurate time delay from mille seconds to hours. The
frequency of oscillation can be controlled manually by simple modification. It suitable for
circuit designers with a relatively stable, cheap, and user-friendly integrated circuit for both
monostableandAstableapplications.
The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the
SE555/NE555. This is a simple 555 timer circuit project.
Astable Multivibrator is simply an oscillator circuit that produces continuous pulses. The
frequency can be controlled by changing the values of R1, R2 and C1. You can construct
Astable multivibrator using transistors also, but the 555 circuit is comparatively simple.
we have to design the Astable Multivibrator using proteus. It is easy to design on the
proteus.
The Astable multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is
determined by the circuit external to IC 555. The Astable multivibrator does not require any
external trigger to change the state of the output. Hence the name free running oscillator. The
time during which the output is either high or low is determined by the two resistors and a
capacitor which are externally connected to the 555 timer.
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit arrangement:
The circuit arrangement of Astable Multivibrator as shown in fig. It uses one IC
555 as an Astable multivibrator. In this type of arrangement two resistors and two capacitors
are used, the output is taken across pin no 3 of IC 555 as shown in figure.
Theory:
The circuit diagram for the Astable multivibrator using IC 555 is shown here.
The astable multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is determined by the
circuit external to IC 555. The Astable multivibrator does not require any external trigger to
change the state of the output. Hence the name free running oscillator. The time during which
the output is either high or low is determined by the two resistors and a capacitor which are
externally connected to the 555 timer.
The above figure shows the 555 timer connected as an Astable multivibrator.
Initially when the output is high capacitor C starts charging towards Vcc through RA and RB.
However as soon as the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc ,
comparator1 triggers the flip-flop and the output switches to low state.
Now capacitor C discharges through RB and the transistor Q1. When voltage
across C equals 1/3 Vcc, comparator 2‘s output triggers the flip- flop and the output goes high.
Then the cycle repeats. The capacitor is periodically charged and discharged between 2/3 Vcc
and 1/3 Vcc respectively. The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3 Vcc
is equal to the time the output remains high and is given by
Tc =0.693(RA+RB)C
Where, RA and RB are in ohms and C is in Farads. Similarly the time during which
the capacitor discharges from 2/3 Vcc to 1/3 Vcc is equal to the time the output is low and is
given by
td =0.693(RB) C
Consider the flip flop is initially cleared, when the power is switched on, then the
output of inverter will be HIGH.
Now the capacitor C1 starts charging through R1 and R2. (Discharge transistor Q1 is
OFF)
When the capacitor voltage exceeds 2/3 Vcc, the upper comparator output will be
High, it Reset the control flip flop.
So the Q output of control flip flop will be LOW and Q‘ will be High. So the final
output from Inverter is LOW
At the same time, the discharge transistor Q1 turns ON and the capacitor starts
discharge through R2
When the capacitor voltage less than 1/3 Vcc, the lower comparator output will be
high, then the control flip flop get set to High. (Q=1, Q‘=0, Final output=1)
Now the discharge transistor Q1 if OFF and then capacitor starts charging. This
process continues.
The LED connected at the output will glows according to the output status.
4th pin is Reset pin, a Low voltage at this pin resets the IC. The Low signal is applied
to the base terminal of reset transistor Q2. Then it turns ON followed by Discharge
capacitor Q1 and capacitor discharges.
Charging Discharging
Resetting
(i)Advantages:
1. It is easy and quick to design an Astable using a 555 (also easy to troubleshoot).
2. The 555 timer can source or sink large amounts of current (some handle200mA).
3. It may require fewer devices or connections (1 IC, a cap and two resistors).
4. The 555 may have less frequency drift with temperature changes.
5. Some 555 timers have a wide input voltage range (3.5 to 18V).
555s have a large frequency range.
(ii)Disadvantages:
1.A disadvantage of the 555 is a poor rise and fall time which may cause problems for some
edge-triggered devices.
RES Resistor 2
CAP Capacitor 2
555 Timer 1
VDC Dc voltage 1
source
GND Ground 3
Specifications:
The most important characteristics which are required to be specified for a circuit are
given below :
Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C
CIRCUIT SIMULATION
Result
Conclusion:
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 09
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Aim:
Objectives:
Principle:
An simple RC circuit in which output taken across capacitor ‘c’. At low frequencies capacitor
will occur maximum reactance hence acts as an open circuit. Resulting in transferring low
frequency signal to the output at high frequencies capacitive reactance is negligible hence it
act as an short transfer to the output.
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit arrangement:
The circuit arrangement of simple RC circuit as shown in fig. it consists of resister
and capacitor. Output taken across capacitor as shown in fig. in these circuit Vr is voltage
across resister and Vc is voltage across capacitor.
