F E A T U R E A R T I C L E

Furan Analysis for Liquid Power

Transformers
Key words: transformer paper insulation, furans, aging, transformer life assessment, degree of
polymerization

Introduction Luiz Cheim

The purpose and scope of this article is to discuss the his-
tory and development of furan testing as one of several diagnos- ABB TRES North America, 4350 Semple
tic tools to evaluate the health of transformer paper insulation. Ave., St. Louis, MO 63120
Much of the information on this subject has been derived from
laboratory studies of materials. The topic has been extensively Donald Platts
studied, and many technical papers have been written on the for- PPL Electric Utilities, 2 North Ninth St.,
mation of furanic compounds, which are dissolved in oil and
analyzed through normal transformer oil sampling. Allentown, PA 18101
Furans are one of several chemical compounds that are
produced as the paper insulation in a transformer ages and de- Thomas Prevost
grades. This article discusses how furans are produced, how they OMICRON Electronics USA, 230 Third Ave.,
dissolve in oil, the correlation of known furan data with the de-
gree of polymerization (DP), the parameters that affect the rate
Waltham, MA 02451
of furan production, and the limitations on the use of furans for Shuzhen Xu
diagnostic analysis.
This article attempts to capture and summarize the known FM Global, 1151 Boston Providence
technical information and recommendations for analysis of fu- Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062
ran test results. It will also provide the technical basis for con-
tinued gathering and evaluation of furan data for liquid power
transformers, and provide a recommended structure for collect-
ing that data. The article reviews what is known
History of Furan Analysis about furans and provides a techni-
Paper insulation is a critical component in an oil-filled trans- cal basis for the continued collection
former. To estimate the degradation of insulation, different diag- and evaluation of furan data and
nostic tools have been used such as dissolved-gas analysis and
estimates of aging from loading history. Furans have received suggests a structure for collecting
increased attention in the last 20 years because they offer the that data.
hope of measuring a specific chemical that will translate directly
into an indicator of the extent of the aging of paper insulation.
The research on furans in transformers started in the 1980s.
In one of the early papers documenting their studies, Burton et Since those early studies, furan analysis has attracted many
al. [1] reported that thermal degradation of cellulosic insulation researchers from the electrical and chemical fields, leading to a
material produces 2-furaldehyde, 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furalde- large volume of publications. The key points that promoted this
hyde, 2-acetylfuran, 5-methyl-2-furaldehyde, and 2-furfurol. research are as follows:
When they are produced, these compounds partition themselves
between the paper and the insulating oil. As a result, their con- • Furans are specific to the degradation of insulation pa-
centration in the oil can be measured by means of high-perfor- per inside transformers, i.e., they are only generated
mance liquid chromatography. when insulation paper degrades [2], [3].

