CHAPTER – 1

1.1 Introduction
Natural water usually contains a great volume of solutes due to its solubility characteristics. CO2
of air also intensifies the corrosive behavior of water by being solved in water and producing weak
carbonic acid. Thus, water solves some of the carbonates passing through different areas,
especially the calcic area. These carbonates in combination with some ions such as calcium and
magnesium cause temporary water hardness, which can be removed by boiling. However, ions of
magnesium, calcium, and other metals that create permanent water hardness with sulfate, nitrate,
and chlorine can not be removed by heating. TDS denotes the total dissolved solids in water and
is given in parts per million [1]. A high TDS content of water has detrimental effects including
sedimentation and corrosion in thermal equipment and boilers, leaving stains on food products and
fabrics, accelerating formation of kidney stones in the body, deteriorating the taste of tea and
coffee, long cooking times of beans, and improper foaming of soap thus increasing consumption
of it and disturbing hand washing. On the other hands, excessive removal of the dissolved solids
in conventional domestic water purification devices will embitter water and cause osteoporosis,
which is known as a silent death. Measurement and control of TDS of water is very important for
heath and industry sectors. Reverse osmosis (RO) is used daily for desalination of 100,000 m3
seawater to make drinking water in Libya [2]. The typical operation and internal structure of the
RO filter, which is the most important component of RO water purification systems, was explained
in comprehensively. It can be measured in order to control the TDS of water. Generally, this
parameter is measured by two methods, by weight and electrical conductivity measurement.
Furthermore, investigated the relationship between TDS and conductivity of water and presented
a relationship that shows that TDS of water could be obtained using electrical conductivity and
coefficient. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) correlates positively with conductivity and affects pH.
The higher the TDS, the higher the conductivity and the lower the pH, towards acidity. The
presence of dissolved solids in water may affect its taste. The palatability of drinking water has
been rated by panels of tasters in relation to its TDS level as follows: excellent, less than 300mg/L;
good, between 300 and 600mg/L; fair, between 600 and 900 mg/L; poor, between 900 and
1200mg/L; and unacceptable, greater than 1200mg/L. Water with extremely low concentrations
of TDS may also be unacceptable because of its flat, insipid taste. It is important to monitor the
TDS level and the pH of drinking water for several reasons. When a water source has a high level
of TDS or a low pH, it is likely that there are other harmful contaminants in the water. Both TDS
and pH are also easy to measure and if something is happening to water, such as pollution, chances
are both TDS and pH levels will change so keeping track of those changes can act as an early
warning signal that something is happening to the water. For these reasons, it is important to
monitor the TDS and pH levels, so that if they change, action can be taken immediately.

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1.2 Total suspended solids
TSS was earlier known as non-filterable residue (NFR). TSS is the dry-weight of particles, which
are trapped by a filter having a specified pore size[3]. To find TSS of a water sample, measured
volume of water should be passed through a pre-weighed filter having a specified pore size, then
taking the weight of filter again after drying to evaporate the water in the filter paper. Filters
composed of glass fibers are typically used for measuring TSS. The dry weight measure of the
particulates present in the water sample is the gain in weight & it is expressed in units derived or
calculated from the volume of filtered water. Turbidity also tends to measure almost the same
quality of water property as TSS; TSS is more useful as it gives an actual weight of the undissolved
material in the sample provided.

Total Suspended Solids consist of a huge variety of material, for example, decaying plant, silt and
animal matter, sewage & industrial wastes. Water having high concentration of suspended solids
might cause problems for aquatic life & stream health. High Total Suspended Solids in a water
body might indicate higher amount of metals, pesticides, and bacteria present in the water. Higher
amount of TSS can also cause problems for industrial uses, as the solids might clog or scour pipes
and machinery.

