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13
Water Balance
After you have finished reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Discuss the importance of the kidneys, skin, and liver to excretion and
to homeostasis.
Compare and contrast the process of excretion in different organisms.
Describe the structures and functions of kidneys in humans.
Introduction
Imagine yourself in the middle of a calm sea. No winds blow. Your sail-
ing ship is unable to move. You have been at this place in the ocean for
weeks. Food and water have been used up. You and your fellow sailors
are becoming very thirsty. In every direction, stretching as far as the hori-
zon, all you can see is water. And yet, as the Ancient Mariner said in the
poem by Coleridge, there is not a “drop to drink.” How could this be?
(See Figure 13-1 on page 276.)
Ocean water is salty. When dried, ocean salt is almost chemically iden-
tical to table salt. Salt, a solute, is only one of many substances that can
be dissolved in water. This is true of the water in the human body. The
275
Figure 13-1 You
can be sailing in
the middle of an
ocean and still not
have a “drop to
drink,” since
seawater is salty,
and we can drink
only freshwater.
human body is about 70 percent water. This water contains many types
of solutes, including table salt. The amounts of these solutes in our bod-
ies must remain constant day by day, and hour by hour. We have seen
how regulating our internal body temperature is an important example of
homeostasis. An even more important function of homeostasis is main-
taining a constant internal chemical environment. Drinking salt water
disrupts the careful balance that our bodies need internally. The results
could be very dangerous, perhaps even fatal. We cannot drink salt water,
only freshwater.
■■ WATER COMPARTMENTS
◆ Plasma, the liquid portion of the blood without the blood cells, makes
up about 7 percent of body fluid.
◆ The intercellular fluid and lymph make up about 28 percent of body
fluid.
◆ The intracellular compartment, the fluid located inside cells, makes
up about 65 percent of body fluid.
The real meaning of the cell theory is that we are only as healthy as
our cells are. As you might expect, the chemical contents of our cells are
therefore regulated carefully. We have seen that all body cells are sur-
rounded by pools of intercellular fluid, which is mostly water. Because
the level of chemicals in cells must remain within very narrow limits, it
is essential that the composition of the intercellular fluid remains within
Chapter 13 / Excretion and Water Balance 277
+ Healthy changes
Unhealthy changes
Normal
Figure 13-2 If we are to
remain healthy, the
– composition of our body
fluids must remain within
very narrow limits.
■■ THE KIDNEYS
A single bag of potato chips contains enough salt to kill you. Of course it
doesn’t, because your body does not allow this salt to be added directly
to your body’s fluids. One of the jobs of the kidneys is to maintain the
proper levels of both salt and water in the body. Improper levels of salt
cause a number of potential problems. The sodium and chloride ions of
salt can disrupt normal chemical activity. For example, if for some reason
your body did increase the level of salt in its fluids, your heart might no
longer beat properly. Salt also affects the rate at which osmosis occurs.
Water diffuses across a cell membrane toward an area of higher salt con-
centration. Therefore, the job of regulating both salt and water levels is
278 Maintaining a Dynamic Equilibrium
often called maintaining a water balance in the body. This is one of the
functions of the kidneys.
The kidneys are also part of the sanitation system of the body. All
metabolic activities in the body produce wastes. These wastes are toxic
and must not be allowed to accumulate in the body. So another impor-
tant function of the kidneys is to carefully select the chemical wastes for
removal while keeping useful nutrients. This process of ridding the body
of metabolic wastes is called excretion.
You have already learned that cellular respiration produces carbon diox-
ide and water. The waste, carbon dioxide (CO2), is released from the body
primarily through gas exchange that occurs in the respiratory system.
Carbon dioxide leaves the blood and enters the air in the alveoli of the
lungs. Other wastes produced during metabolic activities include water
from condensation synthesis and a variety of mineral salts from other
metabolic processes.
However, by far the most important and potentially dangerous meta-
bolic wastes produced in the body contain the element nitrogen. These
nitrogenous wastes result when amino acids, the building blocks of pro-
teins, are broken down. The main nitrogenous waste produced during
this process is ammonia (NH3). (See Figure 13-3.) Ammonia is a toxic
compound that can kill living cells. Open a bottle of household cleanser
that contains ammonia and you will smell its unpleasant characteristic
odor.
