Table of Contents

Reference Tables and Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Preface to Fourth Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Excerpts from Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Conventions Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Guide to Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
(Click on a letter to go to appropriate section.)
Appendices
A. Sl (Système International) units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
B. Greek alphabet and Hindi numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
C. Symbols used in geophysical exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
D. Symbols used in well logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
E. Mathematical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
F. Map and rock symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
G. Abbreviations of organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
H. Numerical constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
I. Geologic time scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
J. Prem model for spherically symmetric Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
K. Conversion of units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Reference Tables and Figures
Absorption terminology (A-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Age dating, radioactive (A-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Air pressure/temperature/humidity nomogram (A-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Amplitude variation with offset classification (A-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Archie’s formula for different lithologies (A-17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Atmospheric layering (A-22) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Attributes, seismic (A-23) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Bathymetric zonation (B-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Beaufort wind scale and Douglas sea-state scale (B-2) . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Boolean algebra representation and truth tables (B-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Channel waves (C-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chronostratigraphic chart (C-4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Conic section equations (C-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Coordinate transforms (C-14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Decibel conversion (D-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Depth of investigation and resolution for logging tools (D-8) . . . . . . . 85
Earth layering terminology and depth relations (E-1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Earthquake wavefronts and terminology (E-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Elastic constants in isotropic media (E-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Elastic moduli (E-6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Electrical and electromagnetic methods (E-7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Electric quantities and units (E-8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Electromagnetic spectrum (E-11). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Ellipse terminology (E-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Eustatic cycles (E-13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fault types (F-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Filtering types (F-8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
First motion of fault breaks (F-10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fourier transform pairs (F-19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fourier transform operations and theorems (F-20/22). . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fresnel-zone nomogram (F-26) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Geodetic systems (G-2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Geomagnetic polarity time scale (G-4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Gravity methods resolution (G-8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Hooke’s law generalizations (H-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Hydrocarbon indicators (H-10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Hyperbolic functions (H-13). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Kepler (astronomic) coordinates (K-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Layering beneath the oceans (L-4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Lithology of rocks (L-7,8,9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Magnetic quantities and units (M-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Magnetic resolution (M-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Map projections (M-4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Matrix terminology (M-6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Means or averages (M-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Modified Mercalli scale (M-9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Migration types (M-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Milankovitch cycles and orbital perturbations (M-13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Number systems (N-4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Permeabilities of rock types (P-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Polarity standard (P-6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Positioning and navigation systems (P-10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Probability functions (P-13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Rayleigh-Willis relation (R-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Reflection and refraction equations for constant velocity
overburden (R-9). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Resistivities of earth materials (R-11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Resource classification–SPE definitions (R-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Rippability of rocks by bulldozer (R-15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Sequence stratigraphy (Haq) chart–Paleogene
and Neogene (S-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Sines and cosines, laws of (S-10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Snell’s law (S-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Static correction (S-22) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Statistical measures (S-23) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Symmetry systems (S-29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
System tracts (S-32). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Thermodynamic functions (T-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3D data-slicing for 2D visualization (T-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Township range– Canadian and American systems (T-11) . . . . . . . . 362
Transverse isotropy or Polar anisotropy (T-13). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Trigonometric identities (T-15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Triple-junction types (T-16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Vectors (V-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Velocity of seismic waves– terminology (V-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Vertical seismic profile applications (V-11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Water velocity (W-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Wave definitions (W-2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Wave notation (W-7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Well classification (W-8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Well-log measurements and applications (W-9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Wentworth particle-size scale (W-11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Windows in time and frequency domains (W-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Zoeppritz equations (Z-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Preface to Fourth Edition

The twelve years since the Third Edition manuscript was finished have seen many new devel-
opments. Using seismic data for hydrocarbon production decisions has become almost routine.
Visualization has become important in helping us better understand relationships. We now realize
that most of what we formerly considered noise is actually geologic signal that we did not
understand. We combine and interpret attributes and try to relate them to physical properties. AVO
has become routine. We are beginning to quantify the anisotropic aspects of the real world.
Multicomponent recording and interpretation of converted waves have proven their value in a
number of situations. Downhole digitization of well logs has enormously increased the fidelity and
amount of data about subsurface conditions. Recognition of hazards by noninvasive methods is
growing. Our vocabulary has expanded because of geostatistics, neural networks, anisotropy,
tomography, horizontal drilling, multicomponent acquisition, deep-water work, etc. These factors
have all contributed to increasing our vocabulary.
The foregoing factors and actual applications also indicate that the title used in previous
editions, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, has become too restrictive and
consequently I have modified the title to Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics to
conform with current practice.
What has always concerned me is what words should be included. If you do not find here the
word you are looking for 共I probably did not think to include it兲, I hope you will tell me so that I
can include it in the next revision. I try to be alert to words that are not in the Encyclopedic
Dictionary when I discover them in reading or hear them in a talk or conversation, and I often jot
down the word on a scrap of paper and then periodically enter these into a computer file for
consideration for the next edition. My list for this edition began when I shipped off the manuscript
for the previous edition, and I have already begun a list for the next edition. Please suggest words
that you would like to have included so that they can be considered. I would, of course, also
appreciate receiving any corrections or other comments about this edition. My goal is to provide
a reference book that is useful to geophysicists.

Robert E. Sheriff
Houston, 20 March 2001
Acknowledgments
I greatly appreciate the help that many people have given me in efforts to make this work useful.
I have tried to keep a record of those who helped but undoubtedly I have missed some and I
apologize to them. I have borrowed many potential-field definitions from IGC 共1996兲 and Goussev
and Peirce 共1999兲. I especially wish to acknowledge the huge contributions by Dan Ebrom and Bob
Bruce and my colleagues at the University of Houston. And I again thank my wife Margaret for her
advice and support.
I have merged the names of contributors with those of the preceding editions on which this
edition is built. A number of the names are repeats and I very much appreciate their continuing
help. A number of the names are also of those who are no longer with us and we are thus reminded
of how much we owe them for their contributions to geophysics.

Aina, Adebayo Butler, John Dobrin, Milton

Al-Chalabi, M. Bybee, Halbert H. Domenico, Norman
Alexander, Mike Carlile, R. E. Donovan, Mike T.
Ahmad, F. I. Calvert, Andrew J. Doo, Jung Jim
Aldridge, David F. Carmichael, R. S. Dragoset, Bill
Allingham, John W. Castellussi, George Duffy, John
Anderson, Brian Cavers, D. A. Eaton, Perry
Antonelli, Philip D. Chambers, Richard L. Ebrom, Dan
Asten, Michael Chapin, David Edelmann, H. A. K.
Astern, M. W. Chen, Quincy Eggers, Dwight E.
Ballantyne, Edwin J. Chen, Thomas C. Eisner, Elmer
Bancroft, John C. Cherepovski, Anatoly Eppert, Herb
Barasch, Linda S. Christensen, A. D. Evans, Randy L.
Barnes, Art Cidinsky, Karel Ferderer, Robert J.
Barnes, Barbara S. Claerbout, Jon F. Finklea, E. E.
Barnett, Wayne S. Clarj, C. M. Frazier, S. B.
Barr, Fred Claude, Ph. Frost, Noel
Bean, R. J. Corbett, J. D. Gajkowski, Wynn
Bexdam, Sanbdor Correa, Gus Galbraith, James N.
Bhattacharya, B. B. Cox, Mike Gardner, G. H. F.
Bird, Dale Crampin, Stuart Gardner, L. W.
Boerner, David Cressman, Ken S. Geldart, Lloyd P.
Bowers, Glenn Daniel, D. B. Georgi, Daniel
Braunstein, Jules Daniels, Jeffrey Ghiselin, Richard G.
Bremner, Doug Davis, Bob Goetz, J. F.
Brown, Alistair R. Davenport, G. Clark Goldstein, Norman E.
Brown, R. James Dellinger, Joe Goussev, Serguei
Bruce, Bob Denham, Leslie R. Green, Ronald
Bullock, S. J. Dewan, John T. Hadsell, Frank
Burg, Kenneth E. Diggons, Bill Hall, Stuart A.
Burns, G. W. Dix, C. H. Hansen, Rochard
Butler, Butch Dobecki, T. L. Hann, John
Hardage, Bob Mueller, John F. Smith, Richard
Harrell, Ron Murray, D. RB. Sodbinow, Manny
Henry, Steve Musgrave, A. W. Sondergeld, Carl
Hertzler, Jim Myung, John L. Soonawala, N. M.
Hilche, D. W. Neccioglu, Altan Souza, Jairo M.
Hinze, W. J. Nelson, H. Roice Spies, Brian R.
Holderman, Timothy G. Nelson, John C. Steenland, Melson C.
Holzman, Mark Nettleton, L. L. Steeples, Don W.
Houpe, Mark W. Norris, Mike Stephens, Steve
Iverson, William P. Norris, Roger A. Strack, Kurt M.
Johnson, Glenda E. Olhoeft, Gary R. Sumner, John R.
Keller, G. Randy Oliveira Duarte, Osvaldo de Suto, Koya
Keller, George V. Oxley, Dave Swanson, Harold
Kellogg, W. C. Pankonien, Laura J. Tahseen, M.
Kennedy, David Parker, G. E. Taxil, Paul H.
Kirkpatrick, Richard L. Parish, John Taylor, Howard L.
Koerner, H. J. Paulsson, Bjorn N. P. Thayer, Richard E.
LaFehr, Thomas R.
Payne, Layton N. Thomsen, Leon
Laing, Bill
Peirce, John Todd, Raymond C.
Lankston, Robert W.
Pickett, George R. Tudor, Don
Levin, Franklyn K.
Porter, Mark Uren, Norm
Levin, Stewart
Liggio, Ann Powers, Michael H. Valenta, W. T.
Lindseth, Roy O. Prieto, Corine Valusek, Jay E.
Liner, Chris Racer, C. W. Van Melle, F. A.
Lines, Larry R. Ranto, K. Vozoff, Keeva
Long, James A. Regan, Robert D. Walker, Terry
Loucks, Keith W. Reid, Alan B. Wallberg, Jeanne S.
Lowman, Paul Resnick, Jeff Walstrom, J. E.
Lowry, Allan Robertson, James D. Ward, Stanley H.
Luzela, R. C. Robertson, R. A. Watson, Kenneth
Lynch, Bill Rowe, Jeffrey D. Watts, M. D.
Macnae, Jim Ross, Christopher West, Robert E.
Mahrer, Ken Savit, Carl H. Weyand, Jack C.
Mallick, Brian C. Schoenberger, Michael Wiggins, Wendell
Marfurt, Kurt Sedov, Boris Winney, Randy A.
Marks, Karen Segesman, F. Winterstein, Don
Mayne, W. Harry Sheriff, Margaret S. Wolfgram, Pater
McCarley, L. A. Sheriff, Richard K. Woller, Kevin L.
McCormack, H. Robert Siegfried, Bob Wuenschel, Paul
McDonald, John A. Sigal, Richard Yorston, Howard J.
McNaughton, Neil Simpson, Anne Yungul, Sulhi H.
Meinardus, Hans A. Singleton, Al Zeitz, Isidore
Monk, Dave Slavin, Mathew Zhou, Hau Wei
Morgan, James G. Smith, Christopher Zinzer, David
Excerpts from the Preface to the First
Edition
The ‘‘Glossary of Terms Used in Geophysical Exploration’’ which was published in
GEOPHYSICS in February 1968 occasioned many expressions of appreciation for my attempt to
help geophysical understanding and communication. Improvements and additions were suggested,
including expansion into related fields.
The Glossary developed greater use as a reference than was anticipated. One well-received
feature of the original glossary was the ‘‘extended entry,’’ wherein a definition was expanded to
clarify implications and relate it to other concepts. The expanded entries provided convenient
access to basic equations and facts which are used only occasionally. Milton Dobrin observed that
this work had developed into more than a mere glossary and suggested the name, ‘‘Encyclopedic
Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics.’’
The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics was compiled for ‘‘practical’’
geophysicists rather than for researchers or other specialists. The novice surveyor can find the
reason for surveying for a ‘‘walkaway.’’
Common geologic terms are included because the end objective of most geophysical work is a
geologic picture, although geologic time has been relegated to an appendix. Some ‘‘popular’’
information like sea states and earthquake intensity scales is included. Those who are seismologists
only may find that their specialized vocabulary is also used in electrical exploration, and we hope
they’ll realize that geophysics includes many disciplines. I trust that browsing in this work may
show the broad scope of geophysics.
The eclectic nature of this work inevitably involves inconsistencies in deciding which entries
and how much information to include. The most likely reason why a particular entry may be
missing is that I didn’t happen to think of it. While I would have preferred to have a more balanced
and complete work, this dictionary seems open-ended as if it could never be complete. To continue
to refine it would only have delayed its availability. Therefore, despite faults, we have proceeded
to press. It will be appreciated if readers who find errors or omissions or who may have other
suggestions will inform me.
I do not claim to have invented the terms included here but merely to give the meanings in
actual geophysical usage. Numerous references were consulted to assure reasonable conformity;
sometimes this results in repeating someone else’s phraseology.
Many people helped in this compilation, including many whom I have never met and some
whose names I do not even know. I thank them all for their help even though I do not cite them
specifically.

ROBERT E. SHERIFF
HOUSTON, 1972
Conventions Used
As in the previous editions, I use the following conventions:
共1兲 Entries usually begin with the heart of a definition, although occasionally a discussion is
given first to provide a frame of reference.
Restrictions on meaning sometimes are contained in a discussion which follows rather
than being incorporated into the definition itself. Terms indicated as being synonymous
are often used interchangably even though they may not be identical in all respects.
共2兲 The numbering within an entry indicates different meanings, but the sequence does not
indicate preference.
Where meanings are contradictory, this is stated explicitly and, in some cases, a preferred
usage is indicated and an alternative suggested to avoid ambiguity. Letters subdivide an
entry without implying differences in meaning.
Only specialized meaning in geophysics are included.
共3兲 Words in italics refer the reader to another entry that supplements the meaning.
Cross-references are shown only where needed to complete the meaning. They are
indicated by ‘‘see,’’ ‘‘compare,’’ or ‘‘q.v.’’ 共quo vide兲.
Cross-references also indicate preferences. For example, ‘‘P-wave’’ is preferred to other
terms meaning the same thing, so the other terms are referred to the P-wave entry.
Likewise, ‘‘common midpoint’’ is preferred to ‘‘common depth point’’ or ‘‘common
reflection point’’ because it expresses more accurately what it is that is common.
共4兲 Bold face within an entry indicates additional terms that are 共in effect兲 defined here.
共5兲 Tradenames are indicated where they are in general use. Where used for a class of
devices, an entry may begin with a lower-case letter even though the tradename begins
with a capital. Neither inclusion nor exclusion of tradenames implies judgments about the
merits of devices or processes.
共6兲 References suggest a place to begin looking for further information. Readers who want
more information will generally find additional sources suggested in the cited references.
References are listed in the back. Usually a readily available single source is cited.
The citation of a reference does not imply the original source nor the most complete or
current reference.
共7兲 Figures have been kept simple to illustrate the terminology and the most important
features of concepts without attempting to make them realistic or illustrate all features.
Figures, tables, and boxes have been incorporated into one sequence identified
numerically within each letter of the alphabet to aid in locating them. Entries that are
most apt to be used for reference are listed immediately following the table of contents.
共8兲 Pronunciations are indicated by the fairly simple code listed in the separate Guide to
Pronunciation. I found appreciable differences in pronunciation 共as well as in definitions兲
among the dictionaries I consulted 共Guralnik, 1972; Jackson, 1997; Morris, 1969; Oxford,
1971; Parker, 1993; Stein, 1966兲, some making subtle distinctions that seem unnecessary.
共9兲 I have attempted to conform with current SEG practice as to whether compound words
are one word, hyphenated, two words, or italicized. Such decisions are sometimes
arbitrary.
Guide to Pronunciation

An apostrophe 共’兲 indicates the syllable to be most strongly accented and a comma 共,兲 indicates
a syllable to be secondarily accented.
The following symbols are used to indicate pronunciations:
a as in act, that
ā as in aid, date
ch as in charge, beach
d as in do, had
e as in ebb, ten
ē as in equal, team
⳵ as in unaccented syllables, e.g., alone, agent, sanity, gallop, focus
f as in fit, differ
g as in give, dog
h as in hit, behind
i as in if, bit
ī as in ice, bite
j as in joy, digit
k as in cast, kill, make
l as in let, mellow
m as in met, summer
n as in now, dent
o as in ox, top
ō as in over, boat
oi as in oil, boy
oo as in hoot
ou as in out, power
p as in put, slip
r as in red, hurry
s as in sign, miss
t as in ten, cat
th as in thin, path
u as in up, love
ū as in use, fuel
v as in voice, weave
w as in wind, away
y as in yet, lawyer
z as in zoo, those
zh as in vision, treasure
 A
a: Sl symbol for year 共annum兲.
A: 1. Ampere 共q.v.兲, the SI unit of electrical current. 2. See
A-type section. 3. The amplitude at normal incidence in
AVO studies, where the amplitude is often approxi-
mated by the equation A⫹B sin2 ␪, where ␪ is the
angle of incidence.
␣: The Greek letter alpha 共q.v.兲, often used to indicate
P-wave velocity.
␣¸: P-wave velocity parallel to the direction of the sym-
metry axis; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters.
AAPG-A: An exchange format for transfer of geologic
and petroleum data. See Shaw and Waller 共1989兲.
A¿B,A*B: Denotes ways 共sum, product兲 in which AVO
intercept and slope are combined to yield a single
index, where amplitude is expressed as A⫹B sin2 ␪, ␪
being the angle of incidence.
abandon: To cease producing oil or gas from a well when
it becomes unprofitable. Before a well is abandoned,
usually some of the casing is removed and cement
plugs are placed in the borehole to prevent migration of
fluids between formations.
ABC method: A method of computing refractor depth
based on refracted arrivals from sources near the sur-
face. Especially used for determinations of weathering
thickness from sources above the base of the weather-
ing. See Figure A-1. The weathering time t W is some-
times multiplied by a ‘‘k-factor’’ to give the vertical
weathering time:
t wV 1
t v ⫽kt w ⫽ 2 . through a medium. Absorption for seismic waves is
冑V 1 ⫺V 22
AB electrodes: The current electrodes in resistivity sur-
veying and well logging. Current is passed between the
A and B electrodes and voltage is measured between
the M and N electrodes. See Figures A-18, A-19, and
E-10. At least one of the electrodes is usually at the
surface.
Abelian: 共⳵ bē’ lē ⳵n or ⳵ bēl’ y⳵n兲 Commutative 共q.v.兲.
Named for Niels Henrik Abel 共1802–1829兲, Norwegian
mathematician.
abnormal end: Premature termination of a computer pro-
gram caused by a hardware or software error. Verb:
abort.
FIG. A-1. ABC weathering method. Weathering time t W below B is t w ⫽(t AB ⫹t BC ⫺t AC )/2 where t AB
⫽surface-to-surface time from A to B (obtained by adding the uphole time to the first-break time), etc.
1
abnormal pressure: The difference between pore fluid
pressure and normal pressure 共q.v.兲. Normal pressure is
the pressure produced by a column of formation water
extending to the surface 共hydrostatic pressure兲. Fluid
pressure that is lower than normal pressure is called
underpressure or subpressure and that greater than
normal, overpressure 共q.v.兲. The seismic effects of
abnormal pressure are discussed in Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 126 –128兲.
abort: To terminate without running to completion, as to
‘‘abort a computer run.’’
ab plane: See axial surface.
AB rectangular array: Gradient array; see array (electri-
cal).
absolute gravity: The absolute acceleration of the Earth’s
gravity field as opposed to relative gravity such as
measured by conventional gravimeters. Absolute grav-
ity can be measured using a corner-cube reflector fall-
ing in a small vacuum chamber, the position of the
reflector being measured with a laser interferometer.
Portable absolute gravimeters are now in experimental
exploration use. They can be operated in sets coupled
by fiber optics to measure absolute gravity gradients
directly. See Niebauer et al. 共1995兲 and Brown et al.
共2000兲.
absorbing boundary: A boundary that does not reflect
energy.
absorption: 共ab sorp’ sh⳵n or ab zorp’ sh⳵n兲 1. A process
whereby energy is converted into heat while passing
typically about 0.25 dB/cycle and may be as large as
0.5 dB/cycle. See Q, Toksöz and Johnston 共1982兲, and
Figure A-2. Absorption involves change of amplitude
and velocity with frequency; it is thus a mechanism 共but
not the only one兲 for attenuating high frequencies and
changing waveshape. 关Peg-leg multiples, which do not
involve absorption, produce effects that are similar.兴 2.
The process by which radiant energy is converted into
other forms of energy. 3. The penetration of the mol-
ecules or ions of a substance into the interior of a solid
or liquid.
absorptance: 共ab sorp’ t⳵ns or ab zorp’ t⳵ns兲 The ability of
a substance to absorb incident energy.
absorption band
absorption band: The range of wavelengths within which
energy is absorbed by a substance. Atmospheric absorp-
tion of electromagnetic energy is shown in Figure E-11.
absorption coefficient: If the amplitude A is expressed as
A⫽A 0 e ⫺ ␣ x ,
where x⫽distance, ␣ is the absorption coefficient or
attenuation factor. It usually varies linearly with fre-
quency and is often expressed in dB/wavelength 共typi-
cally 0.20 to 0.50 dB/␭兲. Distinction may or may not be
made as to the reason for attenuation 共i.e., absorption or
some other mechanism兲. See Q.
ac: Alternating Current.
ac-bias recording: A system in which a modulating mes-
sage biases a constant-amplitude carrier. See Figure
M-16. Used in magnetic tape recording to avoid hys-
teresis distortion.
acceleration factor: The velocity gradient factor a in the
equation V⫽V 0 ⫹az, where z⫽depth. In basins filled
with clastic sediments, a is commonly 400–700/m 共or
in a similar equation in two-way time, 0.4 –0.7/s兲.
acceleration of gravity: See gravitational constant.
accelerometer: 共ak sel, ⳵ rom’ i t⳵r兲 1. A transducer whose
output is proportional to ground acceleration. Acceler-
ometers are used with shipboard-gravimeter and
inertial-navigation systems. 2. A seismometer whose
output is proportional to the acceleration to which it is
subjected. For example, a geophone with velocity
response proportional to frequency and a 90° phase
shift 共as may be the case below the natural frequency兲
operates as an accelerometer.
acceptance criteria: Criteria that data must satisfy to be
accepted.
acceptor: A p-type semiconductor 共q.v.兲.
access time: The time interval between when data are
called for and when they are delivered. For example,
the time it takes a computer to locate data on an I/O
device 共or in its memory兲 and transfer it to its arithmetic
unit, or the time to transfer it back to the proper location
in memory. Also called latency.
accommodation space: Space in which sediments can be
deposited, usually the space between sea level and the
sea floor.
ac coupling: See coupling.
accumulate error: Where errors are systematic, they tend
to be of the same sign and have little tendency to
FIG. A-2. Absorption terminology. Sometimes this terminology is used for attenuation because of factors other than
absorption. E⫽energy, ⌬E⫽energy lost in one cycle, ␭⫽wavelength, f⫽frequency, x⫽distance, t⫽time, A/A 0
⫽amplitude/(initial amplitude), A 1 /A 2 ⫽amplitude/(amplitude one cycle later). (From Sheriff, 1989, 330.)
2 acoustic log
cancel, possibly adding up to a larger cumulative error.
accuracy: 1. The degree of freedom from error 共q.v.兲; the
total error compared to the ‘‘true’’ value. Compare
precision, uncertainty, and sensitivity. 2. The ability of
an instrument to follow a true value.
ac demagnetization: Alternating-field demagnetization;
see demagnetization.
acidic crust: See sial.
acidizing a well: Treating oil-bearing carbonate forma-
tions with hydrochloric or other acids to enlarge pas-
sages and improve oil flow.
aclinic line: Magnetic equator 共q.v.兲.
acoustic: 共a coos’ tik or a coo’ stik兲. Implies that the shear
modulus ␮ ⫽0. Sometimes is restricted to P-waves in
fluids 共liquids and gases兲. Synonym: sonic. See also
acoustic wave equation.
acoustic basement: The deepest more-or-less continuous
seismic reflector; often an unconformity below which
seismic energy returns are poor or absent. Also called
seismic basement.
acoustic coupler: A device for transforming analog sig-
nals from acoustic to electrical form 共as in a modem or
telephone handset兲 and vice-versa.
acoustic emissions: Small amplitude high-frequency tran-
sient elastic waves generated by deformation of a mate-
rial.
acoustic impedance: The physical property whose change
determines reflection coefficients 共q.v.兲 at normal inci-
dence, that is, seismic P-wave velocity multiplied by
density. Because reflection coefficients change with
angle, the term elastic impedance is sometimes used
when refering to non-normal incidence situations but an
equation for elastic impedance is hardly ever used.
acoustic-impedance log: A log of the variation of acous-
tic impedance 共q.v.兲 with depth or time, often calculated
by dividing density-log values by sonic-log values, or
by inverting reflection amplitudes assuming that they
are proportional to normal reflection coefficients.
acoustic impedance section: A seismic display intended
to represent acoustic impedance variations; the result of
inversion of a reflectivity section. Also called an
inverted section or synthetic acoustic-impedance log.
See Figure A-3.
acoustic log: 1. A generic term for well logs that involve
acoustic-wave propagation. Includes measurement of
the traveltime of P- or S-waves between receivers at
acoustic log 3 acoustic log