Theory:
A capacitor is a device for storing charge. The ability of a capacitor to hold a charge is
measured by its capacitance C. For a capacitor, Q = CV, where Q is the charge on one of the
capacitor plates, C is the capacitance of the capacitor, and V is the potential difference
maintained across the capacitor plates. The unit of capacitance is the Farad (F), where one
Farad equals one Coulomb per volt (1F = 1C/V).
If a capacitor is connected to a battery, it will cause a charge +Q to develop on one plate and
a charge -Q to develop on the other. If the battery is removed from the circuit the capacitor is
connected to a resistor, then the capacitor will discharge through the resistor. The voltage
across the resistor is given by V = IR, where I is the current through the resistor at a given
time, and R is the resistance of the resistor. Since V = Q/C, = we can also write
I = V/R = Q/RC
As the capacitor discharges, Q becomes smaller, and I also become smaller.
The current at any time t is given by:
I = I0e-t/RC = I0e-t/τ
Where I0 = initial value of the current, ti = time elapsed in seconds since the discharging
began τ = RC = capacitive time constant for the RC circuit, and e = 2.71828... .
AC Sweep:
In simple RC circuit we can apply AC sweep. For Ac sweep analysis is nothing but it is
going to calculate to frequency response of the circuit. over range of frequencies the
frequency response is nothing but the magnitude Vs frequency and phase Vs frequency. If
the frequency is double it is called an octave. If the frequency is increased by the factor of
10 it is called as decay increase. The decade increase in frequency the magnitude changes by
-20 and the slope of magnitude block is -20db/dc there are different type of sweep analysis.
We have to consider following certain parameter in the frequency sweep. i.e. starting
frequency and ending frequency. We have to specify the scale both linear, octave and
decade.
• Linear sweep :
• Octave sweep :
• Decade sweep :
When the toggle switch is in the open position shown in the diagram, the capacitor is
not connected the Electromotive Force, emf, and, unless the capacitor was previously
charged, there will be no charges stored in the capacitor (i.e., q = 0) and the potential
difference between the plates of the capacitor will correspondingly be zero as well.
If the switch is toggled so that it connects the capacitor to the Electromotive Force,
charges will tend to accumulate on the plates of the capacitor, + on one plate, _ on the
other. This will continue until the accumulated charge creates a potential difference
(Vc) between the two plates that is numerically equal to the electromotive force. That
is, when:
Vc = ,
Current flow through the connecting wires will cease (i.e., I = 0).
When the switch is toggled to its alternate position, (i) the emf is bypassed, (ii) the
two plates of the capacitor are connected, and (iii) the charges stored on the capacitor
will tend to pass through the connecting wire to the opposite plate. In other words,
the charged capacitor will discharge.
There are 2 important things to remember about the electrical properties of R-C
circuits:
1. When the capacitor (C) is fully charged, the following relationship
holds:
q = C Equation 1a
Where q is the total amount of charge stored by the capacitor, C is the capacitance of
the capacitor, and is the electromotive force that is actually charging the capacitor.
Note that q = 0 when the capacitor is discharged. Also note that the equation may be
rearranged thus:
q/C = = Vc Equation 1b
Meaning that placing excess + on one plate of the capacitor and excess – on the other
plate will generate a potential difference between the plates.
2. Because of the presence of a resistance (R) in the circuit, current flow through the
circuit is slowed. As a result, changing the amount of charge stored on the plates of
the capacitor requires time. For example, if you were to start with a completely
Component:
Conclusion:
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 10
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Fourier and Audio analysis using Proteus
Aim:
To study Fourier & Audio analysis using Proteus.
Objectives:
To understand principal of working of Fourier Transform
To understand the circuit arrangement of Fourier Transform
To understand the concept of Fourier Transform using proteus.
To observe the simulation of circuit and analyze using Fourier Transform.
Outcomes:
Students will be able to study Fourier Transform.
Students will be able to understand the concept of Fourier Transform
Students will be able to observe the simulation of circuit using Fourier Transform and
its application.
To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and computer based
components and system for applications including signal processing , communication
, computer network and control system.
Theory:-
The exponential form of Fourier series representation of a periodic signal is given by,
+∞ 𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡
x(t)= −∞ 𝑐 n𝑒 ....1
Where,
1 𝑇
2 𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡
x(t)= 𝑇 −𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 d(t) ….2
2
In the Fourier representation using equation (1), the Cn for various values of
n are the spectral components of the signal x(t), located at intervals of fundamental frequency
𝛺. Therefore the frequency spectrum is discrete in nature.
Let,
Ω0→ ∆ Ω0 .
On substituting for Cn in the above equation (2). (By taking Ƭ as dummy variable for
integration ) .
we get,
1 𝑇
+∞ 2 𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡
x(t)= 𝑛=−∞. [𝑇 −𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 d(t)] 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 ……(3).