Few Factors Affecting Total Suspended Solids-

 High Flow Rates

 Soil Erosion
 Urban Runoff
 Wastewater and Septic System Effluent
 Decaying Plants and Animals
 Bottom-Feeding Fish

1.3 Total dissolved solids

A measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances contained in a liquid
in molecular, ionized or micro-granular suspended form is called Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
The solids should be small enough to survive filtration through a filter, which has two-micrometer
(nominal size or smaller) pores. We generally discuss TDS for freshwater systems only, as salinity
consists of some of the ions contributing in the definition of TDS. The Study of water quality for
streams, rivers and lakes is the most important application of TDS, although TDS is not a primary
pollutant, but TDS is used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an
indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants. And conductivity are the two
important methods of measuring total dissolved solids. Gravimetric methods are the more accurate
methods and they involve evaporating the liquid solvent and taking the mass of residues left [3].

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This is the best method generally, but it is time-consuming. If inorganic salts are there as the great
majority of TDS, gravimetric methods are more appropriate. Concentration of dissolved ionized
solids in the water is directly related to the electrical conductivity of water. Ions in the dissolved
solids in water generate the ability for that water to conduct electrical current, which is measured
by a TDS meter or conventional conductivity meter. Conductivity generally provides an
approximate value for the TDS concentration, usually to within ten-percent accuracy. Hard water
has high TDS levels, which might be the reason for scale buildup in filters, pipes, and valves,
reducing performance and adding to the cost of system maintenance.

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 Chapter - 2
2.1 Measuring the TDS of water
Measuring the TDS of water with weight (gravimetric TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC)
methods is possible. Practically, the major difference between these two methods is very
important. Thus, the weight method is fully experimental and in the continuous control of
industrial processes it does not have any applications. However, the electrical conductivity method,
due to the high speed of its response, plays an important role in the control loops. Each of these
methods is briefly described below.

2.2 Weight method for measurement of the TDS of water

This measurement method is based on the accurate measurement of the total weight of dissolved
substances in a certain volume of water. Considering the fact that the amount of value of the
material is less than 0.45 m, It must pass water through the lters with the same size to remove
impurities. Then, according to standards, 200 mL of this solution is poured into a beaker and heated
for 24 h at a temperature 105 ◦C until completely evaporated. In addition, to remain dry it should
be put for another 2 h at 180 ◦ C. Finally, the weight of the material must be measured with high
precision using eq.(1)

TDS (mg/L) = (W2 -W1) * 1000/V (1)

W1 (mg) is beaker weight before heating and W2 (mg) is beaker weight and remaining dried
material after heating, and V (mL) shows the water purification volume [4, 5].

2.3 TDS measurement using EC of water method

Another way to measure the TDS of water is to calculate the EC of water. The correlation between
TDS and EC for water is given by Eq.

TDS = EC [µs] *Ke (2)

Substituting the Ke coefficient as a constant in the range of 0.55{0.8, which is determined

according to water properties for the area under study in chemical laboratories, and having the EC
of water will lead one to obtain TDS [2]. For example, the Ke coefficient was found based on 24
samples from drinking water of the Red Hills region of India (Figure 3). Results of this experiment
yield 0.6507 as the best value for the Ke coefficient in this area.

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 2.4 Building a sensor for EC measurement

In order to measure the EC of water in the invented system, a probe is needed to be designed and
made that provides the ability to be simply installed on a T-joint in addition to being waterproof
and resistant against corrosion. It would be possible to measure the EC of water in real time and
continuously by installing this probe through the outlet stream of water leaving the membrane
filter, exactly where the outlet water being mixed with that of mix valve.

Figure 1.Results of 24 drinking water samples for finding K e coefficient

Conductors used in this probe are made of stainless steel. Selection of this material for the
conductors is due to its resistance against corrosion and its immiscibility with oxygen. The whole
set of these steel conductors is put inside a Teflon sleeve. Teflon is selected here because of its
insulator behavior against electric current. This sleeve is manufactured by machining in CNC
machines. A schematic view of the probe made is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 2.Front view of the probe made (left) with its technical drawing

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A small current is applied at two contacts of the probe by making an alternative sine electrical
signal at a constant frequency of 1{10 kHz with amplitude 10 Vp-p and then introducing it into
the circuit of Figure 5. Thereby, voltage of these two contacts will vary by changing the EC of
water there. Having formed the following circuit, Eqs. (3) and (4) can be used to yield the EC of
water. The equations below are obtained from analysis of Figure 5.

