Introduction: Operational amplifi ers (more commonly referred to simply as op amps) were

originally designed to perform the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division, sign changing, differentiation and integration in analogue computers and analogue
simulators. Although still used to perform these mathematical functions they are also widely used in
a vast range of other applications. Op amps are produced in integrated circuit (IC) packages, the
circuit chip being embedded in a plastic case. Connections to the internal circuitry are made via dual-
in-line (DIL) connection pins. The simplest form is an 8-pin DIL package as illustrated in Fig. 1 . For
obvious reasons the internal circuitry is not accessible, so if the device fails it is simply replaced by a
new one. Since these devices are small and cheap, this replacement technique is both fast and
economically sound. One of the earliest, and still very widely used, op amp ICs is the 741 op amp,
which is produced in an 8-pin DIL package as described. There are also 14 pin ICs which contain two
741 amplifi ers. Since all op amps behave in a similar manner this chapter will concentrate on the
characteristics and function of the 741 package.

Before using an op amp in a practical situation a more detailed knowledge of the various device
parameters is necessary. However, for the sake of simplicity and to avoid getting bogged down in
minute detail at this stage, these parameters and their practical implications are dealt with at the
end of the chapter.

Basic Features of an Op Amp An op amp is a linear, high gain, directly coupled

differential amplifi er. This sounds rather complicated but is not. The term directly coupled means
that it can amplify signals down to 0 Hz, i.e. both a.c. and d.c. signals. The term differential refers to
the fact that it effectively amplifi es the difference in the voltages applied to its two inputs. The
symbol for an op amp is shown in Fig. 2 . The minus sign inside the general triangular symbol
indicates the inverting input; the noninverting input being identifi ed by the plus sign. A positive d.c.
input to the inverting input will result in a negative d.c. output, and an a.c. input will result in a
phase inverted output. Using the non-inverting input results in no polarity reversal for d.c. inputs
and no phase inversion for a.c. signals. As with any other amplifi er, the op amp requires a d.c.
supply voltage in order to function. This is usually a dual +V s, 0 V, -Vs supply. In
Fig. 2 the V s connections are shown, but in circuit diagrams they are omitted for the sake of clarity.
When using an op amp therefore, don ’ t forget to make these connections, otherwise the device
will not work! As with other amplifi ers, the 0 V rail forms the common reference point for both
input and output signals. The ideal characteristics for an op amp and typical actual values for a 741
op amp are listed in Table 1.

At the moment do not concern yourself with the last three items listed in the table. The explanation
and signifi cance of these will be dealt with later under practical considerations. At this stage the fi
rst three characteristics are the most important. Open-loop gain All op amps have a very high open-
loop gain. In this respect the 741 is quite modest since some op amps have an openloop gain up to
30

10 6 times (150 dB). Due to this it requires a p.d. between the two inputs of only a few microvolts to
cause the amplifi er to saturate, i.e. V 0 V s volt (the d.c. supply voltage). Now no signal amplifi er
can produce an output voltage that exceeds its d.c. supply voltage, so any signifi cant voltage applied
to the op amp in this situation will cause the output voltage to be at its saturation value (in practice
this will be slightly lower than V s ). This effect is illustrated in Fig. 3 . From Fig. 3 it may be seen that
the amplifi er output will be directly proportional to the input over only the very small range of
inputs between points X and Y—note that this axis is marked in microvolt . Any input outside this
range will cause saturation and the output voltage will be meaningless in relation to the actual value
of the input. For this reason, unless the device is to be used for switching purposes, an op amp is
always used as a negative feedback amplifi er. This means that a proportion (or even all) of the input
is fed back in opposition to the input. The effect of negative feedback is that the closed-loop gain (A
v ) is greatly reduced and is stabilised, thus allowing a larger range of input voltages to be applied. In
addition, the use of negative feedback has the benefi ts of modifying both input and output
resistances, increasing

the available bandwidth and reducing noise and distortion in the output signal. The reduction in
closed-loop gain is easily compensated for by using more than one stage of amplifi cation if
necessary.

3 The Inverting Amplifi er The circuit diagram of an inverting amplifi er is shown in Fig. 4 . In
this application the non-inverting input is connected to the 0 V rail, so point B in the circuit is at 0 V.
Now, due to the inherent very high open-loop gain we have seen that an input of only a few
microvolt would cause saturation. Thus the p.d. between points A and B is virtually zero, which
means that point A is a virtual earth point.
Using the virtual earth concept we can say that the input voltage V1 is applied across resistor R1 .
Due to the very high input resistance of the amplifi er (ideally infi nite) negligible current will fl ow
into it, so I1=I2