FIG. A-3. Acoustic impedance section generated by inverting a seismic section. (Courtesy Teknica.)
acoustic medium
different distances 共sonic log, continuous-velocity log兲,
measurement of the amplitude of part of the wavetrain
共amplitude log兲, display of the full-waveform 共character
log, 3D log, VDL-log, micro-seismogram log, signature
log, crossed-dipole log兲; sometimes named for the log-
ging objective 共cement-bond log, fracture log兲. 2. Spe-
cifically, a sonic log 共q.v.兲
acoustic medium: See acoustic.
acoustic network: Combination of acoustic generators
共pingers兲 and detectors, such as deployed at the front,
midpoint, and tails of streamers to determine the rela-
tive positions of the elements; bracing 共q.v.兲.
acoustic positioning: 1. Determining location using sonar
waves, as by Doppler-sonar 共q.v.兲 or locating with
respect to fixed sonar transponders. 2. Determining the
distance between elements of a towed array by measur-
ing traveltimes between the elements. 3. Determining
the positions of ocean-bottom seismometers by timing
arrivals from first arrivals in production surveying or
from specific positioning shots.
acoustic transparency: A medium with constant acoustic
impedance so that there are no reflections from within
it.
acoustic velocity log: Sonic log 共q.v.兲.
acoustic wave: 1. A P-wave, sometimes restricted to
P-waves in fluids, but often including those in the solid
earth. Synonyms: sound wave, sonic wave. 2. The
wavetrain generated and detected by a sonic-logging
sonde 共see acoustic log and Figure A-4兲. The wavetrain
is a composite of various modes of energy transfer. The
first arrival usually results from P-waves traveling in
the adjacent formation, where the sonic log measures
the slowness 共specific transit time or inverse of its
velocity兲. An S-wave traveling in the formation is
sometimes a second arrival, but sometimes the second
arrival is a tube wave in the borehole fluid. Waves
traveling through the mud usually have relatively high-
frequency content. Modes of high-amplitude, low-
frequency tube waves 共sometimes called Stoneley
FIG. A-4. Acoustic wavetrain in a borehole (idealized).
4 Adams-Williamson equation
waves兲 are often distinct arrivals. 3. More generally,
any elastic wave or seismic wave.
acoustic wave equation:
⳵2 P/⳵x 2 ⫽ 共 ␳ /k 兲 ⳵2 P/⳵t 2 or
⳵2 ␳ /⳵x 2 ⫽ 共 ␳ /k 兲 ⳵2 ␳ /⳵t 2 ,
where P⫽pressure, ␳ ⫽density, k⫽bulk modulus.
Acoustilog: Acoustic-velocity log or sonic log 共q.v.兲.
Dresser-Atlas tradename.
acquisition footprint or imprint: A pattern in data
caused by the acquisition method or changes in the
methods, such as coherence changes where acquisition
parameters or methods change, or alignments caused by
the direction of data acquisition. Footprints generally
do not have geologic significance.
ACTI: The Advanced Computational Technology Initia-
tive project of the U.S. Department of Energy labora-
tories that numerically modeled two SEG-EAGE 3D
overthrust and subsalt models. See SEG-EAGE seismic
model, and Figure S-3.
activation logging: A well-logging technique in which the
formation is irradiated with neutrons that transmute
some nuclei into radioisotopes. The radiation from the
radioisotopes is measured after a short time interval.
activation overvoltage: See overvoltage.
active: 1. A system or circuit that includes an energy
source. Often pertains to electronic elements such as
amplifiers and filters. Compare passive. 2. A method
which involves artificially induced signals. For
example, see controlled-source electromagnetics. 3. A
positioning system that involves transmission from the
mobile station that is to be located.
active beacon: See passive.
active fault: A fault along which slip has occurred in
historical, Holocene, or Quaternary time.
active layer: The layer above permafrost that thaws in the
summer.
active margin: A continental margin where one plate is
being subducted under another plate because of plate
convergence. See Figure P-5. Also called a Pacific or
convergent margin. Antonym: passive, Atlantic, or
trailing margin.
active microwave: Radar 共q.v.兲.
activity: The relative tendency of a substance to enter into
a reaction. When shales adjacent to a reservoir act as
perfect cationic membranes and the permeable bed is
clean, the electrochemical SP 共q.v.兲 can be found from
the activities of the formation water and mud filtrate,
which depend on the concentrations of dissolved salts.
AÕD: Analog to digital 共q.v.兲.
Ada: 共ā’ da兲 A U.S. Department of Defense computer
language used for real-time applications. Named for
Ada Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace 共1815–
1852兲, English computer inventor.
Adachi formulas: 共⳵ dach’ ⳵兲 Equations for solving the
multilayer dipping-refractor problem where the spread
is perpendicular to the strike. See Adachi 共1954兲 or
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 433– 434兲.
Adams-Williamson equation: An equation to determine
the density of the Earth as a function of radius. See
Fowler 共1990, 108 –109兲.
adaptive processing
adaptive processing: Data processing where the param-
eters are varied with arrival time or location as data
statistics change.
adder: A logic circuit whose output represents the sum of
the inputs. See half adder.
additive primary colors: See primary colors.
address: A label that identifies a location in a computer
memory.
adiabat: 共ad’ ē ⳵ bat,兲 A temperature-pressure 共or
temperature-depth兲 curve where heat is neither gained
nor lost.
adiabatic: Involving no net gain or loss of heat in the
system under consideration. An adiabatic approxima-
tion assumes that no heat is gained or lost from the
system. The passage of P-waves essentially involves
adiabatic compression.
adit: A passageway driven horizontally into a hill to
explore for or to produce a mineral deposit.
adjacent-bed effect: See shoulder-bed effect 共q.v.兲.
adjoint: 共⳵ joint’兲 The inverse matrix times the determi-
nant, also called adjugate. See matrix.
adjugate: See adjoint.
admittance „electrical…: 1. The reciprocal of impedance
共q.v.兲; the complex ratio of current to voltage. The unit
of measure is the siemens or mho. 2. The admittance of
a section consisting of horizontal layers of thickness h
and resistivity ␳ overlaying a basement of very high
resistivity is S⫽⌺h i / ␳ i . See also S-rule. 3. In the
magnetotelluric method, the complex ratio of electric
field E to the perpendicular magnetic field H, or the
inverse of the impedance tensor Z.
admittance „seismic…: Admittance is used in mechanical
situations where an analogy is made to an electrical
circuit. Thus one might refer to the ‘‘admittance of the
ground’’ when discussing the transfer of energy from a
source into a seismic wave.
adsorption: 共ad sorp’ sh⳵n兲 An electrostatic chemical pro-
cess in which a thin layer of molecules becomes fixed
to the outer surface of a solid. See fixed layer.
adsorption potential: Zeta potential 共q.v.兲.
advection: The movement of heat by lifting up a hot
region.
AEM: Airborne ElectroMagnetic surveying system.
aeolian: 共ē’ ōl ē ⳵n兲 Referring to wind, often to wind-
deposited sediments.
aeolotropy: 共ē, ⳵ o trop’ ⳵兲 Anisotropy 共q.v.兲.
aerated zone: The near-surface low-velocity layer or seis-
mic weathering 共q.v.兲.
aerogravity: Measurements of the Earth’s gravity field in
a moving airplane, blimp, or helicopter. Requires the
precise measurement of the location, velocity vector,
and plane altitude. Compensation to get free-air gravity
includes 共a兲 vertical acceleration correction to compen-
sate for aircraft vertical motion, 共b兲 gravimeter platform
velocity 共Eötvös and horizontal acceleration correc-
tions兲, 共c兲 aircraft elevation above sea level 共free-air
correction兲, 共d兲 latitude correction, 共e兲 low-pass filter-
ing to remove residual noise. See Figure G-8.
aeromagnetic: 共er’ ō mag net, ik兲 Involving magnetic
measurements made from an aircraft. Data are typically
sampled at 6 –10 m intervals. A fixed-wing survey uses
sensors mounted on the aircraft and sometimes a mag-
netometer is towed in a bird 50–100 m below and
behind the aircraft. Sensors are also mounted in heli-
5 age dating
copters. Surveys are usually flown at constant elevation
above sea level, but sometimes in drape surveys 共q.v.兲
they are flown at a constant elevation above the
somewhat-smoothed surface.
aeromagnetic gradiometer: See gradiometer.
aeromagnetic survey equipment: Usual equipment
includes 共1兲 high-sensitivity magnetometer 共usually
cesium兲, 共2兲 tri-axial fluxgate magnetometer, 共3兲 radar
altimeter, 共4兲 barometric altimeter, 共5兲 differential GPS
system, 共6兲 video camera for recording ground under
the survey line, 共7兲 computer data recording system, 共8兲
time-synchronized ground base station with same type
of magnetometer, and 共9兲 GPS base for differential
correction.
aeromagnetic survey specification: Parameters include
共1兲 scheduling 共sequence, duration兲, 共2兲 area informa-
tion 共location, extent兲, 共3兲 line spacing 共traverse,
control/ties兲, 共4兲 line direction, 共5兲 line lengths, 共6兲
altitude 共or drape兲, 共7兲 sample interval, 共8兲 base station
magnetometer and GPS base, 共9兲 positioning informa-
tion, 共10兲 allowed maneuvre noise level 共see compen-
sation test兲, and 共11兲 processing flow. See also Figure
M-3.
afferent: Carrying inward, as the artificial neuron con-
necting an input node with a hidden-layer node in a
neural net; opposite of efferent.
affine: 共⳵’ fı̄n兲 Denoting the relation between local grid
coordinates and absolute coordinates.
Afmag method: 共af mag’兲 Audio-Frequency MAGnetic
technique, the use of natural electromagnetic noise in
the audio-frequency range to study lateral changes in
earth resistivity. The quantities measured are the azi-
muth and inclination of the dip of the major axes of the
ellipsoid of polarization. See polarization ellipse.
Employs frequencies in the range of 1 to 1000 Hz,
usually 100–500 Hz. Used in mineral prospecting and
mapping faults and shear zones, especially in rugged
terrain and heavy vegetation. See sferics and Ward
et al. 共1968兲.
aftershock: An earthquake that follows a larger earth-
quake or main shock and originates at or near the focus
of the larger earthquake. Major earthquakes are often
followed by many aftershocks that decrease in fre-
quency with increasing time.
AGC: Automatic Gain Control 共q.v.兲.
AGC time constant: The time required for the voltage of
a system under automatic gain control to return to 63 %
共or 1⫺1/e兲 of its final steady-state value after a sudden
change in input level. If the change is an increase, the
constant is called attack time; if a decrease, release
time 共which may be different from attack time兲. AGC
time ‘‘constants’’ sometimes depend on factors such as
signal level and the magnitude of the change. AGC
characteristics are usually specified in dB/s. See Figure
A-25.
age: A geochronologic subdivision; see stratigraphic clas-
sification.
age dating: The age of rocks is determined by the pres-
ence of characteristic fossils, depositional events such
as ash deposits, radioisotope dating 共see Figure A-5兲,
reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field 共see Figure G-4兲,
sequence stratigraphic patterns 共see Figure S-5兲, etc.
The relative age of rocks is determined by the rocks that
are stratigraphically above and below them.
aggradation 6 air gun

aggradation: 共ag r⳵ dā’sh⳵n兲 The upward building of the
Earth’s solid surface by deposition of sediments;
upbuilding. Refers to both marine deposition and
deposition by a stream to maintain its grade.
AI: 1. Artificial Intelligence 共q.v.兲, 2. Acoustic Impedance
共q.v.兲
air blast: Sound traveling from source to receiver through
the air; see air wave.
airborne gravity: See aerogravity.
airborne magnetometer: Used to measure variations in
the Earth’s magnetic field from an aircraft. See magne-
tometer.
aircraft signature: The effect of the aircraft on magneto-
meter measurements. See compensation test.
air drill: A drill that removes cuttings by circulating air.
air gun: A seismic source 共Figure A-6兲 that injects a
bubble of highly compressed air into the water. Its
frequency spectrum depends on the amount of air in the
bubble, the air pressure, and the water depth 共or water
pressure兲. Arrays of guns of different sizes are often
used so that a broader frequency spectrum will be
generated. See also waveshape kit. Air guns are also
used in boreholes or pushed down into marsh after
being modified to prevent mud, sand etc. from entering

FIG. A-5. Radioactive age dating. (a) Some naturally radioactive elements. (b) Applications to dating various rock types
and ages. Italicized methods are often applicable to metamorphic uplift dating as opposed to magmatic crystallization
dating. (From Doyle and Bennett, 1998, 353 and 380.)
air pressure 7 air shooting

FIG. A-6. Air gun. (a) High-pressure air flows continuously into the upper chamber and through the shuttle into the lower
chamber. Opening the solenoid valve puts high-pressure air under the shuttle seat causing the shuttle to move upward,
opening the lower chamber and allowing its air to flow out through ports to form a bubble of high-pressure air in the
water. The size of a gun is the size of its lower chamber. (Courtesy Bolt Associates.) (b) Sleeve gun; the sleeve around
the gun slides back to release the air into the water. (c) Photo of a sleeve gun. (Courtesy WesternGeco.)

and fouling the air gun, and they are sometimes used in
bags of water that are set on the ground surface for land
work. See Dragoset 共2000兲 and Caldwell and Dragoset
共2000兲.
air pressure: The ambient pressure exerted by the weight
of the overlying column of air. Relations to tempera-
ture, water-vapor content, and elevation are given in
Figure A-7. Gauge pressure measures the pressure
difference relative to ambient pressure.
air shooting: A method of generating seismic energy by
detonating explosive charges in the air. Charges are
usually placed on poles about a meter long so that the
explosive shock wavefront is distributed over a larger
portion of the ground surface than if the charge were
laid directly on the surface, although the latter proce-
dure is also called air shooting. See Poulter 共1950兲.
airwave 8 algebraic reconstruction technique „ART…

airwave: 1. Energy that is sometimes seen on seismic
records that travels in the air at the velocity of sound:
V⬇1051⫹1.1 F ft/s, where F⫽Fahrenheit tem-
perature, or V⬇331.5⫹0.607 C m/s, where C
⫽Celsius temperature. 2. Audible sounds like distant
thunder associated with the arrival of P-waves from
nearby earthquakes.
Airy-Heiskanen isostasy: 共er’ ē hı̄ skan’ ⳵n ı̄ sos’ t⳵ sē兲. A
modification of the Airy isostatic hypothesis. Usually
assumes that compensation is complete and local, that
the Earth’s crustal density is 2.67 g/cm3, and that the
density of the layer under the crust is 0.6 g/cm3 higher
than that of the crust. See isostasy and Figure I-7.
Airy hypothesis: 共er’ ē兲 See isostasy and Figure I-7. Pro-
posed by George Biddell Airy 共1809–1892兲, British
astronomer who determined the mean density from
gravity measurements in mines.
Airy phase: A build-up in the amplitude of dispersed
wavetrains traveling by normal-mode propagation. The
Airy phase is associated with a minimum in the curve
of group velocity versus frequency; it is characterized
by a high-frequency wavetrain, often with a fairly
abrupt termination at an arrival time corresponding to
the minimum group velocity. See channel waves and
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 485兲.
AIX: See UNIX Operating system.
albedo: 共al bē’ dō兲 The fraction of the incident energy that
is reflected.
alert: The time when a navigation satellite should pass
within range so that a location fix can be obtained. See
satellite navigation.
Alford rotation: 共al’ ford兲 Rotating the information from
orthogonal horizontal geophones into the natural coor-
dinate system. Used in S-wave studies, especially bire-
fringence 共q.v.兲 studies. See Alford 共1986兲.
algebraic reconstruction technique „ART…: A method

FIG. A-7. Air pressure nomogram showing air pressure, temperature, humidity relations. The nomograph involves the
equations P v ⫽P w ⫺B(T d ⫺T w )/2700, R⫽P v /P d , W⫽P v /1.61(B⫺P v ), where P v ⫽actual vapor pressure in inches of
mercury (⫽ vapor pressure at the dew point); P w ⫽vapor pressure at wet-bulb temperature T w ; P d ⫽vapor pressure at
dry-bulb temperature T d ; B⫽barometric pressure; E⫽elevation in feet; W⫽specific humidity (⫽ water-vapor weight/
dry-air weight); R⫽relative humidity; ⌬T⫽wet-bulb depression in °F; T p ⫽dew point. Example: At 750 ft elevation and
dry-bulb temperature 95 °F, the wet-bulb temperature is 80 °F; (1) align 750 ft on scale E with wet-bulb depression
⌬T⫽15°; (2) align where line crosses pivot line with T w ⫽80° and read P v ⫽0.87 inches of mercury and dew point
⫽T p ⫽74.5°; (3) align P v ⫽0.87 with E⫽750 ft and read specific humidity⫽W⫽0.019; (4) align P v ⫽0.87 with T d
⫽95° and read relative humidity⫽52.4%.
ALGOL
FIG. A-8. Aliasing of 200 Hz (dashed line) as 50 Hz (solid
line). Both 50 and 200 Hz waves give the same sample
values when sampled at 250 Hz (4 ms sampling).
for solving a large set of linear equations, such as the
traveltime equations in tomography 共q.v.兲. The method
is an iterative ‘‘row-action’’ approach since it projects
solutions for one equation at a time and is similar to the
Kaczmarz method of numerical analysis. See Gordon
共1974兲, Herman et al. 共1973兲, or Stewart 共1991兲.
ALGOL: Acronym for ALGorithmic Oriented Language,
an algebraic and logic computer language.
algorithm: 共al’ g⳵ rith ⳵m兲 A precise step-by-step proce-
dure for carrying out a numerical or algebraic opera-
tion. Compare heuristic.
alias: 共ā’ lē ⳵s兲 1. Ambiguity resulting from the sampling
process. Where there are fewer than two samples per
cycle, an input signal at one frequency yields the same
sample values as 共and hence appears to be兲 another
frequency 共the sampling theorem兲. Half of the fre-
quency of sampling is called the folding frequency or
Nyquist frequency, f N . The frequency f N ⫹⌬ f
appears to be the smaller frequency, f N ⫺⌬ f . The two
frequencies, f N ⫹⌬ f and f N ⫺⌬ f , are ‘‘aliases’’ of
each other. See Figure A-8. To avoid aliasing, frequen-
cies above the Nyquist frequency must be removed by
an alias filter 共q.v.兲 共also called an antialias filter兲
before sampling. Aliasing is an inherent property of all
sampling systems and it applies to 共e.g.兲 sampling at
discrete time intervals, as with digital seismic record-
ing, to the sampling which is done by the separate
elements of geophone and source arrays 共spatial sam-
pling兲, and to sampling such as is done in gravity
FIG. A-9. Alidade.
9 alpha „␣…
surveys where the potential field is measured only at
discrete stations, etc. 2. The wraparound 共q.v.兲 conse-
quent to a Fourier analysis over a limited range such as
occurs with the 2D Fourier transform in the f,k domain
共q.v.兲 and is illustrated in Figure F-11. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995: 282–282, 451– 452兲.
alias dips: Where spatial sampling is inadequate,
wavetrains can appear to have erroneous dips, often in
the opposite direction.
alias filter: A filter used before sampling to remove
undesired frequencies that would otherwise alias 共q.v.兲
in the sampling process. An alias filter should have
linear phase response and nearly flat amplitude
response over the signal passband and should roll off
very rapidly above this band so as to provide high
attenuation above the Nyquist frequency; see Figure
F-9. Also called antialias filter.
alidade: 共al’ ⳵ dād,兲 A ruler equipped with sights, which
allows aligning a straight edge in the direction of an
object. See Figure A-9. A sighting telescope is usually
equipped with vertical circle and stadia 共q.v.兲 cross-
hairs. The alidade is used on a plane table; the object to
be located is sighted through the telescope and a line is
drawn on the plane-table paper along the straight edge
to indicate the direction to the object.
alkalyne flooding: See chemically enhanced recovery.
alkali-vapor magnetometer: See optically pumped mag-
netometer.
allocate: To assign a resource to a program for exclusive
use. If a software program is already running, the cpu
and memory allocation is said to be dynamic.
allochthonous: 共⳵ lok’ th⳵ n⳵s兲 Formed elsewhere than in
the present location. Antonym: autochthonous, formed
in its present place.
alluvial: Deposited by running water. Sometimes means
unconsolidated sediments.
almanac: Information broadcast by GPS satellites that
gives their positions and correction factors.
alpha „␣…: 1. The ratio of pseudostatic self potential 共SP兲
to static SP. See SSP. 2. The ratio of array length to
alpha¸„␣¸…
depth; see also beta curve. 3. The symbol for P-wave
velocity.
alpha¸„␣¸…: P-wave velocity parallel to the symmetry
axis; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters.
␣ Õ␤: Ratio of P-wave 共␣兲 to S-wave 共␤兲 velocities. Pois-
son’s ratio ␴ ⫽[( ␣ / ␤ ) 2 ⫺2]/[2( ␣ / ␤ ) 2 ⫺2].
alpha centers: A conductivity inhomogeneity where con-
ductivity varies continuously with distance from a
given point in the earth. Used to represent an orebody
with gradational boundaries. Also applied to gravity or
magnetic anomalies. See Edwards et al. 共1978兲.
alpha configuration: See array (electrical).
alpha cup: An inverted cup that is buried in the soil for
1/2 to 3 days to measure the natural radiation resulting
from alpha particle emission.
alphameric: 共al f⳵ m⳵r’ ik兲 Alphanumeric 共q.v.兲.
alphanumeric: 共al f⳵ nu’ m⳵r, ik兲 Pertaining to a character
set containing letters, numerals, and other characters.
alpha radiation, ␣ particles: Helium nuclei emitted in
transmutation.
alpine collision: A continent-to-continent plate collision.
Also called an Ampferer collision and A-type colli-
sion. See Figure P-5.
alternating-field demagnetization: See demagnetization.
alternator: A rotating electromechanical device for sup-
plying alternating current.
altitude: 1. Height above the ground. 2. Height above a
reference level, usually the geoid 共mean sea level兲. 3.
For a satellite or astronomic observation, angular dis-
tance above the horizon.
ALU: Arithmetic Logic Unit 共q.v.兲.
AM: Amplitude Modulation 共q.v.兲.
FIG. A-10. Ampere’s law. A current I through a length of
wire ⌬L creates at a point P a magnetic field ⌬B given by
⌬B⫽10 ⫺7 ⌬L X r)/r 3 , the magnitude of the field being
⌬B⫽10 ⫺7 (sin ⌬L/r2), where ⌬B is in webers/m2 when I is
in amperes and r and ⌬L are in meters. The vector ⌬L is
in the direction of the current and r is the vector from the
element ⌬L to P.
10 amplitude map
amalgamated: 共⳵ mal’ g⳵ māt, ⳵d兲 1. Joined together, e.g.,
several separated reservoirs without permeability barri-
ers between them. 2. Eroded older rock fragments
mixed with younger rocks.
ambient: 共am’ bē ⳵nt兲 Surrounding or background. Ambi-
ent noise is the pervasive noise associated with an
environment, usually being a composite from both near
and far sources. In seismic usage, energy not caused by
the seismic operations.
ambiguity: The possibility of more than one solution
caused by nonuniqueness 共the existence of more than
one solution兲 or solution instability because of obser-
vational errors that permit different solutions.
ammeter: An instrument used to measure electrical cur-
rent.
ammonium nitrate: A fertilizer sometimes used as an
explosive when mixed with diesel fuel or other oxidiz-
ers. The mixture is confined by tamping and detonated
by the explosion of a primer. It is water-soluble and will
not detonate if wet. Ammonium nitrate is also an ingre-
dient of some packaged explosives.
amorphous: 共⳵’ mor f⳵s兲 Lacking crystal structure.
ampere „A…: 共am’ pir兲 The SI unit of electric current. One
coulomb/second, one volt/ohm. Named for André
Marie Ampère 共1775–1836兲, French physicist.
Ampere’s law: A law giving the magnetic field caused by
a current. See Figure A-10. Also called the Biot-Savart
law.
Ampferer collision: A continent-to-continent plate colli-
sion. Named for O. Ampferer. Also called an A-type or
alpine collision.
amplifier: A device that increases signal amplitude, volt-
age, or power. The output of a linear amplifier is the
input multiplied by the amplifier gain. An amplifier is
sometimes symbolized by a triangle in a circuit dia-
gram, as shown in Figure A-11.
amplitude: 1. The maximum departure of a wave from
zero. 2. The maximum departure of a wave from its
average value. For ‘‘envelope amplitude,’’ see complex-
trace analysis.
amplitude anomaly: Local increase or decrease of seis-
mic reflection amplitude. Sometimes called a bright
spot 共if an increase in amplitude兲 or a dim spot 共if a
decrease兲. Amplitude anomalies may be caused by
hydrocarbon accumulation, geometric focusing, veloc-
ity focusing, interference, processing errors, or other
reasons. See hydrocarbon indicator and amplitude
shadow.
amplitude distortion: See distortion.
amplitude equalization: A procedure by which the gain
of each trace is adjusted to produce the same average
amplitude as other traces.
amplitude extraction: Determining and displaying rela-
tive amplitude values over some surface 共usually a
horizon slice, q.v.兲, often by color coding. Same as
amplitude map.
amplitude, instantaneous: The amplitude at an instant,
sometimes the amplitude of the envelope. Use of this
term is discouraged because of the ambiguity as to
which is meant. See complex trace analysis.
amplitude log: A borehole log of the amplitude of a
portion of the acoustic wave. See cement-bond log and
fracture log.
amplitude map: See amplitude extraction.
amplitude map 11 amplitude map