R1V2 + R2V2 = R2V1 (3)

Figure3. Circuit for yield of EC water

R2 × |V 1 − V2| = R1V2 (4)

Resistance at two contacts of the probe ( R2) is generated by measuring the voltage at two contacts
of the constant resistance ( R1) and then substitution of it into Eq. (4). Measurement of this voltage
is important for increasing the reliability of system. Therefore, no change will occur in the
measurement of R2 by any variation in the output voltage of the supply source. Inverse R2 is the
same as electrical conductivity at two contacts of the probe. The amount of R1 is specified in
Eq. (4) with its determination being dependent on the type of system. If the range of TDS
measurement is limited, selecting the value of R1 will have great importance. In order to achieve
the best precision, R1 and R2 resistors should be equal, but in practice the exact amount of
measured dissolved concentration is not known. However, we know the range of changes in TDS
of water. Therefore, if the lower and upper bounds of water concentration corresponding shown
with TDSmin show it as TDSmax , α is the average concentration measured in the range of Eq. (5)
and obtained as follows.

We must determine the value of resistor R 1 taking into consideration the α point.
Therefore, from Eq. (2), assuming Ke = 0.55, we have the following.

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A parallel resistance network having n resistances and R1× n size can be utilized instead of a single
resistance R1 in order to enhance accuracy of the measurements. Moreover, all resistances of this
network must be selected from military grade to achieve higher accuracy.

Chips of the RMS to DC convertor were used for measurement and analysis of the alternative sine
voltage in R1 and VR1 resistances by system processor. These chips convert the effective amount
of sine signals to DC signals, which are measurable by A/D unit of microcontroller. A block
diagram for preparation of the signal is depicted. Signals VR1 and VR2 are buffered first by op-
amp circuits and become ready for analysis after conversion of them to DC signals and passing
them through a low-pass filter. The level of the output voltage for this sensor is 0–5 V DC, while
a PIC microcontroller (model 16F877A) is utilized to convert this analog signal to digital in
addition to analyzing and evaluating them. The TDS measurement system is quite innovative as it
is designed and manufactured. Ability to achieve high precision in small intervals is important
because many applications in power plants, refineries, and petrochemical plants need this
precision.

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 Chapter - 3

3.1 Block Diagram of TDS Meter and description

Figure4. Block diagram of TDS meter

3.2 Frequency Selection Circuit

 Frequency selection circuit is used for the required selection of the frequency, which is
used for oscillator to generate required sine wave for further operations.
 This selection of required frequency is managed by microcontroller/microprocessor.

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  A frequency selection circuit which is equivalent to an LCR series resonant circuit, though
not provided with inductance and which can adjust resonant frequency, selectivity or
quality factor Q and circuit impedance at resonance independently of one another, merely
by adjusting resistance.
 The circuit comprises an operational amplifier connected to receive an input signal at its
non-inverting input, a band rejection filter connected to an output of the operational
amplifier, a positive feedback resistor connected between an output of the band rejection
filter and the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier, and a voltage divider
connected between the output of the band rejection filter and the output of the operational
amplifier and connected at its output to an inverting input of the operational amplifier [6].
The band rejection filter comprises a series combination of a first resistor and a first
capacitor and a parallel combination of a second resistor and a second capacitor.
 The first and second resistors have the same resistance, and the first and second capacitors
have the same capacitance.
 The resonant frequency of the frequency selection circuit depends solely on the resistance
of the first and second resistors and the capacitance of the first and second capacitors in the
band rejection filter.
 The circuit impedance at resonance depends solely on the feedback resistor, and the
selectivity solely on a dividing factor of the voltage divider.

3.3 Measuring Conductivity Cell

 Measuring cell is used to measure the conductivity of Liquid and it transfers it to
Microcontroller for further calculation [6].
 We are using Conductivity measuring cell of cell constant c = 0.8cm-1 as shown in below
figure.

