J Ethn Foods 4 (2017) 221e231

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnic Foods

journal homepage: http://journalofethnicfoods.net

Review Article

Past and present practices of the Malay food heritage and culture in
Malaysia
Mohd Nazri Abdul Raji a, b, Shahrim Ab Karim b, *, Farah Adibah Che Ishak b,
Mohd Mursyid Arshad c
a
Family and Consumer Science Department, Faculty of Technical and Vocational, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI), Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia
b
Department of Food Service and Management, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education, Faculty of Food Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o
Malay heritage varies from north to south; however, there are various similarities and differences.
Article history: Essentially, Malay heritage food is influenced by a myriad of cultures, such as Arab, Indian, Chinese,
Received 27 September 2017 Siamese, Javanese, Minangkabau, and others. Different regions in Malaysia are known for their unique or
Received in revised form signature dishes, such as beef rendang, laksa, nasi lemak, and tapai. Indeed, it is noted that Malay food is
31 October 2017 identical in terms of its spiciness. This can be seen from the prepreparation, methods of cooking, and
Accepted 1 November 2017 availability and use of prominent ingredients, such as local aromatic herbs and spices. This article
Available online 7 November 2017 highlights the regional Malay food, past and present practices of Malay food culture, and characteristics
of Malay food. In addition, this article also discusses the different occasions and table etiquette practices
Keywords: among Malay communities. The reported findings are expected to contribute to the literature on food
characteristic of Malay food
culture, specifically in Malay heritage food.
Malay cuisine
© 2017 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
Malay food culture
Malay heritage food CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
regional Malay food

1. Introduction
Being a multiracial country, Malaysia has been well positioned
as a food paradise. The label is by no means a mere accident;
however, it is due to the synergistic effect brought by the inter-
mingling of the various ethnic groups. In addition, the country is
further enriched by culinary heritage it shares with neighboring
countries and regions. Amid rapid modernization, the country still
manages to hold on to her proud heritage. As a result, Malaysia is
one of the few places where one could find an amalgamation of
flavors and varieties of heritage food, which stands a living proof of
the famous motto Malaysia, Truly Asia.
In 2016, Malaysia consisted of population of 31.7 million, and
Bumiputera made up the majority of the population with 68.8%,
followed by Chinese at 23.4%, Indians at 7%, and others at 1% [1].
The Bumiputeras in Peninsular Malaysia are essentially the Malays.
Moreover, in the East Malaysian states of Sarawak, Sabah, and
* Corresponding author. Department of Food Service and Management, Faculty of
Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400, Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail address: shahrimkarim2@gmail.com (S. Ab Karim).
Labuan, the Bumiputera includes all the indigenous groups such as
Malay, Melanau, Dayak (including Iban, Bidayuh, and Orang Ulu),
Kadazan Dusun, Bajau, and other native ethnic groups as listed in
Article 161A Federal Constitution [2].
Malays are the dominant ethnic group in this country, repre-
senting more than half of the nation's population. Typically, Malays
are Muslims, speak the Malay language, and observe and
practice the tradition of Malay culture [3]. Traditional cultural
practices in the Malay communities can be observed through their
food consumption. Traditionally, Malay food can be defined as va-
rieties of food produced locally with a unique local identity within
the Malay community. The present study concentrates mainly on
the Malay food.
2. The culinary history of Malaysia
Malaysia is a country separated by the South China Sea into two
regions: Peninsular Malaysia, which is also known as West
Malaysia, and East Malaysia, which is located in Borneo Island. It
shares land borders with Thailand and Indonesia, and Singapore is
linked to its south by a causeway. Malaysia is situated right above
the equator.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.001
2352-6181/© 2017 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
222 J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 221e231
In the early 15th century, a small fishing village of Melaka on the
west coast of the Malay Peninsula began to grow into a significant
port [4]. Melaka was strategically positioned as a harbor and
boomed as a multicultural center. The local cooking was influenced
by the arrival of new food from abroad, including spices such as
cardamom, pepper, and clove and exotic vegetables. Arab traders
who arrived in Malacca around this period brought with them the
practices of Islam. In the middle of the 15th century, the Sultan of
Melaka converted to Islam [5]; there was increased trade with other
Muslim communities such as Indonesia and the Middle East, which
had a lasting effect on Malay cuisine. In the 15th century, Europeans
also started to venture to Southeast Asia in search of spices as well
as to expand their kingdom. The Portuguese were the first to arrive,
and they were later followed by the Dutch and English. The Euro-
peans not only sought spices but also introduced many new in-
gredients such as peanut, pineapple, avocado, tomato, squash, and
pumpkin to this region. The cultural landscape of the country
changed in the 19th century. Later, when Malaysia and Singapore
were under the British colonial rule, the British brought in large
number of Indians and Chinese to work in the rubber estates and
tin mines, respectively. The influx of Indian and Chinese workers
had a strong influence on Malaysian culture, language, and food.
In 1963, the Federation of Malaysia was formed and comprised
the states of the peninsula combined with Sabah and Sarawak.
Malaysian cuisine is as varied as its people. The growth of Malaysia
into a central cultural melting pot is due to the contribution of
multiracial groups to Malaysia's great culinary heritage [6]. His-
torically, traditional Malaysian cuisine has been greatly influenced
by traders from the neighboring countries, such as Indonesia, India,
the Middle East, China, and Thailand. The Malaysian gastronomic
products are a mix of various races, particularly Malays, Chinese,
Indians, and other ethnic groups. Acculturation and assimilation
among these ethnic groups in the early 1970s have added to the
potpourri of local food and beverages and created a Malaysian
cultural and gastronomical heritage [6].
3. The regional Malay food
Malay cuisine especially in Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, and
Brunei is similar because it came from the same root. Malay cuisine
is usually halal. Malay cooking is very unique; however, it has been
assimilated to other influences such Arab, Indonesian, Thai, Por-
tuguese, Chinese, and Indian. Ainuddin [5] defined Malay food by
five characteristics: (1) rich in herbs and spices; (2) coconut milk is
one of the main ingredients; (3) usually spicy; (4) meat is usually
stewed with a thick gravy; and (5) fried fish and seafood are usually
seasoned with turmeric powder.
