CARBOHYDRATES GENERAL FORMULA OF CARB.
MONOSACCHARIDE
- is a polyhydroxy aldehyde (aldose), a
polyhydroxy ketone (ketose), or a
compound that yields polyhydroxy
aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon
hydrolysis.
OLIGOSACCHARIDE
- is a carbohydrate that contains
three to ten monosaccharide units
covalently bonded to each other.
CHIRAL CENTER
- is an atom in a molecule that has
four different groups tetrahedrally
bonded to it.
IMPORTANCE
- D-epinephrine is 20x greater than its
response to L-epinephrine; Building
blocks of monosaccharides are right-
handed (D-glucose); and Building blocks
of proteins L-phenylalanine.
DISACCHARIDE
-Cn(H2O)n
Or
CnH2nOn
POLYSACCHARIDE
- is a polymeric carbohydrate that
contains many monosaccharide units
covalently bonded to each other.
CHIRAL MOLECULE
- is a molecule whose mirror images
are not superimposable.
ISOMERS
- is a compounds that have the
same numbers and kinds of atoms
but differ in the way the atoms are
arranged.
- is a carbohydrate that contains a
single polyhydroxy aldehyde or
polyhydroxy ketone unit.
SUPERIMPOSABLE MIRROR
IMAGES
- are images that coincide at all
points when the images are laid
upon each other.
ACHIRAL MOLECULE
- is a molecule whose mirror images
is superimposable.
STEREOISOMERS
- is an isomers with atoms of the
same connectivity that differ only in
the orientation of the atoms in space
(L or D).
- is a carbohydrate that contains two
monosaccharide units covalently
bonded to each other.
NONIMPOSABLE MIRROR
IMAGES
- are mirror images where not all
points coincide when the images are
laid upon each other.
GUIDELINES
- having double or triple can’t be a
chiral center; having two like groups
bonded also; and lastly it needs both,
the substituent are different and the two
“halves” of the ring emanating from the
chiral center are different.
FISCHER PROJECTION FORMULA
- is a two dimensional structural
notation for showing the spatial
arrangement of groups about chiral
centers in molecules.
 D DESIGNATION
- comes from the Latin word dextro
means “right”.
LEVOROTATORY COMPOUND
- is a chiral compound that rotates
the plane of polarized light in a
counter clockwise direction.
IMPORTANT MONOSACCHARIDE
- Glucose, Galactose which are
under aldohexoses, Fructose which
is under ketohexose and Ribose
which is under aldopentose.
ALDOSE
- is a monosaccharide that contains
an aldehyde functional group and
are polyhydroxy aldehydes.
-CHO
L DESIGNATION
- comes from the Latin word levo
means “left”.
STEREOISOMERISM
- is an isomers that have the same
molecular and structural formulas
but differ in the orientation of atoms
in space.
IMPORTANT DISACCHARIDE
- Maltose, Cellobiose, Lactose and
Sucrose.
KETOSE
- is a monosaccharide that contains
a ketone functional group and are
polyhydroxy ketones.
-CH2OH
OPTICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUND
- is a compound that rotates the
plane of polarized light.
ENANTIOMERS (Chiral)
- a.k.a. enantios which means
“opposite”, are stereoisomers whose
molecules are nonsuperimposable
mirror images of each other and are
Left-Handed & Right-Handed.
IMPORTANT OLIGOSACCHARIDE
- Raffinose, and Stachyose.
HEXOSES SUGARS
- Allose (0), Altrose (1), Glucose
(2), Mannose (1,2), Gulose (3),
Idose (1,3), Galactose (2,3), and
Talose (1,2,3).
DEXTROROTATORY COMPOUND
- is a chiral compound that rotates
the plane of polarized light in a
clockwise direction.
DIASTEROMERS (Achiral)
- are stereoisomers whose
molecules are not mirror images of
each other.
HYDROLYSIS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
- Polysaccharides to
Oligosaccharides to
Monosaccharides.
D-Glyceraldehyde &
Dihydroxyacetone
- is the simplest of the
monosaccharides.
 D-Glucose
- an epimers that is the most
abundant in nature and the most
important from a nutritional
standpoint.
-aka dextrose, blood sugar and
grape sugar.
D-Ribose
- is a pentose, and a component of
ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and
energy-rich compounds such as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
FURANOSE
- is a cyclic monosaccharide
containing a five-atom ring.
ALCOHOL
- D-Glucitol, aka D-sorbitol, a
hexahydroxy alcohol have properties
similar to those of the trihydroxy
alcohol glycerol and are moisturizing
and sweeterning agents.
D-Galactose
- is an epimers that is synthesized
from glucose in the mammary
glands for use in lactose, a
disaccharide consisting of a glucose
unit and galactose unit, and aka
brain sugar.
ANOMERIC CARBON
- is the hemiacetal carbon atom
present in a cyclic monosaccharide
structure.
PYRANOSE
- is a cyclic monosaccharide
containing a six-atom ring.
GLYCOSIDE FORMATION
- is the general name for
monosaccharide acetals, an acetal
formed from a cyclic mono. by
replacement of the hemiacetal
carbon –OH group w/ an –OR group.
EPIMERS
- are diastereomers whose
molecules differ only in the
configuration at one chiral center.
CYCLIC HEMIACETAL
- is the resulting compounds that
comes from the result from the
ability of their carbonyl group to
react intramolecularly with a
hydroxyl group.
HAWORTH PROJECTION
FORMULA
- are two-dimensional structural
representations used to depict the
three-dimensional structure of a
cyclic form of a monosaccharide.