Figure5. Measuring conductivity cell

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  Measured conductivity of liquid is in digital form and is given to
microcontroller/microprocessor for the calculation of effect of temperature on the
conductivity of liquid, which is done by also measuring temperature same time.
 We cannot measure conductivity by measuring cell by applying DC voltage directly to the
measuring cell because of the Polarization effect take place.
 We simply apply AC voltage generated by wein bridge oscillator in sine wave, square wave
or triangular wave.

3.4 Current sensing circuit

 A current sensing circuit sensor is a device that detects and converts current to an easily
measured output voltage, which is proportional to the current through the measured path.
 Current passed through liquid by conductivity measuring cell is applied as input to current
sensing circuit [7].
 And converted voltage by current sensing circuit is further used for the calculation of TDS
and then applied to other devices.
 There are wide variety of sensors, and each sensor is suitable for a specific current range
and environmental condition. No one sensor is optimum for all applications.
 Among these sensors, a current sensing resistor is the most commonly used. It can be
considered a current- to-voltage converter, where inserting a resistor into the current path,
the current is converted to voltage in a linear way of V = I × R.
 Current sensing circuit is most widely by register because of advantages like Low-cost,
High measurement accuracy, and measurable current range from very low to medium.
 Current passed through conductivity measuring cell is very low in value then input because
of the resistance and other impurities of water or any liquid, so current sensing circuit have
to use low side current sensing technique for conversion.
 In low current sensing technique, sensing register is connected between load and ground
and sensed voltage is very low in value so we have to amplify that voltage for measurable
voltage output.
 Main advantage of register current sensing circuit is that it is very low in cost and it
eliminates ground disturbances, which will very our measured output voltage.

3.5 Rectifiers and Filters

 Rectifier and filter is used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage.
 Rectifiers are most widely used in voltage convertor and here we are going to use wein
bridge rectifier for voltage conversion and filter is used here to filter only required
voltage output form the rectifier and both are internally connected.

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 We are converting AC voltage to DC voltage here because of polarization effect of
measuring operation.
 Polarization effect is described by below figure.

Figure6. Polarization effect on water

 We cannot measure conductivity of salt using DC current because it will rip the molecules
apart, and since the molecules are what conducts the electricity you get a constantly
changing reading that is useless.
 Moreover, so that polarization takes place and we will get very different output at instance
time so rectifier and filter are used to convert AC to DC, because in further work of device
DC voltage is required.
 A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output
voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge
configuration and any AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed.
Single semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and
four-diode bridges, are manufactured as single components.
 For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back to-back
(cathode-to-cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required) can form
a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the transformer secondary to
obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged.

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3.6 Temperature Probe
 Temperature is effecting parameter on the measurement of the conductivity and TDS both;
we have to manage it for accurate result.
 We have to measure temperature first by temperature PROBE.
 We are going to use PT-100 temperature PROBE for the simple measurement of
temperature.
 PT100 temperature sensor have platinum resistor thermometer, which offers the best
overall advantage in measurement.
 Platinum resistance temperature sensor is built into steel tube V4A, 1/2 inch, suitable for
installation in pipes. Thermal response time T0, 9 in the air 255 s, in water 45 s.

3.7 Multiplexer
 We are using multiplexer here to rest the load on our device in selection of measurement
between conductivity measurement cell or temperature sensing device which is more
complex.
 Therefore, we have to use 2-to-1 multiplexer for our desired work.
 Multiplexers can implement arbitrary functions.
 A 2^n-to-1 multiplexer sends one of 2^n input lines to a single output line. A multiplexer
has two sets of inputs, one is for 2^n data input lines and second one is for n select lines,
to pick one of the 2^n data inputs.
 As defined above that we are going to use 2-to-1 multiplexer. this is the common block
diagram of pin connection.

