HINDUISM

- Misnomer
- Term used by scholars to refer to various religions and traditions in India
- No one foundation, approximation, unorganized, fragmented
- Kings were devotees of some deities, not Hinduism per se
- Became flexible/adaptive to survive
- Buddhism adapted by Hinduism
- Buddha became deity in Hinduism
- Buddhism became less popular in India
- Conglomeration of Indian belief system
- Did not really spread because of lack of devotee leaders
- Resurgence of Hinduism / Bhakti movements in 7th - 10th centuries AD
- Because of different paths to salvation instead of just through karma
- Bhakti (literal meaning: devotion) movements
- Intense emotional attachment of a devotee to his/her personal god is
another way of salvation
- Union of human soul with god
- Bhagavad Gita
- Most important part of Mahabharata epic
- Prince Arjuna and god Krishna
- Battle between cousins of Prince Arjuna
- Path of Bhakti is superior to path of karma = devotion to god is more
important than the dharma
- Caste system became more relaxed
- Bhakti followers believed in equality of all humans
- Reaction to Brahmanism
- Bhakti movements open to all castes
- Puja (literal meaning: worship)
- Practices showing devotion and reverence to gods
- Spiritual connection to the deity and its representations
- Direct connection
- Physical representations a way to gain access to the divine
- Darshan (literal meaning: experience)
- Experience of communicating with and seeing the divine
- Seeing and to be seen
- Major Bhakti movements
- Shiva (Saivism / Saivites)
- Shiva: one of the Trimurti (main gods)
- Shiva, the destroyer; Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver
- Shiva’s family:
- Parvata: Shiva’s wife, a representation of the mother goddess
- Skanda: Shiva’s child, god of war
- Ganesh: Shiva’s child, god of wisdom
- Elephant-headed
- Represents wisdom (one of the most respected)
- His tusk was used to write Mahabharatstories of
humbleness, snake belt, moon phases, race with Skanda
- Shiva: Lord of the Yogi (meditation) and Lord of Sexual Power
- Linga-Yoni worship
- Linga: erect phallus; Yoni: female genital
- Sexual union is important; creates life
- Still considered a Saivite if you follow the gods in Shiva’s family
- To worship Shiva is to worship his family
- Ganesh more popular than Shiva
- Mother Goddess (Shaktism)
- Major female gods & wives of major gods were reincarnations of the
mother goddess, Devi/Shakti
- Ultimate god is the mother goddess
- Mother goddess created everything
- Vishnu (Vaisava / Vaishnavism)
- Vishnu worshipped through his avatars / incarnations
- Avatar = “to ascend”
- Vishnu: the preserver / god of preservation
- 10 avatars: Dasavatara
- Incarnations to preserve cosmic harmony
- Matrya (fish)
- Kurma (tortoise)
- Varaha (boar)
- Narasimha (man-lion / lion-headed man)
- Vamana (dwarf)
- Parasurma (warrior)
- Rama (king)
- Krishna (divine god / power)
 - Buddha (enlightened)
- Kalki (has the ability to destroy the world)
- currently 9 avatars; Kalki is the future avatar
- Buddha became the 9th avatar of Vishnu
- Kurma
- Stabilized mountain to churn the waters of the world and gain the
nectar of immortality for the devas and asuras
- Vamana
- Devas: lesser gods; lead by Indra, king of the Devas
- Asuras: malevolent gods and demons; lead by Vali / Bali
- Asuras won against the Devas and conquered the realm of
humans and gods
- The Devas approached Vishnu for help
- Vishnu transformed into a dwarf / Vamana
- Vishnu, as Vamana, asked Vali if he could have 3 steps on land
- Vishnu’s first step was on the world of gods, and he became giant
- His second step was on the world of Earth; Vali figured out the
Vamana is Vishnu
- Vishnu’s third step was on the head of Vali, offered by Vali himself
as humility
- Vishnu then made Vali the king of the underworld as appreciation
- Interpretation of Vishnu’s avatars
- From simple life forms to humans to gods (concept of evolution)
- Vahana
- “the one which bears/carries”
- Vehicle / mount of a god
- Familial relationship; not merely a relationship between master & servant
- Considered as more superior than humans
- Because they are divine and part of the divine aspect of the gods
- Connects devotees to their god
- Also represents the power and specific energies of their deity
- Airavata (for Indra)
- Three-headed white elephant; symbolizes royalty
- Uchchaishravas (for Indra)
- 7-headed horse ridden during war; lord of all horses