8 0883-7554/12/$31/©2012/IEEE IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 • The measurement of furans is not intrusive. One only
needs an oil sample to perform the test, which can be
obtained from outside of the transformer. The proce-
dure for sampling the oil is the same as that for dis-
solved-gas analysis.
How Furans Are Formed
Paper Insulation Background
Kraft insulation paper is usually made by the delignifica-
tion of wood pulp by the KRAFT process, in which wood is
treated with a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide.
The main chemical component of insulation paper is cellulose,
which is a natural polymer of glucose. The cellulose fibers con-
sist of a bundle of molecules of different lengths, positioned side
by side. They are held together by hydrogen bonds involving
the hydroxyl (OH) groups on the adjacent molecules, which are
linked together through the glycosidic bond as shown in Figure
1.
Thermally upgraded cellulose insulation was developed in
the late 1950s by the major manufacturers of that time. There
are basically two types of thermal upgrading processes:
(a) Modification of the cellulose chains specifically at OH
groups by cyanoethylation and acetylation and
(b) Addition of chemicals to protect the cellulose from
acidic by-products of aging; this is primarily achieved
with nitrous compounds such as urea, melamine, dicy-
andiamide, and polyacrylamide.
In cyanoethylation, the cellulose is chemically modified with
some of the less-stable water forming hydroxyl groups in the
cellulose chain being replaced by more stable cyanethyl groups.
This process must be done in the pulping stage of paper manu-
facturing. The replacement of some of the hydroxyl groups also
reduces the number of hydrogen bridges between the molecules.
This reduces mechanical strength; however, it does lower water
absorption and shrinkage.
In amine addition, nitrous compounds such as dicyandiamide
are added to the paper to act as stabilizing agents. The addi-
tion of stabilizers suppresses the self-catalyzing character of the
aging process by a chemical reaction with the aging products
during which the additives are consumed. The stabilizing agents
consume water by reacting chemically with it. They also con-
tain organic bases that partially neutralize the acids, which are
also a by-product of aging. The changes in the initial mechanical
properties of the cellulose product are negligible. The stabilizing
agents can be applied to the finished paper or as a component in
the final stages of the papermaking process, called sizing.
Figure 1. The structure of insulation paper; n = degree of po-
lymerization.
March/April — Vol. 28, No. 2 9
Paper Insulation Degradation
The mechanism of cellulose degradation depends on the
conditions to which the paper insulation is subjected. There are
four major factors that promote degradation, namely, exposure
to elevated temperature, oxygen, acid, and moisture. The deg-
radation processes associated with these causes are thermal,
oxidative, and hydrolytic, which are shown in Figure 2. These
three degradation processes result in chain scission or depo-
lymerization, yielding glucose or degraded forms of glucose.
Glucose will further degrade, depending on the conditions, to
form furans and other chemical products such as water and
gases [2], [4].
Furan Chemistry
Furans are part of the degradation products of cellulose in-
sulation paper in transformers, and they are partially soluble
in the insulation fluid. When the cellulose chain breaks down
during paper degradation, each splitting of the chain liberates a
glucose monomer unit that undergoes further chemical reactions
to become furan compounds and other products such as water
and gases. Most often, the following five furan compounds are
measured:
• 2-furaldehyde (2FAL)
• 5-methyl-2-furaldehyde (5M2F)
• 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (5H2F)
• 2-acetyl furan (2ACF)
• 2-furfurol (2FOL)
The chemical structures of these five furans are shown in Fig-
ure 3. The concentrations of these furans in the transformer oil
can be identified and quantified by using high-performance liq-
uid chromatography. Formal test methods for measuring furan
compounds, such as ASTM D5837 and IEC 61198, have been
published to ensure consistent results. Among these furanic
compounds, 2FAL is always considered as the main compound
in the analysis because of its relatively higher generation rate
and stability inside a transformer.
The Stability of Furan Analysis
To evaluate the current technology and to make effective use
of the furan measurement process, it is necessary to examine
the stability of furans in the environment found in an operating
transformer. As stated by Unsworth [2], “It is pointless to cor-
relate furan concentrations with mechanical and dielectric prop-
erties if furans are not stable over time.” So for the purpose of
evaluating or making better use of this technology, it is very im-
portant to understand the stability of these various compounds in
the transformer operating environment.
Laboratory tests under nitrogen, or without the presence of
O2, show that below 100°C, all five of these furans are quite
stable without significant losses. When the temperature is above
100°C, and up to 160°C, 2FAL, 5M2F, and 2ACF are found to
be relatively stable. However, it was found that 2FOL is very
unstable and decomposes further when exposed to such high
temperature [2], [5], [6]. Therefore, furans in the transformer oil
should be quite stable because the normal operating temperature
 Figure 2. The degradation processes of cellulose paper.
for the top oil (the hottest oil) rarely exceeds 100°C and should
be limited as per C57.91 to less than 110°C. The temperature
limit for the average winding temperature at rated condition is
95°C, with a hot-spot limit of 110°C. So again, during normal
operation, the furan compound in the insulation should remain
stable without significant loss.
Test results from the experiments carried out by Allan in 1995,
in which the furans-in-oil solutions were open to atmosphere air,
show that when the temperature increases from 70°C to 110°C,
the oxidative stability of furans gets increasingly worse, espe-
cially that of 2FOL and 5H2F. These two furans are almost de-
pleted by the oxidation reactions when the temperature is above
90°C. So Allan suggested that the usefulness of 2FOL and 5H2F
would be reduced in the transformers with free-breathing sys-
tems, but the remaining three furans, 2FAL, 5M2F, and 2ACF,
would be stable enough to be used as diagnostic indicators for
almost all transformers [7].
Under oxidizing conditions found when a significant amount
of oxygen is present in the oil, laboratory tests show the stability
of these five furans is lowered. It has been found that the stability
of furan compounds has the following order: 2ACF ≈ 5M2F >
2FAL > 5H2F > 2FOL [2], [6], [8], meaning that 2ACF is about
the same as 5M2F, and both are more stable than 2FAL, and so
on.
Dicyandiamide, known as “dicy,” is used in thermally up-
graded insulation paper to help improve thermal performance,
control the rate of aging, and for stability. The effect of dicy
on the stability of furan compounds remains a controversial is-
sue. It was reported in 1999 that dicyandiamide appears to be
involved in breaking down furan compounds [9]. Laboratory
10 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
results obtained by Griffin et al. [8] show that in the presence
of dicy, 5H2F was depleted to a great degree, whereas 2FOL,
5M2F, 2FAL, and 2ACF appeared to have a small decrease (see
Figure 4).
One theory for the observation of lower levels of 2FAL is that
dicy prevents a buildup of acids (acid capture), which prevents
the formation of 2FAL. Hydrolysis of cellulose is always acid
catalyzed [10].
Furan Analysis Techniques
Although furans are produced by the deterioration of the cel-
lulose paper insulation, it is the concentration of furans in the oil
that is measured. Oil samples are drawn and sent to a laboratory
for testing, and three different approaches to the interpretation of
furan test results have been used, namely,
(1) Correlating the furan concentrations in the oil to the DP
of the paper,
(2) Comparing the furan concentration with a threshold
value based on statistical analysis of a large population,
and
(3) Trending the furan concentration level over time.
The correlation between the furan concentrations in the oil
and the DP of the paper has been the object of much research.
Because DP has been accepted as a reliable indicator of the de-
terioration of Kraft paper insulation, a direct correlation to the
measured furan content would prove to be the missing link to de-
termine the extent of the aging of the paper without the intrusive
measures required to obtain a representative sample that could
 Figure 3. The chemical structures of furan compounds.
be tested for its DP value. The efforts to establish that correla-
tion have been based on laboratory tests, and they are discussed
in this article. The last two approaches are mainly based on the
statistical analysis on actual data collected from laboratories or
from utilities, and they will be discussed later in the article.
Correlation Between Determination
of the DP and Furan
Degree of polymerization is determined in accordance with
ASTM D4243 - 99(2009), Standard Test Method for Measure-
ment of Average Viscometric Degree of Polymerization of New
and Aged Electrical Papers and Boards. Standard IEC 60450 is
a similar test method. The viscosity of a solution of macromol-
ecules is dependent on the molecular weight at a given low con-
centration. This phenomenon is used for the determination of the
DP of cellulosic insulating materials.
For each test a small amount of fluffed paper or board, of
mass 50 to 100 mg, that has the oil removed is dissolved in cu-
priethylenediamine. The viscosity of the paper solution is deter-
mined using a capillary viscometer. From this result the average
March/April — Vol. 28, No. 2 11
DP is calculated using experimentally established equations that
can be found in the standard test method. For a well-performed
DP measurement, repeatability would typically be 2% and re-
producibility about 10% [11].
Viscometric degree of polymerization measurement is an
analysis method that has long been recognized as a viable mea-
sure of paper insulation aging. It gives the average number of
glucose units per cellulose chain. The length of the cellulose
molecule is measured in terms of the DP. New insulation pa-
per has an average chain length of 1,100 to 1,500. Drying the
transformer after winding reduces the DP of the paper further to
around 1,000 to 1,100 [2], [12], [13].
When the insulation paper degrades to the point that the DP
is approximately 200, many would consider the paper to have
reached the end of its useful life. It is no longer capable of re-
covering from the mechanical stresses expected in a normally
operated transformer. Although many transformers remain in
service with DP levels below 200, selecting a DP value as the
point of the insulation end of life is a matter of engineering
judgment.
 Figure 5 shows one example of this relationship found in labora-
tory tests. To denote this relationship, several different equations
have been proposed by the various authors, and their results are
summarized below.