All animals produce ammonia in their cells as they metabolize pro-
teins. How do they get rid of this toxic waste? For an ameba, and some
aquatic animals, ammonia diffuses into the water through the cell mem-
brane. Other animals cannot get rid of ammonia so easily. These animals
must change ammonia into a less harmful substance. Birds, terrestrial rep-
tiles, and insects change ammonia into solid crystals of uric acid. This
uric acid is mixed with solid, undigested wastes from the digestive sys-
tem and passed out of the body. Any person trying to avoid being hit by
bird droppings is trying to steer clear of these wastes. Nitrogen is a good
fertilizer for plants, however. In some places, where large numbers of birds
roost, these nitrogen-rich wastes accumulate in vast amounts. In the past,
these droppings were shoveled into bags and sold for high prices as a
potent plant fertilizer. Today, these natural sources of nitrogen have been
replaced with nitrogen from ores that have been processed in factories.
Mammals have evolved a different solution for dealing with ammonia
Chapter 13 / Excretion and Water Balance 279
Tanks-a-Lot
Ammonia
Out!
TLY
INSTAN ES
FI
DETOXI A!
AMMONI
wastes. In mammals, ammonia is mostly changed into urea, not uric acid.
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 13-3 s/s (rev. 10/13/03)
Unlike uric acid, which does not dissolve in water, urea is very soluble in
water. To be removed from the body, urea must be dissolved in water. The
ammonia, now in the form of urea, is diluted and removed from the body
in urine.
Body
Capillaries cavity
Opening
Septum to outside
Figure 13-5
Ciliated Nephridia tubes
funnel
remove wastes
from the body
fluids of the
Excretory tube Skin earthworm.
The kidneys are the most important part of the excretory system in
humans. There are two kidneys, located in the lower, rear portion of the
abdominal cavity. (See Figure 13-6 on page 282.) Every boxer knows
which punches are illegal—a punch to the lower back area, on either side
of the spinal column, can damage a kidney and is therefore banned.
Large blood vessels bring blood to the kidneys. Other blood vessels
leave the kidneys with the newly cleansed blood. As blood passes through
the kidneys, metabolic wastes are removed, and the correct balance of
salt and water in the blood is maintained. As a result, the kidneys produce
urine. Urine leaves each kidney through a tube, the ureter. The two
ureters constantly drip urine into the urinary bladder. Here the urine is
stored until it is convenient to pass it from the body. Urine leaves the
body through the urethra when instructions from the brain are given.
A close look at the kidney’s structure gives some idea of how this
important organ works. If you examined a section of the kidney, you
would see three large tubes at the center of the concave surface. One of
these tubes is the renal artery, which brings blood to the kidney from the
282 Maintaining a Dynamic Equilibrium
Kidney Kidney
(cut) Vein (uncut)
Ureter
Figure 13-6 Human kidneys are
located in the lower, rear portion of
the abdominal cavity. Urinary bladder
Urethra
body; another is the renal vein, which returns blood to the body; and the
third tube is the ureter, which connects each kidney to the urinary blad-
der. The inner portion of the kidney
LIVINGisENVIRONMENT
hollow. ThisBIOLOGY,
is where2e/fig.
the urine is
13-6 s/s
collected. The outer portion of the kidney consists of the medulla and
the cortex. (See Figure 13-7.)
If you examined some tissue from the kidney under a microscope, you
would see that the blood vessels go through the medulla and into the cor-
tex. In the cortex are the beginnings of many tiny, individual tubular
structures that extend into the medulla. These structures are called
nephrons. It is in the nephrons that the real work of the kidney occurs.
There are about a million nephrons in each kidney. So you have to jump
in even closer for a microscopic view of an individual nephron.
Medulla
Cortex
Renal artery
Renal vein
Tubule
Glomerulus Capsule
Solid outer
region of
kidney
Urine
flow
Artery
Collecting
Capillary tubule
Vein
Hollow inner
Figure 13-8 The structure of
region of kdney the nephron.