According to Brissenden [7], Malay food emerged during the
13th century and continuously developed during the trading years,
where it was greatly influenced by Thailand and Indonesia. It can be
categorized based on the regions [8]. Given the history of Malaysia,
it is understandable that in the northern states of Penang, Perlis,
and Kedah (which are closer to Thailand), liking for fiery-hot spicy
and sour flavors [9] is quite strong. In Penang, tamarind, sour
carambola, and limes are used for tanginess, fragrance, and sour-
ness and fiery-hot fresh bird's eye chilies, so often present in Thai
food, are also popular in the northern states [10]. Further east, the
cuisine of the state of Kelantan, which borders Thailand, and Ter-
engganu, which borders Kelantan, also shows distinct Thai influ-
ence [9]. The use of kaffir lime leaves, torch ginger, and mint leaves
in rice dishes such as nasi kerabu, a popular Kelantan dish that
bursts with green confetti of wild pepper leaves, basil, and daun
kesum (Vietnamese coriander), is another influence from Thai
dishes [10]. Traditionally, nasi kerabu is served with ayam percik
(grilled chicken with a spicy coconut milk sauce) (Fig. 1). Sharif et al
Fig. 1. Ayam percik. Traditional Malay grilled chicken served with percik sauce origi-
nated from the east coast state of Kelantan. Its main ingredients are chicken, shallot,
garlic, lemongrass, asam keping, coconut milk, turmeric powder, and shrimp paste.
[11] state that Kelantan and Terengganu have some similarities in
their traditional food; however, Kelantan food is sweeter than
Terengganu food. Scholar remarked that traditional curries of both
states use coconut milk, which gives a rich, thick, creamy consis-
tency, whereas their traditional desserts are sweet and their sa-
vories are slightly spicy [6].
Indonesian cuisine has influenced the kitchen throughout the
Malaysian hinterland through migration, especially in the south
and central regions of Malaysia. In the south, a large number of
Javanese who settled there over the centuries influenced the Malay
cuisine in the state of Johor. The influence of Javanese cuisine,
which is sour, sweet, and spicy, can be clearly seen owing to the
migration of the Javanese [9]. The influence by Minangkabau peo-
ple from West Sumatra living in Negeri Sembilan is reflected in its
food history [8]. Popular dishes such as rendang minang and masak
lemak cili padi feature extensive use of thick coconut milk and
spices [7]. Melaka offers a variety of dishes, especially the Malay
cuisine in Melaka and the Malay-influenced Nyonya cuisineda
blend of Malay and Chinese cuisines. Besides, Melaka is also pop-
ular for its eastewest fusion cooking from the combination of
Malay and Portuguese cuisines [6]. A mix of the Malay and Indian
cuisines created the Chitti food in Melaka, which is savored by the
Chitti community. In Perak and Pahang Rahman [12] acknowledged
gulai tempoyak and rendang as a few of signature traditional dishes
commonly served either for daily meals or during festival
celebrations.
4. Past and present practices of Malay food culture
The secret behind the uniqueness of authentic Malay food is the
use of herbs and spices with special traditional equipment and
cooking methods. In the past, ingredients were mainly harvested
from the backyard and the woods, which made the Malay cooking
such an interesting culinary experience. Forty years ago or around
1970se1980s, the Malay community lived predominantly in rural
area and involved in agricultural activities, with only a small
portion involved in the modern economic sector [13]. This is in line
with the study conducted by Yoshino [14], who argues that the
majority of Malay people were based in kampung (village) and
engaged in agriculture before they migrated to other places. All the
related activities, employment, and culture started in the kampung
and was shared by the family and the rest of the Malay commu-
nities. In the modern era (from the time of its independence in
1957), a large percentage of middle-class Malay people are being
 M.N.A. Raji et al / Malay kitchen essentials 223

employed in the government sectors, mostly as teachers and civil preparing Malay traditional food, which had to be continuous to
servants, mixing together with other ethnic groups [14]. encourage their children's participation.
Findings by Ismail et al [15] state that the development of Malay
rural cultural gardens in the past reveals its important intrinsic and
4.1. Traditional cooking equipment and tools
cognitive value through its functional characteristics such as pro-
vision of food, medicine, cosmetics, and shade. The basis of tradi-
In the past, a typical Malay kitchen was equipped with lesung
tional Malay gardens in the villages is to sustain the community.
batu (a mortar and pestle) and batu giling (a hand grinder made of
Plants and fruit trees are essential in the Malay society to support
stone) for preparing food [10]. A big lesung batu made of stone and
economically by providing food for family consumption and for
composed of two things, namely a mortar and pestle, is of particular
sharing with the community. Malay ancestors produced dishes and
value, as it is used for grinding spices, chilies, and shallots;
recipes using natural resources that grow in abundance around
pounding all the condiments and pastes; and for making kerisik
their houses. This is in accordance with Goffard [16] who explained
(pounded or ground fried grated coconut). The big stone slab of
in his book titled “The Language of East and Southeast Asia” that
batu giling where food is placed and ground is called the “mother”
traditionally, the Malay are village people, relying on fishing,
or ibu giling, and the rolling pin is called the “child” or anak batu
gardening, and rice cultivation. The availability of local resources in
giling, which is used to crush the ingredients [21] (Fig. 2). The use of
this country allows the creation of flavorful, delicious, unique, and
lesung batu and batu giling is believed to provide a unique taste to
authentic recipes [17].
the food, compared with the use of modern equipment such as
A study by Manderson [18] on the traditional food beliefs and
blender and food processor. The blender, for example, is said to only
life events, which focused on the practices of Malay villagers in a
grind the ingredients to a smooth texture, but it does not release
few states in Peninsular Malaysia, found that the Malay folks in the
the oils and flavors of the ingredients unlike the traditional stone
kampung still maintained the traditional beliefs and knowledge.
mortar, which pounds the ingredients uniformly. In Malaysia, many
This study was supported by Mohd Zahari [19] who studied Malay
people still prefer to use the stone mortar and pestle to pound wet
foodways in Malaysia. The traditional practices can be observed
and fresh ingredients such as shallots, onions, garlic, ginger, and
through the kenduri kahwin (matrimonial ceremonies), which in-
chilies because the ingredients would be more delicious when
volves preparation, cooking, serving, and the consumption of food
mixed together, yet it still requires effort and more preparation
and is considered as a communal affair in the village or kampung
time. The famous sambal belacan or shrimp paste sambal is claimed
when the individuals of the community contributes their time and
to taste better when made using the mortar and pestle instead of
energy in helping the wedding host. However, the traditional
using a electric blender [5]. It all depends on how the individual
foodways practice that has long been associated with the Malay
perceives the originality of the Malay traditional dishes.