Kraft Paper
Several of the widely recognized technical papers that have
proposed correlation equations for the relationship of the furan
concentration to DP are summarized in the following:

A. Chengdong’s curve [14] is as follows: log10(2FAL) =

Figure 4. Stability of furanic compounds in new oil with dicy-
andiamide (dicy) at 120°C as found by Griffin et al. [8]. HMF
= 5H2F, FOL = 2FOL, FAL = 2FAL, AF = 2ACF, and MF =
5M2F. New oil spiked with 1,000 mg/mL of each of five furan
compounds and 100 mg/mL of dicy. All of these samples were
sparged with nitrogen in valved, stainless-steel cylinders for
20 minutes and then sealed under nitrogen. No information on
type of oil used was given. Reprinted with permission from P. J.
Griffin and L. R. Lewand, “Case studies,” in Proceedings of the
Sixty-Fourth Annual International Conference of Doble Clients,
1997, Sec 5-7.
To obtain the relationship between furan concentrations in
the oil and DP of the paper, accelerated aging tests of paper
samples were carried out in different laboratories [1], [6], [12],
[14]–[17]. Analysis of the test data from sealed tube test cells by
almost all of the laboratories suggests that there is an approxi-
mately linear relationship between the logarithm of the concen-
tration level of 2FAL in oil and the DP of standard Kraft paper.
1.51 − 0.0035 × DP, where 2FAL is the concentration
of furfural in the oil expressed in milligrams per liter
and DP is the average degree of polymerization. In the
laboratory, the experiment simulated the oil–paper in-
sulation system of a transformer.
B. De Pablo and Pahlvanpour [12] presented five different
equations to correlate 2FAL to DP in oil. These five
equations were provided by different laboratories that
participated in a project to establish the relationship of
furan concentration to DP. In all of these laboratories,
the paper used complied with IEC publication 60554-1,
and a ratio of 1 g of paper to 100 mL of oil was used.
The oil used complied with the specifications described
in IEC publication 60296. The five correlation equa-
tions and their correlation coefficients (R) were as fol-
lows (2FAL is expressed in mg/kg of paper):
Lab 1: log10(2FAL) = 3.41 − 0.00264 × DP, R = 0.945;
Lab 2: log10(2FAL) = 3.57 − 0.00355 × DP, R = 0.915;
Lab 3: log10(2FAL) = 1.82 − 0.00166 × DP, R = 0.736;
Lab 4: log10(2FAL) = 3.61 − 0.00365 × DP, R = 0.835;
Lab 5: log10(2FAL) = 3.40 − 0.00287 × DP, R = 0.951.

All of the laboratories in the CIGRE investigation used

Figure 5. Correlation of degree of polymerization to
log10(2FAL) for Kraft paper aged in oil at different tempera-
tures: ▲ = 120°C; ■ = 140°C; ○ = 160°C. The setting of the
experiment was 4 g of Kraft paper in 40 to 50 mL of oil with
moisture less than 10 mg/L and 1 ± 0.1% oxygen. The ratio of
oil to paper was around 10:1. No information was given on the
type of oil used [6]. Reprinted with permission from A. M. Ems-
ley, X. Xiao, R. J. Heywood, and M. Ali, “Degradation of cel-
lulosic insulation in power transformers. Part 2: Formation of
furan products in insulating oil,” in IEE Proceedings Science,
Measurement and Technology, 2000, published by the IET.
the same type of paper and the same type of oil, and
all studies were performed under strict laboratory con-
ditions. Despite that, discrepancies in the results are
significant, even if laboratory 3 is discarded as an out-
lier. The agreement between results seems to improve
toward end of life (DP <250); however, in insulation
with higher levels of DP (~800), the variation between
laboratories is significant (from as low as 8 to above
approximately 20 ppb). As demonstrated in [12], there
is no single model that applies to all test conditions or
to all transformers.
C. In 2003, Cheim et al. proposed a mathematical cor-
rection to the Arrhenius model for transformer loss of
life in order to incorporate the effect of temperature
gradients inside transformers. His analysis used that
formula, evaluated the 2FAL data from a large number
of transformers (~400) installed in about 20 different
utilities in Brazil, and considered laboratory experi-
ments of accelerated transformer aging. Based on that
analysis, he proposed the following model [18]:

12 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 1
 2FAL ψd
DP =   ,
 λ 

where 2FAL is expressed in ppm and parameters λ, ψ,

and d depend on the type of paper used and also on the
winding longitudinal temperature gradient. Note that
the model is fundamentally transformer design depen-
dent, including the types of paper, and the reference
describes the methodology to derive the parameters.
D. The De Pablo equation [1] (De Pablo 1 in this article) is
as follows:

7, 100 Figure 6. A comparison of the various correlation equations

DP = , between degree of polymerization (DP) and 2-furaldehyde
8.88 + (2FAL)
(2FAL).
where 2FAL is expressed in milligrams per kilogram.
This equation was developed by De Pablo assuming
that the initial DP of paper is 800, molecular weight
of 2FAL is 96, three cellulose chain scissions give one
2FAL molecule, and the ratio of oil to paper is 25. Also,
the paper is assumed to be uniformly degraded.
De Pablo also developed another equation, which is
based on the assumption that 20% of the paper de-
grades faster. The equation (De Pablo 2 in this article)
is as follows:
800
DP = .
0.186 × 2FAL + 1
These equations are theoretically derived from chemis-
try and not from test data.
E. The Burton equation [1] is as follows: log(2FAL) = 2.5
− 0.005DP.
F. The Paul Vuarchex equation [1] is as follows: log(2FAL)
= 2.6 − 0.0049DP.
With the exception of the equation proposed by Cheim et al.,
the above five equations are plotted in Figure 6 to illustrate the
variation in the results.
Thermally Upgraded Paper
7,337 ppb (by weight), whereas the furan level for up-
graded paper was 2,843 ppb (by weight). The reference
did not indicate which furans were used in the correla-
tion.
B. In 2004 Lundgaard et al. published a paper where they
tested Kraft and thermally upgraded Kraft papers to ex-
amine various aging factors [21]. The Insuldur process
was used to thermally upgrade the Kraft paper. The
data on furan testing are represented in Figure 8. Note
that an increase in the number of chain scissions is pro-
portional to a decrease in the DP. Observations about
this testing and the graphs are as follows:
• For this study, the Kraft paper aged significantly more
than the thermally upgraded Kraft, and the level of fu-
rans produced during this aging of the Kraft is very sig-
nificant.
• For the same exposure, the thermally upgraded Kraft
experienced much less aging, fewer chain scissions,
and little furan production, as demonstrated by the
furan concentration, although furans were produced
throughout the study.
Also note in Figure 8 that although it might appear that
Insuldur insulation does not produce 2FAL at all, Insul-
dur did not age to the same degree as Kraft, as demon-
strated by the number of chain scissions.

A. In 2003, Myers et al. published a paper to state their

prediction of DP from total furan compounds (total fu-
ran means the summation of the five furan compounds
found resolved in the oil) for transformers with ther-
mally upgraded paper [19], which is as follows: DP =
[log10(total furan) − 4.0355]/−0.002908.
In a “Tech Corner” bulletin published in 2009 on the
Myers website [20], a direct comparison of nonupgrad-
ed with thermally upgraded paper was offered (Figure
7). In this comparison, the furan level corresponding to
a DP of 200, which is generally considered end of life Figure 7. Myers comparison of correlation of degree of polym-
for paper insulation, was compared. For a DP of 200, erization (DP) to furan level between thermally upgraded and
the non-thermally upgraded paper had a furan level of non-thermally upgraded paper [20].

March/April — Vol. 28, No. 2 13


Figure 8. The concentration of 2-furaldehyde (2FAL) for Kraft
paper and Insuldur insulation [21 [AU6: Indicate which insula-
tion is shown is which graph (a and b). ]].
C. In 2008, Wicks and Prevost presented data on DP ver-
sus 2FAL as part of thermal aging tests for Kraft and
thermally upgraded paper, “C57.100 – IEEE Standard
Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Liquid Im-
mersed Distribution and Power Transformers” [22].
Their work on C57-100 resulted in thermal aging tests
on both Kraft and thermally upgraded paper using dual
temperature aging cells. Each test sample was tested
for DP of the paper and furans in oil content. The re-
sulting data are shown in Figure 9.
The dual temperature aging experiment was significant in two
ways. First, the scale of the experiment was significantly large so
that it allowed one to study the variability in furan results. Sec-
ond, the model more closely represented an actual transformer
insulation system in which there are hotter and cooler regions
within the insulation system and the oil is generally cooler than
the hot-spot insulation. Most important, only the insulating pa-
per on the conductor is thermally upgraded and the remainder of
the cellulose insulation, which accounts for more than 90% of
the insulation by weight, is nonupgraded. Sealed tube aging ex-
periments subject the entire insulation system to the same tem-
perature and typically use 100% Kraft or thermally upgraded
paper in their comparative studies.
Figure 9 shows that even when the large-scale testing is done
in one laboratory, there is often great variability in the test re-
14 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Figure 9. Plot of degree of polymerization (DP) to log 2-fural-
dehyde from aging tests on Kraft and thermally upgraded paper
with both of the best-fit correlation equations [22].
sults. For thermally upgraded Kraft, at tested furan levels of 2.42
to 2.46 ppm, the range of the tested DP measurements extends
from 340 to 600. Similar variations exist with the Kraft paper
samples.
In Figure 10, the data from Figure 9 have been replotted with
the addition of error bounds. The error bounds of ±35% of the
calculated PD used with the derived correlation have been cho-
sen because they bound most of the data. The resulting conclu-
sion from this analysis of that data set is that we can state with
a fairly high degree of certainty that the equation on this graph
will calculate the corresponding DP value of the samples aged
and tested in this study with an accuracy of ±35%.
After reviewing the 11 correlation equations of furan to DP
that have been presented in this article and analyzing the graphs
shown in Figures 6, 9, and 10, the authors find that they cannot
endorse any one of these proposed correlations. When reviewing
the variability of the data in Figure 9, and the equations pre-
sented in the CIGRE round-robin testing, we find that a given
furan concentration may be matched with a given DP measure-
ment in one researcher’s report and then in another report be
matched with another DP measurement that is several hundred
units different. Even under the best of conditions, when a single
technician working in a single test laboratory tests multiple sam-
Figure 10. Data from Figure 9, with error bands plotted to in-
dicate ±35% of the calculated degree of polymerization (DP).
2FAL = 2-furaldehyde.
 Figure 11. The furan distribution of 77 step-up transformers [14].