FIG. A-11. Seismic amplifier. (a) Schematic of a seismic amplifier. ‘‘Amp’’ is an amplification stage; there are usually
several such stages. AGC control produces negative feedback. Filters may be located at various positions. Usually there
are many channels in parallel. (b) Block diagram of an IFP digital recording system. Each channel has its own compo-
nents prior to the multiplex switch. The line filter reduces radio-frequency static picked up by geophone cables. The
preamplifier increases the signal level by a constant amount while providing impedance matching. The low-cut filter
supplements geophone filtering by removing very low frequencies where ground roll is excessive. The high-cut filter
prevents aliasing; its slope is typically 72 dB/octave. The notch filter reduces 50 or 60 Hz power-line pickup (or 16 2/3
Hz electric railroad pickup). The multiplexer connects each geophone sequentially to the quaternary-gain amplifier
which automatically adjusts its gain in 4:1 steps until the amplitude falls within a prescribed range, after which a 3-bit
word specifying the gain is sent to the formatter. The A-D converter measures the signal amplitude, one bit being output
for polarity and 14 bits for magnitude. The formatter arranges the data for writing onto magnetic tape by the tape
transport. Separate read heads read the magnetic tape immediately after the data have been written. The output is
amplified in the digital AGC unit, converted to analog form in the DÕA converter, and written by a camera to give a
monitor paper record. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 233.)
amplitude modulation „AM…
amplitude modulation „AM…: Variations in the amplitude
of a high-frequency carrier wave according to low-
frequency information. See Figure M-16.
amplitude of the envelope: See complex trace analysis.
amplitude recovery: Technique for recovering the ampli-
tude of a seismic trace or reflection event.
amplitude shadow: A local low-amplitude region under-
neath an attenuating zone, often associated with hydro-
carbon accumulation or leakage of small amounts of
gas into the section. May be a processing artifact such
as caused by trace equalization, where a few large
amplitude values included within the window tend to
control the gain, or a result of velocity defocusing or
irregularities in illumination.
amplitude spectrum: The amplitude-versus-frequency
relationship such as computed in a Fourier analysis. See
Fourier transform.
amplitude variation with angleÕoffset „AVAÕAVO…: The
variation in the amplitude of a seismic reflection with
angle of incidence or source-geophone distance.
Depends on changes in velocity, density, and Poisson’s
ratio. Often used as a hydrocarbon gas indicator
because gas generally decreases Poisson’s ratio and
often increases amplitude with incident angle/offset.
Other conditions can produce similar effects. The
amplitude of an event is often plotted 共Figure A-12兲
against sin2 ␪ 共or sin2 x兲, where ␪ is incidence angle
共and x is offset兲, and the slope 共gradient兲 of a best-fit
line is measured as the indicator:
FIG. A-12. Amplitude variation with angle. The Ruther-
ford-Williams classification (q.v.) based predominantly on
normal reflectivity is also indicated. (From Castagna et al.,
1998.)
12 analytic signal method
A 共 ␪ 兲 ⫽A⫹B sin2 ␪ .
Because measurements have to be made with prestack
data, the noise level is usually large. The gradient is
often determined by the ratios of amplitudes of large-
offset to short-offset stacks. Also amplitude versus
angleÕoffset. Class 1 reservoirs have higher impedance
than the surrounding rocks, class 2 are those with very
small, either positive or negative, impedance contrast,
and class 3 are low-impedance reservoirs. In Tertiary
clastic sections, class 1 reservoirs often yield dim spots,
class 3 bright spots, and class 2 reservoirs are difficult
to see unless they have appreciable increase of ampli-
tude with offset. Class 4 are low-impedance reservoirs
where the magnitude decreases with offset. See also
Figure A-12, Castagna and Backus 共1993兲, Allen and
Peddy 共1993兲, Rutherford and Williams 共1989兲, and
Hilterman 共2001兲.
AMT: Audio-Magneto Telluric method 共q.v.兲.
anaglyph: 共an’ ⳵ glif兲 A stereogram in which two views
are superimposed in complementary colors.
analog: 共an’ ⳵l og兲 1. A continuous physical variable 共such
as voltage or rotation兲 that bears a direct relationship
共usually linear兲 to another variable 共such as earth
motion兲 so that one is proportional to the other. 2.
Continuous, as opposed to discrete or digital.
analog computer: See computer.
analog-digital converter: Device for converting analog
signals into digital form.
analog modeling: A method of studying the effects of
subsurface bodies or structures by comparison with the
response of physical models. For example, induced-
polarization and resistivity surveys may be simulated
by measurements using conductive or polarizable
shapes to represent subsurface bodies by scaling the
geometry and conductivity. Also called physical mod-
eling.
analog tape formats: Analog information may be written
on magnetic tape in several forms. In direct or bias
recording, magnetization 共less a constant bias兲 is pro-
portional to the input, in FM or frequency modulation
共q.v.兲 information is carried by variations of a carrier-
wave frequency, in pulse-width modulation 共q.v.兲 by
variations in the width of square-wave pulses. See
Figure M-16.
analog-to-digital „AÕD…: Conversion of analog data to
digital form; digitizing.
analytic signal: 共an ⳵l’ ⳵d ik兲 1. For a signal such as f (t),
see Hilbert transform. 2. The analytic signal A of a
potential field F is
A共 x,y 兲 ⫽ 共 dF/dx 兲 i⫹ 共 dF/dy 兲 j⫹ 冑⫺1 共 dF/dz 兲 k,
where i, j, k are unit vectors in the x,y,z directions. The
analytic signal amplitude 共also called the envelope兲 is
兩 A 兩 ⫽ 关共 dF/dx 兲 2 ⫹ 共 dF/dy 兲 2 ⫹ 共 dF/dz 兲 2 兴 1/2 .
If 兩A兩 is derived from a magnetic field, it peaks over
contacts and its half-width at half maximum 共measured
perpendicular to strike兲 equals the depth of the contact.
See also analytic signal method.
analytic signal method: A processing method for
potential-field data, also called the total gradient
method. Used for defining the location and depth of
edges of density or magnetization anomalies in terms of
anaseism
spatial derivatives in orthogonal directions. See also
analytic signal, Nabighian 共1972兲, and Roest et al.
共1992兲.
anaseism: 共an, ⳵ sı̄z’ ⳵m兲 Initial earth movement away
from the focus of an earthquake. Antonym: kataseism.
anastomosing: 共⳵ nas’ t⳵ mō, tı̄ zing兲 Branching and
reconnecting, as with a braided stream.
anchor: 1. Highlighted text that, when clicked, accesses a
linked file. 2. See charge anchor.
AND gate: A circuit with multiple inputs that functions
only when a signal is present at all inputs. If the inputs
are A and B, AND is denoted as (A•B), 共A B兲, (A
艚B), (A⫻B), or the ‘‘intersection of A and B.’’ See
Figure B-5.
anelasticity: 共an, ⳵ las tis’ ⳵t ē兲 Deviation from linear
proportionality between stress and strain.
anelipticity: 共an, ⳵ lip tis’ ⳵t ē兲 Not elliptical; used to
specify wavefronts in homogeneous anisotropic media
that are not elliptical.
ANÕFO: A mixture of Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil
used as an explosive.
angle of approach: The direction from which a wave
comes; the angle that a wavefront makes with a surface.
angle of incidence: The acute angle that a raypath makes
with the normal to an interface. This is the same angle
that an approaching wavefront makes with the interface
in an isotropic medium. In the anisotropic case, it is the
angle between the raypath and the normal, the raypath
not necessarily being perpendicular to the wavefront.
angles right: See angles (surveying).
angles „surveying…: The direction of a survey leg with
respect to the preceeding leg of the survey traverse.
Several measuring conventions are used 共Figure A-13兲.
The first leg of the traverse is usually specified by
azimuth or compass direction. Azimuth angles are
measured clockwise with respect to north 共either true
north or magnetic north兲, occasionally with respect to
south. Interior angles are the angles lying inside a
closed traverse. Angles right are measured clockwise
after backsighting on the previous station. A deflection
angle is the angle between the onward extension of the
FIG. A-13. Angle measuring conventions. Specifying by
(a) interior angles, (b) angles right, (c) deflection
angles, (d) azimuth angles. The first leg of a loop is
specified by azimuth.
13 anisotropy „electrical…
previous leg and the line ahead.
angular distance: The angle 共measured at the Earth’s
center兲 that is subtended by the great-circle path
between two points, such as between an earthquake
epicenter and a receiver.
angular frequency: Repetition rate measured in radians/s.
Where f ⫽frequency in Hz, the angular frequency ␻ is
␻ ⫽2 ␲ f .
angular reflection coefficient: The ratio of reflection to
incident amplitudes where the angle of incidence is not
zero. Depends on incidence angle; see amplitude varia-
tion with offset.
angular unconformity: See unconformity.
anhysteretic remanent magnetization: 共an his’ t⳵r ⳵, tik兲
The magnetic state of a sample that has been subjected
to a constant magnetic field while a supplemental
decaying alternating field has been progressively
reduced to zero. This procedure removes isothermal
remanent magnetization.
animation: 共an, ⳵ mā’ shun兲 A sequential display as a
parameter is changed. The parameter is often time 共e.g.,
viewing a wavefront as it progresses through a model兲
but the parameter might be velocity or some other
quantity. Results are sometimes displayed as a movie.
Individual views are snapshots.
anion: 共an’ ı̄, ⳵n兲 A negatively charged ion. Compare
cation.
anisotropy: 共an, ı̄ so’ tr⳵p ē or a nı̄’ sō tr⳵p ē兲 Variation of
a physical property depending on the direction in which
it is measured. Anisotropy involves directional varia-
tion at one point as opposed to heterogeneity, which
involves variation from point to point. Both anisotropy
and heterogeneity are matters of scale, and so their
usage relates to the wavelengths involved. Crystals
exhibit intrinsic anisotropy and crystal nomenclature
共based on symmetry systems, q.v.兲 is sometimes used to
define the types of anisotropy. Plate-like mineral grains
and interstices tend to orient themselves parallel to
sediment bedding, producing granular anisotropy.
Layering and oriented fractures also can produce
anisotropy. Aeolotropy is also used. See also anisot-
ropy (electrical), anisotropy (seismic), Thomsen
共2002兲.
anisotropy „electrical…: Variation of an electrical property
depending on the direction in which it is measured. The
resistivity anisotropy coefficient is the square root of
the ratio of the resistivity measured perpendicular to the
bedding to that parallel to the bedding; also called
pseudo-anisotropy. It usually has a value between 1
and 2. For a sequence of isotropic layers with thick-
nesses z i and resistivities ␳ i , the unit resistance R T is
R T ⫽⌺z i ␳ i ;
and the pseudo-anisotropy ␭ is
␭⫽ 兵 ⌺z i /⌺ 共 z i / ␳ i 兲 其 1/2 .
See dar Zarrouk. The anisotropy of induced polariza-
tion in rocks is less than the anisotropy of resistivity. In
layered rocks the resistivity parallel to the layering is
less than that perpendicular to the layering. Anisotropy
as measured in a borehole is caused by cyclic thin
sequences of alternating sand and shale, sorting of sand
grains, and fractures 共healed or fluid-filled兲.
anisotropy „geostatistical…
anisotropy „geostatistical…: The situation where covari-
ance models 共q.v.兲 at different azimuths have different
ranges; this is geometric anisotropy, e.g., correlation
may be better in the strike than in the dip direction. In
zonal anisotropy, ranges may be the same but the sills
different. See variogram and Figure V-1.
anisotropy „seismic…: Variation of seismic velocity
depending on either the direction of travel 共for P- or S-
waves兲 or the direction of polarization 共for S-waves兲.
Velocity anisotropy 共or coefficient of anisotropy兲 is
sometimes taken as the fractional difference between
the maximum and minimum velocities in different
directions, (V max⫺Vmin)/Vmax, often expressed as a per-
centage, sometimes as the ratio of maximum and mini-
mum velocities, V max/Vmin; the numerical value usually
makes clear which is meant. P-wave anisotropy is usu-
ally meant unless S-wave anisotropy is specified, but
anisotropy of P-waves usually implies anisotropy for
S-waves and vice-versa.
共a兲 The general elasticity tensor 共stiffness or its
inverse compliance, q.v.兲 relating stress and strain con-
tains up to 21 independent constants, the number
depending on the symmetry 共see symmetry systems兲.
Because of symmetries, this 3⫻3⫻3⫻3 tensor may
be written as a 6⫻6 matrix; see Figure E-5. In isotro-
FIG. A-14. Anisotropy. (a) Application of Huygens’ prin-
ciple to anisotropic velocity illustrates why phase and ray
velocities may differ in both direction and magnitude. (b)
The application of Fermat’s principle to anisotropic
velocity illustrates why the angle of incidence for a reflec-
tion for a coincident source and receiver may not make a
right angle with the reflector. (c) SH-wavefronts in trans-
versely isotropic media are elliptical but P- and SV-wave-
fronts are not.
14 anomaly
pic media there are only two independent constants
among 12 nonzero elements of this matrix.
共b兲 Polar anisotropy 共transverse isotropy… involves
elastic properties that are the same in any direction
perpendicular to a symmetry axis but different parallel
to the axis. Layering is the most common cause of this
situation; see Figures A-14, E-6, and T-14, and polar
anisotropy. Polar anisotropy involves five independent
elastic constants; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters.
This symmetry is similar to that of a crystal having
hexagonal symmetry. See Thomsen 共1986兲, Alkalifah
and Tsvankin 共1995兲, and Thomsen 共2002兲.
共c兲 Azimuthal asymmetry 共q.v.兲 involving ortho-
rhombic symmetry 共the symmetry of a brick兲 gives a
different P-wave velocity along the three orthogonal
symmetry axes and different shear-wave splitting 共see d
below兲 in the three directions. Vertically fractured hori-
zontal layering may produce this situation. Orthorhom-
bic asymmetry involves nine independent elastic con-
stants.
共d兲 In an arbitrary polar or orthorhombic anisotropic
medium, for each travel direction only two orthogonal
polarizations of plane shear-waves are allowed
共although they are not necessarily transverse to the
propagation direction兲; they may travel with different
velocities. An S-wave of arbitrary polarization entering
such a region in a direction other than along the sym-
metry axis splits into two S-waves; this is called shear-
wave splitting, 共q.v.兲, birefringence, S-wave splitting,
or double refraction 共Crampin, 1981兲.
共e兲 Monoclinic anisotropy is similar to orthorhom-
bic anisotropy except that one of the three axes is not
orthogonal to the other axes. It involves eleven inde-
pendent elastic constants.
anisotropy, weak: The situation where (V S1 ⫺V S2 )/V S1
⬍10%.
anisotropy paradox: See paradox of anisotropy.
anisotropy parameters: See Thomsen anisotropic param-
eters.
annealing methods: Methods for solving optimization
共minimization兲 problems involving constraints, often
penalty constraints. See simulated annealing.
annotation: Explanatory notes such as a comment.
annulus: 共an’ y⳵ l⳵s兲 1. The space between two concentric
cylindrical objects. 2. The space between a drill-pipe
and the borehole wall through which the returning
drilling fluid 共mud兲 returns to the surface. 3. The space
between tubing and casing or between casing and for-
mation. 4. A low-resistance ring about a borehole some-
times produced by invasion of mud filtrate into
hydrocarbon-bearing beds. Because of their greater
mobility, hydrocarbons may be displaced farther
beyond the invaded zone than conductive formation
water. See Figure I-6.
anode: 共a’ nōd兲 An electrode where electrons are produced
共that is, are given up to the electrode兲 and at which
oxidation occurs. The positive terminal of an electro-
lytic cell or the negative terminal of a battery.
anomaly: 共⳵ nom’ ⳵ lē兲 1. A deviation from uniformity in
physical properties; a perturbation from a normal, uni-
form, or predictable field. 2. Observed minus theoreti-
cal value. 3. A portion of a geophysical survey, such as
magnetic or gravitational, that is different in appearance
from the survey in general. 4. A gravity measurement
anoxic
that differs from the value predicted by some model,
e.g., a Bouguer or free-air anomaly 共q.v.兲. 5. In seismic
usage, generally synonymous with structure. Also used
for unexplained seismic events. 6. A deviation that is of
exploration interest; a feature that may be associated
with petroleum accumulation or mineral deposits. 7. An
induced-polarization anomaly is usually positive and
greater than background 共or the normal effect兲 to be
economically interesting. In the frequency domain, an
anomalous region has resistivity that decreases with
frequency. An interesting resistivity anomaly is gener-
ally smaller than background.
anoxic: An oxygen-depleted region or environment, such
as preserves hydrocarbons from oxidation.
ANSI: Acronym for American National Standards Insti-
tute.
antenna: 共an ten’ ⳵兲 A device that radiates electromagnetic
radiation from a transmitter 共symbol Tx兲 and/or that
receives electromagnetic radiation 共a receiver; symbol
Rx兲.
antialias filter: 共an, tı̄ āl’ ē ⳵s兲 Alias filter 共q.v.兲.
anticausal: 共an, tı̄, kaws’ ⳵l兲 Noncausal. See causal.
anticipation function: A function that collapses a
wavetrain into an impulse at the front end of the train.
Involved with recursive filters.
anticline: A fold in stratified rocks in which the rocks dip
in opposite directions from a crest; layers are convex
upward. Antonym: syncline.
anticoincidence circuit: A circuit that adds two inputs
out-of-phase to give zero output when both occur
simultaneously.
antiferromagnetism: 共an, tı̄ fer ō mag’ n⳵ tiz, ⳵m兲 Prop-
erty of certain magnetic materials where sublattices
take an antiparallel ordering of spins 共i.e., oriented
opposite to each other兲, such that no 共or little兲 net
magnetization is observed. Compare ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetism.
antiparallel: Two vectors that point in opposite direc-
tions.
antiroots: Shallow high-density mantle material beneath
thin portions of the relatively light crust of the earth,
i.e., characterized by shallow Moho. The effect brings
topographically low areas 共like ocean basins兲 into iso-
static equilibrium. See Figure I-7.
antisymmetric: 共an, tı̄ si m⳵t’ rik兲 The property of a
function that makes it change sign when its argument
changes sign: A(x)⫽⫺A(⫺x). Also called an odd
function.
antithetic fault: 共an, tē th⳵t’ ik兲 1. A secondary fault
having throw in the opposite direction to the primary
synthetic fault with which it is associated. 2. A fault
associated with rotation so that the net slip is greater
than it would have been without the rotation. See Fig-
ure F-5.
AP: 1. Array Processor 共q.v.兲. 2. Attached Processor 共two
CPU’s兲 where one of them has only a limited function
共e.g., no I/O capabilities兲. Compare MP.
aperture: 共ap’ ⳵ ch⳵r,兲 1. An opening, gate, or window
that limits the information affecting a measuring
device. 共The seismic spread length can be considered
the aperture of a seismic system.兲 2. In processing, the
spatial range of the data considered in a calculation
共e.g., the range of data considered in seismic migration兲
or the time range of the data considered 共e.g., in decon-
15 apparent
volution兲. Values near the edges of an aperture are often
tapered rather than abrupt. The effective aperture
width is the width of a boxcar with the same peak
height and area. 3. The additional extent of a survey
required to correctly image data in the required image
area.
apex: 共ā’ peks兲 The uppermost point on a surface with
downward curvature.
API: 1. The American Petroleum Institute. 2. The
‘‘proper’’ way to do a job: ‘‘strictly API.’’ 3. Applica-
tion Programming Interface, a well-defined interface
that insulates application programs from details of a
particular implementation.
API gravity: A measure of the density of liquid hydrocar-
bons at standard pressure and temperature derived from
the equation:
API gravity⫽141.5/ 共 specific gravity兲 ⫺131.5.
API 5 to 22 is considered heavy oil; 22 to 31, medium;
greater than 31, light condensate.
API unit: 1. A counting unit for gamma-ray logs. The
difference between the high and low radioactivity sec-
tions in the API calibration pit at the University of
Houston is defined as 200 API units. 2. A counting unit
for neutron logs. The reading in the Indiana limestone
portion of the API neutron log calibration pit 共which
has 19 percent porosity and is saturated with fresh
water兲 is defined as 1000 API units.
API well number: A unique number assigned by the
American Petroleum Institute to each well drilled in the
United States. A 12-digit decimal number which is
broken down as follows: Digits 1, 2: Code for state;
numbers 1 to 49 are alphabetical for the states including
the District of Columbia; Alaska and Hawaii are 50 and
51, 60 for Federal waters. Digits 3–5: Code for county,
parish, or offshore. Digits 6 –10: Code for the specific
well. Digits 11–12: Code for sidetrack. 13–14:
recompletion; etc. See API Bulletins D12 and D12A.
APL: Acronym for A Programming Language, a com-
puter language designed for advanced mathematical
applications.
aplanatic surface: 共ap, l⳵ nat’ ik兲 The locus for a given
traveltime of wave energy reflected or refracted at a
surface. Wavefronts are aplanatic surfaces for reflection
times observed at the source point; see Figures A-15
and W-3. Aplanatic surfaces can be drawn 共for
example兲 to define a salt-sediment interface 共Figure
A-15c兲; each combination of source point and geo-
phone position defines one aplanatic surface. If the
velocity and other assumptions are correct, the salt-
sediment interface is the common tangent to all of the
aplanatic surfaces. See Gardner 共1949兲 and Musgrave et
al. 共1967兲.
apodizing function: 共ap’ ō dı̄, zing兲 A weighting function
used in truncating that reduces discontinuity effects.
See window.
apogee: 共ap’ ⳵ gē,兲 The point on a satellite’s orbit that is
farthest from the center of the Earth; see Figure E-12.
The shortest distance is perigee.
apparent: 1. The value indicated by a measurement, as in
‘‘apparent velocity.’’ 2. The value of a property assum-
ing the ground to be homogeneous, isotropic, and semi-
infinite, as distinct from the ‘‘true’’ values. The sub-
script ‘‘a’’ is frequently used to indicate that a quantity
apparent 16 apparent

FIG. A-15. Aplanatic surface. (a) The locus of reflection traveltimes from a given source to a receiver with constant
velocity is an ellipse with the source and receiver as foci. Such a plot is called a bathtub chart. (b) To find the boundary
between two media of different velocities where source and geophone are in different media, draw wavefronts about
each and find intersections where the sum equals the traveltime (4.0 s for the heavy curve). The interface between the
two media must be tangent to this curve. (c) Use of aplanatic surface in the 3-D problem of locating a salt-dome flank
by shooting into a geophone in a borehole in the salt. The common tangent surface to the aplanatic paraboloids locates
the interface. (From Gardner, 1949.)
apparent autocorrelation function 17 apparent dip

is apparent, as with (PFE) a , (MF) a , etc. nents of displacement produced by a P-wavefront.

apparent autocorrelation function: See autocorrelation.
apparent density: Density calculated from gravity data.
apparent dip: 1. The angle that an emerging seismic
wavefront makes with the surface; the angle whose
tangent is the ratio of the vertical-to-horizontal compo-
Apparent dip can be related to the true dip of the
reflector if the cross-dip and velocity distribution are
known. Compare dip moveout and apparent velocity. 2.
The angle from horizontal for a refracting horizon
determined from the updip and downdip velocities of