- Thousands of horses (for Vayu, god of wind)

 - Symbolizes swiftness and power of wind
- Mushika (for Ganesh)
- Rat; represents humility, quickness, fear
- can be invoked to help against self-doubt, fear, & nervousness
- Nandi (for Shiva)
- Bull; represents rage and raw power, as well as sexual energy
- Can be invoked to help with anger and also to heal
- Garuda (for Vishnu)
- Divine eagle; transcended Hinduism
- Traveled at tremendous speeds; can be invoked to help clear
mind
- Also symbolizes humans and entities that can be controlled by the gods
- Rama and Hanuman symbolizes the concept in Mahabharata

NORTH ASIA/MONGOL EMPIRE

- Largest contiguous empire in history
- 24 million sq. kms.
- Only larger empire is the British empire
- Spanned from Korea to Poland, during its peak
- Fell strictly due to internal problems
- Resurgence of colonies
- Genghis Khan / Chinggis Khan (1162 - 1227)
- Genghis Khan: title meaning “supreme ruler”
- Born as Temujin
- United the nomadic Mongol tribes
- Nomadic lifestyle due to steppes / vast grasslands
- Lots of livestock & horses, which were used for traveling & warfare
- monetary
- From Mongolia, he invaded Central / North Asia
- From Central Asia, he invaded the Middle East
- Spread of Islam was halted
- Died unexpectedly in 1227; left 4 children and a still-expanding empire
- Ogedai Khan
- Son of Genghis Khan
- Invaded Russia
- He invaded East Russia, and then West Russia submitted to him
- Appointed a capital city: Karakorum
- Tolui
- Brother of Ogedai Khan
- Usurped power after Ogedai’s death
- Died, then Sorkhaqtani (his wife) took power
- Sorkhaqtani ruled the still-expanding Mongol Empire for a time because Tolui’s
son was young
- Said son also died at 2 years old
- Mongke Khan
- Son of Tolui / Grandson of Genghis Khan
- Sought to invade the Song dynasty in China, bought failed
- Died, then his brothers, Halagu & Kublai, fought for power
- Kublai Khan
- Initially failed to invade China
- Eventually succeeded and established the Yuan Dynasty
- Became Great Khan of Mongol Empire and Emperor of China
- Left nomadic lifestyle
- Capital city was changed from Karakorum to Khanbaliq (Beijing)
- Sought to invade Japan twice
- Failed both times due to weather (‘kamikaze’ typhoons)
- Invaded peninsular SEA
- Failed to take insular SEA
- Marco Polo
- European who visited China and the royal court of Kublai Khan through
the Silk Road
- Mongol Empire divided into 5 Khanates during and after Kublai Khan’s death
- Khanates were considered provinces with regional capitals after Kublai
Khan’s death
- Leaders of these 5 Khanates died and civil war broke out
- Yuan Dynasty: China
- Il Khanate: Middle East & Persia
- Blue Horde & White Horde: Russia; both united to become Golden
Horde
- Chaghadai Khanate: Central Asia
- Mongol Army
- Strengths:
1) Training
- Trained in horse-riding and archery at an early age, due to nomadic
lifestyle
 - Weapons became varied, due to adapting invaded countries
- Trained with diversionary tactics
- Trained in rotation = well-rounded
- Disciplined, from highest to lowest ranks
- Army was structured and were divided into units
2) Mixed battalion
- Soldiers from different ethnic groups/tribes/belief systems were mixed
together to ensure loyalty and instill a sense of unity
3) Great mobility and speed
- Whole army could travel 60 - 100 miles per day
- Horses were small, sturdy, and fast
- Less food needed
- Each soldier had 4-5 horses to rotate around
4) Reconnaissance (info gathering) and espionage
- Messengers and scouts were fast
- Used vast network of spies to gather information
5) Used siege weapons
- Employed weapon makers and engineers from subjugated peoples
6) Psychological warfare
- fake retreats
- message of fear
- 2010 study
- New information about the birth of the Mongol Empire
- Environmental history
- Age of trees in Siberia were measured using their rings
- Evidence of drought in Mongolian steppes => reason for different
Mongol tribes
- Division since low number of sources
- In the 1200s, precipitation in the Mongolian steppes increased, which
affected the expansion of the Mongols
- Grass grew on the steppes, which served as food for the horses
- Expansion of Mongol Empire stopped in Eastern Europe, because the grasslands
of Europe turned into marshes/swamps due to the increased precipitation
- Unusual cold, wet environment not suitable for warriors
- Legacy
- Mongol architecture in China
- Palaces and theatres were built => Chinese culture & art flourished
- Connected Europe with Asia
 - Mongol Empire revived the Silk Road
- Ushered European colonization
- Marco Polo’s stories of travel inspired Europeans to find sea
routes to Asia
- Lead to globalization