ples that have been aged at different rates for different times and
different temperatures using a standard aging test protocol and
when it is presumed he followed the identical test procedures,
the results show little precision (Figure 9). After reviewing, and
analyzing, this incredibly wide variation in the test data, and the
correlation equations, the authors cannot conclude that the pro-
cedure for these furan tests and the conversion into an equivalent
DP is valid today.
Studies of Data From Operating
Transformers
The correlation between the logarithm of 2FAL and DP in
operating transformers has been difficult to establish—consider-
able scatter was found on the correlation between the collected
DP value and the furan levels on the real transformers [23], [24].
This uncertainty may be caused by many factors such as a dif-
ferent paper-to-oil ratio, partitioning of furan in paper and oil,
which may depend on the temperature, oil quality, and water
concentration in oil, or possible decomposition of furans in the
presence of dicy, oxygen and high temperature, and oil process-
es.
Also, because the measured furan level in oil is an indicator
of the average paper degradation, it cannot indicate the degrada-
tion at the worst-case location. In addition, the pattern of aver-
age paper degradation will vary from one transformer design to
another. A transformer with moderate levels of overall degrada-
tion can have the same 2FAL concentration in the oil as another
unit with generally low overall levels but also a small area with
severe deterioration. Similar transformers may be operated at
different average and different peak loading throughout their
lifetimes. It should be expected that the insulation would age
differently in these units, and therefore the furan content would
be different. Thus, an accurate correlation between DP and the
furan concentrations in oil for field transformers is difficult to
establish.
Statistical Analysis of Furan Data
Many have attempted to conduct statistical analyses on furan
data sampled from field transformers. The objective is to ob-
tain threshold values of furans for diagnostic purposes. However
most of the survey results are from transformers using standard
Kraft paper that were designed according to IEC standards. The
results may have limited application to transformers using ther-
mally upgraded paper designed according to IEEE standards.
A. Dong et al. [25] collected 750 furan test records of dif-
ferent transformers from China. No detailed informa-
tion on these transformers was given. Through a sta-
tistical approach, a significant effect of service age of
step-up transformer on 2FAL level in oil was observed,
but the effects of rated voltage and capacity were con-
sidered insignificant. They also claimed that the pro-
duction of 2FAL in oil would speed up, especially
after 15 years or so of service. This phenomenon of
accelerated generation was also observed in a labora-
tory experiment conducted by Emsley et al. [17], who
reported that the most significant rise in 2FAL level oc-
curred when DP had deteriorated to below 400.
B. Xue [14] collected 2FAL test results on 77 step-up
transformers in power plants from northern China, with
rated voltages ranging from 100 to 500 kV. Through re-
gression analysis of these data, the following equation
to calculate the mean values of 2FAL for transformers
with different service years was obtained: log10(2FAL)
= −1.83 + 0.058 × t, where 2FAL is expressed in milli-
grams per liter and t is the number of years in operation
of the transformer. The upper and lower 99.5% confi-
dence bounds of 2FAL level were obtained from these
two equations: log10(2FAL) = −1.29 + 0.058 × t and
log10(2FAL) = −2.37 + 0.058 × t. The results are plotted
in Figure 11.
C. Researchers [19], [26] published several papers shar-
ing their experience with furan analysis in field trans-
formers. In 1998, a survey was conducted on the fu-
ran test results over the three-year period from 1994
through 1997 [26]. All small pole-top transformers
were excluded from the survey. In the survey, most of
the samples were taken from mineral oil. However, the
sources of the transformers were mixed, including the