society is hardly seen because of the spread of catering services,
Santan or coconut milk is used extensively in Malay cooking. The
especially in urban areas. Currently, it is hard to see the table ser-
classic way of obtaining coconut milk is by grating a mature coco-
vice style in the Malay weddings, which is replaced by the buffet
nut flesh. A little amount of water is added, and it is then squeezed
service style [19]. In this modern era, many have forgotten the
to extract the milk. Kukur kelapa or the coconut grater is a hand
uniqueness of cooking techniques and practices in Malay cuisine
grater with a spike-like metal fixed at the end of a low wooden
that our ancestors have passed on to us. According to Nor et al [20],
stool [22]. To grate the coconut, one has to sit on the stool and hold
the young generations have ignored the practices of Malay tradi-
one half of a coconut shell and grate the white coconut flesh against
tional food, which is being replaced by convenience food products.
the metal spike in an up-and-down motion [5]. Kukur kelapa is
The study also mentions that transition and unlimited information
seldom found in Malaysian homes nowadays. However, the electric
technology are believed to influence the changes in food intake and
coconut grater can be found in most provision shops or the wet
practices. Although modernization takes place in the foodways, the
values associated with other Malay customs that have been prac-
ticed by the family and the rest of the Malay community
remain until today.
In the traditional Malay practices, the man is the head of the
family, as well as the household, whereas the woman is a housewife
who concentrates on daily chores such as cooking, washing, and
taking care of children. The responsibilities of women are more
likely to hold strong attachment to the common beliefs, knowledge,
and practices of their customs in the Malay society. Previous studies
have described the characteristics of a Malay family regarding
household responsibilities of women and their families. Nor et al
[20] revealed that women have very strong adherence to beliefs
and good experience in transmission of food practice knowledge.
Findings from Nor et al [20] suggest that mothers are believed to
transmit Malay cooking knowledge, including the ingredients,
preparation, method of cooking, and cooking equipment, to their
daughters. The same study claimed that in modern days, some
daughters admitted that transmission of cooking knowledge still
occurs through telephone calls, especially in the early years of their
marriage, and this knowledge was further strengthened when the
daughters prepared food along with their mothers during festive
occasions, family gathering, or when the mother visits them [20].
Fig. 2. Batu giling is used to grind spices. This is a traditional grinder used by grandmas
This study emphasized that the role of a mother significantly in the past. Spices ground using this tool produce a different taste and flavor, which
contributed to the preservation of family and cultural tradition in cannot be achieved by other methods.
224 J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 221e231

market. The head of an electric coconut grater is a round metal with
sharp pine heads. It grates when the machine is on. To grate a co-
conut, the husk is removed and the hard shell is broken into 2
halves. The pulp of one half of the coconut is held against the meal
head at a time and the coconut is grated. A basin is placed under the
metal head to collect the grated coconut.
Another important element in the traditional Malay kitchen
design is dapur kongkong, which acts as a stove [23]. Dapur kong-
kong or the charcoal burning stove is similar to a desk and is made
of a mixture of clay and salt. It consists of two parts: a sabak
(furnace) and two tungku (riser stone with a double horizontal iron
rod). Usually, this type of a Malay kitchen has the smell of firewood
and the haze from burning charcoal daily mingled with the aroma
of pungent belacan, red chili, and garlic cooked together in massive
heated woks. The kitchen area is cleaned and tidied up once the
cooking is done, and tikar mengkuang or a Pandanus mat is laid
while eating [23]. Leftover dishes are kept in the para or wooden
cabinets with wire-mesh doors. Small tools are cleaned and kept in
the para, whereas large equipment, such as a pan, pot, or kettle, is
kept in a store room where they are mounted on the pemidang
dinding (wall stud) and alang (truss) with nails. Ideally, the kitchen
serves as a place where all family members, especially the mother
and daughters have a talk, grind spices, stir pots, and observe
cooking methods. However, nowadays in Malaysia, dapur kongkong
or the charcoal burning stove is no longer used in the kitchens of
most households and has been replaced by modern equipment
such as gas stove and electric stove. The traditional equipment and
tools are hard to be found in the urban area and may only be used in
the rural area or villages, especially during Malay occasions such as
matrimonial ceremonies and Hari Raya Aidilfitri (a celebration day
for Muslims). Nevertheless, firewood is still being used in tradi-
tional cooking in parts of the country, especially in villages. The
aroma of the food cooked using firewood is still in great demand
and its very unique cooking methods are still being appreciated by
certain age groups within the Malay community.
4.2. Cooking methods and techniques
method terminologies, which is an aspect of the language that was
created and used since olden days [11]. The use of terminologies
should be shaped by cultural transmission over many generations.
5. Characteristics of the Malay food
5.1. Main dishes
Almost every Malay main meal is served with rice, which is also
the staple food in many other Asian countries such as Indonesia,
Thailand, Brunei, and Philippines. The state of Kedah is considered
the rice bowl or jelapang padi of the country, accounting for about
half of Malaysia's total production of rice. The staple food is non-
glutinous rice, which has amylopectin content. In contrast, in the
Malay culture, glutinous rice is used almost exclusively for making
sweets. The rice is cooked simply by adding equal amount of water
(or more) to the rice (which also depends on the type of rice
useddlong grain, short grain, Jasmine, or Basmati) and cooked
using an electric rice cooker at home or on a gas stove. Plain
steamed white rice is normally served with various side dishes of
protein and vegetables. A typical lunch includes one chicken or fish
dish cooked with coconut or tamarind, fried fish, stir-fried vege-
tables, and sambal belacan. The most popular dish based on rice in
Malay culture is nasi lemak (steamed rice with coconut milk and
screwpine leaf). Nasi lemak is considered as the national dish and is
usually served during breakfast, but can also be served all day. It
becomes a daily food for many Malaysians (Fig. 3).