AGE OF EXPLORATION & DISCOVERY 1: COLONIALISM

- 15th-16th century: Age of Exploration
- Spain & Portugal were at the forefront of discovery and exploration, which lead to
colonialism
- Terra Incognita: unknown lands / Americas (New World)
- Known lands: Europe, Asia, Africa (Old World)
- Definition of colonialism:
- Forced subjugation
- Imbalance of power between colonies and colonizers
- Systemic exploitation of the colonies
- Factors:
- Spice trade
- Spices found in Asia had to go through the Silk Road to get to Europe.
- Because of this, spices became expensive in Europe.
- Marco Polo
- Stories of his travels in the 14th century inspired Europeans to explore
Asia
- Renaissance
- Production of knowledge
- Invention of the movable printing press helped the spread of the stories
of Marco Polo.
- Other inventions include the compass, the astrolabe, and the sextant,
which all lead to precise navigation.
- Mercantilism
- Bullionism: an economy where wealth is based on gold and silver
- Characterized by monopolies and trading companies
- Religion
- The Reformation, supported by Martin Luther & King Henry VIII,
challenged the papal authority.
- Protestantism became a religion.
 - The Counter Reformation, by the Catholic Church, was against the
Reformation.
- Every expedition had priests (Jesuits, Dominicans, etc.) to spread the
Catholic faith.
- Banks
- Banks were privately-owned and they participated in trade.
- Their capital was used to finance expeditions; empires loaned money
from banks.
- Most prominent banking family was the Fugger banking family in
Germany.
- Fall of Constantinople in 1453
- Constantinople was taken over by the Ottoman Turks.
- The Silk Road was closed, however, Venetian traders had a special
trading relationship with the Turks.
- These Venetian traders sold spices at high prices in Europe.
- 1492 Reconquista
- The Reconquista was a series of campaigns by the Christians in Spain and
Portugal against the Muslims. It ended in 1492.
- Southern Spain was occupied by the Muslim Moors for 800 years, until
1492.
- The Spanish crowns / Catholic monarchists were unified, and they
repulsed the Moors from Spain. This also strengthened Spain and
Portugal.
- Both needed to explore to maintain their growing power.
- Both had access to the Atlantic Ocean
- Colonies:
- Portuguese: Moluccas, Macao, Goa (in India), Hong Kong
- Spanish: the Philippines, Guam, the Marianas Islands
- French: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos
- British: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Malaysia, Myanmar, Burma
- Dutch: Indonesia (taken from Portugal) plus other taken terriories
- What hindered exploration at first was no the Flat Earth concept but the uncertainty of
navigation
AGE OF EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY 2: PORTUGAL, SPAIN, AND THE
NETHERLANDS

IBERIAN POWERS:
Portugal
- Prince Henry the Navigator established navigational schools in Sagres, Portugal
on 1418. The Portuguese discovered the Azores and the Madeira islands in the
Atlantic.
- They then went along Africa, through the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, they
arrived at India, under Vasco de Gama. The Portuguese encountered the Muslim
Mughal Empire in India, but their merchant ships were armed.
- Evidence for many purposes of merchant ships
- In 1510, they took over Goa, India. From here, they traveled to Malacca for
better trade opportunities.
- In 1511, Malacca (area between Malaysia & Indonesia) fell to the Portuguese.
- At this time, the Portuguese dominated trade in the Indian Ocean. Their goal
now was to travel to the Moluccas (Indonesia), because they wanted to obtain 3
spices: cloves, nutmeg, and mace.
- The Portuguese set up their trading posts before establishing colonies.
- In 1557, they arrived and colonized Macau. The Portuguese became the first
Europeans who connected with China.
- became the primary base of the Europeans who were looking to
connect/trade with China
- also a diplomatic base, and was used as a staging point by the Portuguese
to Japan
- The dominance of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean trade lasted from the
1400s to the 1600s.
- From 1557 to 1999, Macau was under Portuguese control. In 1636, the
Portuguese lost a trading relationship with Japan due to the Dutch.