March/April — Vol. 28, No. 2 15

 United States, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, In-
donesia, Mexico, Peru, Saudi Arabia, and South Africa.
The data are the total furan values, which include all of
the five commonly used furans: 2FAL, 5H2F, 5M2F,
2FOL, and 2ACF. They found the following distribu-
tion: 75% of the data were 100 ppb (weight), 87% were
250 ppb, 96.5% were 1,000 ppb, and 98.5% were 2,500
ppb.
D. Statistical studies reported by Lewand [27] showed that
90 to 95% of samples from transformers with thermally
upgraded insulation had less than about 100 μg/L of
2FAL. This applied to both mineral oil and silicone
transformers.
E. A statistical survey reported by De Pablo and Pahla-
vanpour [12] with the furan samples taken from 5,005
transformers in service in five European countries
showed that there was a dependence of the furan level
on rated capacity, rated voltage, and age, which may be
used to explain the uncertainty of correlation between
DP and 2FAL for field transformers. The 95 percentile
of the samples is located in the range of 1,000 to 5,000
ppb depending on the source of the samples.
F. A survey of 2FAL values on 127 power transform-
ers at generating power plants located in Colombia,
South America, was conducted in 1997. Most of the
units were free breathing with rated voltage levels
from 13.8 to 230 kV, and the age of the units ranged
from 1 to 42 years. The 90 percentile value of the sur-
veyed samples was 1,706 μg/L and the 95 percentile
was 2,057 μg/L. The survey also concluded that the
average annual generation rate of 2FAL for 90% of
the surveyed units was 64 μg/L per year. Another ob-
servation from this survey was that the concentration
of 2FAL in oil was found to be somewhat dependent
on the service age [28].
Notice that the European studies of operating units indicated
a clear furan dependence of voltage and power ratings, along
with the application of the transformer, whereas the laboratory
models would supposedly apply to any given transformer. There
is no consistency in the published results that could lead to a
recommendation to use any one of these methods.
Technical Issues and Limitations:
Parameters That May Affect Furan
Production
Researchers have been trying, for many years now, to estab-
lish a reliable correlation between furan production and the ac-
tual transformer age or, at least, the correlation between furan
and the thermal degradation of the solid insulation measured by
its DP on actual transformers. Although several papers have re-
ported that it is applicable to laboratory accelerated aging tests,
several difficulties are hindering attempts to achieve that corre-
lation for operating transformers.
The most obvious parameter is the typical hot-spot tempera-
ture for any given transformer. It is widely accepted that the hot
16 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
spot is the critical area for furan production due to the fact that
it is the location of the highest winding temperature and thus the
most favorable region regarding thermal degradation. Having a
good approximation of the hot-spot temperature and knowing
the transformer typical load and load profile may shed new light
onto the interpretation of furans production and may also help in
clarifying some differences that may occur in practice.
Another point that should be taken into account is the varia-
tion in transformer design. Given two transformers operat-
ing under the same conditions, side by side, but with different
manufacturers and designs, it is common that these units would
behave differently regarding thermal aspects. Most often indi-
vidual windings in a given transformer will show different longi-
tudinal temperature gradients, thus producing different average
winding temperatures under the same loading condition. These
variations in temperature gradient may be even more significant
when comparing transformers with different manufacturers and
designs. Considering that furans are produced by the thermal
aging of the cellulosic insulation, it is then expected that dif-
ferent windings would contribute differently to the occurrence
of furans. Put simply, a cooler winding should be expected to
produce less furan than would a warmer winding.
Similarly, and as another example to illustrate the issue of
design dependency, a great number of small to medium power
transformers were built in the USA during the 1960s and 1970s
with enamel insulation on the low-voltage winding and paper
on the HV (this has always been typical for distribution trans-
formers). If they are compared with similarly rated transform-
ers built with paper on both windings, one would expect that
the furan concentrations in the enamel-insulated winding to be
significantly less, because there may be only one-half to about
two-thirds as much paper to age and produce the furans. Yet
with similar loading histories, the DP of the paper insulation
winding should be similar. Thus, a comparative analysis of the
two types of transformers may well indicate similar DP but
very different amounts of furans produced over a given operat-
ing time.
Typical ambient temperature is also a matter of consideration.
Some investigators believe, based on experience and significant
databases, that transformers operating in warm environments,
like those in tropical countries, would produce more furans that
transformers operating in subtropical conditions. This is still
a matter of investigation, and it is brought up here as food for
thought.
The rate of furan production also seems to be dependent on
the operating temperature and on the aging itself, as has been
indicated by laboratory studies [6]. Those results showed faster
furan production at higher temperatures than at lower tempera-
tures for new paper insulation. In reference [6], the experiment
results show at more advanced aging (DP lower than 500), the
rate of furan production increases and then decreases when DP
approaches 200.
Other parameters such as insulation type, moisture content
of the insulation, amount of oxygen in contact with the insula-
tion, presence of acids or other contaminants, furans partition
between paper and oil, oil treatment such as in degassing and
drying out, as well as oil reclamation may play a significant role
in the rate of the furan production. These parameters need to be
analyzed and factored into future evaluation of furan analysis.
The use of furfural in the oil-refining process can leave some
residues in the oil [3], [6]. The ASTM standard for new mineral
oil (D3487) does not have a limit for the concentration of furanic
compounds in the new oil. It does include a note indicating that
the maximum allowable levels should be specified by agreement
between the user and supplier. Therefore, if the transformer user
wants to monitor the furan concentration in the oil, this baseline
value should be measured and taken into account. (Note: IEC
60296-2003 requires that unused insulating oils have a low level
of 2FAL and related compounds, and they are limited to a maxi-
mum 0.1 mg/kg.)
How to Use Results From Furan Testing
As extensively discussed above, it is clear that although it re-
mains a very promising tool, so far the application of furans for
the estimation of power transformer loss of life or actual aging
is limited to extreme values. In general, units with high levels of
furans have experienced significant insulation degradation, and
those with low levels have little deterioration. Analyzing the rate
of furan production will guide the investigator as to the degrada-
tion rate. This can be compared with the load profile and loss-of-
life estimations to determine whether the insulation degradation
is exceeding predicted levels, which could indicate a thermal
problem involving the insulation system.
As values become less extreme, it becomes much more dif-
ficult to estimate the actual relationship between furan levels and
the actual degradation of the solid insulation in actual transform-
ers. However, it is possible to compare the test results of two
transformers and draw conclusions about the relative extent of
their aging.
Common sense and experimental investigations must guide
us throughout the analytical process of interpreting the levels of
furans found in a given transformer. For example, a transformer