Traditionally, nasi lemak is accompanied by anchovy sambal,
boiled eggs, fried peanut, and a slice of cucumber. In the past, this
dish was a staple of the Malay community when they went out to
work in the paddy fields or estates. The rice is cooked in coconut
milk, and the accompaniments offered the calories that they
needed for physical work [27]. Nasi lemak is often wrapped in ba-
nana leaves. When wrapping nasi lemak, a scoop or small bowl of
rice is placed in the center of the banana leaf. Then, a slice or two of
cucumber, half-boiled egg, fried anchovies, and anchovy sambal are

Traditional cooking methods and techniques of Malay dishes

require few culinary tools, and most of the authentic dishes are
prepared from scratch. Martilla [24] argues that different cultures
tend to have their own unique methods of cooking, and each of
them has different terminology that often comes from historical
necessities. According to Rahman [12] and Ainuddin [5], various
terminologies of cooking methods are used in Malay cooking,
which are divided into dry heat and moist heat method. Besides
these two, there is also the combination method, which involves
both dry and moist heat. Examples of Malay cooking terminology
for dry heat methods are menumis (cooking paste, chili, or spices
using oil or fat in the wok over relatively high heat before adding it
to the main ingredients such as vegetable, fish, or meat), menyangai
(dry fried spices, peanut, or grated coconutdfrying without using
oil or fat in a small pan or wok over low heat), menyalai (the drying
process of meat, fish, or bananadsmoked or grilled food on the
fire), and melayur (pass something over the firedto use banana
leaves as a food wrapper, the banana leaves are run over the fire
until it is dark green to soften them so that it does not break when
folded) [25]. In the same study, Mohamad Abdullah et al [25] also
listed the Malay cooking method terminology for moist heat
methods, for example, menanak (cooking rice inside a pot), men-
jerang (boilingdput a kettle on to boil), mencelur (blanching or
dipping foods, such as vegetables, for a short period into the hot
water), and mereneh (simmering food). Meracik and memayang are Fig. 3. Nasi lemak wrapped in banana leaves. It is the most popular heritage food in
categorized as methods of cutting and simply mean thinly sliced Malaysia and a complete meal by itself, consisting of rice, chili sambal, hard-boiled egg,
[26]. The Malay society has numerous, vast, and valuable cooking fried anchovies, and sliced cucumbers.
 M.N.A. Raji et al / Malay kitchen essentials
placed on top of the rice before wrapping. This method is practical
as the parcel looks neat and is not messy. Apart from being envi-
ronmentally friendly, the banana leaf wrapping exudes a fragrant
aroma that enhances the appetite. Today, nasi lemak is also served
with many other dishes such as beef or chicken rendang, squid
sambal, stir-fried morning glory, fried eggs, and fried chicken.
During special occasions such as Eid al-Fitr (in Arabic) or Hari
ing onion, garlic, ginger,
Raya Aidilfitri, the rice is prepared by saute
and other spices and then cooked with water to make nasi minyak
or ghee rice. Besides nasi minyak, other popular rice-based dishes,
such as nasi beriani (rice cooked with chicken/meat stock and
special spices), nasi kunyit (glutinous rice soaked in turmeric and
steamed with coconut milk), ketupat (rice or glutinous rice cooked
in woven coconut leaves), and lemang (glutinous rice with coconut
milk cooked in bamboo tubes), are served during this festival.
5.2. Protein
Rice is served with a variety of side dishes or lauk. These consist
of protein-based foods, such as meat, fish, and eggs, including
processed foods. The Malays being Muslims, the types of
meat eaten are beef, buffalo, goat, lamb, and also poultry and fishes/
seafood. Muslims consider that their flesh and blood are formed
from the food that they consume; consequently, careful consider-
ation is given to the food chosen for consumption [28]. Halal food is
permitted, and with the exception of pork and its by-products,
most meat and vegetables are deemed as acceptable. Sometimes,
halal foods appear the same as other food; they are differentiated
by the nature, processing, ingredients, handling, and slaughtering
technique [29]. Various meats could be made into gulai, a type of
curry dish made by cooking various spice mixtures in coconut milk.
This cooking method is influenced by the Indians and was adopted
by Malay people since ancient times; it shows the assimilation of
culture in the Malay cuisine. Generally, Malay curries are not very
thick and are less pungent than Indian curries.
Another meat-based and equally spicy dish is rendang (it is like a
stew, but relatively dry, cooked in coconut milk with spices for
several hours and can be stored for a long term); it was influenced
by Indonesian cuisine and adapted to Malay taste and flavor.
Rendang is served during special occasions such as weddings and
Hari Raya Aidilfitri. Every state and village in Malaysia has its own
version of rendang, and it is difficult to claim any particular right for
rendang. Rendang is made from various types of meat, but it can also
be prepared from seafood and various vegetable shoots. Two types
of rendang that are most popular among Malay communities are
rendang minang (it is usually very spicy with the use of bird's eye
chilies) and rendang tok (it is dark and sweet because of the use of
more coconut milk besides the roasted coconut, and is usually
cooked together with sliced coconut flesh).
Sambal (hot sauce) is one of the popular side dishes among the
Malay, typically made from dried chilies as the main ingredient
which are combined with secondary ingredients such as onion,
garlic, and other meat or seafood items, such as beef, chicken,
shrimp, and squid. Traditionally, sambal is freshly made using
traditional tools such as a pestle and mortar. Sambal can be served
either raw or cooked. Basically, this food is influenced by the
Indonesian cuisine of the Javanese, and some alterations were
made to suite the local taste. Raw sambal types popular among
Malay communities, such as sambal belacan (fresh chilies pounded
together with toasted shrimp paste) and sambal tempoyak (fresh
chilies pounded with fermented durian flesh), can be easily found
in most Malay warung (hawker food stall) and restaurants. In
contrast, cooked sambal is prepared by saute ing pounded in-
gredients (dry chili, shallot, and garlic) with oil until fragrant, and
tamarind juice, sugar, and salt are used to reduce the spicy taste.
225
Then, meat, seafood, and eggs can be added, which act as the main
ingredient of the sambal.
5.3. Vegetables
Malaysia is a country rich with flora and fauna, which forms a
perfect food chain for the local people since ancient times. In the
Malay culture, natural resources are fully used in the preparation of
healthy and well-balanced food. The creativity of the Malay com-
munity in diversifying the natural sources is evident in the
assortment of interesting recipes, some of which are still passed
down from one generation to another. Ulam is one of the famous
traditional vegetables used by the Malay people in Malaysia.
Traditionally, ulam is from a young tender shoot, called pucuk, and
immature leaves of wild plants and is usually found growing wild in
the countryside. According to Mansor [30], more than 120 ulam
species can be found in Malaysia, representing various families,
from shrubs to large trees. The leaves, shoots, or rhizomes of the
vegetables are eaten fresh as salad or cooked.