FIG. A-16. Arbitrary line. (a) A time slice through a migrated 3D seismic volume using different colors to indicate
positive and negative reflectivities and color intensity to indicate magnitude. (b) Vertical sections connecting well
locations is an arbitrary line. Arbitrary lines often consist of several connected straight-line segments. (Courtesy Prakla-
Seismos AG.)
apparent polarity
head waves; see Figure R-10. 3. The dip of a rock layer
exposed in a section that is not at a right angle to the
strike.
apparent polarity: A convention that relates a peak or
trough of a seismic reflection to the sign of the reflec-
tion coefficient, assuming that the reflecting interface is
an isolated one. See polarity standard.
apparent resistivity: 1. The resistivity of homogeneous,
isotropic ground that would give the same voltage-
current relationship as measured. Direct current
apparent resistivity, ␳ a , is an Ohm’s-law ratio of
measured voltage V to applied current l, multipled by a
geometric constant k which depends on the electrode
array: ␳ a ⫽kV/l. Usually has units of ohm-meters. See
resistivity. 2. With electromagnetic methods, quantities
such as the moduli of the electric and magnetic field
intensities 共E and H兲 are measured at a certain fre-
quency or time. If the subsurface were homogeneous
and isotropic, these would yield the true resistivity via
a certain equation. However, use of the same equation
for a heterogeneous subsurface yields the ‘‘apparent’’
resistivity ␳ a :
␳ a ⫽ ␳ HS F 共 V 兲 /F 共 V 兲 HS ,
where ␳ HS ⫽resistivity of a homogeneous half-space, F
is a function of V⫽observed voltage, and V HS
⫽voltage for a half-space. Asymptotic definitions such
as late-time and early-time apparent resistivity are
sometimes used for apparent resistivity values over a
limited range of measurement parameters. For some
EM models apparent resistivity may be undefined or
multivalued. See Spies and Eggers 共1986兲 and Strack
共1992兲. 3. The resistivity recorded by an electrical log
that differs from the true resistivity of the formation
because of the presence of mud column, invaded zone,
influence of adjacent beds, etc.
apparent-resistivity curve: A graph of apparent resistiv-
ity against electrode separation, frequency, or time.
Apparent-resistivity curves are often plotted on loga-
rithmic paper and compared with type curves 共normal-
ized theoretical curves兲 for interpreting the resistivity,
thickness, and depth of subsurface layers. See also
pseudosection.
apparent truncation: Disappearance of a reflection
because the reflector becomes too thin, especially at the
top of the distal end of a transgressive systems tract
because of stratal thinning below a downlap surface,
where it is sometimes called backlap. See Figure S-32.
apparent velocity: 1. The phase velocity that a wavefront
appears to have along a line of geophones. If the
wavefront makes the angle ␪ with the spread and the
true velocity of the wavefront is V, then the apparent
velocity is V/sin ␪. See Figure W-2. 2. The inverse of
the slope of a refraction time-distance curve.
apparent-velocity filtering: Attenuating events based on
their apparent velocity 共q.v.兲. See velocity filter.
apparent wavelength: The distance between correllative
points on a wavetrain as seen by a geophone spread.
Differs from actual wavelength if the wave direction
makes an angle with the spread. See Figure W-2 and
compare dominant wavelength.
apparent wavenumber: See wavenumber.
appatite fission tracks: 共ap p⳵’ tı̄t兲 An age-dating tech-
nique useful where the sample has never been heated
18 archaeological survey
above about 110 °C. See fission track dating.
applications package: A set of specialized programs and
associated documentation to carry out particular tech-
nical or business tasks.
application program: A program that allows computers
to produce useful tasks.
applied geophysics: See geophysical exploration.
applied-potential method: See equipotential line method.
appraisal well: A well drilled following a discovery to
determine the physical extent or producibility of the
resource.
APRE: Average Predicted Residual Error 共q.v.兲.
aquiclude: 共ak’ w⳵ klūd,兲 Aquitard 共q.v.兲
aquifer support: Connection of an oil reservoir to an
aquifer so that water can supplant the hydrocarbons in a
reservoir during production. The aquifer often needs to
be 100 times larger than the reservoir to provide
adequate support.
Aquapulse: Sleeve exploder 共q.v.兲. Western Geophysical
tradename.
Aquaseis: A marine seismic energy source in which towed
explosive cord is detonated. Imperial Chemical Indus-
tries tradename.
aquitard: 共ak’ w⳵ tard,兲 A saturated formation that is not
capable of transmitting significant quantities of water.
Also called aquiclude.
arbitrary line: A vertical seismic section along a line
across a 3D data volume that is not necessarily straight
or in inline or crossline directions. Also called user
line, arb line, and 共quite improperly because it is in no
sense random兲 random line. See Figure A-16.
arc cosine „arc sine, arc tangent…: ‘‘The angle whose
cosine 共sine, tangent兲 is.’’
archaeological survey: 共ar kē, ō log’ i k⳵l兲 A survey
sometimes required to determine if a cultural resource
is present, especially on U.S. offshore leases. Often
requires high-resolution sub-bottom profiler, magneto-
FIG. A-17. Archie’s formula for different lithologies.
(From Keller, 1987.)
archeomagnetism
meter, sidescan sonar, and echo sounder data. See also
geohazard survey.
archeomagnetism: See paleomagnetism.
Archie’s formulas: 共ar’ chēz兲 Empirical relationships
between the formation factor F 共sometimes F R 兲,
porosity ␾, water saturation S w , and resistivities; in
clean granular rocks,
F⫽R o /R w ⫽ ␾ m /a,
R o /R t ⫽S w n ,
where m⫽cementation factor that varies between 1.3
and 3, a⫽proportionality constant varying from 0.6 to
1.5, R o ⫽resistivity of the formation when 100% satu-
rated with formation water, R w ⫽resistivity of the for-
mation water, R t ⫽true resistivity of the formation, n
⫽saturation exponent; often n⫽2. Archie’s law
assumes that m⫽2 and a⫽1. The Humble formula
assumes that m⫽2.15 and a⫽0.65. Values of a and
m for different lithologies are shown in Figure A-17.
Named for Gus E. Archie, American engineer and
geologist.
architecture: Functional relationships between the parts
of a computer or computer system.
archive: To take a data file off-line and store for future
use. An archive file is not immediately available but
can be accessed in some way.
FIG. A-18. Colinear arrays used in resistivity surveying. The equation for the apparent resistivity ␳ a is given for each
array.
19 ARIS
arc shooting: Fan shooting 共q.v.兲.
areal closure: See closure.
areal survey: A three-dimensional survey 共q.v.兲.
arg „x兲: 共ar’ gy⳵ m⳵nt兲 Argument 共q.v.兲 of the function x.
Argand diagram: 共ar gan’兲 The trace of quadrature versus
in-phase apparent resistivities in the complex plane
over a broad frequency band. Used in frequency-
domain induced polarization. See also Cole-Cole plot.
An Argand diagram is not specific to resistivity.
Argo: A medium-frequency 共⬇2 MHz兲, pulsed, phase-
measuring radiopositioning system operable in either
circular or hyperbolic mode. Based on signals from two
or more shore-based stations. Cubic Western trade-
name.
argument: 1. Angle of a complex number. 2. The param-
eter that determines the value of a function; e.g., ␾ is
the argument for sin ␾. 3. Data passed to a subroutine;
compare parameter.
Aries: 共er’ ēz兲 The first point of Aries or the vernal
equinox is the reference point on the celestial sphere
from which right ascension and celestial longitude are
measured. It is the intersection point of the celestial
equator and the ecliptic, where the sun is located on the
vernal equinox, March 21.
ARIS: Atlantic Richfield Impulsive Seismic source, an
impulsive energy source where a large mass 共5000 lbs兲
arithmetic average, arithmetic mean
is accelerated by compressed air against a weighted
ground-coupled baseplate. Western Geophysical trade-
name.
arithmetic average, arithmetic mean: (1/n) ⌺ x i where
there are n values of x i .
arithmetic logic unit: A computer hardware subsystem
that performs arithmetic and logic functions.
arm: 1. A bow spring or lever connected to a logging
sonde that presses against the borehole wall „a… to
centralize the tool, „b… to push the tool to the opposite
side of the borehole, or „c… to hold a sensor pad to the
borehole wall. 2. To prepare a blaster or a perforating
gun for firing.
ARMA filter, ARMA deconvolution: AutoRegressive
Moving-Average filter, a continuously time-variant
recursive filter.
aromatic: A hydrocarbon that has at least one benzine
ring as part of its structure.
arpent: 共ar’ p⳵nt兲 Old French land measure, approxi-
mately one acre.
array: 共⳵ rā’兲 A matrix 共q.v.兲.
array „computer…: A high-level language data construc-
tion for accessing data elements in one or more dimen-
sions. A specific element is accessed by an array name
and subscripts 共which represent position in the various
dimensions of the array兲, e.g., ‘‘name共x,y兲’’.
array „electrical…: In resistivity and IP prospecting, the
arrangement of electrodes, also called configuration.
Several array types are shown in Figures A-18 and
A-19. Resistivity array types include the following: „a…
Azimuthal array; see azimuthal survey. „b… Dipole-
dipole array and axial-dipole array, an array in which
one dipole 共a connected pair of electrodes兲 sends cur-
rent into the ground and the other dipole serves as the
potential-measuring pair. The separation between pairs
is often comparable to 共or only a few times greater
than兲 the spacing within each pair, so the electrode pairs
are not ideal dipoles; in deep resistivity sounding, the
separation is larger. The dipole pairs are usually collin-
ear 共in line兲 but other orientations are also used 共Figure
A-19兲. Resistivity and IP data from this array often are
FIG. A-19. Dipole-dipole arrays used in resistivity and IP exploration.
20 array „electromagnetic…
displayed as on Figure P-14. „c… Gradient array or AB
rectangular array, an arrangement in which a pair of
potential electrodes measure the voltage between points
of a rectangular grid between two distant, fixed current
electrodes; a variation of the Schlumberger array. „d…
Pole-dipole array, a voltage-measuring pair of
grounded potential electrodes separated successively
from one current electrode 共pole兲 while traversing a
survey line. The second current electrode 共the infinite
electrode兲 is so far away that its location has negligible
effect on the measurements. Data can be plotted below
the mid-point between the current and the near potential
electrode on a pseudosection. Called a half-
Schlumberger array and, if the electrodes are equally
spaced, a three array. „e… Pole-pole array or two
array, one current and one potential electrode 共poles兲
are traversed or successively expanded on a survey line.
The other current and potential electrodes are located so
far away that their location has negligible effect on the
measurements. Data are plotted either at the potential
electrode or halfway between the two poles. Also called
a half-Wenner array. „f… Radial array; see azimuthal
survey. „g… Schlumberger array, with the inner
voltage-measuring pair of potential electrodes closer
together than the outer current electrode pair, by a
factor of about 6. MN is usually but not necessarily at
the center of AB. Also called a gradient array. In a
half-Schlumberger array, one of the current elec-
trodes is very far away. „h… Wenner array, four equally
spaced inline electrodes; either the electrodes are all
moved along a traverse or their separation is succes-
sively expanded. The usual or ␣-configuration has the
center two electrodes as the potential electrodes; the
␤-configuration has the first two electrodes as potential
electrodes; and the ␥-configuration alternates current
and potential electrodes.
array „electromagnetic…: An arrangement of electromag-
netic transmitter and receiver antennas. Fixed source
methods are described in terms of the type of source
共long wire, large loop, small loop, etc.兲, orientation of
the source, orientation of the receiver, and the relation-
array „seismic… 21 array „seismic…

ship of the traverses to the source. See Strack 共1992兲.
array „seismic…: 1. A group of geophones or other seismic
receivers connected to a single recording channel „geo-
phone array… or a group of sources to be activated
simultaneously „source array…. The records from
nearby sources when vertically stacked also effectively
constitute a source array. Sometimes called a pattern
共especially for a source array兲 or a patch 共especially
when the array is large兲. 2. The arrangement or pattern
of a group of geophones or sources 共Figure A-20兲.
Arrays discriminate against events on the basis of their
moveout or apparent wavelength; see directivity graph.
For a uniform array 共see Figure D-15兲 of n geophones
separated by the distance d, the effective array length
is nd and the first null response occurs when the appar-
ent wavelength equals this. The half-width of the main

FIG. A-20. Arrays used for geophone or source arrays. The array elements are shown by the open circles, triangles and
numbers indicate the effective element locations and weightings in different directions; the inline direction is horizontal
in each instance. (a) Inline; (b) perpendicular; (c) cross; (d) 3⫻3 diamond; (e) X-array; (f) rectangular array; (g)
crow’s-foot array; (h) odd-arm star; (i) herring-bone array; (j) and windmill array.
array factor
lobe at 0.7 peak amplitude defines the pass wave-
length. For a nonuniform array, the effective array
length is the length of the uniform array that has the
same pass wavelength. Compare spread.
array factor: See geometric factor.
array induction log: An induction sonde that uses one or
more transmitters and multiple receivers 共5 to 8兲. Each
receiver coil is commonly combined with a bucking
coil. The curves are measured in an unfocused manner
and afterward focused by software. The vertical reso-
lution varies from 6 inches to 3 feet. It yields multiple
depths of investigation and hence a picture of the
invaded zone.
array laterolog: An electric logging tool that uses mul-
tiple electrodes and unfocused measurements, focusing
being accomplished with software. Interpretation uses
inversion to obtain a resistivity profile. See Figure L-3.
array length: See array (seismic).
array processor: A special-purpose processor to carry out
certain functions 共such as matrix manipulations兲 effi-
ciently. See also convolver.
Array Seismic Imager: A tool used in VSP and velocity
surveying consisting of five magnetically clamped
3-component phones. Yields the velocities of different
wave modes. A Schlumberger tool.
array sonicÕseismic log: A sonic log that measures wave
arrivals at several offset distances, permitting the detec-
tion and analysis of several waves. Schlumberger trade-
name; Halliburton’s Full Wave Sonic System is similar.
array station: Earthquake detection station that uses an
array of seismometers to improve the detectability of
weak signals. The LASA array used 525 seismometers
distributed over 200 km.
arrival: An event, a line-up of coherent energy signifying
the arrival of a new wavetrain.
arrival time: 1. The time from energy release until an
event arrives. 2. Arrival time may be corrected for
statics and normal moveout.
arrow plot: A tadpole display of dipmeter or drift data;
see Figure D-14.
ART: Algebraic Reconstruction Technique 共q.v.兲.
artifact: An incidental unintended effect produced by
acquisition or processing. Also called footprint.
artificial illumination: A computer display of a relief
map 共such as a specific horizon兲 showing shadows as if
all overlying rocks were removed and it was illumi-
nated from a particular direction at a particular sun
angle. Parameters in its manufacture are sun elevation
and azimuth. The display, which may be of any mapped
quantity, is useful in bringing out lineations that may
not be obvious.
artificial intelligence: The concept that computers can be
programmed to assume capabilities thought to be like
human intelligence, such as learning, adaptation, self-
correcting.
artificial lift: The use of downhole pumps to bring forma-
tion fluids to the surface when natural formation pres-
sure is inadequate. Pumps may be mechanical, con-
nected to the surface by sucker rods, or powered
hydraulically, electrically, or by compressed-gas.
artificial magnetic anomalies: Nongeologic anomalies.
See cultural magnetic anomalies.
artificial neural net: See neural network.
artificial reality: Virtual reality 共q.v.兲.
22 asthenosphere
ASCII: 共as’ kē兲 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange, a computer code for character and
communications-control symbols.
ascension: See right ascension.
asdic: 共az’ dik兲 Sonar 共q.v.兲. The British acronym for their
wartime Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Com-
mittee, which developed sonar.
aseismic: 共ā sı̄z’ m⳵k兲 Almost free of natural earthquakes.
aspect ratio: 1. The ratio of the width of something 共such
as a fracture兲 to its length. 2. The ratio of vertical to
horizontal scale. 3. The ratio of shorter to longer axes
for an ellipse or ellipsoid.
asperities: Very small bumps that produce roughness;
involved in fracture behavior.
asphaltene: 共as fol’ tēn兲 High molecular-weight hydrocar-
bons, components of bitumen that are soluable in car-
bon disulphide but not in paraffin naphtha.
assembler: A program that translates symbolic assembler
language code into binary code for execution by a
computer.
assembler language: A source language that includes
symbolic language statements in which there is a one-
to-one correspondence between the instruction and data
formats.
associative memory: Content-addressable memory
capable of performing search and compare operations
on all memory locations in one memory access. Looks
for similar bit patterns in key words.
astatic: 共ā stat’ ik兲 Having a negative restoring force that
aids a deflecting force, thereby rendering the instrument
more sensitive and/or less stable. The idea of astatic
balance is illustrated in Figure A-21. Used in gravime-
ters and magnetometers.
asthenosphere: 共as thēn’ ⳵ sfer,兲 A yielding zone in the
Earth’s mantle involved in isostatic compensation and
in plate-tectonic movements. The asthenosphere lies
between the nearly rigid lithosphere and above the
mesosphere; it is approximately 200 km thick, has high
attenuation of seismic energy 共low Q兲, and little
strength. See Figure E-1.
FIG. A-21. Astatic balance principle. When the force on
the mass m is balanced by spring tension s, the large
mass M exerts no net force, but once unbalance occurs, it
throws the system farther out of balance.
astronomic latitude
astronomic latitude: Latitude measured with respect to
the vertical and the stars. Differs from ‘‘geodetic lati-
tude’’ by a few seconds of arc where the mass distribu-
tion distorts the geoid equipotential surface, as near the
roots of mountain ranges. See Figure G-2.
asymptote: 共as’ ⳵m tōt,兲 The limit of the tangent to a curve
as the point of contact approaches infinity. From the
Greek for ‘‘not falling together.’’
asymptotic wave theory: A high-frequency solution to
the wave equation. In a Taylor expansion of the wave
equation about the frequency ␻ 共in the form A i e jwt 兲,
terms for small ␻ are neglected. Leads to the eikonal
equation 共q.v.兲, geometrical spreading, and ray-theory
solutions.
asynchronous: 共ā sing’ kr⳵ n⳵s or ā sin’ kr⳵ n⳵s兲 Without
a regular time relationship.
asynchronous protocol: A telecommunication protocol in
which the transmitting station must indicate 共by special
sequences of transitions of state兲 the beginning and end
of data transmission. Compare binary synchronous
communication and synchronous data link control
共SDLC兲.
asynchronous system: A system in which the components
operate at independent speeds, requiring a handshake or
interlock sequence for inter-component communica-
tion.
Athy equation: 共ath ē’兲 An empirical equation relating
porosity ␾ to depth z that is used in compaction studies
based on seismic transit time:
␾ ⫽ ␾ o e ⫺bz ,
where ␾ o is the value at z 0 and b is an empirical
constant.
atmospheric electricity: See geophysics and Figure A-22.
atmospheric window: A wavelength range within which
there is relatively little attenuation of electromagnetic
radiation from the sun. See Figure E-11.
atomic absorption spectrophotometry: Measuring the
unique absorption lines of atomic species after decom-
position of a substance by heating it.
atomic capture cross-section: See capture cross-section.
atomic clock: A clock that determines time by counting
atomic oscillations. The standard is the atomic second,
9129 631 770 oscillations of 133 Cs atoms. See fre-
quency standard.
attack time: See AGC time constant.
attenuation: 1. Reduction in amplitude or energy caused
by the transmitting media or system. Usually includes
geometric divergence effects as waves spread out from
a source as well as conversion of energy into heat
共absorption兲 and other factors affecting amplitude, such
as transmissivity losses and mode conversion. 2. Instru-
mental reduction effects such as might be produced by
passage through a filter. See Figure A-2.
attenuation factor: If the amplitude of a plane wave is
reduced by the factor e ⫺ ␣ x in traveling a distance of x
meters, the attenuation factor is ␣.
attenuator: An adjustable passive device for reducing the
amplitude of a signal.
Atterberg limits: 共at’ ⳵r b⳵rg,兲 The water content when a
sediment changes its properties from liquid to plastic
and from plastic to solid, based on empirical tests, often
expressed in volume percentage of water. Used in engi-
neering as a measure of soil stability.
23 attribute, seismic
attic oilÕgas: Oil/gas lying between the highest well in a
reservoir and the updip reservoir seal. Attic oil/gas
cannot be produced by existing wells.
attitude: The relation of a feature to horizontal. The strike
and dip of a bed or other planar feature; the trend
direction and plunge for a linear feature such as an
anticline.
attribute: A specified item of information about some-
thing; any detail that serves to qualify, identify, classify,
quantify, or express the state of a quantity.
attribute, seismic: A measurement derived from seismic
data, usually based on measurements of time, ampli-
tude, frequency, and/or attenuation. Generally, time-
based measurements relate to structure, amplitude-
based ones to stratigraphy and reservoir
characterization, and frequency-based ones 共while often
not clearly understood兲 to stratigraphy and reservoir
characterization. Attenuation measurements are usually
very uncertain. Measurements are usually based on
stacked or migrated data, but prestacked data are used
in determining stacking velocity 共q.v.兲, AVO 共amplitude
variation with offset, q.v.兲, and other attributes. Because
there are many ways to arrange data, attributes consti-
tute an open set, and because they are based on so few
types of measurements, attributes are generally not
independent. Attributes are useful to the extent that they
correlate with some physical property of interest. The
primary usefulness of attributes is that they sometimes
help one to see features, relationships, and patterns that
otherwise might not be noticed.
Seismic measurements usually involve appreciable
uncertainty and do not relate directly to any single
geologic property. With so many geologic variables,
correlation with a particular property in one situation is
apt to not hold in another situation. Attributes generally
respond to a variety of geologic situations and a geo-
logic change may mean a change in the correlation. The
problem is determining the limits to an observed cor-
relation, especially when we do not understand the
underlying physics—How wide ranging is a correlation
valid? During a Direct Detection Symposium in 1973,
Miller Quarles presented numerous processing schemes
to enhance hydrocarbon signatures; in response to a
question about the ‘‘scientific basis of all these
attributes,’’ he responded, ‘‘We don’t know yet, but
remember, 关we兴 invented them.’’ Unfortunately we still
do not understand how to relate most seismic attributes
to geologic causes and situations.
Among the ways we calculate attributes are smoothing
and averaging over windows of various sizes, finding
residuals, peak values, measuring the distribution
within a window 共mean, median, kurtosis, percent
greater/smaller than a threshold, sums, residuals, scat-
ter, etc.兲, continuity, edges, smoothness, linearity or
curvature, gradients or other derivatives, absolute val-
ues, polarity changes 共zero-crossings兲, peak-trough dif-
ferences, etc. Relations may be measured over windows
共spectra, correlation, semblance, covariance兲, etc.
Attributes can be measured along a single trace or
throughout a volume or in other ways. The first
attributes identified as such were the 1D complex-trace
attributes of envelope amplitude, instantaneous phase,
attribute, seismic 24 attribute, seismic

FIG. A-22. Atmospheric layering. Weather is mainly controlled by the troposphere. The jet stream at about 11 km
involves a wave-shape course at midlatitudes. A circumpolar vortex extends sometimes to 60 km. Ionized layers in the
ionosphere are important in radio transmissions. Atmospheric pressure falls off rapidly above the surface and is very
small above 20 km. Temperature falls rapidly in the troposphere, is about 210–220 K in the stratosphere, and then rises
to about 275 K at 50 km because of the absorption of 2100–2900 Å radiation by ozone.
A-type collision
instantaneous frequency, and apparent polarity 共see
complex-trace analysis兲 and acoustic impedance 共or
velocity兲 determined by inversion 共q.v.兲. Attributes may
be measured along a defined 共picked兲 surface 共horizon
attributes兲 such as amplitude extraction, dip magnitude,
dip azimuth, artificial illumination, and coherence
共q.v.兲. Hydrocarbon indicators 共q.v.兲 are attributes.
Attributes can be combined to make new attributes.
Transformations of attributes are sometimes given
physical-property names 共porosity, fluid saturation,
lithology, stratigraphic or structural discontinuity, etc.兲,
usually based on local crossplots or local correlations
with borehole-log or other measurements; they may be
reasonable approximations locally but they are apt to
give erroneous values under different circumstances.
See Figures A-23 and A-24, Brown 共1999, chap. 8兲, and
Chen and Sidney 共1997兲.
A-type collision: Alpine collision 共q.v.兲.
A-type section: A three-layer model in which resistivity
increases with depth. See Figure T-7.
A.U.: Astronomical Unit, the distance of the Earth from
the Sun, 1.496⫻10 8 km.
audio: 共od’ ē ō兲 The frequencies corresponding to normal
voice communication, i.e., 15 Hz to 20 kHz.
audio-frequency magnetic method: Afmag method
共q.v.兲.
FIG. A-23. Seismic attributes. ‘‘Windows’’ can be constant time intervals, constant intervals hung from one horizon, or
intervals between horizons. (From Brown, 1999, 234.)
25 autocorrelation
audio-magnetotelluric method „AMT…: A magnetotellu-
ric method involving measurement of natural plane-
wave electromagnetic signals, mainly sferic energy, in
the 10 to 10 4 Hz range to determine subsurface resis-
tivity. See also magnetotelluric method, which involves
the 10 ⫺3 to 10 Hz range.
auger: 共o’ g⳵r兲 A drilling tool designed so that the cuttings
are carried to the top of the hole continuously during
the drilling operation by helical grooves on a rotating
drill pipe. With a wet auger, fluid is injected at the bit
to assist in the removal of cuttings.
aulacogen: 共au lak’ ⳵ j⳵n兲 Failed arm 共q.v.兲. Proterozoic
grabens trending at a large angle to adjacent continental
margins, generally filled with relatively undeformed
sediments. See Moores and Twist 共1995, 40兲.
authigenic: 共au thi jen’ ik兲 Formed in place; refers to
minerals that were not transported to the place where
they are now found.
autoconvolution: 共o, tō, kon, vō lū’ sh⳵n兲 Convolution of
a function with itself. See retrocorrelation.
autocorrelation: 共o, tō, kor, ⳵ lā’ sh⳵n兲 Correlation of a
waveform with itself. The normalized autocorrelation
function ␾ 11 ( ␶ ) for a continuous stationary waveform
is
autocorrelation 26 autocorrelation

FIG. A-24. Attribute display examples. (a,b) Dip-magnitude and dip-azimuth maps, Nun Riiver field, Nigeria (from
Bouvier et al., 1989). (c,d) Coherence and amplitude time slices; note channels indicated by red arrows (after Bahorich
and Farmer, 1995). (e,f) Horizon slices illuminated in different directions; the direction of illumination is indicated by the
arrows (courtesy Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty.). (Brown, 1999, 246, 256, and 251.)
autocorrelation pulse 27 autocovariance

FIG. A-24 (Continued.)