that is known to have been manufactured with thermally upgrad-
ed paper is not expected to produce the same amount of furans as
a similar transformer that was manufactured with normal Kraft
paper and subjected to the same load and ambient conditions.
Transformers that operate routinely at normal high tempera-
tures (typically transformers that operate at or above nameplate
ratings) should be expected to contain relatively higher furan
levels than similar units that operate almost constantly at light
loads. Therefore, any comparison must take operating tempera-
ture into account.
Whatever the statistical references or mathematical models
used as reference on the furan levels, all of the differentiating
factors mentioned earlier must be considered. One way that
might reduce the limitation in the applicability of the state-of-
the-art models is continuous and systematic follow-up of the
evolution of furans for a particular fleet of transformers, when
possible.
Take the example of 2FAL only. Suppose one is measuring
2FAL every six months for a group of three similar units under
similar operating conditions and identical maintenance proce-
dures. Consider the following questions:
March/April — Vol. 28, No. 2 17
• Is there any fundamental design or manufacturing dif-
ference between these units? Might it be relevant to fu-
ran production?
• How similarly are the levels of 2FAL changing with
time? (This allows us to ignore for the moment the dis-
cussion of “normal” and “abnormal” levels.)
• Is there any deviation from the reference or baseline
measurements?
• When a change in 2FAL concentration is noticed:
○ Has any operational change been implemented
that might justify the differences, for example, a
change in operating temperature or load?
○ Has there been any failure issue (such as dis-
solved-gas analysis evidence), any oil treatment,
or degassing?
After responding to all of these questions, one has much
more knowledge and information to proceed to a broader in-
vestigation, using the limited data available, and compare it, for
example, with statistical limits and references produced by any
other investigative work (e.g., Certified Laboratories, IEEE ref-
erences, and CIGRE). It is only then that conclusions can be
made on a preliminary indication about the “normality” or “ab-
normality” of the test results at hand.
Finally, elevated levels of 2FAL or any of the other furan
compounds should not be used as the sole parameter when
evaluating or analyzing a transformer oil sample. Other param-
eters from the oil screen test and dissolved-gas analysis should
be evaluated along with the presence of furans when trending a
transformer’s condition or making a decision whether to replace
a transformer.
The concentration of the furans in the oil of a particular trans-
former at any point in time is dependent on the content at a prior
date, the furans produced by the deterioration of the cellulose
insulation during the intervening time period, the partitioning
of the furans between the oil and the paper, degradation of some
furan molecules (due to the stability issues) during that time in-
terval, and probably several other factors.
Two actions that may affect the furan concentration of a
transformer are oil reclamation (treatment with Fuller’s earth)
and oil treatment such as in degassing and drying out. It is well
known that reclamation will strip all of the furans from the treat-
ed oil. When the oil with zero furan content is reintroduced to a
transformer, the partitioning of the furans in the insulation and
oil will attempt to reach equilibrium, and then after a period of
time, the observed concentration in the transformer oil will in-
crease. Therefore, when attempting to trend the furan concentra-
tion and total the furans produced over time, an owner will need
to attempt to make some adjustments in the data to account for
the furans removed during the oil reclamation.
Clearly, additional industry-wide accumulation and evalua-
tion of test result data on furans, transformer operating condi-
tions, and paper sample test results are necessary before furan
testing can be used as the final determination of the condition
and age of the insulation paper of a transformer.
 Recommendations for Data Collection Table 1. Suggested Transformer Information Form.
From all the discussion and technical material presented in
Manufacturer  
this article, the word “consistency” is the one that is strikingly
absent. This IEEE Transformers Committee Furan Task Force S/N  
recognizes that there is still a need for data collection—particu- Maximum MVA  
larly better quality data that includes the possible influencing HV RATING (KV)  
factors on 2FAL and other furan production. Thus, a reliable da-
LV RATING (KV)  
tabase should include the following simultaneous information:
TERTIARY RATING (KV)  
• Test results for furans (indicate mg/kg or μL/mL), Year of manufacture  
• Test results for moisture in oil, Transformer type CF = core form
• Test results for O2, CO, and CO2, and   SF = shell form
• The typical operating temperature of the transformers
Preservation system type S = sealed
(at least top oil indication).
  O = open
The database should also provide information about the °C rise 55 65 IEC
transformer design and construction (see Table 1 for a suggested Transformer use GSU
comprehensive information list). Loading profile (Figure 12)
  T = transmission
and application should also be provided. The user should indi-
cate the typical loading profile for this transformer by providing   D = distribution
the two-letter code from the examples below. Choose the option   I = industrial
that best approximates the typical loading cycle for this trans- Insulating liquid MO-I = mineral oil inhibited
former.
  MO-UI = mineral oil uninhibited
  NE = natural ester
Summary and Conclusions
This article has attempted to capture the history and latest   SE = synthetic ester
technical information regarding the formation of furans as trans-   S = silicone
former paper ages and degrades over time and the analysis of Liquid volume Gallons
testing. 2-Furaldehyde is always considered the main compo- LTC None
nent of the five furan compounds because of its stability and
  Communicating
relatively higher rate of formation in transformers.
A great deal of research has been performed and data gath-   Noncommunicating
ered to evaluate the correlation of 2FAL to DP as a measure Loading profile GB
to predict the remaining life of transformer insulating paper.   GC
Several equations describing DP as a function of log(2FAL) for
  TDC
Kraft paper have been developed. Other equations for thermally
upgraded paper exist. There is considerable variability among   TDS
the data, and therefore, we find great differences in the proposed   Other
correlation equations. Operating age at the time of sampling  
There are many variables that can affect the rate of forma- Sample date (mm/dd/yyyy)  
tion of 2FAL including temperature, transformer design, type
Top oil temperature at sampling °C
of paper, presence of varying amounts of moisture and oxygen,
partitioning of furans between oil and paper, and maintenance   °F
activities including oil reconditioning or reclamation. Moisture concentration in oil ppm
Because of the wide range of variability among the furan and Oxygen concentration in oil ppm
DP data, the authors of this article cannot endorse any of the
Units mg/kg
equations proposed by various researchers or any of the meth-
ods for correlating 2FAL to DP. As demonstrated throughout this   μg/L
article, there is no single model that applies to all transform-   2-Furaldehyde (2FAL)  
ers. Transformer owners are warned to exercise caution in the   5-Methyl-2-furaldehyde (5M2F)  
application of any of these furan to DP correlation models and   5-Hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (5H2F)  
to weigh any conclusions that might result from that analysis
  2-Acetyl furan (2ACF)  
against all other available technical information and testing re-
sults. It would not be prudent to take any actions based primarily   2-Furfurol (2FOL)  
on the results of furan tests. Historical oil processing Reconditioning
Although laboratory testing has provided a fairly consistent   Reclamation
correlation between aging and furan production, data sampling