Ulam is consumed because of its taste, which adds variety and
flavors to the diet, as well as for its nutritional benefits [31]. The
taste of ulam is based on the type and variety, and some has
bittersweet taste. Nutritional studies have indicated that many of
these vegetables are rich in carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and
vitamins [32]. Some ulam is also claimed and traditionally believed
to have medical properties, such as blood cleansing, induction of
uterine cleansing, induction of uterine contractions, and prevention
or cure of ailments such as diabetes, high blood pressure, cardio-
vascular disease, arthritis, fever, and coughs. In addition, according
to Abas et al [31], it is also believed that ulam plays an important
role in reducing the incidence of cancer, as well as control of aging
and age-related diseases. The most common ulam varieties
consumed by Malay communities include daun pegaga, daun selom,
ulam raja, pucuk gajus, pucuk ubi kayu, daun kaduk, daun putat, and
pucuk gajus.
The Malay people also creatively incorporate fruits and vege-
tables into their dishes, for example, jantung pisang (banana
blossom), nangka muda (young/green jackfruit), nanas muda (un-
ripe pineapple), betik muda (unripe papaya), and pisang muda
(young banana). Kerabu jantung pisang (types of salad or appetizer)
is prepared by blanching jantung pisang (the best variety is from
pisang awak) in boiling water for a few minutes and then mixing it
with coconut milk, chili shrimp paste, shallot, dried prawn, and
bird's eye chili. Unripe fruits are cooked as vegetables in curries to
enhance the flavor. Other famous traditional vegetables used by
Malay people are petai (twisted cluster bean or stinky bean) and
jering (black pods, including seeds), which are cut up or snapped off
into a one-seeded portion and eaten raw with the shrimp paste
sambal. In many rural areas or kampung, authentic vegetables such
as rebung and umbut are commonly prepared as specialty foods in
kenduri kahwin (matrimonial ceremonies). Rebung is young tender
shoots of some species of bamboo, whereas umbut is the massive
but sweet and tender tissue of the growing tip or the heart removed
from a palm after it is cut and used as food. The common one is the
umbut kelapa, derived from the coconut palm. Rebung and umbut
are normally cooked in coconut milk, and are called as masak lemak
among the Malay communities (Fig. 4).
5.4. Special ingredients
The uniqueness of Malay heritage food is due to the ingredients,
flavor, and aroma. Many aromatic ingredients, including spices,
which are understood to be dried products, are used. However, in
Malay traditional food, several of the ingredients are freshly gath-
ered leaves, flowers, and fruits of local plants from the backyard or
226 J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 221e231
Fig. 4. Turi leaves cooked in water with carrot and sweet corn, a water-based
vegetable dish. Chopped onions are sauteed in oil; some pounded anchovies and water
are added and brought to a boil; carrot and sweet corn are added and simmered for a
while before adding the green leaves, season to taste.
local market. All the special ingredients contribute in large parts to
distinctive piquancy and delightful flavor of Malay heritage food. A
prominent ingredient in Malay cuisine is chili, locally called cili or
cabai, which can be used in both fresh and dried forms [5]. There are
three types of chili commonly used in Malay culture, which is fresh
chili, dried chili, and bird's eye chili. This is the way Malay food is
identical in terms of the characteristic of the food itself such as being
hot and spicy by adding more chilies in their dishes. They also act as
a food enhancer, flavoring agent, and a food garnish.
In addition, asam jawa (tamarind) is commonly used in curries
by soaking and squeezing it with water to produce the sour extract.
Nor et al [20] highlighted the wide use of different rhizomes,
namely halia (ginger), kunyit (turmeric), lengkuas (galangal), and
kecur (lesser galangal), and aromatic leaves such as daun kesum
(Vietnamese coriander), daun limau purut (kaffir lime leaves), daun
ketumbar (coriander leaves), daun pandan (screwpine leaves), daun
kari (curry leaves), daun kunyit (turmeric leaves), daun kaduk (wild
pepper leaves) in the preparation of Malay dishes (Fig. 5). Fragrant
plant stems such as serai (lemongrass), flower buds such as bunga
kantan (torch ginger buds/wild ginger bud), fruits, nuts, and seeds,
specifically asam keping (a thinly sliced dried sour fruit), buah
belimbing buluh (sour finger carambola), limau nipis (limes), buah
keras (candlenut), and biji ketumbar (coriander seeds) are
commonly used. Malay cuisine also uses dried spices such as bunga
Fig. 5. Galangal or blue ginger rhizome provides unique aroma and flavor to Malay
food. It is one of the essential ingredients in the rendang recipe. It gives additional
flavor to various dishes.
cengkih (cloves), kulit kayu manis (cinnamon sticks), bunga lawang
(star anise), buah pelaga (cardamom), jintan putih (cumin), jintan
manis (fennel), and buah pala (nutmeg). In Malay cultures, rempah
(a thick wet or dry paste) made from finely ground herbs and spices
is commonly used in preparation of curries and rendang. The type of
curry or rendang (chicken, mutton, beef, fish, or vegetables) de-
termines which spices make up the mixture. Traditionally, the
mixture of rempah is ground and crushed using a mortar and pestle.
The special ingredients of Malay dishes can be easily found at local
wet markets or pasar malam (the night market) (Fig. 6).
5.5. Traditional Malay desserts
The definition of traditional food varies according to the locality
and the individual's perception toward food. Traditional food has
long been an identity to all races because of uniqueness and spe-
cialty. Starting from main dishes, appetizers to desserts, Malay
traditional foods was across cultures and races in this country.
There are many types of traditional food in Malaysia, such as dishes
and desserts. Malay traditional desserts originate from two distinct
places: West Malaysia and East Malaysia. There are many varieties
of desserts that can be found in all states of Malaysia. One of the
famous Malay traditional desserts comes from Kelantan and
Terengganu.
Traditionally, Malay cake and desserts are usually consumed
outside mealtime and special preparation, which are different from
everyday fare and intended for festive and other special occasions.