兰 t 2 f 共 t 兲 f 共 t⫹ ␶ 兲 dt
t time 共␶兲 on the present value, or the extent to which
␾ 11 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽limit
1
, future values can be predicted from past values. The
t
兰 t 2 f 2 共 t 兲 dt autocorrelation function contains all of the amplitude-
1
frequency information in the original waveform but
where f (t) represents a waveform 共or seismic trace兲 none of the phase information. An autocorrelation func-
and ␶ is the time shift or lag. For equally sampled tion is symmetrical about zero shift, that is, it is zero
共digital兲 data the autocorrelation is phase. Deconvolution operators are often based on
autocorrelations; see Sheriff and Geldart 共1995: 285–
兺 f k f k⫹ ␶ 287, 292– 403兲.
k
␾ 11 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽limit . autocorrelation pulse: The autocorrelation of a sweep
兺 f k2 signal, Sosie sequence, or the like. See Klauder wavelet
k
and vibroseis.
An autocorrelation is usually evaluated only over a gate autocorrelogram: A display of half of the autocorrelation
or window. The denominators in the preceding equa- function 共the half for positive time shifts兲 of seismic
tions are the normalizing factors and sometimes are traces, usually in record-section format.
not included. The autocorrelation function is a measure autocovariance: 共o, tō kō’ ver ē ⳵ns兲 Similar to an auto-
of the statistical dependence of the waveform at a later correlation except that the mean value f̄ is subtracted
automated depth estimation
FIG. A-25. Automatic gain control (AGC) action. (a)
Input; (b) output. AGC gradually restores the output to the
same level after an increase or decrease in input ampli-
tude.
before the integration, and normalization is not done:
冕 t2
关 f 共 t 兲 ⫺ f̄ 兴关 f 共 t⫹ ␶ 兲 ⫺ f̄ 兴 dt.
t1
For functions that have a zero mean, autocovariance is
the same as an autocorrelation function that is not
normalized.
automated depth estimation: Programs to automatically
scan digital potential-field profiles or maps to estimate
the depth of magnetic, gravity, etc. sources. Methods
include Euler deconvolution, Naudy’s method, Phillips’
method, analytic signal method, Werner deconvolution
共q.v.兲. See also depth rule, Cowan and Cowan 共1991兲,
Thurston and Smith 共1997兲.
automatic gain control „AGC…: A system in which the
output amplitude is used for automatic control of the
gain of an amplifier. Seismic amplifiers used to have
individual AGC for each channel, although multichan-
nel control was sometimes used. See Figure A-25 and
gain control. Also called automatic volume control
„AVC….
automatic picking: Automatic timing of a seismic event
along a section or throughout a volume based on speci-
fying a seed point to indicate the event to be picked.
Often based on a crosscorrelation over a specified nar-
row window. The autopicker generally stops if the
cross-correlation maximum is less than a set threshold,
and a new seed point must be indicated to continue the
picking. The pick is usually the amplitude and time for
a maximum or minimum, which is sometimes selected
from a quadratic fit to 3 or more points to interpolate
between sample values.
autoregressive deconvolution: Deconvolution with a
recursive filter 共q.v.兲.
autoregressive series: 共od, ō ri gres’ iv兲 A time series
generated from another time series as the solution of a
linear-difference equation. Usually previous values of
the output enter into determinating current values.
autotracker: An algorithm for automatic picking 共q.v.兲.
autotracking: Use of an algorithm to pick seismic reflec-
tions, especially used with work stations for interactive
interpretation. See tracking.
AUV: Automated Underwater Vehicle.
auxiliary plane: The vertical plane that is 90° to a fault
plane.
auxiliary storage: A storage not directly addressable by
the processor.
28 azimuthal asymmetry
AVA: Amplitude Variation with Angle of incidence. See
amplitude variation with angle/offset 共q.v.兲.
AVA „AVO… inversion: Solving amplitude-variation-
with-angle 共offset兲 data for the elastic constants of
layers. See lambda, rho, mu.
AVC: Automatic Volume Control or automatic gain con-
trol 共q.v.兲.
average: 1. Usually the arithmetic mean of a population or
over some domain; see mean and Figure M-7. Often
refers to the single value that produces the same effect
as the changing values along a raypath. 2. Typical
value.
average amplitude: Amplitude averaged over a specified
window 共often tapered兲 along a specified track.
average predicted residual error „APRE…: Used to
determine the model with the least number of layers
that is still consistent with the data. See Raiche et al.
共1985兲.
average velocity: The distance traversed divided by the
time required, both with respect to some particular
travel path and with respect to a datum. Sometimes
refers to a ray reflected at normal incidence, sometimes
to a vertical travel path. See velocity.
AVO: Amplitude-Variation-with-angle/Offset 共q.v.兲
AVO gradientÕintercept displays: The best-fit straight
lines to plots of amplitude versus sin2 ␪ or sin2 x, where
␪ is incidence angle and x is offset, are determined for
gathers, and the zero-offset intercepts 共A兲 and slopes
共gradients, B兲 are displayed 共often color-encoded兲 on
sections or horizon slices. See amplitude-variation-
with-angle/offset.
avulsion: 共⳵ v⳵l’ sh⳵n兲 A sudden change in the course of a
stream.
axial-dipole array: See array (electrical).
axial surface: The surface about which folded beds are
more or less symmetrical. Sometimes called the axial
plane, though not geometrically a ‘‘plane.’’ Also called
ab plane. See Figure F-17.
azimuth: 共az’⳵ m⳵th兲 1. The horizontal angle measured
clockwise from true north. Occasionally azimuth is
referenced to south or to magnetic north rather than true
north, or measured counter-clockwise. Also called true
bearing. 2. The direction from source to geophone.
azimuthal anisotropy: 共az ⳵ muth’ ⳵l an, ı̄ so’ tr⳵p ē兲 A
difference in properties 共such as seismic velocity兲 with
azimuth, such as produced by oriented near-vertical
fractures. See anisotropy (seismic) and birefringence.
azimuthal array: See Figure A-19 and azimuthal survey.
azimuthal asymmetry: Near-vertical fracturing, jointing,
microcracks, and stress tends to develop a horizontal
axis of symmetry perpendicular to the fracturing called
azimuthal anisotropy 共sometimes, extensive dilatancy
anisotropy兲. The velocity of P-waves parallel to the
fracturing and of S-waves whose motion is polarized
parallel to the fracturing is larger than for those perpen-
dicular to the fracturing. This anisotropy is usually a
form of orthorhombic anisotropy with the fracturing,
and it involves nine independent elastic constants. It is
sometimes considered a type of polar anisotropy 共q.v.兲,
and the less important elastic constants are often
assumed, sometimes neglected, or effectively set to
zero. The symmetry axis because of the fracturing may
not be orthogonal to the axis because of the layering,
involving monoclinic anisotropy. This situation is
azimuthal projection
involved in birefringence or shear-wave splitting 共q.v.兲.
azimuthal projection: A map projection in which a
spherical surface is projected onto a tangent plane.
Azimuths to any point from the point of tangency are
represented correctly.
azimuthal survey: 1. An electrical survey in which cur-
rent electrodes on the ground surface at specific azi-
muths from a drill hole are used with one or both
potential electrodes in the hole. The electrodes in the
borehole may be raised successively to develop a log
with the objective of determining the direction toward
better mineralization. 2. A survey method in which the
potential electrodes are moved along radii about a drill
hole that contains a fixed current electrode. The second
current electrode 共‘‘infinite electrode’’兲 is a great dis-
tance away. Also called radial survey. 3. Azimuthal
and radial ‘‘arrays’’ usually refer to dipole-dipole sur-
29 azimuth spider
veys where all electrodes are on the surface, in contrast
to an azimuthal ‘‘survey’’ involving a drill hole.
azimuthal VES: Vertical Electrical Soundings having dif-
ferent orientations. Used to measure electrical anisot-
ropy caused by fracture orientation.
azimuthal VSP: Offset Vertical Seismic Profiles 共q.v.兲
where sources are located in different directions from
the well containing a geophone.
azimuth angle: See angles (surveying).
azimuth bar: An established survey point 200 to 2000 ft
from a triangulation station. Used to aid in orienting a
transit.
azimuth map: A horizon slice color-coded to indicate the
direction of dip.
azimuth spider: A diagram showing the directions to the
sources for the component traces of a gather or stack.
See Figure T-3.
 B
b, B: b⫽bits, B⫽bytes.
B: 1. Bel, a dimensionless unit for expressing power or
intensity ratios; log10 of the power ratio. The more
common unit is the decibel 共q.v.兲; see Figure D-3.
Named for Alexander Graham Bell 共1847–1922兲,
Canadian inventor. 2. Symbol for induced magnetic
field 共q.v.兲. 3. The gradient in AVO studies, where the
amplitude is often approximated by the equation A
⫹B sin2 ␪, where ␪ is the angle of incidence.
␤: The Greek letter beta 共q.v.兲, often used to indicate
S-wave velocity.
␤储 : S-wave velocity parallel to the symmetry axis; see
Thomsen anisotropic parameters.
␤Õ␣: V S /V P , ratio of S-wave to P-wave velocities. Deter-
mines Poisson’s ratio ␴; see Figure E-6.
back bias: See bias.
background: 1. Average noise level, whether systematic
or random, upon which a desired signal 共such as a
reflection兲 is superimposed; ambient. Usually refers to
the total noise independent of the presence of the sig-
nal. Occasionally refers to an overall pattern upon
which an anomaly is superimposed. 2. A computer
operation going on while some other computer opera-
tion is underway. For example, a computer might be
printing in the background while an operator is word
processing.
background polarization: The relatively weak IP
response exhibited by unmineralized rocks, particularly
those containing abundant clay minerals or layered or
fibrous minerals. Also broad-scale, pervasive mineral-
ization that is not of economic interest. Normal effect.
backlap: Apparent truncation 共q.v.兲.
backplane: The component of an electronic system that
physically holds printed circuit boards and provides the
interconnections between them.
back propagation: Use of the wave equation to track
waves backward in time. Also called back projection
and depropagation.
back reef: The lagoonal area on the landward side of a
barrier reef, where patch and pinnacle reefs may be
located.
backscatter: A random sequence that is supposed to
account for scattering effects. It is used in reflectivity
models for deconvolution. One reflectivity model
assumes a 共non-Gaussian兲 Bernoulli-Gaussian
sequence 共q.v.兲 plus white Gaussian backscatter.
backsight: 1. A sight on a previously established survey
point with the objective of determining the position and
elevation of the survey instrument. The closing sight of
a traverse or level-line loop is not considered a back-
sight. 2. In plane-table traversing, orientation of the
table is by aligning the alidade on an established
mapped point.
back stepping: Successive progradational features mov-
ing in the landward direction because they are depos-
ited during a transgression.
back-stripping: Removing layers sequentially beginning
30
with the top 共youngest兲 in an attempt to represent
deeper data as it was before the removed layers were
deposited. To make a paleosection 共q.v.兲 or other dia-
gram showing how it would have been at some past
time.
back-substitution: When simultaneous equations can be
expressed as A•X⫽B, where A is a triangular matrix
and X and B are vectors, the solution for the last 共or
first兲 value becomes trivial. Back-substitution then
involves successively replacing the last 共or first兲 value
in the equations for the other elements so that their
solutions also become trivial.
back thrust: A subsidiary thrust plane that develops anti-
thetically on a principal thrust fault.
back-to-back: Processes that follow each other sequen-
tially without any judgment being exercised in interme-
diate stages.
backup: 1. A second copy of a file, to be used if the
original has been corrupted. 2. To make a copy of
computer files as a safeguard against destruction of the
files.
Backus averaging: 1. An effective-medium theory used
to upscale sonic-log data for synthetic seismogram
manufacture. Involves harmonic averaging. 2. Calculat-
ing the anisotropic elastic parameters that characterize
seismic-wave propagation at low frequencies in a lay-
ered medium.
Backus filter: 共bok’ ⳵s兲 An inverse filter that removes the
effects of reverberation involving a simple water bot-
tom. The filter’s z-transform expression is
1⫹2kz q ⫹k 2 z 2q ,
where k is the water-bottom reflection coefficient and
qt s is the two-way traveltime through the water layer if
t s is the sample interval. See Backus 共1959兲.
Backus-Gilbert theory: 共bok’ ⳵s gil’ b⳵rt兲 A description
of linear inversion that quantifies the resolution of
model parameters and their reliability.
backward branch: The part of a diffraction event that lies
under the reflector, as opposed to the forward branch
that tends to carry the reflection beyond the reflector’s
termination. See Figure D-9. Compare reverse branch.
backward prediction: The use of future values to predict
past values.
backward crossover: Opposite of proper crossover 共q.v.兲.
backward shot: A shot into a spread in the opposite
direction to that in which the seismic line is moving.
backward propagation: See back-propagation.
backward wavefield: Back-propagation 共q.v.兲.
bailer: A cylindrical container with a valve at its lower
end, used to remove fluids, sand, or mud from a well.
baked test: Because remanent magnetism is destroyed by
heating to high temperatures, the heated country rock
adjacent to an intrusive should have the same remanent
direction as the intrusive 共appropriate to that of the time
of the intrusion兲 but different from unheated country
rock 共which should be indicative of the time of forma-
balanced input
tion of the country rock兲. Checking that this is so is
called the ‘‘baked test.’’
balanced input: A symmetrical input circuit having equal
impedance from both input terminals to ground.
balanced section: A structural section that accounts for
conservation of mass and bed length during structural
deformation. Ideally, the model should be 3D.
balancing: 1. Time-variant scaling, usually on a root-
mean-square basis. 2. See balanced section.
balancing a survey: Distributing cumulative errors
among the legs of a survey.
bald structure: A structure on the crest of which some of
the section 共perhaps including an objective reservoir兲 is
missing. May be caused by erosion or nondeposition.
ballpark figure: An estimate that is of the correct order of
magnitude.
band: 1. A range of frequencies such as those passed
共band-pass兲 or rejected 共band-reject兲 by a filter. Mea-
surements are usually made between points where the
amplitude is down by 3 dB 共or down 30%兲 from the
peak value; see also bandwidth. 2. The names given to
the frequency ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum,
as shown in Figure E-11. 3. Landsat data channels; see
Landsat image. 4. A track on magnetic tape.
band-limited function: A function whose Fourier trans-
form vanishes 共or is very small兲 outside some finite-
frequency band.
band-pass: See band.
band-pass filter: See filter.
band-reject filter: A filter 共q.v.兲 that attenuates a range of
frequencies; the inverse of a band-pass filter.
bandwidth: 1. The range of frequencies over which a
given device is designed to operate within specified
limits. 2. The differences between half-power points,
i.e., the frequencies at which the power drops to half the
peak power 共3 dB兲. 3. The effective bandwidth is
冕 ⬁
p共 f 兲d f
;
0 p max
where p( f ) is the power at the frequency f and p max is
the maximum power. It is the width of a boxcar with the
same total power and the same peak power. 4. The rate
at which a computer resource can carry 共accept or
deliver兲 data. Usually expressed in bytes per second or
bits per second.
Banta method: 共ban’ t⳵兲 A curved-raypath correction
method that assumes that successively greater refrac-
tion times have penetrated to greater depths. See also
diving waves.
bar: A unit of pressure, 10 5 pascals or 10 5 N/m2 ;
approximately one atmosphere or 14.5 psi.
barefoot completion: An open-hole completion where
casing through the producing formation has not been
set.
barite: Barytes or barium sulphate, used to make drilling
mud heavier.
barium titanate: A ceramic having piezoelectric proper-
ties. Used in transducers such as hydrophones.
barker word: The distinctive word in the message from a
navigation satellite that indicates the start of a transmis-
sion cycle.
Barkhausen noise: 共bark’ hou, z⳵n兲 Noise introduced by
the discreteness of magnetic structure so that magneti-
31 basement
zation occurs as a series of small steps rather than
continuously. Named for Heinrich Georg Barkhausen
共1881–1956兲, German electrical engineer.
bar-m: A bar-meter, a unit of measurement for the pres-
sure created by a seismic source one meter away from
the source.
barn: A unit for measuring capture cross-section;
10 ⫺28 m2 .
barovane: 共bar’ ō vān兲 A device to divert the front end of
a streamer away from the tow point.
barrel: A ‘‘stock-tank barrel,’’ a volume of 42 U.S. gal-
lons or 157 liters; 6.2897 bbl/m3. The size dates back to
the East Texas oil boom but today’s oil drums usually
hold 55 gallons.
barrels of oil equivalent „BOE…: A unit of energy equiva-
lent to 5604 ft3 natural gas; 5.8⫻10 6 BTU; 1700
kW•h; 0.22 ton bituminous coal.
barrier: Something that limits the flow of fluids such as a
fault or facies change.
barrier reef: A reef that develops offshore, usually more-
or-less parallel to the coastline.
Barry’s method: 共bar’ ēs兲 A refraction interpretation
method using delay times. See Barry 共1967兲 or Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 439– 440兲.
Barthelmes method: 共bar thel’ m⳵s兲 A refraction interpre-
tation method involving continuous profiling. See Bar-
thelmes 共1946兲.
Bartlett window: 共bart’ lit兲 Triangular window. See Fig-
ure W-12.
barytes: 共b⳵ rı̄’ tez兲 Barite 共q.v.兲.
base: 1. The reference integer in a number system. Also
called radix. 2. Base station 共q.v.兲. 3. The transistor
element that corresponds to the grid of a vacuum tube.
baselap: Onlap or downlap reflection configuration 共q.v.兲.
See Figure R-8.
base level: The lowest level toward which erosion
progresses 共although it usually does not reach this
level兲. Usually sea level or lake level. The concept
generally excludes submarine erosion.
baseline: 1. A line used as a reference. See shale baseline.
2. In triangulation, the side of a triangle whose length is
measured. 3. The line between two radiopositioning
base stations whose transmissions are synchronized.
baseline extension: The straight-line extension of a base-
line beyond the base stations.
baseline shift: A change in the location of the shale base-
line on an SP-curve. A shift may occur when waters of
different salinities are separated by shale beds that do
not act as perfect cationic membranes, when the forma-
tion water salinity changes within a permeable bed, or
when the resistivity of the mud in the borehole changes.
base map: A map showing location data, which can be
used to post and map other data.
basement: 共bās’ m⳵nt兲 The level below which changes in
rock properties do not affect observations significantly,
or the lowest level of interest. Different types of base-
ment may not coincide. 1. Geologic basement is the
surface beneath which sedimentary rocks are not found;
the igneous, metamorphic, granitized, or highly folded
rock underlying sedimentary rocks. 2. Petroleum eco-
nomic basement is the surface below which there is no
current exploration interest, even though some sedi-
mentary units may lie deeper. 3. Magnetic basement is
the upper surface of igneous or metamorphic rocks
base of low-velocity layer „LVL…
whose magnetization is so much larger than that of
sedimentary rocks that their effects get lost in the noise.
4. Electrical basement is the surface below which
resistivity is very high so that variations below this
surface do not affect electrical-survey results signifi-
cantly. 5. Acoustic basement is the deepest more-or-
less continuous reflection. 6. Gravity or density base-
ment is where a very large density contrast exists so
that anomalies resulting from deeper contrasts are lost
in the noise. 7. Hydrologic basement is the deepest
point where significant porosity exists.
base of low-velocity layer „LVL…: See base of weather-
ing.
base of weathering: The boundary between the surface
layer of low seismic velocity and an underlying layer of
appreciably higher velocity. It may or may not corre-
spond to the geologic weathering or to the water table.
This boundary is involved in deriving static time cor-
rections for seismic records and is important in multiple
generation and mode conversion. Also called base of
LVL „low-velocity layer…. See also weathering.
base station: 1. A reference station that is used to estab-
lish additional stations. Quantities under investigation
have values at the base station that are known 共or
assumed to be known兲 accurately. Data from a base
station may be used to normalize data from other sta-
tions, as in the telluric-current method. 2. Accurately
located fixed station for radiopositioning.
base survey: A survey run before some experiment is
performed. Its results are used for comparison with
those of a later survey to determine the consequences of
the experiment. Used in the time-lapse 共q.v.兲 method.
base temperature: The temperature in the region of uni-
form temperature normally found in the lower part of a
convecting system.
Basic: Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code, a conversational computer programming lan-
guage that enables the use of simple English words,
abbreviations, and familiar mathematical symbols to
perform logical and arithmetic operations.
basic crust: See sima.
basic wavelet: Embedded wavelet 共q.v.兲.
basin: 共bā’ sin兲 A depressed, sediment-filled area. Some-
times roughly circular or elliptical in shape, sometimes
very elongate.
basin analysis: Working out the history of a sedimentary
basin, usually by computer modeling. Basin modeling
involves integrating inferred or historical sediment
influx and compaction, erosion and deformation, heat
transfer, and water flow, to work out the history of
hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, and migration. The
resulting pressure-temperature history is important in
determining hydrocarbon generation and hence a
basin’s prospectivity.
basin-floor fan: A submarine fan deposited on the lower
slope or basin, usually associated with the early portion
of a lowstand system tract while relative sea level was
falling. Generally associated with erosion of canyons
into slope and shelf.
basin modeling: See basin analysis.
basinward facies shift: A vertical juxtaposition of facies
such as shallow marine sediments underlying nonma-
rine, often associated with subaerial erosion. This may
indicate a seaward shift of the coastline.
32 beacon
basis functions: Algorithms that form the basis for
approximate methods used in numerical modeling for
interpolating, approximating a function, or numerical
integration. The functions may be polynomial, splines,
trigonometric functions, sinc functions, etc.
batch processing: Processing where all parameters are set
up before a job is done, contrasting with interactive
processing 共q.v.兲 where decisions are made as results
develop. Similar processing may be accumulated and
submitted together to increase efficiency.
batholith: A major igneous intrusive body, emplaced at
depth in the crust.
bathtub chart: A wavefront chart displaying the loci of
reflection times where the source-geophone offset is not
zero 共see Figure A-15兲. The loci are called aplanatic
surfaces, and for constant velocity, they are ellipses
with source and geophone at the foci. A reflector tan-
gent anywhere to one of the curves satisfies the reflec-
tion time for that curve.
bathymetric zonation: See Figure B-1.
baud: 共bod兲 1. A measure of the ability of a transmission
medium to change states. One pulse 共bit兲 per second. 2.
The speed at which a channel transmits information
共somewhat lower because of protocol overhead兲.
Bauer’s method: 共baw’⳵rs兲 An approximate way of deter-
mining interval velocity from average velocities. See
Figure V-5.
Baumé gravity: 共bō’ mā or bō mā’兲 A measure of specific
gravity; different scales are used for liquids lighter than
and heavier than water.
Baumgarte ray-stretching method: 共bom gart’兲 1. A
graphical reflection interpretation method in which the
positions of successive layers are constructed as sur-
faces tangent to fictitious wavefronts that are projected
backward from the observing stations. 2. A graphical
refraction interpretation method. See Baumgarte
共1955兲.
b-axis: Beta axis, the longitudinal axis of a fold structure.
Defined on a Schmidt net by the intersection of great
circles that represent foliation surfaces. See Figure
F-17.
bay: A transient magnetic disturbance having a period of
about an hour and the appearance of ‘‘a bay along the
seacoast’’ on a magnetic record. Other transient mag-
netic disturbances include micropulsations 共small rapid
variations兲, giant pulsations, and magnetic storms. The
onset of a bay is usually accompanied by a micropul-
sation burst.
bay cable: A marine seismic cable that is laid on the water
bottom, as opposed to a drag cable or a streamer, which
are towed into place.
Bayes’s theorem: 共bāz’ ⳵s兲 A theorem giving a-posteria
probability in terms of a-priori probability; see condi-
tional probability.
BCD: Binary-Coded Decimal 共q.v.兲.
BÕD, bÕd: Barrels-per-Day. Sometimes written BPD or
BPCD 共barrels-per-calendar day兲, BCD, BCPD 共barrels
condensate per day兲.
beach balls: Diagrams showing the first motion 共q.v.兲 of
fault displacement involved in earthquakes. See Figure
F-10.
beacon: 1. A fixed navigation aid. Beacons may be either
passive or active transponders. 2. A radar reflector 共such
as a corner reflector mounted on a buoy兲 used as a
beam
navigation or positioning aid or to locate the tail of a