Spain
- The Spanish took over the Philippines, Guam, and the Mariana Islands.
- Due to the Treaties of Tordesillas and Zaragoza, most of their colonies were in
the Americas.
The Netherlands / The Dutch
(Colonies)
- From the 1600s to 1720, the Dutch replaced almost all Portuguese colonies.
- The Dutch were a large commercial empire; hence, they did not give importance to
religion in their colonies.
- Not controlled by government
- During the Battle of Manila, the invading Dutch were defeated by ill-equipped Spanish
men in what is known as the Miracle of La Naval. = Our Lady of La Naval
- In the 1500s, the Dutch were taken over by the Spanish and they were called the
Spanish Netherlands for a time
- Gained support from European powers to wage war
- During the Dutch-Spanish wars, which were due to the unification of the Spanish
and Portuguese crowns in the 1560s, the Dutch invaded Portuguese trading
stations including Moluccas
- The Dutch then took over Batavia (Jakarta) in Indonesia
- In Taiwan, the Dutch established strongholds/trading posts which were used as a
staging point to reach Japan in the 1620s.
- They were also the first to discover Australia, which they called New Holland. However,
since the lands were infertile, no Dutch settlements were built.

(Dutch atrocities)
- The Dutch put down revolts in their colonies violently.
- imported Chinese immigrants to Indonesia to help with the production of resources.
- They were responsible for some state-sponsored famines, since they forced natives to
plant cash crops instead of food.
- In the Banda islands (Indonesia), the Dutch forced the natives to plant cloves
and nutmegs to maximize sales of these spices.
- Widespread cutting of trees or mass production of spices & other cash crops

(Dutch East India Company)

- In 1602, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was established
- First and wealthiest corporation in history
- first publicly-traded company ~ stock market
- In 1640: Established Dutch Ceylon in Sri Lanka
- In 1669, the VOC was at its peak
- 150 merchant ships, 40 warships
- Employed 25,000 people and 10,000 soldiers.
 - Half of the world’s rubber production, ¼ of the world’s coconut production, ⅕ of
tea, sugar, coffee, and pepper production, and ⅕ of the world’s oil production
(coconut)
- In Indonesia under the VOC
- The Dutch colonization of Asia was under the VOC, and not the Dutch
government.
- When Japan closed its borders due to the isolationist policy of the Tokugawa
shogunate, the Dutch maintained a special trading relationship with Japan.
- Trade between the two took place on the Japanese island of Dejima in the
Nagasaki harbor
- Dutch had a monopoly on goods from Japan
- During the 1750s, the VOC went bankrupt
- due to company mismanagement
- spice industry was replaced by the textile industry as the most profitable
- the Dutch government took over the VOC

(Colonies under the Dutch government)

- By 1800, the Dutch lost control of their colonies in Asia, because of the change in the
balance of power in Europe due to Napoleon
- The British temporarily took over the Dutch colonies in Asia, because they were allies. In
1824, the British returned control of Indonesia back to the Dutch government (Dutch-
Anglo Treaty)
- Lasted until 1946
- Acquired New Amsterdam (now Manhattan)
- Introduced tea
- Renamed to New York by British and adapted tea drinking

French Eastern Empire

- The French colonized America and Canada first.
- In the 1600s, the French arrived in Africa, and from there, they went to India.
- In 1674, they established a trading station in Pondicherry, India
- controlled by the French East India Company under King Louis XIV
- 80 miles from St. George, the center of the British East India Company.
- late 1700s to the early 1800s, the Mughal Empire in India was declining
- In 1744, a war broke out between the British and the French in Europe. This war spread
to their colonies in the world.
- The French king focused on supporting the French colonies in America instead of
those in Asia + French Revolution (1780) + rise of Napoleon = the French colonies
 in Asia were taken over by the British.
- In 1858, the French returned to Asia. Rumors about French missionaries in Vietnam
were being mistreated, so the French used it as excuse to send naval forces against the
Vietnamese.
- The French naval forces won, and the French were given 3 southern Vietnamese
provinces.
- During the Opium Wars, the French, along with other European powers, fought against
the Chinese. The French army in Beijing negotiated for trade concessions, along with the
British. The French also set up a trading station in Shanghai while the British got Hong
Kong
- The French eventually took over Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, which became
collectively known as French Indochina, and they held these territories until
1946.
- In 1869, the French established the Suez Canal in Egypt, which served as a connection
between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea
- shortened the travel time between Asia and Europe
- allowed for easier access of goods and troops
- was eventually nationalized by the Egyptians.