Figure7. Diagram for pin connection

 Here D1 is Temperature sensor PIN and D0 is Conductivity cells PIN, and when S=0 then
D1 PIN input is as Output and S=1 then D0 PIN input is as output. This is very good
decision to use multiplexer circuit which will mostly rest down the complex building
blocks and load on our microprocessor or microcontroller.

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3.8 Display
 Display is used to show down our result of the measurement.
 Mainly 2-types of display are present 1>LCD(Liquid Crystal Display)2>LED
Display(Light Emitting Diode)
 For not more complex output of our device we are using LED display instead of LCD.
 The decimal outputs of digital instruments such as digital voltmeter (DMDS) and
frequency counters are often displayed using 7-segment indicators.
 Such indicators are constructed by using fluorescent bars, liquid crystal bars or LED bar
for each signal.
 LED type indicators are convenient because they are directly compatible with TTL
circuits, and do not require higher voltage for the work.
 A LED display is nothing but a light output to shown an information in the visual form.
 This displays are divided into two categories, 1> Character display-which will give visual
indication of numbers and letters. 2>Graphical display-which will give pictorial as well as
alphanumeric information.
 These displays are in response to digital signals given by microcontroller.
 Here we are using Character display to display our measured outputs.

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 CHAPTER - 4

4.1 How the TDS meter works

TDS meters are, in reality, conductivity meters. They work by applying a voltage between two or
more electrodes. Positively charged ions will move toward the negatively charged electrode, and
negatively charged ions will move toward the positively charged electrode. Because these ions are
charged and moving, they constitute an electrical current. The meter then monitors how much
current is passing between the electrodes as a gauge of how many ions are in solution. This measure
of conductivity, μS/cm is then converted to ppm by a factor of approximately 0.5, on a curve
ranging from 0.46 to 1, depending on the level. The factor is, related directly to the level of
conductivity. This meter is built and calibrated according to a NaCl standard. Other meters may
be calibrated to either a KCl standard or the 442 standard.

4.2 What the TDS meter actually detects

Since TDS meters are often used to test water "purity," it is important to understand what they do
not detect. As conductivity meters in disguise, TDS meters will only detect mobile charged ions.
They will not detect any neutral (uncharged) compounds. Such compounds include sugar, alcohol,
many organics (including many pesticides and their residues), and unionized forms of silica,
ammonia, and carbon dioxide. These meters also do not detect macroscopic particulates, as those
are too large to move in the electric fields applied. So if you see "rusty" looking water from iron
oxide particulates that will not be measured. Neither will anything else that makes the water look
cloudy. Bacteria and viruses also will not be detected. Total charged ions" is likely a much better
term for what the meter measures. Fortunately, a measurement of total charged ions is good enough
for most purposes.

4.3 Temperature Compensation

The conductivity of ions in water depends upon temperature. The ions are naturally moving around
faster as they get warmer. When the same numbers of ions are moving faster, the apparent
conductivity is increased.

Our meters are capable of compensating for temperature by simultaneously measuring the
conductivity and the temperature. The internal electronics then take temperature into account, and
normally provide a value that is "corrected" to what the conductivity would be at a standard
temperature (25°C).

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4.4 How the external factor may affect the reading
While pure water has a TDS well below 1 ppm, uncertainties from carbon dioxide in the air (which
gets into the water and ionizes to provide some conductivity) and the TDS meter itself may yield
results of 1 or 2 ppm even from pure water

The entire electrode assembly must be submerged in the sample without many bubbles or solids
present between the electrodes. Therefore, for example, you cannot typically get a good reading
by holding it in a stream of tap water because air often gets between the electrodes that way
(resulting in an artificially low reading).

4.5 Proper Usage

 Immerse the meter in the water/solution up to the maximum immersion level (2”).
 Lightly tap or stir the meter to remove any air bubbles.
– Pockets of air between the electrodes may interfere with the electrical current.
 Wait 10-20 seconds for the reading to stabilize.
– In hot (or ice cold) water, wait 20-30 seconds for the meter to compensate for
temperature. As the water temperature will adjust to room temperature, the reading will
change to accommodate the proper compensation.
 To ensure greater accuracy, turn the meter off and on for each reading.
 Shake any water off the meter after each use.
– This is to remove the droplets of water that may adhere to the surface between the
Sensors and the housing around them. These drops may interfere with readings.
 Rinse in de-ionized water or other filtered water after use to ensure proper readings.
 Rinse in alcohol or acid after use in high-TDS beverages.
 The meter is not waterproof: Do not drop or submerge the entire unit in water.
 Do not store the unit in high temperature or direct sunlight.