However, in the modern days, Malay desserts can be eaten at any
time of the day, as light breakfast, afternoon snack, or dessert. Di-
versity is the attractiveness of Malay traditional desserts, and this is
evident in all kinds of cakes and snacks known as kuih that are
handed down from one generation to the next in the Malay com-
munity. These Malay delicacies, which are usually fried, but
sometimes steamed, grilled, or baked, can be found at hawker
stalls, night market or pasar malam, and restaurants. Malay kuih is
divided into two categories: sweet and savory. The basic in-
gredients used to produce sweet kuih are sugar, coconut milk,
brown sugar, and gula melaka (palm sugar). Gula melaka is extrac-
ted from the flower sap of a coconut palm and processed and sold in
the form of hard cakes wrapped in dried brown coconut leaves [5].
Similar to normal sugar, they melt when boiled and taste bitter
when burnt. Gula melaka is more natural and healthier and has long
been used to make traditional Malay kuih. Examples of traditional
sweet kuih are kuih baulu, tapai, dodol, kuih tepung talam, kuih seri
muka, kuih lapis pelangi, kuih abuk-abuk sagu, kuih bingka, kuih cek
mek molek, kuih lompang, kuih tepung pelita, kuih koci, kuih seri kaya,
kuih bakar, and onde-onde. Sometimes, this sweet Malay local kuih
is served with other accompaniments such as kuih lopes eaten with
caramelized palm sugar and kuih apam beras eaten with kelapa
parut muda (grated young coconut) (Figs. 7 and 8).
Other than sweet kuih, Malay people also consume hot and spicy
varieties. Therefore, local kuih recipes have been reworked from
time to time to diversify the types of savory kuih. Normally, herbs
and spicy ingredients are added in the filling while preparing sa-
vory kuih. The basic ingredients used to prepare savory kuih are
curry powder, cinnamon, cloves, star anise, mustard, coriander,
cumin, black pepper, and chili. The combination of these in-
gredients produces a spicy flavor in the savory kuih. Some examples
of popular savory kuih are kuih karipap, kuih cara berlauk, kuih cucur
badak, kuih pulut panggang, kuih popia sambal, and so on.
In Malaysia, tapai is a popular delicacy among the Malay and is
normally consumed as dessert. There are two main types of tapai,
namely tapai pulut (glutinous rice) and tapai ubi (tapioca) [33].
Tapai is made from three ingredients: steamed glutinous rice or
tapioca, sugar, and ragi (yeast). All the ingredients are mixed
 M.N.A. Raji et al / Malay kitchen essentials 227

Fig. 6. Pasar Siti Khadijah, Kota Bharu, Kelantan. It is one of the most popular wet markets in Malaysia selling items such as fresh and dry herbs, spices, vegetables, fish, crackers,
kitchen utensils, and textiles (silk and batik). Most of the traders in this market are Malay women. Most women in this state are known to be enterprising.

Fig. 7. Kuih lapis pelangi. Normally, it is prepared with seven layers. It is a fusion be- Fig. 8. Kuih abuk-abuk sagu. It is a traditional Malay kuih made from sago pearl, gula
tween the Malay and Nyonya cuisines and one of the favorite kuih of Malaysians. melaka (palm sugar), and grated young coconut.
228 J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 221e231
together, individually portioned, and wrapped in banana leaves or
daun getah (rubber leaves). Nowadays, tapai is wrapped using
plastic, paper, or a small plastic container. It is usually found in
Peninsular Malaysia among the Malay community; it is served
during special functions such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri and Malay
weddings. Tapai tastes sweet, yet slightly alcoholic, with a pleasant
aroma. The glutinous rice is soft and juicy, and some liquid is also
produced because of the fermentation. According to Merican and
Yeoh [33], tapai is a very perishable product because the fermen-
tation continues even after the optimum stage of fermentation has
been reached. Overfermentation results in a sour and more alco-
holic taste, which is not acceptable for consumption. Generally, in
the north Peninsular Malaysia, tapai ubi (tapioca tapai) is more
popular and is also used to prepare other sweet delicacies.
Another popular delicacy among local Malay communities is
kuih bahulu. It is one of the many traditional Malay delicacies that is
still popularly eaten and served as a snack food among locals,
especially during festive occasions such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri.
Nowadays, it can be found every day and is typically consumed as
afternoon tea. The ingredients used in making bahulu are eggs,
sugar, and flour. In the traditional recipe, the flour is sun dried to
make it lighter and airy. Another important step to produce a soft
texture in kuih bahulu is the method of beating eggs and sugar.
Traditionally beating eggs and sugar by using a hand whisk pro-
duces a better quality kuih bahulu than the commercially prepared
ones. Beating eggs and sugar with a hand whisk incorporates more
air into the mixture. The traditional way of baking kuih bahulu is by
using charcoal fire, where hot coals are placed on the top of and
under the kuih bahulu mold. As such, it takes quite a while to cook
in the traditional way, but the traditional method produces a
wonderful aroma. Thus, many kuih bahulu makers nowadays have
resorted to modern methods, for example, using the hot oven. Kuih
bahulu comes in several different shapes due to the different bahulu
molds used, and the famous ones are bahulu cermai (button) and
bahulu ikan emas (goldfish) [34].
6. Malay occasions
6.1. Aqiqah and cukur/potong jambul
The definition of aqiqah in Islamic terminology is “slaughtering
an animal on the occasion of child birth” [35]. It is usually per-
formed on the seventh day of the baby's birth, after naming the
baby. However, some scholars have said that this can be postponed
till the child has become mature, and aqiqah can be performed
then. Performing aqiqah is highly encouraged among the Muslim
people as thanksgiving for the birth of a newborn child. Apart from
great blessing from the Creator, it is part of tradition for the family
members, neighbors, and friends to celebrate the blessed occasion.
Not to forget, poor families are also invited during these celebra-
tions, and food and uncooked meat are offered to them.
Per the Islamic practice for this event, to provide a community
meal, the family slaughters one or two lambs [36]. Two equal lambs
for a baby boy and one for a baby girl. Sheep, cows, or camels can
also be used instead of lamb. Camels must be older than 6 years,
cows must be older than 3 years, and sheep must be older than 2
years for slaughtering. The selection of the animal is very important
in that they must be free from any handicap, such as being blind,
unhealthy, and undernourished. After slaughtering, one-third of
uncooked meat is given away to the poor family as charity, and the
rest is cooked and served in a large community meal. Typically,
guests are served with food and drinks. It is common to see tradi-
tional Malay dishes, such as pulut kuning (yellow glutinous rice)
with beef rendang, nasi briyani, nasi minyak, lamb soup, kurma
daging, and ayam masak merah, served along with local fruits and
assorted Malay kuih during these occasions.