British Empire
(Britain vs Spain)
- 1560s to the 1600s, Queen Elizabeth I prioritized the development and strengthening
of the navy.
- pirated treasure from Spanish galleons before government-sanctioned explorations
- In 1577, Sir Francis Drake, a privateer, was sent by Queen Elizabeth I to explore the
world.
- reached Moluccas in 1579 using Magellan’s route
- captured one galleon and traded in Moluccas
- returned to Britain in 1580 with lots of treasure and expensive items; total worth
was enough to feed England for a few years.
- In 1588, the Spanish spent warships to invade Britain under King Philip II
- The “Invincible” Spanish armada was defeated by the British navy
- victory signaled the start of Britain’s ambitions to explore and colonize.
- Reached Australia in 1770 courtesy of James Cook
(British colonies in the Americas)
- In 1604, Spain and Britain signed the Peace Treaty of London.
- The British also began going to the Americas, and in 1607, they established Jamestown
and also eventually arrived in the Caribbean islands.
- In 1759, the British took over Canada from the French.
- Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was sponsored by the British
- Around 70,000 Africans were sent to America yearly.
- The Africans who were sent back to Africa established Liberia when the slave
trade was abolished in the 1800s.
- French supported American Revolution

(British colonies in Asia)

- The British East India Company (EIC) was established in 1600
- In 1602, landed on Surat, India
- In 1639, founded St. George (Madras), which was the center of the British EIC
- used as a staging point to invade Manila in 1762.
- In 1688, the English War of Succession broke out
- William of Orange became the King through union of monarchy.
- An alliance between Britain and the Netherlands was formed
- The British obtained India (textiles) and the Dutch retained the Spice Islands
(spices).
- During the late 1600s: decline of Mughal Empire
- 1707: Aurangzeb’s death (last influential leader)
- Both the British and the French invaded India, however, the French managed to
beat the British.
- In the 1720s, British overtook the Dutch in trade because of boom off textile
industry
- In 1757, the British EIC managed to win against the combined French and Indian
armies in the Battle of Plassey
- British became the dominant power in India
- The Indian economy under the Mughal Empire was the largest in the
world but stopped growing under British.

(Rebellions in India)
- The Sepoy Rebellion in 1858 broke out, due to the resentment of the sepoys against
British exploitation (religious issue about use of cow and pig fat for gunpowder
cartridges)
- lead by sepoys, Indian soldiers who served under the British.
 - The rebellion was crushed by strong British forces called from Britain
- the British crown took over the colony in India from the British EIC. –
- Queen Victoria became the Empress of India, and Britain retained
control of India until WW2.

(British Colonies in SEA)

- In 1819, under, Sir Thomas Ruffles, the British arrived in SEA
- established Singapore as a British trading station, and from Singapore, they took
over Malaysia.
- Thailand is the only SEA country that was not colonized. This was because Thailand
served as a buffer zone between the French and the British territories in Asia.

(European Scramble for Colonies)

- During the 19th century, the Europeans scrambled to establish colonies in Africa and in
Asia
- In 1871, the German states unified into one country, the German Empire.
- Germany and Italy colonized parts of Africa.
- Belgium took over the Congo, and the Europeans also colonized Samoa and
Polynesia.

(Reasons for the colonist’s victories)

- Theory due to Industrial revolution
- Problem: too late
- Theory due to spread of diseases
- Problem: can’t be applied to Asia
- More accepted: due to the rapid development of gunpowder technology in Europe due
to constant wars in Europe.
- Due to the close proximity, European countries went to war with each other
constantly.

Nationalism / Asian Responses to Imperialism

(Nationalism)
- Nationalism refers to a concept of a nation, through shared experiences, religion,
language, and history
- It envisions a nation as an imagined community
- It can also refer to nation-building, which is a never-ending process.
- Nationalism can also be the nationalistic sense of pride from shared experiences.
 - In Asian history, nationalism was used to mobilize support against foreigners and
colonizers. It was seen as a long-lasting response to imperialism.
- 1st wave was seen in Latin Americas
- In the present European context, it is seen as closed and anti-immigration.

(Nationalism in Asia)
- There is no one Asian nationalism; nationalism manifested in different ways in different
countries.
- The Philippines were the first ones to triumph over the Spanish colonizers, however,
their victory was hijacked by the Americans who eventually colonized them.
- In Thailand and Japan, nationalism was signified as a return to Buddhism and
Shintoism, and the return of power to the king and the emperor, respectively.
- Nationalism was also used, in conjunction with political ideologies, in China to fight
against the colonizers.
- One of the most successful and extreme nationalistic movements was in Indonesia. The
Indonesians used their shared resentment against the Dutch, Japanese, and Chinese in
their country as a base for their nationalism
- expelled all Dutch and half-Dutch people from Indonesia.