4.6 Calibration
 HM Digital meters are factory-calibrated at 342ppm NaCl and designed to stay consistent.
– However, you may need to recalibrate your meter from time to time, or applications. TDS
meters are most accurate when calibrated as close as possible to the sample to be tested.
 To ensure accuracy and consistency, recalibrate your meter using a commercial standard
solution. This can be done prior to usage and should be done after prolonged usage.
 For drinking water, we recommend calibrating within a range of 90ppm to 700ppm.

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Step 1: Measure the level of the solution (follow usage instruction above).

Step 2: If the meter does not read within 2% of the solution, adjust the reading by inserting a mini
screwdriver into the trimmer pot (small hole on the rear of the meter). Gently turn the trimmer
clockwise to increase the reading and counterclockwise to decrease the reading.

– Make sure the screwdriver fits evenly into the groove of the screw.

– Note that the trimmer pot is very sensitive! Remove the screwdriver carefully.

– Try to keep the meter vertical.

Step 3: Once the meter reads within 2% of the solution, gently release pressure on the screwdriver
and remove from the trimmer pot.

– If the screwdriver is retracted abruptly, the reading may jump.

Step 4: With the meter in the solution and the reading at the correct level, press the ‘HOLD’ button.
Let the reading hold for approximately 10 seconds to fully stabilize.

Step 5: Remove the meter from the solution. Shake it to remove any water drops that may adhere
to the probes and casing, creating air gaps.

– Water droplets or air gaps may cause the meter to display an incorrect reading.

Step 6: Turn the meter off, wait a moment and turn the meter on again.

Step 7: Insert the meter into the solution and verify the reading. If the reading is accurate,
calibration is complete. If not, repeat the procedure.

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 Conclusion

TDS meter is based on principle of conductivity, which is used to detect the dissolved ions in the
water. The invention of TDS meter makes a difference between pure water and impure water. The
TDS value (Total Dissolved Solids) gives the sum of dissolved solids in water. These solids
include for example salts, minerals and metals. The value is also called the conductivity of the
water. Because the more such solids or ions are in the water, the better it conducts electricity. TDS
meters typically quantify this conductivity in ppm. The latter stands for parts per pillion, i.e. the
number of solid particles per one million water mixture particles. A value of 40 ppm means that
from one million particles there are 40 dissolved ions and the rest (= 999 960) are water molecules.
Due to further improvement it become a device which can also measure the temperature of liquid.

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 References
[1] Nollet LML. Handbook of “Water Analysis”. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, 2007.

[2] Aboabboud M, Elmasallati S. “Potable water production from seawater by the reverse osmosis
technique in Libya”. Desalination 2007; 2: 12-23.

[3] Wagner J. “Membrane Filtration” Handbook: Practical Tips and Hints. Minnetonka, MN, USA:
Osmonics, 2001.

[4] Atekwana EA, Atekwana EA, Rowe RS, Werkema DD Jr, Legall FD. “The relationship of
total dissolved solids measurements to bulk electrical conductivity in an aquifer contaminated with
hydrocarbon”. J Appl Geophys 2004; 56: 281-294.

[5] Keramati H, Mahvi AH, Abdulnezhad L. “The survey of physical and chemical quality of
Gonabad drinking water in spring and summer of 1386”. Quarterly of the Horizon of Medical
Sciences 2007; 13: 25-32.

[6] Oliver B. M. and Cage J. M. “Electronics Measurement and Instrumentation” (McGraw Hill).

[7] Jung W. G. “IC Op-Amp Cookbook”, BPB publication, New Delhi.

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