PHOSPHATE ESTER FORMATION
- plays important roles in the
metabolism of carbohydrates.
D-Fructose
- is biochemically the most
important ketohexose and aka
levulose and fruit sugar.
- used as a dietary sugar.
ANOMERS
- are cyclic monosaccharides that
differ only in the positions of the
substituents on the anomeric
(hemiacetal) carbon atom.
DERIVATIVES & REACTION OF
MONOSACCHARIDES
- are acidic sugars (by oxidation),
sugar alcohols (by reduction),
Glycoside (reaction with alcohol),
Phosphate ester formation, and
Amino sugar formation.
AMINO SUGAR FORMATION
- is the important building blocks of
polysaccharides found in chitin and
hyaluronic acid.
MARKING SYSTEM FOR BLOOD
TYPES
- D-galactose, N-acetyl-a-D-
glucosamine, N-acetyl-a-D-
galactosamine, and a-L-Frucose (a-
6-Deoxy-L-galactose)
LACTOSE
- is made up of a beta-D-galactose
unit and a D-glucose unit joined by
a beta(1:4) glycoside linkage.
-Lactose as an Excipent used as a
filler or filler-binder.
SUCROSE
- common table sugar, is the most
abundant of all disaccharides and
occurs throughout the plan
kingdom, in which is composed of
alpha-D-glucose and beta-D-
fructose.
RAFFINOSE
- trisaccharide, galactose, glucose,
and fructose.
GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE (BOND)
- is the bond in a disaccharide
resulting from the reaction between
the hemiacetal carbon atom –OH
group of the one monosaccharide
and an –OH group on the other
monosaccharide.
LACTASE PERSISTANCE
- used to describe the condition
where milk-drinking ability continues
into adulthood.
INVERT SUGAR
- an equimolar mixture of glucose
and fructose which is the product of
sucrose (digestion).
STACHYOSE
- tetrasaccharide, galactose,
glucose, and fructose with additional
galactos.
MALTOSE
- 2 D-glucose units, a reducing sugar,
that has 3 forms in aqueous solution:
alpha-Maltose, beta-Maltose, and Open-
chain aldehyde form.
- Malt sugar, an interesting compound
because of its use in alcohol production
(fermentation).
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
- a condition in w/c people lack the
enzyme lactase, w/c is needed to
hydrolyze lactose to galactose and
glucose.
SUCRALOSE
- is synthesized from sucrose by
substitution of three chlorine atoms
for hydroxyl groups.
SOLANINE
- a toxin found in the potato plant,
is another example of an
oligosaccharide-containing
“complex” molecule.
CELLUBIOSE
- produce as an intermediate in the
hydrolysis of polysaccharide
cellulose.
GALACTOSEMIA
- caused by the absence of one or
more of the enzymes needed for the
conversion of galactose to glucose.
NEOTAME
- an aspartame derivative that
differs structurally from aspartame
in that a 3,3-dimenthylbutyl group
attached to the terminal –NH2 group
of aspartame.
BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS
- oligosaccharide molecules that are
attached to the plasma membrane
of red blood cells.
 GLYCAN
- an alternate name of
polysaccharide and are called
complex carbohydrates, simple
carbohydrates for monosaccharides
& disaccharides.
STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES
- is a polysaccharide that is storage
from for monosaccharides and is
used as energy source in cells.
GLYCOGEN
- is a branched polysaccharides
containing only glucose units, a.r.a.
animal starch, and liver and cells
are the storage sites in humans.
- up to 1,000,000 glucose units;
highly branch points every 8-12 gu.
CHITIN
- the 2nd most abundant naturally
occurring polysaccharide; its function is
to give rigidity to the exoskeletons of
crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects, and
other arthropods; and contains
galacturonic acid.
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
- The identity of the monosaccharide
repeating unit(s) in the polymer chain,
the length of the polymer chain, the
type of glycosidic linkage between
monomer units, and the degree of the
branching of the polymer chain.
STARCH
- is a homopolysaccharide
containing only glucose
monosaccharide units.
TWO OPPOSING PROCESSES
- are the glycogenesis and
glycogenolysis.
ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES
- is a polysaccharides w/ a
disaccharides repeating unit in w/c 1 of
the disaccharide components is an
amino acids and 1 or both disaccharide
componets has negative charge due to
a sulphate group or a carboxyl group
and are heteropolysaccharides.
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDE
- is a polysaccharide in which only
one type of monosaccharide
monomer is present.
AMYLOSE
- is a straight-chain glucose
polymer, usually accounts for 15%-
20% of the starch.
- up to 1,000 glucose units; no
branch units.
STRUCTURAL
POLYSACCHARIDES
- is a polysaccharides that serves as
a structural element in plant cell
walls and animal exoskeleton.
HYALURONIC ACID
- contains alternating residue of N-
acetyl-b-D-glucosaminne (NAG) and
D-Glucuranote.
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDE
- is polysaccharide in which more
than one (usually two) type of
monosaccharide monomer is
present.
AMYLOPECTIN
- is a branched glucose polymer
accounts for the remaining 80%-
85% of the starch.
- up to 100,000 glucose units;
branch points every 25-30 gu.
CELLULOSE
- Gossypium hirastum, the
structural component of plant and
animal cell walls and is the most
abundant naturally occurring
polysaccharide.
HEPARIN
- small highly-sulfated polysaccharide
with only 15-90 disccharide residues per
chain.
- Blood anticoagulant and the source for
pharmaceutical heparin is intestinal or
lung tissue of slaughter-house animals
(pigs and cows).