284 Maintaining a Dynamic Equilibrium
The next stage, reabsorption, occurs as the filtrate passes through the
nephron tubule. By the process of active transport, glucose, salts, and
other valuable nutrients are moved back from the filtrate into the blood
in the capillaries. As these solutes move out of the filtrate, the concen-
tration of water inside the nephron tubule becomes higher than outside
it. As a result, by osmosis, water automatically moves out of the filtrate.
In fact, almost 99 percent of the liquid in the filtrate is reabsorbed back
into the blood. As a result, the quantity of urine we release is usually
between one and two liters a day.
The final stage of kidney function occurs in the last portion of the
nephron tubule. Secretion of additional wastes from the blood, including
urea, occurs here. This process of secretion is one of the final steps in
maintaining homeostasis of the fluids in the body. Regulating the pH of
the blood is one more way the kidneys maintain homeostasis. In this case,
if the blood becomes too acidic, hydrogen ions are removed from the
blood. The reverse occurs if the blood is too basic.
The result of all this activity in the kidneys is that the blood returns
through the renal vein to the body, newly cleansed of wastes and properly
balanced with salts and water. In addition, urine that contains wastes, as
well as any excess salts and water, is collected and removed from the body.
mostly of water. It is the blood and not your cells that loses the water.
Our bodies “know” that it is absolutely necessary
LIVING ENVIRONMENT to keep
BIOLOGY, the13-9
2e/fig. right
s/s
amount of water inside our cells in the intracellular compartment.
However, once again the lower volume of the blood acts as a stimulus
to the endocrine and nervous systems. This time the hypothalamus in
the brain detects the lower blood volume. It directs the posterior pitu-
itary gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH). When ADH reaches
the kidneys, it increases the reabsorption of water from the urine back
into the blood. The blood volume returns to normal. Meanwhile, solutes,
including urea and urobilin—a yellow-colored waste—become more con-
centrated in the urine. The urine becomes darker. The darker color of the
urine shows that the body is automatically readjusting itself by not releas-
ing as much water.
Why do we feel thirsty? To be aware of this feeling, the cerebral cor-
tex of the brain must be involved. It is the hypothalamus once again that
does this job. In addition to releasing ADH when blood volume is low, the
hypothalamus sends a message to the cerebral cortex. This message is the
feeling you know as thirst. So you drink more water and, once again,
homeostasis is maintained.
The skin is the largest organ of the body. It is made up of a variety of dif-
ferent types of cells and tissues. (See Figure 13-10.) There are two separate
layers in the skin: the outer layer, or epidermis, and the inner layer, or
dermis. If we examine the structure of these layers, we can see how they
function on behalf of homeostasis. It should be no surprise that the organ
that surrounds the body has important roles in keeping the conditions
that exist inside us fairly constant.
The epidermis is a very thin layer. New skin cells are formed at the
bottom of this layer by cell division. These cells eventually push their way
toward the surface, replacing the dead skin cells there. This process occurs
Chapter 13 / Excretion and Water Balance 287
Dead
cells
Epidermis
Region of
dividing cells
Sebaceous Nerve
gland ending
Hair Capillary
pocket
Tubule Dermis
Hair of sweat
root gland
Fat
Sweat
gland
Figure 13-10 The skin, the largest organ of the body, helps us maintain
homeostasis.
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 13-10 s/s
all the time. We constantly leave behind a trail of dead skin cells wherever
we have been. These epidermal cells are very tough. They form a protec-
tive layer that prevents bacteria and harmful chemicals from entering,
and water from leaving, our body. Beneath this layer are cells that produce
the pigments that give skin its color.
The dermis is a thick, complex layer beneath the epidermis that con-
tains a variety of structures. There are sensory nerve endings that can
detect temperature and touch; hairs; and capillaries that help regulate
body temperature (as discussed in Chapter 10). There also are muscles
attached at the bottom ends of hairs. These muscles are able to cause the
hairs to straighten, a response to fear in some animals. Some animals also
conserve heat by causing their hairs to stand up. This increases the
amount of air between the hairs, which insulates the body against heat
loss. Early humans evolved in warm, tropical climates, where it was a dis-
advantage to be covered with hair. Thus, less body hair was a trait that was
selected for, and humans lost the fur that most other mammals have.