18 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Figure 12. Examples of loading profiles with corresponding codes. (a) Generation or industrial base
load (coded as GB), (b) generator or industrial cyclical load (coded as GC), (c) T&D or industrial
cyclical load (coded as TDC), and (d) T&D or industrial cyclical with spike (coded as TDS).

from actual in-service transformers has not provided data that
will correlate the two. Again because of the variability of furan
test results due to differences in design and application, none of
the methods reviewed have provided a set of threshold values
or ranges of results that will allow classification of the extent of
aging that apply to all transformers.
The best available analysis technique appears to be compar-
ing relative furan test results between transformers that have
similar design and construction and similar service histories.
The industry expectations must be managed to recognize that
perhaps the only valid conclusion could be that one of the units
in this comparison appears to be aging at a faster rate than the
other.
Continued thermal aging tests while controlling the factors
that affect the aging rate, and gathering of paper samples, along
with furan data, should help the industry to establish a more de-
finitive relationship between furans, DP, and overall transformer
paper aging characteristics. Laboratory tests to examine furan
behavior in a full range of degradation states, from around 1,000
DP up to 200 DP level, for 100% thermally upgraded insula-
tion paper would enhance the understanding of this technology.
However, data to correlate the operating conditions of in-service
transformers with the furan test results, and then with tests of
actual insulation removed from these units, are essential. Only
after establishing that correlation can the transformer industry
gain the experience and history required to allow furan testing to
become a reliable and valuable tool for determining the degree
of paper insulation deterioration in a particular transformer.
As a final remark, it may be of interest to also look into other
insulation aging traces and possible correlations with furans
as well as the actual deterioration of the solid insulation. One
chemical indicator of aging that seems to be a serious candi-
date is methanol [29], [30], although further investigation is still
needed to clarify a number of issues, such as the effect of oil ag-
ing and nitrogenous substances on the occurrence of methanol,
in order to provide a reliable indicator.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the IEEE Transformer Com-
mittee for its support of the Task Force of Furan Analysis for
Liquid Power Transformers and the following individuals for
their valuable suggestions: Brian Penny, Jocelyn Jalbert, Jos
Veen, Joseph Kelly, Juan Castellanos Gonzalez, Mike Lau, and
Paul Boman.

March/April — Vol. 28, No. 2 19

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Thomas A. Prevost is primary manager
for OMICRON Electronics USA. Prior
to joining the OMICRON team, Prevost
worked for 25 years at Weidmann Electri-
cal Technologies, a manufacturer of insu-
lation materials and provider of diagnostic
services for the transformer industry. Ear-
ly in his career Prevost worked at Tampa
Electric Company as an engineer in distri-
bution and production. Prevost received his
BSEE from Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He is a senior mem-
ber of IEEE. He is vice-chair of the P2030 “Smart Grid” work-
ing group. He is the past-chair of the IEEE PES Transformers
Committee. He is a member-at-large of the IEEE PES Board of
Governors. Prevost is also active in ASTM committee D27 on
Insulating Fluids and IEC TC10 on Insulating Fluids. He has
written many technical papers on the subject of electrical insula-
tion materials, transformer diagnostics, and condition monitor-
ing.
Shuzhen Xu works as a senior research
specialist at FM Global. Her responsibili-
ties include risk and reliability assessment
for HV equipment such as transformers,
generators, and industrial motors. She has
more than seven years of experience in fail-
ure root cause analysis, diagnostic testing
data analysis, and condition evaluation and reliability assess-
ment for HV equipment. She has published numerous technical
papers on the subject of HV equipment reliability assessment.
Xu is an active member of the IEEE Transformer Committee
and is the chair of the task force on furan analysis for liquid
power transformers. She received her PhD from Shanghai Jiao-
tong University in China.
Donald Platts is presently a senior staff
engineer in Transmission and Substation
Standards Engineering with PPL Electric
Utilities. He is responsible for most engi-
neering activities involving transformers:
preliminary studies and selection; purchase
projects including writing specifications,
performing inspections, and witnessing
testing; maintenance and operation sup-
port; dissolved-gas analysis; loading stud-
ies; failure analysis; and equipment repair processes. His experi-
ence with PPL includes 21 years in various engineering groups:
Standards Engineering, System Maintenance Engineering,
Substation Component Engineering, and so on. In each of these
positions, he has held similar responsibilities for transformer-re-
lated issues. For 16 years prior, he worked in the Substation En-
gineering design group, where he was responsible for substation
design projects and transformer procurement activities. He is an
active member of the IEEE Transformers Committee, where he
presently serves as the secretary of the committee. Prior to as-
suming his present duties, among other activities, he served for
10 years as the chair of the Insulation Life Subcommittee. He
has a BSEE degree from Lafayette College and is a Registered
Professional Engineer in Pennsylvania.
March/April — Vol. 28, No. 2 21
Luiz Cheim joined ABB TRES North
America in August 2009 as a consulting
R&D engineer to support the Transformer
Condition Assessment program through
advanced dissolved-gas analysis, trans-
former aging analytical tools, as well as
online monitoring and diagnostic systems.
Cheim is part of an ABB global R&D or-
ganization that works on the development
of those tools to support the customer’s efforts in maintaining
critical assets through the new Smart Grid Initiatives.
Before joining ABB, Cheim spent 10 years with Siemens
Transformers, later working in the United States with the Sie-
mens Service Solutions Division (SSD/USA) based in Wendell,
NC. Cheim was the mentor for the development of the Sie-
mens Transformer Online Monitoring and Diagnostics System
(TMDS-L) for legacy transformers in the Americas. He was also
part of the Siemens Asset Management Services team under the
Siemens Smart Grid Programs.
Previously Cheim spent 18 years with the Center for Electric
Power Research (CEPEL) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where he
started as a high voltage/high power test field engineer at the
beginning of his career and achieved the position of senior R&D
and project coordinator with large utilities in South America.
During that period Cheim had the opportunity to work in co-
operation with NIST/USA in Gaithersburg, MD, (Dr. Richard
Van Brunt on “Memory Propagation Effects of PD”) and also
spent time as a visiting researcher at the Los Alamos National
Lab (New Mexico) in the Superconductivity Laboratory.
Cheim has been an active member of Cigre Paris since 1984,
having acted as chairman of the Study Committee A2-Trans-
formers in Brazil from 2000 to 2006. Cheim was awarded the ti-
tle Cigre Distinguished Member and also given the Outstanding
Contribution Award by the Cigre Technical Committee, Paris,
in 2006. Cheim is an active member of the IEEE Transformer
Committee and holds a PhD in electrical electronic engineering
from the University of Nottingham, UK, as well as an MSc and
BSc in electrical electronic engineering from the Federal Uni-
versity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.