Aqiqah is usually performed on the same day as the cukur jam-
bul. The meaning of cukur jambul or potong jambul from an Islamic
perspective is the very first haircut of a newborn child [37]. It is
usually practiced in accordance with the Islamic traditions. The
closest family members are always invited to witness the event.
Usually, prayers are recited, followed by a religious song known as
marhaban or berzanji. Everything in-between these two depends
largely on family tradition and regional customs. Another impor-
tant element in the cukur jambul is the dulang or the ceremonial
tray that holds the scissors, young coconut, and bunga rampai (a
fragrant bouquet that usually includes screwpine leaves, jasmine,
rose, and frangipani flowers).
The newborn baby's hair is preferably shaved on the seventh
day of the baby's birth. The new father or mother then carries the
baby to each person to snip off a lockdusually grandparents, family
or village elders, members of the marhaban or berzanji group, and
religious leaders. It is customary (though not compulsory) for those
who do the honors to present the baby with a little gift in cash or in
kind. Then, the baby’s shaved hair is weighed. The value of silver or
gold equivalent to the hair’s weight is calculated. This amount is
then donated to the needy.
Apart from shaving hair, at this same occasion in Malay custom,
belah mulut is also performed by chewing dates and putting a little
of the chewed date on the fingertips and then inserting and rubbing
it into the baby's mouth [21]. As the final part of cukur jambul, all
the invited guests are presented with quintessentially traditional
bunga telur (a hard-boiled egg attached to a flower on a bamboo
stick) as a mark of appreciation for attending the ceremony. Aqiqah
and cukur jambul are an important rite of passage for a Malay baby,
and some families argue that it is very much an event for extended
family to come together, renew bonds, and welcome the new baby
into the clan.
6.2. Khatam Al-Quran and majlis berkhatan/bersunat
The Khatam Al-Quran can be defined as the moment one has
completed his/her course in the reciting of the Holy Al-Quran [38].
Muslims believe that “the moment we are able to read, it is
compulsory for us to begin with Al-Quran” [21]. The Malay com-
munity views Al-Quran as a guideline that rules all dimensions of
human life whether at an individual or collective level. Therefore,
teaching Al-Quran reciting and its essence is an obligation of the
parents. In the early times, all Malay parents entrusted religious
teachers, known as Ustaz (male) or Ustazah (female), with teaching
their children both reciting of Al-Quran and Islamic knowledge and
practices. But now, the situation has changed, and the parents
neither send their children to Islamic schools in the afternoon after
attending the normal school hours nor do they prefer to teach their
children by themselves.
There are 30 juzuk (chapters) in the Al-Quran (all in Arabic), and
it takes quite a few months to complete reciting it depending on
the speed of reading. The moment when one completes reciting
the whole Al-Quran is called Khatam Al-Quran. This occasion is a
highly encouraged thanksgiving event. The final verse of the Al-
Quran, the 30th section, is read during this ceremony. After
which, doa (prayer) is recited. On completion of the reciting, he or
she first kisses the hand of the Quran teacher, then the parents,
and finally the hands of each guest. Next, the guests take part in
the feast, and the guests receive a traditional bunga telur. Malay
traditional foods such as laksa johor, yellow glutinous rice accom-
panied by beef rendang, roti jala with chicken curry, and Malay
desserts are usually served during this occasion. It is also
customary in the Malay society to organize a Khatam Al-Quran
 M.N.A. Raji et al / Malay kitchen essentials
ceremony before a wedding, which is traditionally hosted by the
bride's family.
A very important ceremony in a Malay boy's life is berkhatan or
circumcision, and it is usually performed when he is between 6 and
13 years old [21]. Although it could be done at birth, Malaysians
prefer to have their boys circumcised before attaining adolescence
or puberty. Circumcision is a process that every Muslim male has to
undergo in their journey to manhood. Living in a town certainly
takes out the fun of this exciting event. In the village, usually during
school holidays, boys at the age of puberty prepare for circumcision
in groups to eliminate the fear. They dress up in baju melayu and
kain pelikat (traditional costumes) and have a feast [21]. A shower
then follows in preparation of berkhatan, followed by a wait for the
arrival of Tok Mudindthe expert to perform the circumcision [39];
however, nowadays, circumcision is performed in a clinic by a
professional doctor. Then, all the kids line up to take turns for
circumcision. In addition, majlis berkhatan has become a traditional
ceremony with bunga manggar (a traditional Malay decorative item
that is carried while accompanying important guests), music from
the kompang (a traditional Malay musical instrument), a show of
the silat (the Malay art of self-defense), and a kenduri (Malay feast)
for the visitors. Normally, the kenduri is held for lunch or after the
midday prayer.
6.3. Malay wedding ceremonies
Malay weddings are truly spectacular and elaborate. It is
generally celebrated for a minimum of 3 days. It starts with akad
Fig. 9. Majlis bersanding. The bride and groom wearing traditional Malay costume for their reception (majlis bersanding). Typically, the reception is held from 11:30 AM to 4 PM; guests
will be there within the stated time and will be served buffet-style lunch consisting of pilaf rice, beef rendang, acar (vegetable pickles), curry fried chicken, and a selection of
desserts. The menu would depend on how much budget that the host wants to spend on food.
229
nikah (solemnization), in which the bride and groom are consid-
ered officially married [19]. This occasion is normally small and is
attended primarily by family members and close friends. The most
planned-for event is called majlis bersanding or the wedding
reception, where everyone from the bride's families and friends is
invited to introduce the new husband and wife. This is when the
bride and groom wear the most beautiful matching attire and sit on
the dais while the guests watch in awe (Fig. 9). The final occasion
similar to the second event is called majlis bertandang. This is also
a ceremony to introduce the bride and groom and is hosted by the
groom's side at their home or choice of location. During this entire
event, there will be a main table where the bride and groom have
their lunch or dinner with selected guests. On this table, the food is
different and specially prepared and presented for the bride and
groom, as they are the king and queen for the day.
All Malay weddings must be accompanied by hantaran (gifts) at
the time the vows are exchanged. These gifts are placed on a tray
and beautifully decorated, showing respect. There are normally an
odd number of trays as determined by the bride. The groom has to
follow suit with a fewer odd-numbered trays. The hantaran trays
normally are token of gifts to each other, traditionally consisting of
clothing, shoes, watches, a set of jewelry, local fresh potpourri, and
a few traditional sweet desserts such as halwa maskat, kek lapis,
wajik pulut, kuih kacau labu, wajik ubi kayu, halwa lobak merah, and
dodol.