seismic streamer.
beam: A finite cross-section of wave energy along a ray-
path.
Beaman arc: 共bē’ man兲 A unit of measure of the quantity
50 (1⫹sin 2␣) used in calculating vertical displace-
ment of a stadia rod with respect to the transit, where ␣
is the angle which the line of sight makes with the
horizontal. See also stadia tables. Named for William
M. Beaman 共1867–1937兲, American engineer.
beam steering: Summing the effects of sources at several
locations to provide increased directivity; it effectively
forms a source antenna. Involves time-shifting the
results from single sources by amounts that are propor-
tional to the distances between the sources and adding
the results to direct the beam. The beam directivity may
be changed by varying the time shifts. See also syn-
thetic aperture.
beamwidth: The angular width of the beam of a direc-
tional transducer or array of transducers, typically mea-
sured between the 3 dB points. The beamwidth is
sometimes the combined effective beamwidths of trans-
mission and reception.
Bean bag: An impulsive energy source that drops a soft
500 lb weight 10 ft to the ground. Tradename of Devel-
opmental Geophysical Inc.
bearing: The horizontal direction of one point with
respect to another, usually measured as a clockwise
angle. True bearing is the same as azimuth with
respect to true north.
FIG. B-1. Bathymetric zonation terminology. (Courtesy Micro-Strat Inc.)
33 benchmark „BM…
beat: The periodic increase and decrease in envelope
amplitude caused by the interference of two waves of
nearly equal frequencies.
beat frequency: Either of the two additional frequencies
(A⫹B) and (A⫺B) that are obtained when signals of
two frequencies, A and B, are mixed:
cos 2 ␲ At cos 2 ␲ Bt
⫽ 关 cos 2 ␲ 共 A⫹B 兲 t⫹cos 2 ␲ 共 A⫺B 兲 t 兴 /2.
Beaufort number: 共bō’ f⳵rt兲 A numerical scale indicating
wind speed. See Figure B-2. Named for Admiral Sir
Francis Beaufort 共1774 –1857兲.
bed: 1. A lithostratigraphic subdivision; see stratigraphic
classification. 2. A relatively conformable succession of
genetically related sediments.
bed of nails: A 2D comb or the 2D sampling function. An
impulse is located at the intersection of all integral
coordinate values.
bedrock: Any solid rock, whether exposed at the surface
or overlain by unconsolidated material. Sometimes
means older consolidated rock, rock with adequate
bearing capacity, or unweathered rock.
bell-shaped distribution: Normal or Gaussian distribu-
tion 共q.v.兲.
benchmark „BM…: 1. A relatively permanent metal tablet
or other marker with identifying information firmly
embedded in a fixed object indicating a precisely deter-
mined elevation. Used as a reference in topographic
surveys. 2. A test or standard set of jobs that can be
used to evaluate performance.
benchmark models
benchmark models: Parameterized models representing
specific earth problems. Models representing the same
geologic situation are generally different for different
geophysical methods.
bender: A type of piezoelectric transducer used in hydro-
phones. Two thin plates of piezoelectric material with
metallic film on opposite surfaces are bonded onto a
brass block so that only the ends of the plates are
supported. Pressure bends the plates, producing a volt-
age across them. Used as a shear-wave source. See
Figure H-12.
Benioff-Wadati zone: 共ben ē’ of Wa d⳵’ tē兲 A dipping
zone tens of kilometers thick containing earthquake
hypocenters lying along the top 共and base兲 of a sub-
ducting plate, in some places extending to 700 km 共see
Figure P-4兲. Where plates of the Earth’s lithosphere
converge so that one plate moves downward beneath
another; earthquakes result from the plunging plate.
This type of plate boundary is also called a Benioff-
type or B-type collision, or Benioff or Wadati zone.
Named for Hugo Benioff 共1899–1968兲 and Kiyoo
Wadati, American and Japanese seismologists.
benthic storms: 共ben’ thik兲 Large disturbances deep in the
ocean that can erode and move sediments.
bentonite: 共ben’ tō nı̄t兲 A highly plastic, colloidal clay that
increases its volume upon addition of water. Used in
drilling mud. Largely made of the mineral montmoril-
lonite.
Beowulf: 共bā’ ō wulf,兲 A cluster 共q.v.兲 of small computers
or computer chips that make a massive parallel proces-
sor 共MPP兲. Often uses the Linux 共q.v.兲 operating system
and standard message-passing protocols. Named for the
Old English or Nordic character who freed the Danes
FIG. B-2. Beaufort wind scale and Douglas sea-state scale.
34 beta configuration
from the monster Grendel because it frees a user from
the cost of a MPP.
Bernoulli equation: 共ber nū’ lē兲 An equation describing
the conservation of energy in the steady flow of an ideal
frictionless, incompressible fluid:
P/ ␳ ⫹gh⫹V 2 /2⫽constant,
where P⫽pressure, ␳ ⫽density, g⫽acceleration of
gravity, h⫽height, and V⫽fluid velocity. Named for
Daniel Bernoulli 共1700–1782兲, Swiss physicist.
Bernoulli-Gaussian sequence: 共ber nū’ lē gaus兲 A non-
Gaussian random sequence useful for modeling reflec-
tivity sequences and used in maximum-likelihood
deconvolution. The sequence is expressed as the prod-
uct of an event sequence 共a Bernoulli sequence, a
random sequence of zeros and ones兲 and a Gaussian
amplitude sequence. Named for Jacques Bernoulli
共1654 –1705兲, Swiss mathematician.
Bessel functions: 共bes’ ⳵l兲 Special mathematical functions
that often occur in problems involving cylindrical sym-
metry, especially in equations relating the Laplacian of
a function to derivatives of the function. See Officer
共1974, 52–55兲. Named for Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
共1784 –1846兲, German astronomer and mathematician.
Bessel transform: A Hankel transform 共q.v.兲.
beta, ␤: 1. The Greek letter often used to indicate S-wave
velocity. 2. See beta curve.
beta储 ( ␤ 储 :) : S-wave velocity parallel to the symmetry
axis; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters.
beta axis: See b-axis.
beta configuration: See array (electrical).
beta curve
beta curve: A type of curve used in interpreting pulse IP
data, also called a pulse curve. Beta, the ratio of
observed apparent chargeability to the true chargeabil-
ity of the lower medium 共a bilogarithmic weighting
function developed from IP theory兲, is proportional to
IP phase angle. A beta curve for a simple single hori-
zontal layer where only the lower material is polariz-
able shows the resistivity contrast factor as a function
of the ratio of array interval to depth 共alpha兲 and beta.
See Seigel 共1959, Chap. 2兲.
beta decay: Spontaneous radioactive emission of a beta
particle 共an electron兲 as a result of changing a neutron
into a proton. The result increases the atomic number
by one.
beta diagram: A cyclographic diagram 共q.v.兲.
beta testing: On-site testing of software at a location other
than the site of its origin before a system is accepted.
Betsy: An impulsive seismic source that involves firing a
shotgun shell into the earth. A Betsy downhole seisgun
is an impulsive explosive source powered by shotgun
shells. The shells are loaded into a small chamber on
the end of a long metal pipe that is inserted into the
bottom of a shallow 共⬍3 ft兲 borehole. Betsy Seisgun is
a Mapco trademark.
BHC: BoreHole-Compensated sonic log; see sonic log
and compensated log. BHC is a Schlumberger trade-
name, BHC Acoustilog is a Dresser Atlas tradename.
BHGM: BoreHole GraviMeter 共q.v.兲.
BHT: BottomHole Temperature.
BHTV: BoreHole TeleViewer 共q.v.兲.
bias: 共bı̄’ ⳵s兲 1. The amount by which the average of a set
of values departs from a reference value. 2. Superpos-
ing an additional magnetic field upon the magnetic field
associated with the signal during magnetic tape record-
ing. Used to obtain a linear relationship between the
amplitude of the signal and the remanent flux density in
the recording medium. See ac-bias recording. 3. A
voltage that is maintained at a point in a circuit so that
the device will operate with desired characteristics. 4. A
diode is said to have forward-bias when the voltage
across it is such that current flows through it, and
back-bias when the opposite polarity is maintained so
that no current flows.
bias recording: See analog tape formats.
bicubic spline: 共bı̄ kūb’ ik splı̄n兲 A surface,
3 3
F 共 x,y 兲 ⫽ 兺兺c
i⫽0 j⫽0
i jx
i j
y
used to interpolate 2D data, where c i j are constants.
bidirectional gridding: Bilinear interpolation 共q.v.兲.
big endian: See endian.
bilinear interpolation: 共bı̄ lin’ ē ⳵r兲 A 2D interpolation
method in which values are first interpolated in one
direction and then in the orthogonal direction. Com-
puter programs often interpolate stacking velocity in
this way, first interpolating in time between picks at
velocity analysis points and then spatially between
velocity analysis locations. This may create disconti-
nuities in the gradient. Also called bidirectional grid-
ding.
bimodal: 共bı̄ mōd’ ⳵l兲 A set of observations that includes
members of two populations that have different distri-
butions.
35 bipole
bin: For a surface subdivided by a grid of lines, the area
between adjacent lines. The traces that fall within a bin
are assumed to lie at the bin center, which is also called
a node or grid cell. Bins are used for both pre- and
postmigration data. Generally bin dimensions should be
smaller than V/(4 f sin ␪) where V is velocity, f is
dominant frequency, and ␪ is the apparent dip.
binary: 共bı̄’ n⳵ rē兲 Composed of only two elements. A
number system in which only two digits, 0 and 1, are
used, the position of the digits representing powers of
two; e.g., 11011 represents 2 4 ⫹2 3 ⫹2 1 ⫹2 0 ⫽16⫹8
⫹2⫹1 or the decimal number 27. See Figure N-4.
Negative numbers may be represented by a minus sign
or by codes such as the one’s-complement or two’s
complement codes.
binary-coded decimal „BCD…: A number system code in
which decimal digits are represented by four binary
digits 共see Figure N-4兲. For example, in the BCD num-
ber 0010 0111, the 0010 represents 2 1 ⫻10⫽20 and
the 0111 represents 2 2 ⫹2 1 ⫹2 0 ⫽7, giving the deci-
mal number 27. The excess-three code „BCDXS3… is
the BCD number plus 0011 共three兲.
binary digit: Bit; 0 or 1, as used in the binary system. See
binary.
binary gain: A gain-control system in which amplifica-
tion is changed only in discrete steps by factors of 2 and
the times at which the gain steps occur are recorded so
that the amplitude can be recovered later. Binary-gain
control is illustrated in Figure B-3. Compare floating
point.
binary number: See binary.
binary synchronous communication „bisync…: A syn-
chronous protocol 共q.v.兲 that supports the transmission
of binary and character data.
bin center: The geometric center of a bin.
bin fractionation: The clustering of midpoints at loca-
tions other than at the bin center that sometimes permits
subdivision of a bin into smaller bins.
binning: Sorting traces into the appropriate bin 共q.v.兲.
binomial expansion: 共bı̄, nōm’ ē ⳵l兲 If 兩 y 兩 ⬍ 兩 x 兩 ,
共 x⫾y 兲 n⫽x n ⫾nx n⫺1 y⫹n 共 n⫺1 兲 x n⫺2 y 2 /2!
⫾n 共 n⫺1 兲共 n⫺2 兲 x n⫺3 y 3 /3!⫹...⫾ 共 ⫺1 兲 n y n .
bioherm: 共bı̄’ ō, herm兲 A reef of biogenic origin.
Biot-Gassmann modeling: : See fluid substitution.
Biot-Savart law: 共bē’ ō s⳵ vart’兲 Ampere’s law 共q.v.兲.
Named for Jean Baptiste Biot 共1774 –1862兲 and Felix
Savart 共1791–1841兲, French physicists.
Biot slow wave: A very slow wave 共⬇10 m/s兲 predicted
by Biot theory 共q.v.兲.
Biot theory: A theory of seismic wave travel in porous
media that predicts three wave types: P- and S-waves
and a Biot slow wave. The slow wave couples wave
motion to fluid diffusion and propagates at velocities
⬇10 m/s; it was observed experimentally by Plona
共1980兲. See Biot 共1956兲.
bioturbation: 共bı̄’ ō tur bā, sh⳵n兲 Stirring of sediment by
organisms near the Earth’s surface.
biphase modulation: Modulation using ⫹90° to indicate
a ‘‘one’’ and ⫺90° to indicate a ‘‘zero.’’
bipolar waveform: See current waveform.
bipole: 共bı̄ pōl’兲 A dipole electrode arrangement in which
the electrodes of the dipole are an appreciable distance
bipole map
apart when compared to source-receiver separation.
bipole map: A display of profile data in bar-graph form,
often using color to display polarity.
bipole-dipole array: A direct-current resistivity array in
which the earth is energized using a pair of widely
spaced electrodes 共bipole兲 and the resultant electric
field is mapped at numerous locations up to several
miles from the bipole using orthogonal pairs of dipoles
to determine the magnitude and direction of the electric
field. The method is used for reconnaissance because of
the low cost per station compared to other resistivity
methods.
biquinary: 共bı̄ kwı̄n’ ⳵ rē兲 A number-system code in which
a decimal digit is represented by a digit pair, 5A⫹B,
where A is 0 or 1 and B is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. Thus the
decimal 7 is represented as 12 (1⫻5⫹2). See Figure
N-4.
Birch’s law: Empirical relations between density ␳ in
g/cm3, P-wave velocity V in km/s, and mean atomic
number m. For nonporous rocks,
␳ ⫽a 共 m 兲 ⫹3.05V,
where
a 共 m 兲 ⫽⫺137 for m⫽21, or,
V⫽A 共 m 兲 ␳ 1.5 or V⫽a ␳ ⫹b,
where a, b are constants. Named for Albert F. Birch
共1903–兲, American geophysicist.
bird: 1. A sensor 共such as a magnetometer兲 suspended
from an aircraft by a cable to make geophysical mea-
FIG. B-3. Binary-gain action in a seismic amplifier. (Courtesy Seismic Data Services.)
36 BIRPS
surements. 2. A depth controller 共q.v.兲 on a marine
streamer.
bird-dog: 1. To pay close attention to a job or to follow a
job until it is finished. 2. The one to whom such
surveillance is assigned. 3. The representative of the
company that hires a geophysical crew, responsible for
the work of the crew. Usually a staff or liaison position
not carrying line responsibility.
birefringence: 共bı̄, ri frin’ j⳵ns兲 Splitting of an incident
S-wave into two waves with different polarizations,
also called shear-wave splitting, S-wave splitting,
mode splitting, and double refraction 共Crampin,
1981兲. In a transversely isotropic medium, for each
travel direction only two orthogonal polarizations of
plane shear-waves are allowed 共although they are not
necessarily transverse to the propagation direction兲. An
S-wave of arbitrary polarization entering such a region
in a direction other than along the symmetry axis splits
into two S-waves 共one of which is quasi-shear兲 that
propagate at different velocities, S1 for the faster, S2
for the slower. For horizontal thin-layer anisotropy, the
two waves are the SH- and qSV-waves, the qSV not
necessarily being polarized transverse to the propaga-
tion direction. For parallel fracturing the S1 mode that
is polarized parallel to the fractures travels faster than
the S2 mode that is polarized with a component per-
pendicular to the fracture direction 共see Figure B-4兲.
See also transverse isotropy, Thomsen parameters, and
anisotropy (seismic).
BIRPS: British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndi-
cate, a group active in crustal studies, similar to
bisection
COCORP 共q.v.兲. See BIRPS 共1999兲 for both narrative
and data.
bisection: 共bı̄ sek’ sh⳵n兲 A method of finding the roots of
a continuous function. Parameter values are tried until a
negative and a positive value of the function are found,
indicating that a root lies between them. The interval is
then subdivided and the process repeated until that root
is determined.
bisync: 共bı̄’ sink兲 Binary synchronous communication
共q.v.兲.
bit: 1. A binary digit, the smallest unit of information; the
necessary and sufficient information to distinguish
between two choices. A bit may represent zero or one,
yes or no, on or off, etc. 2. A magnetized spot on a
digital magnetic tape conveying a binary digit. 3. A drill
bit 共q.v.兲.
bit density: Packing density; the number of bits per unit
length of magnetic tape.
bit recording: See sign-bit recording.
bit-shift: Multiplying or dividing a binary number by a
power of two by shifting the radix 共decimal兲 point.
blackbody: An ideal emitter that radiates energy at the
maximum possible rate per unit area at each wave-
length for a given temperature. A blackbody also
absorbs all of the radiant energy incident upon it. See
also Stefan Boltzmann’s law.
black box: A unit or device whose basic function is speci-
fied but whose method of operation is not specified.
Sometimes used in a derogatory manner for an untried
or unproven method, especially for one whose method
of operation is not understood.
Blackman filter: 共blak’ mon兲 An edge-smoothing
spectral-domain filter that ensures a smooth transition
to zero. See Figure W-12.
black oil: Oil with low gas/oil ratio (GOR
FIG. B-4. Birefringence involves splitting an S-wave into
two waves that travel at different velocities and hence
have different traveltimes. Such a situation might occur in
travel through a vertically fractured medium (transversely
isotropic). The first wave is polarized perpendicular to the
fractures and it travels at the lower speed S2 ; the third
wave polarized parallel to the fractures travels with the
higher speed S1 . The second and fourth waves polarized
at other angles split into two waves, one traveling perpen-
dicular and the other parallel to the fractures. (From
Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 57).
37 block diagram
⬍2000 ft3 /barrel), which is easy to deal with in
fluid-flow simulation because of its simple thermody-
namic properties. Other categories of hydrocarbons
include volatile oils, retrograde gas, wet gas, and dry
gas.
Blakely-Simpson method: 共blā’ klē s⳵m’ sun兲 An auto-
mated program that compares each grid point with eight
surrounding points to locate maxima by interpolating a
second-order polynomial.
blank: To set equal to zero; to mute 共q.v.兲.
blanking: Local relatively low amplitudes, such as a gas-
hydrate zone seen in deep water.
blast: An explosion.
blaster: Device used 共a兲 to detonate an explosive charge
by sending an electric current through a blasting cap
and 共b兲 to transmit the time-break to the recording unit.
Usually also includes 共c兲 a current-limited ohm-meter
for checking the blasting circuit, 共d兲 phone or radio for
communication with the recording unit, and 共e兲 connec-
tions for the uphole geophone.
blasting cap: See cap.
blind fault: A fault that does not outcrop.
blind hole: A borehole characterized by lost circulation of
the drilling fluid so that drill cuttings are not returned to
the surface.
blind thrust: A thrust fault deep in the crust that has no
surface expression.
blind zone: 1. A layer with lower velocity than overlying
layers so that it cannot be detected by refraction meth-
ods. 2. A layer that does not give a refraction first break.
Also called hidden layer or shadow zone. See Figure
H-5. The blind zone 共a兲 may have a velocity lower than
that of a shallower refractor, in which case it may lead
to overestimating the refractor depth, or 共b兲 it may have
a velocity intermediate between those of layers above
and below but not have sufficient thickness or velocity
difference to produce first arrivals; in which case it is
apt to cause underestimating the refractor depth. 3. A
zone from which reflections do not occur. 4. A zone
from which no drill cuttings are returned to the surface.
5. A portion of a formation in which logging tool
response is too low. A blind zone can occur because of
the finite size or configuration of the logging tool. For a
lateral log, a blind zone 共abnormally low reading兲 is
recorded when a bed that is highly resistive compared
to the overlying and underlying formations is present
between current and measuring electrodes. 6. A layer
that cannot be detected by electrical methods because
its resistivity is not sufficiently different from that of
other layers or because it is too thin.
BLM: Bureau of Land Management, nonregulatory group
advisory to the U.S. Geological Survey.
bloatware: A sarcastic term for software with features that
require considerable disk space and RAM.
block: 1. A group of words or files considered as a unit. 2.
To subdivide a structure so that the different parts can
be mapped separately, the subdivision often being along
faults. 3. To average data over a region, as to ‘‘block’’
sonic log values into larger units. 4. An exploration
concession area. Blocks three miles on a side on the
United States continental shelf are numbered to desig-
nate locations.
block diagram: 1. Diagram showing the functions of dif-
ferent parts of a system, processes, or devices and how
blocking temperature
they are interrelated, without showing construction
details. 2. Diagram showing the component operations
of a computer program.
blocking temperature: The temperature below which the
atoms in a mineral can no longer diffuse. Important in
radioactive age dating.
block kriging: A method of making a kriging estimate
over an area; e.g., a grid cell may be subdivided into
subcells, kriged values determined for each subcell, and
then these values averaged.
Blondeau method: 共blon dō’兲 A method of determining
vertical time to a predetermined depth based on first-
break data and the assumption that the instantaneous
velocity is proportional to a power of the depth. The
modified Blondeau method assumes that the constant of
proportionality and the exponent can vary with depth.
See Musgrave and Bratton 共1967兲. Named for Ernest E.
Blondeau 共1904 –1939兲, American geophysicist.
blow counts: The number of strikes of a pile driver
required to push a pile a given distance. Used as a
measure of shear strength.
blowout: An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, and other fluids
from a borehole resulting from excessive formation
pressure.
blowout preventer: See drill rig.
blowup: 1. To become unstable, as in a mathematical
operation when dividing by a very small number. 2. To
fail to converge. 3. To enlarge, such as by photographic
means.
blue sky: Not constrained by practicalities.
BM: Benchmark 共q.v.兲.
body waves: P- and S-waves that travel through the body
of a medium, as opposed to surface waves. See P-wave
and S-wave.
body-wave magnitude: An estimate of the size of an
earthquake based on body-wave amplitudes.
BOE: Barrels of Oil Equivalent.
Boltzmann constant: 共bōlts’ m⳵n兲 The ratio of the ideal
gas constant R to Avogadro’s number N:
k⫽R/N⫽1.305⫻10 ⫺23 J/K.
bomb: 1. An explosive charge used as a seismic energy
source. 2. To fail to execute on the computer, e.g., a
data processing operation ‘‘bombs.’’ 3. A device to
collect a sample of fluid in a borehole.
Bond transformation: A technique for applying coordi-
nate frame rotations or symmetry operations to stiffness
or compliance tensors without using full tensor nota-
tion. See Winterstein 共1989兲.
Boolean algebra: 共boo’ lē ⳵n兲 An algebra of elementary
logical properties of statements; a system involving yes
or no decisions, used in computer design and program-
ming. See Figure B-5. Named for George Boole 共1815–
1864兲, English mathematician.
boomer: 1. A very strong, usually low-frequency reflec-
tion event identified with a distinctive massive reflector.
2. A marine seismic-energy source in which a discharge
of electricity through a transducer consisting of a flat
coil with spring-loaded aluminum plates induces eddy
currents that force the plates to separate sharply pro-
ducing an implosion. EG & G tradename.
booster: An intermediate explosive that has to be deto-
nated by another explosive 共often a blasting cap兲, the
38 borehole televiewer
purpose of which is to detonate the main explosive
charge.
boot: 1. Protective shield placed around a hydrophone,
cable connector, sleeve-exploder unit, etc. 2. To cause a
computer to exercise a bootstrap program 共see boot-
strapping兲. 3. To plant a geophone firmly by stepping
on it.
bootstrapping: 1. Bringing a system into a desired state
by its own actions. The execution of a bootstrap pro-
gram, a set of permanently stored instructions; it may
involve loading 共from external storage兲 and executing a
set of instructions to initialize a computer. 2. To attempt
the impossible, as ‘‘to lift oneself by one’s bootstraps.’’
bore: A single water wave with an almost vertical front.
borehole: A hole drilled into the Earth; a well.
borehole effect: Well-log distortion because of the size
and influence of the borehole and the invaded zone.
Borehole effects include breakouts, borehole ellipticity,
and borehole rugosity.
borehole electrical anisotropy: See anisotropy (electri-
cal).
borehole geophone: A geophone that can withstand the
pressure and temperature conditions in a borehole.
Often consists of three orthogonal elements so that it
can read all three components of wave motion and
usually includes a provision for clamping to the bore-
hole wall to ensure good coupling. Borehole hydro-
phones are also used but they are much more subject to
tube waves.
borehole gravimeter: A remote reading gravimeter that
can be lowered through a borehole as a logging tool.
The difference between the gravity readings at two
different depths gives the apparent density ␳ 共in g/cm3兲
between the depths:
␳ ⫽3.686⫺128.5⌬g/⌬h 1 ⫽3.686⫺39.18⌬g/⌬h 2 ,
where ⌬g is the gravity difference in mGal, ⌬h 1 is the
depth difference in meters, and ⌬h 2 is the depth differ-
ence in feet. See LaFehr 共1983兲.
borehole gravity gradiometer: A measure of the vertical
gradient of gravitational acceleration. Usually mea-
sured by the difference between borehole gravity mea-
surements at two elevations 共vertical gradient兲. Hori-
zontal gradients also can be measured.
borehole imaging: Logging tools that provide an image of
the borehole wall using several electrodes mounted on
pads against the borehole wall, or by using a rotating
acoustic beam reflected from the borehole wall. See
Figure I-1a and compare borehole televiewer.
borehole log: Well log 共q.v.兲.
borehole Stoneley waves: A flexural mode of energy
propagation in a borehole. In some cases, Stoneley-
wave propagation can be used to infer permeability and
fracturing. See Tang and Cheng 共1996兲.
borehole televiewer: A well log wherein a pulsed, narrow
acoustic 共sonar兲 beam scans the borehole wall in a tight
helix as the tool moves up the borehole. The traveltime
and amplitude provide information about the borehole
wall. Analog or digital data can be presented in a
variety of ways to reveal fractures, vugs, etc. 共see
Figure B-6兲. BHTV is a Mobil Oil tradename. See
Zemanek et al. 共1970兲 and compare borehole imaging
and Figure I-1.
borehole-to-borehole measurements 39 bottom-hole pressure