(Role of the New Elite)

- The new elite consisted of natives who studied in foreign Western countries
- saw the need for change in their home countries
- rallied the masses to support their cause, which strived for a free and better
nation
- Propaganda Movement in Philippines

(Divisiveness in Nationalism)
- The proponents of nationalism usually fought over matters concerning modernization
versus traditionalism. They argued over keeping foreign and native values. Hence,
there’s no pure nationalism.
- It should be noted that modernization brought liberalism which resulted to
nationalism
- In India, Gandhi wore a traditional robe called a dhoti, while his colleagues wore coats
and ties.
- Production of Nehru collar
- Gandhi stressed the importance of language in nation-building (against use of
English)
 - In Japan, however, modernization and traditionalism can be seen with the revival of
Shintoism while utilizing Western weapons and a Western education system.
- Existence of many movements in a single “movement” with a goal to be free from the
colonizers.

(Other Factors on Nationalism)

- Language was also an important factor regarding rifts in nationalistic movements.
- Leaders of nationalistic movements were well-versed in colonial languages due
to their upbringing. This highlighted a disconnect between the leaders and the
masses.
- national language/s can help in nationalism and nation-building.
- Example: Bahasa Indonesia/Malaysia
- The threat of an external enemy was also used as a base for nationalism, and it kept the
state together. The existence of a state depends on how it responds to its neighbors.
- Some examples are Pakistan vs. India, China vs. Japan, and North Korea vs. South
Korea.

Nationalism in Japan
- In the 1850s, Japan was forcefully opened by the Americans under Matthew C. Perry.
- In 1868, the Meiji Restoration occurred, where power was brought back to the
emperor from the shogunate and a series of reforms were put in place.
- The Japanese adopted a modern army, a Western-style educational system, and
Western bureaucracy.
- Industrialism was also promoted
- Shintoism was revived as a state religion, which meant that the emperor was
now a political and religious leader.
- Japan can be described as having an expansionist nationalism, due to their frequent
wars with their neighboring states (Sino-Japanese, Russo-Japanese Wars).
- Japan invaded Manchuria (which they called Manchukuo), the northern part of China,
and Korea, which was a tributary state of China.
- To invade Korea, Japan sent their navy to force them to open their country up.
- Korea subsequently became a Japanese protectorate and colony.
- Taiwan also became a Japanese colony.
- During WW2, all of SEA except for Thailand were occupied by the Japanese Empire.
- In modern times, different reaction of Japanese to their atrocities of war is viewed
negatively by their former colonies and rivals
Nationalism in China
- Nationalism in China was primarily a response to the humiliation they suffered from the
foreign powers (Western countries and Japan).
- China was divided into different spheres of influence, each under a particular
country.

(1900: Boxer Rebellion)

- Boxers: members of the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists.
- Located in Northeastern China
- created as a response to the corrupt and ineffective Manchu/Qing dynasty
- the dynasty did not properly address the drought and disruption caused
by foreign influences
- Their members were well-versed in martial arts, and they believe that mastery in
martial arts lead to immunity from bullets.
- The Boxer Rebellion occurred because the boxers believed that the Chinese Christian
prioritized foreigners
- In May 1900, the boxers marched to Beijing;
- most northern cities captured
- slaughtered foreigners and Chinese Christians; one of the foreigners they
slaughtered was an important German minister.
- Empress Dowager Cixi ordered the Chinese to support the boxers, however, not all
supported her, due to their trading relationship with the foreigners.
- more foreigners and Christians were killed throughout China.
- Fled out of mainland and negotiated
- Foreign Imperialist response: assemble an international army of 19,000 soldiers from
Germany, France, UK, US, Austria, Italy, Russia, and Japan to quell the rebellion.
- By August 1900, they successfully put down the uprising.
- In September 1901, the Chinese agreed to pay more than $330 million to the foreign
powers as war reparations.
- reparations paid to the Americans were diverted to pay for the education of
Chinese students in US universities
- lead to the establishment of Tsinghua University (1st university in China)
- Overall, the reparations accelerated the fall of the Manchu/Qing dynasty.