2
We know that,
2𝜋 1 Ω
Ω0 =2𝜋f0= ; ∴ = …(4)
𝑇 𝑇 2𝜋
Since,
1 Ω
Ω0→ ∆ Ω0 . = 2𝜋
𝑇
1
On substituting for from equation (4) in equation (3) we get ,
𝑇
1 𝑇
+∞ 2 𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡
x(t)= 𝑛=−∞. [𝑇 −𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 d(t)] 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 .
2
1 1 𝑇
+∞ 2 𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡
x(t)=2𝜋 𝑛=−∞. [𝑇 −𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 d(t)] 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 ∆ Ω.
2
𝐿𝑡 1 1 𝑇
+∞ 2 𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡
x (t)= 𝑡 ∞ 2𝜋 𝑛=−∞. [𝑇 −𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 d(t)] 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 ∆ .
2
When T ∞;Σ ∫; ∆Ω Ω.
+∞ +∞
x (t)= −∞
( −∞ 𝑥(Ƭ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 dƬ ) 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝛺𝑡 dΩ. …..(5)
+∞
x(t)= −∞
𝑥(𝑗 Ω) 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 ∆𝛺𝑡 dΩ.
+∞
X(jΩ)= −∞
𝑥 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 ∞𝑡 dƬ …(6)
The equation (6) Fourier transform of x (t) and equation (5) is inverse
Fourier transform of x (t).
Since the equation (6) extracts the frequency component of the signal ,
transformation using equation (6) is also called as analysis of the signal x (t).Since the
equation (5) combines frequency components of the signal , the inverse transformation using
equation (5) is also called as synthesis of the signal x (t).
Also, x(jΩ) is denoted as F{x(t)} where ―F‖ is symbol used to denote the Fourier transform
operation.
+∞
𝐹{𝑥(𝑡)} = −∞
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑗 Ωt dt
The Fourier transform of x(t) exists if it satisfies the following Dirichlet condition.
2.The x(t) should have a finite number of Maxima and minima within any finite interval.
3. The x(t) can have a finite number of discontinuities within any interval.
The signals x(t) and X(j) are called Fourier Transform pair and can be expressed as shown
below,
𝐹
x(t) 𝑋(𝑗Ω)
Note:-
When Fourier transform is expressed as a function of cyclic frequency F,the inverse Fourier
transform is defined as,
+∞
X(t)=𝐹 −1 𝑋 𝑗Ω = −∞ 𝑥(𝑗𝐹) 𝑒 𝑗 2FПt dF
The X(jΩ) is a complex function of Ω .Hence it can be expressed as a sum of real part and
imaginary part as given below.
X(jΩ)=𝑋𝑟 𝑗Ω + 𝑗𝑋 𝑗Ω
where ,
Or
𝑋 𝑗Ω
Phase spectrum=<𝑋 𝑗Ω = tan−1 𝑋 𝑖
𝑟 𝑗Ω
The magnitude spectrum will always have even symmetry and phase spectrum will
have Odd symmetry .The magnitude and phase spectrum together called Frequency spectrum.
Circuit Simulation
Fourier analsis:-
Audio analysis:-
Conclusion:
We have understood the concept of Fourier Transform and audio analysis.We
can observe from waveforms that Fourier Transform is useful to find out major spectral
components from the given signals.
Circuit Simulation
Experiment No. : 11
Name of Experiment:
Roll Number :
Date Performed :
Date Checked :
Signature
(Batch In-charge)
Title:
Aim:
Objectives:
Outcomes:
To enable to innovate , design and develop a variety of electronic and computer based
components and system for applications including signal processing , communication
, computer network and control system.
Theory:
A circuit used for counting the pulses is known as a Counter. Basically there
are two types of counter:
1. Asynchronous counter (ripple counter)
2. Synchronous counter
In case of asynchronous counter all the flip-flops are not clocked simultaneously,
whereas ,in a Synchronous counter all the flip-flops are clocked simultaneously. A Ring
counter and twisted ring counter is the examples of synchronous counter.
So for ten pulses in there is one pulse out of this pin. The 7490 therefore divides
the frequency of the input by ten.If this pulse is applied to the input of a second 7490 then
this second ic will count the pulses from the first ic. It will give one pulse out after 100 pulses
have been applied to the first ic.The 7490 can be connected to divide by other values.
Pin Diagram
Result
Conclusion:
We understand that the 7490 integrated circuit counts the number of pulses arriving
at its input. The number of pulses counted (up to 9) appears in binary form on four pins of
the IC When the tenth pulse arrives at the input, the binary output is reset to zero (0000) and
a single pulse appears at another output pin.