When these little muscles in our skin contract, the result is simply what
we call goose bumps. In the dermis, there also are sebaceous glands,
which keep skin and hair soft by releasing oils. Finally, there are sweat
glands. Perspiration from sweat glands contains some urea, so they can
be considered excretory structures. The main role of perspiration, how-
ever, is to assist in regulating temperature by cooling the body through
evaporation.
288 Maintaining a Dynamic Equilibrium
Beneath the dermis is a layer of fatty tissue that many people wish
were missing. However, fatty tissue contributes to homeostasis by acting
as an insulator. It prevents the loss of body heat to the environment.
Liver Stomach
Figure 13-11 The liver
turns amino acid wastes
into urea, breaks down old Small intestine Large intestine
red blood cells, and
detoxifies chemical poisons
such as alcohol.
Chapter 13 / Excretion and Water Balance 289
The list of jobs of this 1.4-kilogram chemical factory, the liver, goes
on. In Chapter 8, we saw how the liver helps the digestive process by mak-
ing bile, the substance used by the body to digest fats. The liver packages
fats for transport in the blood, controls the level of cholesterol in the
blood, and stores vitamins A, D, and E. Finally, the liver helps maintain
water balance between the blood and the intracellular fluid by making
plasma proteins, important solutes in the blood.
INTRODUCTION
The wastes produced by our cells are filtered from the blood in the kid-
neys. Then these wastes are eliminated from the body in urine. The kid-
neys also reabsorb many materials that must be returned to the blood.
The kidneys are excretory organs that carry out the process of homeosta-
sis in the body. During medical examinations, physicians often test urine
for the presence of substances that may indicate a disease. Urine is also
tested to determine if a person has used an illegal or controlled substance.
The chemical testing of urine is called urinalysis. In this investigation,
you will analyze mystery substances to determine what they contain.
MATERIALS
Artificial “urine” samples, test tubes, test-tube holder, test-tube rack, heat-
resistant 500-mL beaker, tap water, hot plate, graduated cylinder, 10%
acetic acid, Benedict solution, silver nitrate, biuret solution, safety goggles
PROCEDURE
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles during this laboratory investigation.
1. Your teacher will give you eight “urine” samples. Label eight clean test
tubes the same way these samples are labeled. Place the labeled test
tubes in your rack.
2. Prepare a hot-water bath by filling the beaker half full with tap water
and placing it on the hot plate. Turn on the hot plate.
3. Test for phosphates:
Place 10 mL of each of the two phosphate-urine samples into your two
appropriately labeled test tubes. Look at the top of the liquid in the
tube as you add five drops of acetic acid. Repeat for the other sample.
Record your observations.
4. Test for glucose:
Place 5 mL of each of the two glucose-urine samples into your appro-
priately labeled test tubes. Add five drops of Benedict solution to each
test tube. Place both tubes in the hot-water bath for two minutes.
Observe and record any color changes.
INTERPRETIVE QUESTIONS
1. Human blood contains molecules of glucose and albumin, along with
phosphates and chlorides. Urine normally contains phosphate and
chloride ions. What does this information indicate about the func-
tions of the kidneys?
2. Why may the presence of glucose in the urine be a cause of concern?
3. What may be indicated by the presence of albumin in the urine?
■■ CHAPTER 13 REVIEW
VOCABULARY
The following list contains all of the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Define
each of these terms in your own words.
the process of L
A
F
reabsorption
take place? Why
is this process
important to
maintaining G
homeostasis?
H
18. How do
aldosterone and
ADH contribute
to homeostasis?
19. Compare the three typesENVIRONMENT
LIVING of nitrogenous wastes
BIOLOGY, in animals.
2e/fig. 13-Q16 s/sHow
(rev. 10/13/03)
might the excretion of uric acid be an adaptation to life on dry
land?
20. Explain how the liver helps to maintain homeostasis.
294 Maintaining a Dynamic Equilibrium
21. State the difference that has been discovered among men in their
ability to taste foods.
22. State the health risk associated with the men that have increased
taste sensitivity.
23. Describe two hypotheses that might explain the health risk faced
by the men with sensitive tongues.