borehole-to-borehole measurements: See crosshole
method.
Born approximation: 共born兲 A perturbation solution of
the integral equations for scattering. This involves sub-
stituting the unperturbed wavefield for the unknown
wavefield under the integral sign, to obtain the first
approximation. The second approximation is obtained
by substituting the first approximation for the unknown
wavefield, and so on. Named for Max Born 共1882–
1970兲, German physicist. See Clayton and Stolt 共1981兲
and Cohen et al. 共1986兲.
bottom drag: A recording system where receivers are
dragged along the bottom into position.
bottom-hole pressure: The pressure of the fluids in a

FIG. B-5. Boolean algebra. (a) Symbolic representations; (b) truth table showing rules, no and yes represented by 0
and 1 respectively; (c) laws of Boolean algebra; (d) Venn diagram representation by shaded areas; (e) circuit diagram
representations. Gates may have more than two inputs.
bottom lock
formation, measured by a ‘‘pressure bomb’’ that is
lowered on a wire line and includes a precision pressure
guage.
bottom lock: Situation where Doppler-sonar measure-
ments are based on reflections from the sea floor 共the
normal operational mode in less than 400–1000 ft of
water兲, as opposed to the water-scatter mode, which
occurs in deeper water.
bottom-simulating reflector „BSR…: A reflection that
roughly parallels the sea-floor reflection, presumably
caused by the contrast between an overlying clathrate
共gas hydrate兲 and underlying gas-saturated sediments or
occasionally by opal transition. Especially seen in deep
water where subsea-floor sediments are at low tempera-
ture but under substantial pressure. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 128, 131兲.
Bott-Smith rule: The depth of a gravity source h
⫽0.86 g max/(dg/dx)max, where g max is the maximum
gravity anomaly value and (dg/dx) max is its maximum
slope. Also called Smith rule. See depth rule.
Bouguer anomaly: 共boo ger’ or bo gar’兲 1. The value
obtained after latitude correction, elevation correction
共including both free-air and Bouguer corrections兲,
Eötvös correction 共for marine and aerogravity兲, and
共usually兲 terrain correction have been applied to gravity
data. If a terrain correction has not been made, the
result is sometimes called simple Bouguer. The Bou-
guer gravity field is not the same as the field that would
have been observed at the datum elevation, because the
shape of anomalies resulting from remaining density
irregularities still are appropriate to the elevation of
measurement rather than to those of the datum eleva-
tion. Also called Bouguer gravity. 2. Sometimes, a
departure from smoothness in the contours on a map
showing Bouguer values 共i.e., a residual in Bouguer
anomaly values兲. Named for Pierre Bouguer 共1698 –
1758兲, French mathematician who tried to determine
FIG. B-6. Borehole televiewer. (a) Schematic of a sonde in the borehole. (b) Schematic appearance of two plane
fractures, one with steep south dip and one with gentle west dip, as shown in (c). (From Zemanek et al., 1970, 255 and
257.)
40 boundary-value problem
the figure of the Earth. See Chapin 共1996兲 and Figure
G–7.
Bouguer correction: 1. A correction to gravity data
because of the attraction of the rock between the station
and the elevation of the datum 共often sea level兲 or, in
the case of stations below the datum elevation, for rock
that is missing between the station and datum. The
Bouguer correction is 0.041 92 ␳ h mGal (4 ␲ ␥ ␳ h),
where ␥ is the gravitational constant, ␳ is the density of
the intervening rock, and h is the difference between the
station and datum elevations in meters 共or 0.012 78 ␳ h
mGal if h is in feet兲. See Figure G-7. 2. In surface ship
gravity data, the Bouguer correction replaces the sea
water with assumed rock density, and ␳ in the preceding
expression is the difference in densities of the replace-
ment rock and that of sea water. Also called slab
correction.
Bouguer gravity: See Bouguer anomaly.
Bouguer plate: An infinite slab of finite thickness h and
density ␳ 共g/cm3兲; its gravity effect is 0.041 92 ␳ h
mGal if h is in meters.
Bouguer spherical cap: The Earth’s segment that
includes all rocks above datum 共usually sea level兲 out to
166.735 km. The sum of the ordinary Bouguer correc-
tion and the Bullard B correction 共q.v.兲.
Bouma sequence: 共bau’ m⳵兲 An idealization of the sedi-
ment sequence found in turbidity-current deposits. A
single upward-fining sequence consists of a lower mas-
sive sand unit A overlain progressively by parallel
laminations B, ripple or convolute laminations C, plane
parallel laminations D, and pelagic shale E.
boundary analysis: A method that delineates density or
magnetic changes, such as the Blakely-Simpson or
analytic-signal methods.
boundary condition: A constraint that a function must
satisfy along a boundary.
boundary-value problem: A differential equation
boundary wave
together with boundary conditions.
boundary wave: A mode of wave propagation along the
interface between media of different properties. Also
called surface wave. Examples are Rayleigh, Love, and
Stoneley waves.
bound layer: Fixed layer 共q.v.兲.
bound water: Water absorbed in, or chemically combined
with, shales, gypsum, or other material and which is not
free to flow under natural conditions.
bound wave: Surface wave 共q.v.兲.
bow tie: The appearance of a buried focus on a seismic
record section. See Figure B-11.
boxcar: A rectangular window function:
boxa 共 t 兲 ⫽0, t⬍⫺a/2 or t⬎a/2,
⫽1, ⫺a/2⬍t⬍a/2.
Its transform is
sin共 ␲ a/t 兲
boxa 共 t 兲 ↔a sinc共 ␲ a/t 兲 ⫽a . emitted. The radiation is a continuum from zero energy
共 ␲ a/t 兲
共See Figure W-11兲. Sometimes called a gate.
box corer: See corer.
BP: Before the present. Used in designating geologic age;
see Appendix I.
bpi: Bits Per Inch. Refers to the linear bit density, the
inverse spacing of bits along a single track on magnetic
tape in the direction of motion.
B-polarization: See transverse magnetic.
brachistochrone: 共br⳵ kis’ t⳵ krōn,兲 1. Least-time path.
Any raypath 共in the usual sense兲 is a brachistochrone.
See Fermat’s principle. 2. A table of reflection time
versus depth. Also called a curve of shortest descent.
From the Greek for ‘‘shortest time.’’
bracing: 共brā’ sing兲 Determining the distance between the
elements of a marine recording system by measuring
the traveltime between transducers 共pingers兲 located at
the different elements, e.g., determining streamer-
streamer spacing with pingers located in the streamers
when more than one streamer is being towed.
branch: 1. An instruction that can change the computer’s
next instruction. A branch can be unconditional or con-
ditional based on the magnitude or state of some value.
Synonym: jump. 2. One set of values for a multivalued
function. 3. A reflection from a given reflector where
other reflections from the same reflecting interface are
also present, as where the reflector is concavely curved
共see buried focus兲 or discontinuous, as in thrust fault-
ing. Multiple reflection branches can also result from
large velocity gradients; see diving waves. 4. More than
one refraction event may be observed at a given point
because of the configuration of the refractor.
branch point: 1. A point where a decision between alter-
natives must be made; a node. 2. The point of a
Riemann surface at which two or more branches of a
multivalued analytic function come together.
breadboard: An electrical circuit connected temporarily,
such as used to test a new circuit before the design is
finalized.
breadsticks: The pieces of a domain that has been
‘‘sliced’’ so that portions can be farmed out to different
nodes of a parallel processor.
break: 1. Onset of an event, especially the first break. A
burst of energy indicating the arrival of new energy. 2.
41 bridge rectifier
See time break and cablebreak.
breakout: Enlargement of a borehole in the direction of
minimum stress.
breakpoint: A location in a program at which execution
of that program can be halted to permit visual checking,
printing out, or other performance analysis.
breakthrough: Water or other fluid reaching a production
well and interfering with hydrocarbon production there.
Bremmer series: 共brem’ ⳵r兲 A decomposition of the solu-
tion to the loss-less wave equation as a sum of signals
共primary reflections, multiples, etc.兲. The model for the
primaries is excited by an impulse function and the
primaries excite the secondaries, etc. See Mendel
共1978兲.
bremsstrahlung: 共brem’ shtra l⳵ng兲 Radiation that results
when a charged particle experiences an acceleration
while in the field of another charged particle. An elec-
tron accelerating as it approaches a nucleus will be
deflected and low energy ␥-rays and X-rays will be
to the maximum kinetic energy of the electron. From
the German for ‘‘braking radiation.’’
brick asymmetry: Having different properties in three
orthogonal directions; orthorhombic asymmetry.
brick pattern: The pattern for perpendicular geophone
and source lines in a 3-D land survey where the source
lines are staggered to improve the distribution of traces
within bins. Also brickwall pattern. See Figure B-7.
bridge: 1. An obstruction in a drill hole above the bottom
of the hole usually formed by caving. Bridges block the
passage of drilling tools or loading an explosive charge
in a borehole. A bridge plug may be set deliberately. 2.
An electrical network usually having four or more arms
connected in a diamond arrangement and containing
one branch 共the ‘‘bridge’’兲 that connects two points of
equal potential when the circuit is properly balanced;
see Figure B-8. A Wheatstone bridge used for measur-
ing electrical impedance. 3. A jumper or wire used to
short-circuit around parts of an electrical circuit.
bridge plug: See bridge.
bridge rectifier: A full-wave rectifier circuit in which
FIG. B-7. Brick pattern. Staggering alternate rows of
source points (Œ) that are orthogonal to the rows of
geophones (.) lessens acquisition footprints
bridle
there are four arms, each containing a rectifier. See
Figure B-8.
bridle: 1. To connect in parallel a group of amplifiers to a
common input. 2. A seismic record produced with the
amplifiers bridled; see parallel record. 3. An arrange-
ment for towing a seismic streamer. 4. The insulation-
covered lower portion of the cable to which a logging
tool is connected. 5. A long electrode often attached to
the logging cable suspended some distance 共perhaps
100 ft兲 above an electrical logging sonde or hung just
below the casing; see downhole ground. Used as the
reference electrode instead of the more usual arrange-
ment of having the reference electrode at the surface;
especially used in the case of bad SP interference from
electrical surface facilities or telluric currents. Also
called a bridal.
brightness temperature: The temperature at which a
blackbody would radiate a given amount of energy at a
particular wavelength. See Stefan Boltzmann’s law.
bright spot: 1. A local increase of amplitude on a seismic
section for any reason; an amplitude anomaly. 2. An
increase of amplitude assumed to be caused by hydro-
carbon accumulation. See hydrocarbon indicator. Also
brite spot; opposite of dim spot.
bring in a well: Completing a well to allow it to produce
hydrocarbons.
broadside: 1. A reflection shooting arrangement in which
the source point is appreciably outside the line of the
spread 共more than perhaps 60 m or 200 ft兲. Also called
L-spread or T-spread, depending on whether the
source is opposite one end or the center of the spread.
See Figure S-18. 2. A refraction technique in which the
spread is perpendicular to the line connecting it with the
source. The source-to-spread distance is usually kept
nearly constant. 3. Electromagnetic-surveying proce-
dure in which the transmitter coil is moved along one
line while the receiver coil is moved along a parallel
line. Compare inline.
brokerage data: Data generally acquired by oil compa-
nies that can be licensed from data brokers.
broomstick charge: A directional charge consisting
mainly of a long helical coil of detonating cord wound
around a dowel 共broomstick兲. The pitch of the helix is
FIG. B-8. Bridge circuits. (a) When the bridge is
balanced no voltage is measured by V and Z 1 /Z 2
⫽Z 3 /Z 4 . Used to measure one unknown Z in terms of
three known Z, (b) Bridge rectifier for full-wave rectifica-
tion.
42 bubble effect
such that the speed of the explosion front along the axis
of the helix is approximately equal to the seismic veloc-
ity in the surrounding medium. Used to increase the
sharpness of a downward-traveling wave and to reduce
ghosting.
brownfields: Vacant or underutilized land that may be
contaminated by polution.
browse authority: Permission to read only.
browser: 共brau’ z⳵r兲 A software package that permits
accessing hierarchial or link information such as on the
World Wide Web.
Brunton: 共brunt’ ⳵n兲 A small pocket compass with levels,
sights, and a mirror reflector, used for measuring angles
as well as for determining directions. See Figure B-9.
Various arrangements of the sights and mirror permit
one to sight on objects and simultaneously read the
scale. The Brunton is often used as a protractor. Named
for David W. Brunton 共1849–1927兲, American engi-
neer.
brute stack: A preliminary common-midpoint stack 共q.v.兲
where final static and normal-moveout corrections and
processing have not yet been applied.
Brutus: 共brū’ t⳵s兲 An impulsive energy source that simply
drops a 250 lb mass 3 ft onto the ground.
BSR: Bottom-Simulating Reflection 共q.v.兲.
BTU: British Thermal Unit⫽1054.5 joule.
B-type collision: See Benioff Wadati zone.
bubble: An oscillating bubble of gases, such as formed by
an explosion in water. Most marine seismic sources
generate bubbles; the bubble oscillation frequency is
given by the Rayleigh-Willis relation 共see Figure R-5兲.
Various arrangements such as wave-shape kits are used
to attenuate bubble effects or 共as with Maxipulse兲 to
correct for them. Bubble oscillations can be prevented
if the source is so close to the surface that the gases
vent before the bubble collapses. This occurs if an
explosive of w pounds of dynamite is fired shallower
than d ft, where d⫽3.8w 1/3 . See Figure B-10.
bubble effect: The result of bubble 共q.v.兲 oscillations,
often called bubble noise. Repeated collapses of a
bubble, often involving considerable energy, repeat the
source-generated events and confuse a seismic record.
See Figure B-10. Bubble effects are seen occasionally
in marsh or land shooting.
FIG. B-9. Brunton compass.
bubble effect 43 bubble effect

FIG. B-10. Bubble pulses from a small underwater explosion. The time between successive implosions decreases as
energy is dissipated. Successive pulses effectively generate additional records superimposed on the first; the result is
bubble noise. One measure of the effectiveness of a marine source is the ratio of the amplitudes of the primary to the
first bubble. See also Figure S-16. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)

FIG. B-11. Buried focus reflection. (a) Model of a simple syncline showing several raypaths for common source-
detector traces. (b) Schematic time section corresponding to the model. (c) Record section for a 2D model similar to that
shown in (a), showing three branches; the pattern is sometimes called a bow tie. Note the 90° phase shift in the reverse
branch. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
bubble period
bubble period: The time between oscillations of a bubble,
such as an air-gun produces.
bubble point: The temperature and pressure at which the
first bubbles of gas appear, where a liquid begins to
convert to gas. See Figure H-11.
bubble sort: To rearrange items until they are in either
ascending or descending order.
buck: To bias 共q.v.兲.
bucking electrodes: Guard electrodes 共q.v.兲.
Buffalo gun: 共buf’ ⳵ lō兲 An impulsive energy source that
involves detonation of a blank shotgun shell in a shal-
low hole.
buffer: 1. An intermediate storage device that accommo-
dates differences between the rate at which information
is fed into a computer and the rate at which the com-
puter can receive the information, or which performs
the same function for information output by a computer
or between component parts of a computer. 2. An
isolating circuit to prevent a reaction of the circuit that
is driven from affecting the circuit that is doing the
driving. A buffer amplifier may follow a critical stage
to isolate subsequent stages from load impedance varia-
tions. 3. A solution that minimizes the changes in
hydrogen-ion concentration that would otherwise result
from a chemical reaction.
buffered: Somewhat isolated from effects that would oth-
erwise occur.
bug: 1. Error or a malfunction in equipment, computer
program, etc. 2. An uphole geophone 共q.v.兲.
bug time: Uphole time 共q.v.兲.
build rate: The rate of increase of deviation in the curved
part of a deviated hole; often measured in degrees/100
ft.
bulge waves: Mechanical disturbances that generate pres-
sure fluctuations in a liquid-filled streamer. Caused by
towing vibrations, sea swell, bird hydrodynamics,
vibration of the end members of streamer sections, etc.
bulk shift: Adding or subtracting a constant from all
traveltimes.
bulk modulus: See elastic constants.
Bullard B „earth curvature… gravity correction: 共bull’
⳵rd兲 An adjustment to the Bouguer planar-slab correc-
tion which accounts for the Earth’s curvature. See
LaFehr 共1992兲.
bullet: 1. A device for obtaining sidewall cores. 2. A
device for perforating the casing in a well.
bulletin board: An electronic information exchange for
computer users.
bump: To increase a count by one.
buried-focus effect: The effect of energy passing through
a focal region before it reaches the recording plane. A
buried-focus situation commonly causes several
branches 共usually three兲 of a reflection to be observable
共i.e., several points on the reflector satisfy the law of
reflection兲; see Figure B-11. The portion for which
raypaths pass through the focus is called the reverse
branch 共q.v.兲 and it involves a phase shift; see Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 155-159兲. For zero offset and con-
44 byte order
stant velocity, a buried focus occurs if a reflector’s
center of curvature lies beneath the recording surface,
but less curvature is required for buried-focus effects on
offset traces. Hence buried-focus effects are more likely
on long-offset traces or deeper in the section. Velocity
gradients and curvature of isovelocity surfaces 共which
are apt to occur in structural areas兲 affect buried-focus
effects. Buried-focus effects can also be produced by
local lateral velocity variations that bring about focus-
ing 共lens effects兲.
burner: A device for writing data onto a compact disk
共CD兲.
burn-in: 1. To permanently implant data on a chip or CD.
2. To perform an endurance test, sometimes under
adverse conditions.
burst-out: A large sudden increase in amplitude that
threatens to exceed the linear capabilities of a system.
burst rate: The rate at which a device transfers data after
the data have been accessed, as opposed to the effective
data rate that also involves access time.
bus: 1. Common connector for electrical power or com-
puter data. 2. A circuit or group of circuits that provide
a communication path between two or more devices,
such as between central processor, memories, and
peripherals.
bust: A failure to tie a survey loop within acceptable
standards.
butterfly filter: An f-k 共velocity兲 filter that rejects a pre-
scribed band of apparent velocities or moveouts. As
opposed to a pie-slice filter that passes a band of
moveouts.
Butterworth filter: 共b⳵d’ ⳵r w⳵rth兲 A type of frequency
filter characterized by a very flat passband, often used
as an alias filter. Sometimes called a maximally flat
filter or a trapezoidal filter. The slopes at the edges of
the bandpass can be set arbitrarily. Filters can be speci-
fied by four numbers a,b,c,d, where b and c specify the
frequency bandpass and a and d specify the frequencies
that are down 3 dB in amplitude. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, §15.7.4兲.
button: 1. The small circular electrode on a microresistiv-
ity or electrical imaging sonde. 2. To turn on or off. 3.
A tightly grouped array of receivers.
button patch: A geometry used for 3D surveying
whereby sources are positioned around a receiver 共but-
ton兲. Leads to a checkerboard pattern of dense and
empty bins. Arco patent.
bypassing: Flow of reservoir-flushing fluids around
hydrocarbon pockets because of the inhomogeneity of a
reservoir.
byte: 共bı̄t兲 A small group of binary digits 共often eight
across the width of a magnetic tape兲 that are manipu-
lated as a unit. See also character.
byte order: The order in which multibyte binary data are
stored in a computer memory. In some machines the
least significant digit is stored in the low byte, in others
in the high byte. A byte swap refers to changing from
one type of byte storage to another.
Appendix B: Greek Alphabet and Hindi Numerals