The Malay wedding is another testimony of the community's
collective identity. Marriages are often celebrated in an elaborate
fashion, involving a large number of guests. The feast is on a huge
230
scale, with at least 1,000 or more guests served with a selection of
Malay traditional rice and curries. Preparations for the wedding are
usually undertaken by family members and close friends within the
community, in spirit of gotong-royong (cooperation).
It is also acceptable to bring a gift or cash for the newlyweds.
Typically, the cash is placed in an envelope and handed to either
parents of the bride or the groom while leaving. The envelope is
slipped discretely into the parent's hands when the guest shakes
them to congratulate them on their son's or daughter's marriage. As
they depart, each guest is presented with a token of various gifts
from chocolate to hard-boiled eggs to ensure fertility of the
newlyweds.
6.4. Hari Raya Aidilfitri
Hari Raya literally means “celebration day,” and Hari Raya
Aidilfitri is the day that marks the end of the fasting month of
Ramadan. For the Muslim community, Hari Raya Aidilfitri is one of
the two most important celebrations, the other one being Hari Raya
Aidiladha. Hari Raya Aidilfitri is one of the biggest holidays in
Malaysia, and most Muslims and even non-Muslims take this op-
portunity to return to their hometown (balik kampung) to enjoy the
celebration day together with their family.
Traditional clothes, such as baju melayu, songkok, and samping
for the men and baju kurung or kebaya for the women, are worn
during this festival. Most families choose clothes of similar color
themes to show family bonds and ties. Another important part of
this festive period is preparing traditional Hari Raya Aidilfitri special
menus, including ketupat, lemang, rendang, nasi minyak, and so on
(Fig. 10). Traditional equipment and utensils such as the pestle and
mortar, firewood, pots, and pans are used to maintain the aroma
and unique taste of these special foods. All the dishes are prepared
from scratch, and the ingredients normally can be bought from the
wet market or harvested from the backyard or in the woods. Family
members contribute their time and energy together to
prepare these Hari Raya Aidilfitri menus.
Fig. 10. Ketupat nasidcompressed rice wrapped in coconut leaves. An authentic Malay traditional dish made from rice. For the ketupat casing, only young coconut leaves are used.
After filling up the ketupat casing with rice, it is boiled for 2e3 hours. It is usually eaten during festive seasons such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri and Hari Raya Haji and served with beef
rendang or chicken floss (serunding).
J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 221e231
The first day after the holy month of Ramadan is a busy one. A
visit to the mosque and recitation of special prayers is a practice
that Muslims observe on the morning of Hari Raya Aidilfitri to
celebrate the end of the fasting month. Other practices include
asking forgiveness from the seniors and visiting relatives and
friends. Visits usually begin with the parents' home as the first
destination. It is a custom among many Muslims to ask forgiveness
from their parents for any wrongdoing in the past year. Although it
is not required for Muslims to visit the cemetery during Hari Raya
Aidilfitri, many do so as a remembrance of those who have passed
away. In Malaysia, children are given token sums of money called
duit raya by their parents or elders.
7. Table etiquette
Traditionally, Malay dinner is laid on a pandanus mat; however,
in the modern days, most Malay homes use the dining table. Kain
seperah (a piece of cloth) laid on the mat and then food is served.
Usually, female diners and children are served on a separate kain
seperah. In Malay traditional customs, there are distinct differences
between men and women in the manner of seating on the mat.
Men should crisscross their feet in front of themdduduk bersila
dand women should fold both their feet on one sidedduduk ber-
simpuh (normally on their right side) [40].
All dishes, including the rice, are served at the same time and
not in the form of courses. Diners scoop the warm rice onto their
plates and then help themselves to the dishes. Dishes with kuah
(gravy) have a spoon to scoop the sauce, soup, or gravy, but for dry
dishes, one simply tears a piece of the food by using their fingers.
Dessert is the only course that is served on its own toward the end
of the meal. Before starting the meal, doa makan (the prayer before
meals) is recited to demonstrate thankfulness for the food to Allah,
and it is polite for the diners to invite the more senior ones at the
table to start eating first by saying jemput makan (please eat). In an
occasion when two diners reach out for the same dish, it is also
polite to allow the more senior person to help himself/herself first.
 M.N.A. Raji et al / Malay kitchen essentials
Traditionally, the Malay eats using their right hand. The left
hand is never used to handle food at any circumstance. Only the
fingers are used, and the palm is kept clean. Diners wash the hands
before eating as maintaining good hygiene is of utmost importance.
In Malay social gatherings or restaurants, it is thus common to
provide bowls with warm water or the kendi (a jug containing
cleaning water accompanied by big bowl) for rinsing the hands.
While eating, one should only touch the food on one's plate and not
the common dishes. It is considered impolite to overload one's
plate with food at the first serving. It is also rude to leave without
eating and even more so to return half-eaten food to the common
serving dishes.
Even with the modernization, food etiquette of the Malay
community continues to set standards for social behavior. For this
community especially, meal times are opportunities for socializing,
be it as families or as larger social networks. Food etiquette at the
dining table thus not only promotes the community's cultural
heritage and value but also strengthens the community's identity
through the propagation of accepted behavior [41].
8. Conclusion
Malaysia is multicultural country with many religions, ethnic-
ities, and languages. The Malays usually refer to the people who
speak Malay, which is originally the native language of the people
from Riau, Sumatra, Indonesia, and are generally Muslims. This
language is currently spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Southern
Thailand, southern Philippines, and Brunei. Because of the histori-
cal background, however, it is difficult to claim that the cuisine is
truly Malay because the cooking methods and the ingredients have
been influenced by many cultures. However, the Malays have
improvised the recipes to suit the local tastes. The Malay cuisines,
especially of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, vary, but
still they share some similarities with one another. Every cooking
technique and ingredient used in the Malay cuisine has a unique
aroma, taste, and flavor based on the settlement area and the
assimilation process that originated from the influence of colo-
nialism. The availability of local ingredients also made Malay food
distinct from food of other races. Sustaining the Malay cuisine is
very crucial to impart this knowledge to future generations.
Conflicts of interest
All authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.001.
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