(Nationalistic Movements in China)

- Liang Qi Chao was one of the first nationalist thinkers in China. His writings about China
inspired revolutionaries.
- Idea of “being loyal back to the nation”
 - Sun Yat Sen was the founder of the KMT (Kuomintang/Guomindang), which is the
current Nationalist Party of China in Taiwan (Republican Party)
- prominent Chinese nationalist
- united nationalistic Chinese in overthrowing the Manchu/Qing Dynasty
- His ambition was to set up a republic to replace the dynasty. Both Chiang Kai-
shek and Mao Zedong supported him
- One of his primary generals was Huang Xing.
- Chiang Kai-shek became the leader of the Kuomintang, and he fought against the
Communist Party of China, which was under Mao Zedong.
- Civil war resulted to exile of KMT to Taiwan (brought Chinese historical
treasures)
- Taiwan eventually overtaken by China ass superpower
- Replaced by China in UN Security Council P5
- China, France, Russia, UK, US
- Have veto powers
- The May 4th Movement (late 1910s to the early 1920s)
- sought to reject traditional Chinese teachings and supported modernization.
- Idea is the traditions were stopping China from growing
- Issue is that the movement is un-Chinese
- There was an ethnic divide in nationalistic movements that still persists today.
- Most nationalistic movements in China were of Han Chinese ethnicity, who were
against the Manchu / Northern Chinese.

Nationalism in India
(Congress Party)
- The Congress Party is one of the first nationalistic movements in India.
- goal was to establish a free and secular Indian state.
- Among its members were Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Muhammad Ali
Jinnah. The first two were Hindu, while Jinnah was Muslim.
- Jinnah eventually left the Congress Party and formed the Muslim League
- Jinnah led foundation of Pakistan
- Congress Party and the Muslim League were not rivals.
- The Indian Independence Act, signed in 1947, was one of the achievements of the
Congress Party
- India became an independent country
- result of negotiations between the Congress Party and the United Kingdom
 - It also signalled the start of the partition of British India between India, West
Pakistan, and East Pakistan. West and East Pakistan were majorly Muslim, with
West Pakistan being lead by Jinnah.
- East Pakistan eventually became Bangladesh in 1971 which was
supported by India (resulted to only minor warfares)

(Assassination of Gandhi)
- In 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu nationalist.
- Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister of India, and he implemented
Gandhi’s vision of a secular state
- eventually died in the 1970s.

(Indira Gandhi)
- In the 1970s, Indira Gandhi, who was Nehru’s daughter, became the prime minister.
- India emerged as a regional power / nuclear power.
- During this time, India became less secular and it was more biased towards the Hindus.
- Sikhs became militant
- stored weapons and conducted military training in their main temple, the
Golden Temple.
- Indira Gandhi ordered the army to storm the Golden Temple, leading to a
clash which left many people dead and the temple heavily damaged.
- Riots against the Sikhs occurred and millions of Sikhs in India were
displaced/alienated.
- Indira Gandhi was eventually assassinated by two of her Sikh
bodyguards.
*current ruling party in India: Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) – Hindu nationalist

World War 2 in Asia

*started much earlier than the “official start” of WWII (1939 when Germany invaded Poland)

(2nd Sino-Japanese War)

- started in July 7, 1937
- The Marco Polo bridge incident in Northeastern China was used by the Japanese as a
pretext for war.
- During a Japanese fire drill, the Chinese thought that the Japanese were
preparing to invade. A skirmish occurred, and it escalated into war between
China and Japan.
- From July 1937 to August 1937, Japan launched continuous offensives in China.
 - Beijing and Shanghai were taken by the Japanese, and in doing so, killed many
Chinese.
- The focus of the Chinese was to blockade the Japanese advance, which
continued into Central China.
- While all of this was happening, the Muslims in Xinjiang province revolted but
stopped when the Soviets also invaded Xinjiang to obtain the resources located
there.
- The Rape of Nanking / Nanjing Massacre is considered as one of the worst war
atrocities.
- after the Japanese took the city of Nanking (Central China)
- More than 300,000 Chinese civilians died in just 6 weeks.
- December 1937 – January 1938
- Around 100,000 women were raped, and lootings were widespread.
- A portion of the city was considered the “international zone”, where foreigners
managed to save some Chinese citizens by offering refuge from the Japanese.

(1938)
- The orders of the Japanese army came from their generals, instead of the emperor.
- In the city of Chongqing, Japanese bombings killed many Chinese civilians.
- It was around this time that the Chinese implemented guerilla warfare.
- Chinese guerillas destroyed infrastructure such as dams to delay the Japanese
- lead to 1 million dead Chinese civilians, due to flooding.
- The Kuomintang’s government-in-exile under Chiang Kai-shek, were based in Wuhan.
- The Japanese suffered heavy casualties but they eventually took Wuhan.
- around 30K soldiers attacked
- The Chinese army retreated to south near Tibet to conduct guerilla warfare.
- Foreign aid coming through Burma road helped the Chinese greatly.

(Manchuria/Manchukuo)
- The Japanese wanted to extend their territorial gains to Mongolia and the Soviet Union
- combined force of Mongolians and Russians held back against Japan.

(1939)
- The Chinese gained some victories against Japan
- numbers superiority and foreign aid
- They managed to repulse the Japanese at the city of Changsha (Central China)
- eventually fell to the Japanese in 1944.
- the Chinese destroyed Japanese supply lines during the fight
(1940)
- The Japanese took the southern provinces of Hainan and Guangxi by going through the
coast => supply line of China was cut off.
- These provinces were used by the Japanese as a base to attack Central China
- Chinese guerillas held the countryside and destroyed Japanese infrastructure
- Many railways destroyed by Japanese
- The only supply line remaining was the Hump, which was an aerial path through the
Himalayas.
- Volunteer American and European pilots called the Flying Tigers flied supplies to
India through the Hump.
- Japan, Germany, and Italy signed the Tripartite Pact in 1940, becoming the Axis Powers
- The impact of the Japanese conquest in China was to focus on SEA.

(1941)
- On December 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor = US declared war on Japan
- Pearl Harbor supplied 80% of Japan’s oil
- British and Soviet invaded Iran around the same time
- Japan invaded the Philippines on December 8, while Thailand surrendered to the Japanese
on December 10.
- Many Southeast Asian countries were defenseless, because their colonizers focused on the
war in Europe.
- Among the countries invaded by the Japanese are:
- Singapore, British Malaysia, Brunei, Dutch Indonesia, Burma, Sri Lanka, Pacific
Islands
- America’s “Europe-first” policy = took three years before returning to Asia/the Philippines.

(1942)
- Japan invaded Brunei and Indonesia to obtain oil and other resources, such as rubber.
- The Japanese Empire stretched from Sri Lanka to the Pacific Islands at this time.

(1943)
- The Japanese started conducting air strikes in India.
- Invasion of India was held back by the large British Indian army

(1944)
- By 1944, the tide of war was shifted from the Axis to the Allies
- attacks were focused to Asia
 - Many Chinese offensives were launched against Japanese-held cities.
- The US also returned to the Philippines, the UK to Malaysia, the French to Indochina,
and the Dutch to Indonesia
- The Japanese were pushed back to northeastern China and the coast.
- The USSR also invaded Manchuria
- The Battle of Leyte Gulf is the largest and most decisive naval battle in history, by gross
tonnage of vessels.
- The Japanese suffered very heavy losses against the US.
- The US soon landed in the Philippines, and they took back the cities from the Japanese
- During the Battle of Manila, many Japanese atrocities occurred and Manila was
destroyed
- US finished what the Filipino guerilla fighters started (about 60% of the cities
already liberated)

(1945)
- Battle of Iwo Jima
- The Americans eventually occupied Okinawa
- Bombing of Japanese cities including Tokyo
- deployed two atomic bombs; one in Hiroshima on August 6, and one in
Nagasaki on August 9.
- Less than a week later, on August 15, the Japanese emperor Hirohito surrendered to
the US forces.
- millions of Chinese and Soviet soldiers already in Korea, ready to invade Japan.

*summary: 8 years of war in Asia, 6 years in Europe

(1946-1949)
- Chinese Civil War between KMT and CCP
- CCP won
- KMT fled to Taiwan

Cold War
- Threat of war between US & Soviet Union
- No physical war
- Arms race
- Proxy Wars
- Battles in Asia between the 2 countries
(1950s)
- Korean War
- North Korea conquered by China (supported by Soviet Union)
- South Korea claimed by US

(1960s-1970s)
- Vietnam War
- Russia & China supported North
- US supported South
- Confrontation by Indonesia & Malaysia
- Indo-Pakistan, Indo-Sino war
- 1960s: Malaysia & Indonesia confrontation
- 1970s: Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan
- Non-Aligned Movement
- International organization of countries that want to remain neutral and not side
with US or Soviet Union
- Founding countries: Indonesia, India
- Established in Bandung Conference (Indonesia)
- Philippines joined