406
 C
c: 1. Symbol often used for velocity. 2. The velocity of
light in a vacuum, 2.997 925⫻10 8 m/s. 3. A seismic
wave reflected at the Earth’s mantle-core boundary.
C¿¿: An object-oriented programming language, a
superset of the C language that was originally devel-
oped for the Unix operating system. Supports data
abstraction and object-oriented and generic program-
ming, and facilitates modularity in programming. See
also Java.
cable: 1. The assembly of electrical conductors used to
connect geophone or hydrophone groups to the
recorder. See also streamer. 2. The assembly of electri-
cal conductors and tensile members used to support a
logging sonde 共wireline兲, well geophone, or bird.
cablebreak: An arrival in a well-velocity survey caused
by energy travel in the cable that supports the well
geophone. Wave velocity in cables is 2500-3500 m/s.
cable drilling: A method of making a hole in hard rock by
alternately lifting and dropping a tool.
cable strum: Vibration of a marine streamer or ocean-
bottom cable produced by occasional sudden tension,
such as might be caused by pitching of a towing ship,
jerks from a tail buoy, or variations in current. A source
of noise in marine seismic data.
cable tools: Equipment for cable drilling 共q.v.兲. Occasion-
ally used for seismic shotholes in areas of extremely
hard surface rock. See spudder.
cache: 共kash兲 A temporary storage place. Computers
include caches at several levels, including cache
memory and disk cache. A cache memory may be on
the same or a separate chip from the microprocessor,
and is faster to access than regular RAM. Disk cache,
either a reserved area of RAM or a special hard-disk
cache, may store recently accessed data for fast access.
RAM can be viewed as a cache. For example, recently
requested Web pages may be stored in a browser’s
cache so that the browser can return to a page from the
cache rather than from the server.
CÕA code: Coarse Acquisition code used to carry informa-
tion for GPS positioning.
CAD: Computer-Aided Design, computer-aided drafting.
cadastral survey: 共k⳵ das’ tr⳵l兲 A survey to determine
boundary lines.
CAEX: Computer-Aided EXploration; interactive inter-
pretation employing seismic, well, and other data.
cage: Perforated steel surrounding a marine energy source
共small explosive or air gun兲 to attenuate the bubble
effect 共q.v.兲 by dissipating energy in the turbulent flow
of water in and out of the cage. See Flexotir and Figure
F-13.
Cagniard apparent resistivity: 共cāgn’ yard兲 1. A resistiv-
ity calculated from orthogonal electric and magnetic
field measurements, used for magnetotelluric measure-
ments in a layered earth. For more complicated struc-
ture, the full tensor impedance must be considered. 2.
In the magnetotelluric method, an apparent resistivity in
ohm-meters at period T obtained from 0.2T 兩 Z 兩 2 ,
45
where Z is the Cagniard impedance 共q.v.兲.
Cagniard de Hoop technique: An exact method for a
synthetic seismogram calculation that involves the use
of inverse Laplace transforms and iteration in the com-
plex plane. See Aki and Richards 共1980兲.
Caignard impedance: In the magnetotelluric method, the
ratio of the horizontal electric field component in some
direction, E x , to the magnetic field, H y , in a perpen-
dicular direction. For a horizontally layered earth, it is
independent of the choice of x-direction. See also
impedance.
cake: Mud cake 共q.v.兲.
calculus of variations: The mathematics of finding a
function that will maximize 共or minimize兲 a definite
integral.
caldera: A large circular depression of volcanic origin.
calibrate: 1. To adjust an apparatus so that it reads values
correctly. 2. To determine the number of units of a
quantity being measured per scale division of the read-
out device. 3. To check equipment readings by measur-
ing a known standard. 4. To adjust values so that the
integrated traveltime agrees with data from surface
sources into a well seismometer in the borehole. 5. To
transform a logging tool signal into a quantified physi-
cal parameter, or the result of this transformation
recorded on a log.
calibration factor: A constant used to compensate for
inaccuracies in electromagnetic field parameters, cur-
rent channeling, and static shifts. For transient electro-
magnetic methods, it depends only on the transmitter-
receiver distance.
calibration resistor: A pure resistance of a known value
used to calibrate a frequency-domain transmitter and
receiver.
calibration tails: Calibration records run before and/or
after a log run and attached to the logs.
caliche: 共k⳵ lē’ chē兲 A cemented surface layer that forms
in semi-arid temperate zones by the precipitation of
calcium carbonate. Caliche is often a difficult surface
for seismic acquisition.
caliper log: A well log that measures hole diameter. Open-
hole caliper logging tools sometimes have four or more
arms. See Figures M-11 and S-13. Tools for studying
casing or tubing corrosion use many ‘‘fingers.’’
call: An instruction to transfer control to a subprogram.
camera: A recording oscillograph used to produce a vis-
ible pattern representing electrical signals or to make a
visible seismic record on photosensitive paper or film
or by xerography. See also plotter.
camouflet shooting: 共kam ou flā’兲 To generate S-waves
by asymmetry of P-wave sources.
cannel coal: 共kan’ ⳵l兲 A sapropelic coal derived from
organic residues by putrefaction under anerobic condi-
tions rather than petrification. High in volatile compo-
nents.
canonical: Simplest form of a generalized relation.
canonical transformation: A transformation from one set
cap
of coordinates and moments to another set in which the
equations of motion are preserved.
cap: A small explosive designed to be detonated by an
electrical current, which in turn detonates another
explosive. Seismic caps are designed to detonate with
little uncertainty in their time of detonation.
capacitance: The ratio of charge 共Q in coulombs兲 on a
capacitor to the potential across it 共V in volts兲 is the
capacitance 共C in farads兲: C⫽Q/V.
capacitive coupling: See coupling.
capacitive reactance: Electrical impedance X C resulting
from capacitance:
X C ⫽1/ 共 2 ␲ f C 兲 ohms,
where f is frequency in hertz and C is capacitance in
farads.
capacitivity: 共k⳵ pas’ i tiv ⳵ tē兲 Permittivity, the property
of a material that enables it to store electrical charge.
Measured in farads per meter. The ratio of the capaci-
tivity of a material to that of free space is the dielectric
constant of the material. Free space has a capacitivity
of 8.854⫻10 ⫺12 farad/m. See also electric suscepti-
bility.
capex: Capital expenditures.
capillary pressure: The pressure required to displace one
fluid with another with which it is not miscible. The
difference in pressure across the interface separating
imiscible liquids.
cap rock: 1. Impermeable sealing rock above a reservoir
rock. 2. The dense anhydrite and gypsum rock above a
salt dome that results from leaching of the soluble
materials in the salt body.
caprock effect: A sharp positive gravity anomaly pro-
duced by the dense caprock of a salt dome, superim-
posed on a broader negative caused by the salt dome.
Shallow salt is usually denser than surrounding sedi-
ments, so caprock is not essential to produce a positive
gravity anomaly.
capture cross-section: 1. The atomic capture cross-
section for neutrons is the effective area within which a
neutron has to pass to be captured by an atomic
nucleus. It is a probabilistic value dependent on the
nature and energy of the particle as well as the nature of
the capturing nucleus. Atomic capture cross-section is
often measured in barns (1 barn⫽10 ⫺28 m2 ). 2. The
macroscopic capture cross-section, ⌺, is the effective
cross-sectional area per unit volume for capture of
neutrons; it depends on the number of atoms present as
well as their atomic capture cross-sections. The unit of
measure for ⌺ is cm2 /cm3 ⫽10 3 cu, where cu
⫽capture unit 共q.v.兲. 3. The rate of absorption of
thermal neutrons with a velocity V is V⌺.
capture unit: A unit of measure of a macroscopic capture
cross-section; 0.1 m2/m3. Also called sigma unit and
abbreviated cu or su.
carbonate factory: Conditions of temperature and water
clarity that favor the generation of carbonates. Gener-
ally, this applies to shallow tropical or subtropical seas
away from river mouths so that suspended sediment is
not present.
carbon-dioxide flooding: See miscible recovery methods.
card: 1. A plug-in printed-circuit module. 2. A punch-card
used for data storage.
cardinal theorem: Sampling theorem 共q.v.兲.
46 catalyst
Carpenter electrode array: 共kar’ p⳵n t⳵r兲 Four colinear
equispaced electrodes used in electrical surveying. In
the Carpenter-1 共or Wenner兲 array, the two central
electrodes are the potential electrodes; in the
Carpenter-2 array, one end pair are the potential elec-
trodes; in the Carpenter-3 array, the current and poten-
tial electrodes alternate.
carrier: A radio wave having a characteristic 共e.g., fre-
quency, amplitude, phase兲 that can be varied by modu-
lation.
carry: 1. In arithmetic operations, the transfer of a value
from a lower order position to the next higher order
position as a result of the lower order having equaled or
exceeded the base of the number system. For example,
if subscripts indicate the base,
8 10 ⫹2 10 ⫽0⫹carry 10 10 ;
1 2 ⫹1 2 ⫽0⫹carry 2 2 .
2. A computer status bit that indicates whether or not
the last arithmetic operation resulted in a carry from
high-order bit position.
Cartesian coordinates: 共kar tē’ zhan兲 Rectangular coor-
dinates where the axes are straight lines and the angles
between them are right angles. Named for Ŕené Des-
cartes 共1596 –1650兲, French scientist and philosopher.
cascade: 共ka skād’兲 To arrange in series.
cascaded filtering: Applying several filters in succession.
cascading menu: A list where entries include subentries,
which in turn include sub-subentries, etc.
cascaded migration: The sequential implementation of a
number of migration processes to improve the accuracy
over a single migration step.
casing: Tubes or pipes used to keep a borehole from
caving in and to prevent fluids within the hole from
entering surrounding formations and prevent formation
fluids from entering the borehole. Shot-hole casing is
usually in 10-ft lengths that screw together, drill casing
in 30-ft lengths.
casing-collar: The coupling between joints of a casing.
casing-collar locator: A magnetic or scratcher device for
locating casing collars, used to correlate cased-hole
logs and serve as reference depths in completion opera-
tions.
casing hanger: Device used to support casing within a
borehole.
casing-head gas: Gas produced along with the oil from an
oil well.
casing point: The lowest depth in a well where casing is
set and cemented.
casing shoe: A short, hollow, heavy, cylindrical steel unit
placed at the bottom of a casing string to protect it as it
is lowered into a borehole.
CAT: Computerized Axial Tomography. See Scudder
共1978兲.
catalog: 1. Collection of master curves or type curves
共q.v.兲 for interpreting magnetic, electrical, and electro-
magnetic survey measurements. Catalog lookup
involves using a library of previously calculated and
stored data to determine interpretation parameters. 2. A
list of computer programs; a menu or library.
catalyst: 共kat’ ⳵ list兲 A substance that promotes a reaction
and ends up unchanged.
catcher
catcher: 1. A device to prevent cap wires from being
blown out of the hole by the shot and endangering
personnel by making contact with high-voltage power
lines. 2. A device to catch a Dinoseis gas gun before it
falls back to the ground after an explosion, thus pre-
venting a second sharp impact that would complicate
the waveform. 3. A device used to retain a core in a core
barrel.
catching samples: Obtaining and studying samples of for-
mations brought to the surface in the drilling mud.
categorical: 共kat ⳵ gor’ i k⳵l兲 Absolute, unqualified,
unconditional.
cathead: A spool-shaped attachment to a winch around
which a rope can be wound for hoisting or pulling. A
breakout cathead helps in unscrewing drill pipe, a
makeup cathead for screwing it together.
cathode: 1. The electrode where reduction occurs and
electrons are taken up. The negative terminal of an
electrolytic cell or the positive terminal of a battery. 2.
The source electrode for electrons inside a vacuum tube
or semiconductor diode device that converts informa-
tion into an electron beam 共and subsequently to light
energy to provide a visual display兲.
cathode-ray tube: A device for viewing waveforms 共such
as voltage as a function of time兲 and other information.
Abbreviated CRT or CRO.
cathodic protection: Protection for buried pipelines and
other metallic materials subject to electrochemical cor-
rosion. The pipeline is made electrically negative with
respect to ground.
cation: 共kat’ ı̄ ⳵n兲 A positively charged ion. Compare
anion.
cation exchange capacity: Number of negative charge
sites on clay surfaces that can attract sodium ions from
pore fluid. Each sodium ion carries six clay-bound
water molecules.
cationic membrane: A membrane that permits the pas-
sage of cations but not of anions. Shale acts as such a
membrane, allowing sodium ions but not chloride ions
to pass. Important in generating electrochemical SP
共q.v.兲.
catline: A hoisting or pulling line to move heavy equip-
ment around a drill rig.
cat push: Line-cutting supervisor.
Cauchy criterion: 共kō shē’兲 An optimization criterion
involving the minimizing of
兺 ln兵 1⫹ 关共 d 쐓i ⫺d i 兲 / ␴ 兴 2 其 ,
where d 쐓i are observed and d i are model data. Implies
that errors have the probability distribution
共 1/ ␲␴ 兲 兵 1/ 兵 1⫹ 关共 d⫺d o 兲 / ␴ 兴 2 其其 ,
where ␴ is the standard deviation about the maximum
likelihood point d 0 . See Amundsen 共1991, 2027兲.
Cauchy-type integral: The function at a point z 0 within a
closed contour C can be expressed in terms of a line
integral along C if f (z) is a continuous analytic func-
tion:
f 共 a 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 ␲ i 兲 冖 f 共 z 兲 / 共 z⫺z 0 兲 dz.
47 CEM
Named for Augustin Louis Cauchy 共1789–1857兲,
French mathematician.
causal: 共kau’ z⳵l兲 Not existing before some finite starting
time and having finite total energy.
causality: The property of a sequence such that there is
zero energy before some finite starting time. Minimum-
phase wavelets are causal but zero-phase ones are not.
caustic: 共kau stik’兲 A surface to which rays emanating
from a single source and reflected by a curved reflector
are tangent. A surface formed by adjacent rays.
cave: An immersive environment where an interpreter can
sense 3D effects of a data set, usually by projection
onto three walls, ceiling, and/or floor. The 3D visual-
ization may be provided by stereo effects, rotation of a
display so that it can be seen from different directions,
virtual reality, or other ways.
caving: Collapse or sloughing of the walls of a borehole.
cavitation: 共kav, i tā’ sh⳵n兲 The formation and collapse of
cavities 共bubbles兲 in a fluid caused by the static pres-
sure becoming smaller than the fluid vapor pressure.
The collapse generates a shock wave by implosion. The
outward momentum of water and gases from an under-
water explosion 共and other marine energy sources兲 usu-
ally produces such a low-pressure region, the collapse
of which produces a bubble effect.
C-AVO: Variation of amplitude with offset 共q.v.兲 for con-
verted waves.
CBL: Cement-Bond Log 共q.v.兲.
CCD: Charge-Coupled Device.
CCP: Common Conversion Point 共q.v.兲.
CD: Compact Disk, a computer storage device with large
memory capacity.
CDI: Conductivity-Depth Image 共q.v.兲.
CDM: Continuous DipMeter; see dipmeter.
CDP: Common-Depth-Point; see common midpoint.
CDR: Compensated Dual-Resistivity tool.
CD-ROM: Compact Disk with Read-Only Memory, to
which one cannot write data.
CDT: Conductivity-Depth Transform. See conductivity-
depth image.
celestial equator: 共s⳵ les’ ch⳵l兲 See equinoctial.
celestial latitude: Angular distance north or south of the
ecliptic. Different than declination.
celestial longitude: Angular distance east of the vernal
equinox measured along the ecliptic. Different from
right ascension.
celestial navigation: See positioning.
celestial pole: The projection of the Earth’s axis onto the
celestial sphere.
celestial sphere: An imaginary sphere of infinite radius
concentric with the Earth on which all celestial bodies
are imagined to be projected.
Celsius: 共sel’ sē ⳵s兲 A temperature scale where water
freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C at one atmosphere
pressure; formerly called centigrade. If T C , T K , and
T F are Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit temperatures,
respectively,
T C ⫽T K ⫺293.15⫽ 共 5/9 兲共 T F ⫺32 兲 .
Named for Anders Celsius 共1701–1744兲, Swedish
astronomer.
CEM: Crone Electromagnetic Method; see shootback
method.
cement additive
cement additive: Additives to cement to control the set-
ting time, control the weight, reduce fluid loss, etc.
cementation factor: The exponent m in the Archie For-
mula 共q.v.兲.
cement-bond log „CBL…: A well log of the amplitude of
the acoustic wave that indicates the degree of bonding
of cement to casing and formations. See Figure C-1.
Also called an amplitude log. The wavetrain may also
be displayed, as in the character log, 3D, microseismo-
gram, VDL, or acoustic signature log.
cement channeling: Uneven movement of a cement
slurry behind casing that then allows free fluid flow
through the channels.
cementing: Applying a liquid slurry of cement and water
to form a protective sheath around casing to secure the
well casing and prevent the migration of undesirable
fluids or for other purposes. In squeeze cementing the
slurry is forced through perforations in the casing to
isolate formations, seal off water, or repair leaks.
center-line fault: Fault pick midway between up- and
down-thrown terminations.
center of gravity: 1. The point in a material body through
which the gravitational attraction acts regardless of the
orientation of the body. The point about which all
weight moments cancel. The moment of a point mass is
FIG. C-1. Cement-bond application of microseismogram log. (a) Before squeeze; (b) after squeeze. If the casing is
poorly cemented, the energy that travels through the steel casing is strong and little energy travels in the formation; if
the casing is well cemented, the casing signal nearly disappears and the formation signal is strong. (Courtesy Welex.)
48 central limit theorem
the product of the mass and its distance from the
rotation point being considered. 2. Used for other types
of data, e.g., the distribution of CMP points within a
seismic bin.
centigrade: Celsius 共q.v.兲.
centipoise: A unit of viscosity, equal to 10 ⫺3 kg/(s.m).
The viscosity of water at 20 °C is 1.005 centipoise.
central induction sounding: An electromagnetic tech-
nique in which the vertical magnetic field is measured
as a function of frequency at the center of a large
horizontal transmitting loop.
central limit theorem: A statement about the characteris-
tics of the distribution of the means of random samples.
If we could draw an infinite number of random samples
of a given size where we calculate the mean of each
sample, 共a兲 the mean of the means of the samples
equals the mean of the population from which the
samples were drawn; 共b兲 the variance of the sampling
distributions equals the variance of the population
divided by the sample size. 共c兲 If the original popula-
tion is normally distributed 共i.e., is bell-shaped兲, the
sampling distribution will also be bell-shaped, and if
the original population is not normally distributed, the
distribution will increasingly approximate a normal dis-
central processing unit „CPU…
tribution as the sample size increases.
central processing unit „CPU…: The heart of a computer
that controls operations and interprets and executes
programs. Typically includes the arithmetic logic unit
and an instruction processing unit.
CEP: Circle of Equivalent Probability; the radius of a
circle such that half of the measurements fall within the
circle. A circle containing 90% of the measurements
would be 90% CEP.
cepstrum: 共sep’ strum兲 The Fourier transform of a loga-
rithmic frequency distribution. Let ↔ indicate a Fourier
transform operation. If g(t)↔G( ␻ ), the cepstrum
ĝ( ␨ ) is
冕 ⬁
ĝ 共 ␨ 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 ␲ 兲 关 ln关 G 共 ␻ 兲兴 ⫹ j ␥ 共 ␻ 兲兴 e j ␻␨ d ␻ .
⫺⬁
The transform is usually carried out in three steps:
Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽ln关 G 共 ␻ 兲兴 ⫽ln兩 G 共 ␻ 兲 兩 ⫹ j ␥ 共 ␻ 兲 G 共 ␻ 兲
冕 ⬁
Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲 ↔ĝ 共 ␨ 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 ␲ 兲 关 ln关 G 共 ␻ 兲兴 ⫹ j ␥ 共 ␻ 兲兴 e j ␻␨ d ␻ .
⫺⬁
The inverse transform is
冕 ⬁
ĝ 共 ␨ 兲 ↔Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽ g 共 ␨ 兲 e ⫺ j ␻␨ d ␨ ,
⫺⬁
G 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽exp关 Ĝ 共 ␻ 兲兴 ,
g 共 t 兲 ↔G 共 ␻ 兲 .
The variable ␨ is called quefrency and ␥ˆ is called the
saphe 共being permutations of frequency and phase, as
cepstrum is of spectrum兲. The cepstral domain is often
indicated by the hat. The transform can also be
expressed as z-transforms; see Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 298 –299; 554 –555兲.
cesium clock: See frequency standard.
cesium vapor magnetometer: 共sē’ zē ⳵m兲 A type of opti-
cally pumped magnetometer 共q.v.兲. Sensitive to 0.001
nT. Also spelled caesium.
CFP: Common Focusing Point, involved in imaging. See
common-image point.
chain: 1. A unit of length equal to 66 ft. 2. To measure
distances directly with a steel tape 共chain兲 as opposed to
measuring by stadia, electronic distance measurement,
or triangulation. Accuracy of the order of 1:5000 can be
achieved with care. 3. An ordinary ordered group of
computer records.
chain rule: If z(y) and y(t) are differentiable dz/dt
⫽(dz/dy)dy/dt.
chaining: 1. Measuring distances with a chain. 2. A sys-
tem of storing data records in which each record
belongs to a specific group or chain.
chainman: A surveyor’s assistant, who helps to measure
distances with a chain. Chainmen often work in pairs to
measure out seismic spreads using a steel tape or wire
that is as long as the group length.
chair display: A display combining vertical and horizon-
tal slices through a 3D volume. See Figure T-6.
Challenger expedition: An oceanographic voyage in
1872–1875 by HMS Challenger, led by John Murray.
49 chaos theory
Among other discoveries, it established the magnitude
of the mid-Atlantic ridge.
Chandler wobble: A precession of the Earth’s rotational
axis about its axis of greatest moment of inertia. Also
called the free nutation of the Earth. The wobble
period is about 435 days and the amplitude is about
0.14 s of arc. Named for Sweth Carlo Chandler 共1846 –
1913兲, American astronomer.
change detection image: An image comparing two
images acquired at different times, sometimes made by
subtracting the earlier from the latter.
channel: 1. A single series of interconnected devices
through which data can flow from source to recorder.
Seismic systems may have thousands of channels
allowing the simultaneous recording of energy from
thousands of geophone groups. 2. A measured or com-
puted quantity that occurs as a sequence of samples
indexed against time, depth, or some other physical
dimension. 3. A localized elongated geologic feature
resulting from drainage or water action. The properties
of the material in-filling a channel often differ from
those of the material into which the channel is cut,
which makes the channel observable and sometimes
bends raypaths creating dip and/or velocity anomalies
in underlying reflections. 4. A feature in seismic data
that is interpreted as indicating erosion and fill by a
river system, such as a curvilinear feature on a 3-D
horizon slice 共see Figure H-8兲. 5. An allocated portion
of the radio-frequency spectrum. 6. A time gate during
which measurements are made in time-domain electro-
magnetic surveying. Measurements made during sev-
eral time gates following a source pulse yield several
channels of data. 7. A layer whose velocity is such that
seismic energy gets trapped; see channel wave. 8. A
gate with upper and lower energy thresholds followed
by a count rate meter, used in gamma-ray spectrom-
eters. 9. A component of a mainframe processor that
supports and controls I/O.
channel wave: 1. An elastic wave propagated in a layer
where most of the energy is trapped. 共a兲 The layer may
have lower velocity than those on either side of it 共so
that total reflection can occur at the boundaries兲, or 共b兲
a layer boundary may be a free surface 共so that the
reflectivity is nearly one兲. Instead of having a sharp
interface as a boundary, a velocity gradient that bends
rays that tend to escape back toward the channel may
provide a channel. The SOFAR channel 共q.v.兲 in the
deep oceans is an example. However, some energy may
escape 共leaking mode兲, e.g., by converting to another
wave mode. See Figure C-2. A channel is also called a
wave guide and channel waves are also called guided
waves and normal-mode propagation. Coal seams
and a surface water layer often carry channel waves
共also called seam waves兲. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 483-487兲.
chaos theory: 共kā’ os兲 Theory dealing with the unpredict-
ability that is intrinsic to nonlinear systems. The effects
of a small 共perhaps unmeasurable兲 perturbation grow
progressively larger and thus prevent long-term predict-
ability. Chaos in a dynamic system can be viewed in
terms of diverging time-dependent orbits 共paths兲, which
comprise a finite geometric form that is called the
chaotic attractor 共or strange attractor兲. The diverg-
ing orbits do not repeat exactly and are confined to
chaos theory 50 chaos theory

FIG. C-2. Channel waves. (a) The Sofar channel is formed by velocity inversion. The velocity-versus-depth curve
changes with latitude and other factors. (b) Energy from a source in the channel is repeatedly refracted or reflected back
toward the velocity minimum and so undergoes less divergence than normal. (From Ewing et al., 1948.) (c) Phase and
group velocity versus normalized frequency for a liquid layer on an elastic substratum. (From Ewing et al., 1957.) (d)
First-mode wavetrain from a source 4 km distant where the ocean constitutes the channel. (e) The high-frequency
portion of (d), the water wave; its arrival is used in refraction work to determine the range. (From Clay and Medwin,
1977.)
character
finite-phase space; the orbits stretch and fold repeat-
edly. Chaotic attractors are fractals 共q.v.兲. Before a
system becomes chaotic, its parameter typically under-
goes a cascade of bifurcations in a geometric series.
character: 1. The recognizable aspect of a seismic event;
the waveform that distinguishes it from other events.
Usually a frequency or phasing effect, often not defined
precisely and hence dependent upon subjective judg-
ment. 2. The recognizable aspect of a graph or picture
that identifies it with some situation. 3. A single letter,
numeral, or special symbol in a computer system. See
also byte, with which it is sometimes used interchange-
ably.
characteristic: 1. A distinctive feature of a set, object, or
attribute. Characteristics of a set are its name and type;
of an object is its name; of an attribute are its label,
count, representation code, units, and value. See also
character. 2. The integer part of a common logarithm.
3. The exponent number for a quantity expressed in
scientific notation. 4. As an adjective or prefix, often
written in the German, eigen, as in eigencurrent, eigen-
frequency, eigenfunction, eigenstate, eigenvalue, eigen-
vector 共see individual entries兲.
characteristic curve: An anomaly graph whose shape is
distinctive of a particular model shape. See type curve.
characteristic root: Eigenvalue; see eigenfunction.
character log: A sonic log that displays the full wave-
form.
characteristic thermal diffusion distance: 公( ␬␶ ),
where ␬ is thermal diffusivity and ␶ is the time for a
temperature change to occur. See Fowler 共1990, 229–
230兲.
charge: 1. An explosive such as used as a seismic source,
The ‘‘charge’’ is often the weight of the explosive. 2. To
increase the stored energy.
chargeability „M兲: One of several units of induced polar-
ization in the time domain. 1. The ratio of initial decay
voltage 共or secondary voltage兲 to primary voltage. 2.
The dimensionless induced-polarization parameter of a
material in which there is an induced-current dipole
moment per unit volume P energized by a current
density J: P⫽⫺M J. 3. The fractional change in resis-
tance measured on a decay curve, as a function of time:
M ⫽ ␦ ␳ (t)/ ␳ . 4. The integrated area under an IP decay
curve between times t 1 and t 2 , normalized by the
primary voltage V p . Units are millivolt-seconds per
volt.
冕
M ⫽ 共 1/V ␳ 兲 V t dt.
For standardization, on-time and off-time may be indi-
cated by subscripts, that is, 33 M 1 or M 331 means ‘‘cur-
rent on for three seconds and decay is measured for the
first second of a three-seconds off time.’’ Field mea-
surements of chargeability are usually calibrated to the
M 331 standard, which differs by a factor of about 1000
from the value of M given in definitions 1 and 2 above.
5. The quantity described above multiplied by the con-
ductivity, often expressed in millifarads/unit length.
Called specific capacity when measured in farads per
meter. 6. Chargeability can be related to frequency
effect 共q.v.兲.
51 check sum
charge anchor: A device fastened to an explosive charge
to hold the charge in a fixed position in the shothole and
prevent it from floating or moving.
charge-coupled device „CCD…: An electronic medium in
which data is encoded as the presence of positive or
negative charges.
charged: 1. Filled with hydrocarbons 2. A borehole
loaded with explosives or air guns ready for firing.
Chebyshev array: 共cheb’ ⳵ sh⳵v兲 A frequency filter or
uniformly spaced linear array in which elements are
weighted according to Chebyshev polynomials. Such
weighting equalizes the amplitude of minor lobes and
gives a sharp cutoff. Called equal-ripple filter. See
Figure C-3. Also spelled Tchebyscheff array. Named
for Fafnutiy Lvorich Chebyshev 共1821–1894兲, Russian
mathematician.
check: A test of the reliability of data. Check problems
with known results are run through computers to verify
correct functioning. 共a兲 A summation check consists of
adding a set of figures and using the sum 共check sum兲
to verify accuracy and completeness. 共b兲 A duplication
check requires that an operation be repeated and yield
identical results when repeated. 共c兲 An echo check is
used to verify transmitted data; the data are sent back
共echoed兲 to the source station for comparison with the
original data. An echo check is also a technique
whereby a computer prints out values of variables and
data used in a program. 共d兲 Error-detecting checks
search data for forbidden combinations. A parity check
is such a check; the number of one bits plus a parity bit
must add up to an odd number for odd parity or to an
even number for even parity. A longitudinal parity
check 共LPC兲, written at the end of a record, does for
each track what the parity bit does for each byte. 共e兲 A
validity check is a verification that a figure lies within
a certain permissible range.
check bit: Parity bit; see check.
check digit: An extra character attached to a number as a
means of checking the validity of the number.
check shots: Direct measurement of traveltime between
the surface and a given depth. Usually sources on the
surface are recorded by a well geophone 共see well
shooting兲 to determine time-to-depth relationships at
the well location.
check sum: A summation check; see check.
FIG. C-3. The Chebyshev array response has all minor
lobes of equal height. The response shown is for a 6-ele-
ment array.
check valve
check valve: A valve that allows flow in only one direc-
tion.
chemically enhanced recovery: An enhanced oil recov-
ery 共q.v.兲 method that involves injecting polymers, sur-
factants, or alkaline substances to improve oil produc-
tion. Polymers increase the viscosity of injected water
共thickens the water兲 so that the water matches that of
the reservoir oil as close as possible, thus making fluid
flow more uniform. Surfactants break down the surface
tension of oil that has collected in droplets so that it can
be produced. Usually a small amount of surfactants are
injected and are followed by polymer flooding and
finally by untreated water. Alkalyne flooding is similar
to surfactant flooding except that the surfactants are
generated in the reservoir by reacting with petroleum
acids.
chemical remanent magnetism „CRM…: See remanent
magnetism.
chemisorption: 共chem, ⳵ sorp’ sh⳵n兲 Adsorption caused
by chemical rather than simply electrostatic causes.
Cheops pyramid: 共kē’ ops兲 The surface given by the
double-square-root equation 共q.v.兲 that describes the
traveltime surface of a point diffractor in offset space
where the velocity is constant; see Figure D-20.
cherry pick: To select the easiest.
chessboard technique: 1. A grid arrangement used in
solving the acoustic wave equation. See Claerbout
共1976, Fig. 10-1兲. 2. A potential-field continuation
method for converting level-flown data to drape-flown
and vice-versa. Level-flown data are continued to a
series of levels that span the drape range, giving a set
like stacked 3D chessboards; interpolation is carried out
vertically to give drape profiles.
child, children: A node pointed to by an element in a tree
structure. A child can access all of parent’s memory but
does not affect other childs 共children兲. A child can
become a parent. Also called daughter.
chimney: See gas chimney.
chip: 1. A solid-state circuit or circuit element; an inte-
grated circuit or IC. 2. The minimum time interval for
a one or a zero in a binary pulse code.
chirp: Signal of continuously varying frequency. Often
implies a linear change of frequency with time. A
vibroseis-like technique for shallow penetration gener-
ally using higher frequencies.
chi-square: 共kı̄兲 A quantity distributed as
␹ 21 ⫹ ␹ 22 ⫹¯⫹ ␹ k2 ,
where ␹ 1 , ␹ 2 ,..., ␹ k are independent, Gaussian, with
zero mean, and with unit variance. The chi-square test
is a statistical test of data distribution. If f i are
observed, frequencies of occurrence and e i are the
expected number of occurrences, the goodness of fit y
is
y⫽⌺ 共 f i ⫺e i 兲 2 /e i .
The goodness of fit can be related 共by the use of tables兲
to the probability that the observed data fit the model
with the assumed number of degrees of freedom.
chlorine log: A log based on the counting rate of gamma
rays produced by capture of thermal neutrons by chlo-
rine in the formation. By limiting the count to a certain
energy range, the tool is made more sensitive to chlo-
52 circulation
rine and relatively insensitive to formation porosity.
The main replacement for the chlorine log has been the
neutron-lifetime log and thermal-decay-time log.
choke: An orifice that restricts the flow of fluids.
chopper: 1. An electrical switching device sometimes
including an oscillator, used to interrupt a dc or low-
frequency ac voltage so that it can be measured by an
ac voltmeter or amplified by an ac amplifier. 2. A
helicopter.
chopping filter: A high-pass filter 共q.v.兲.
Christmas tree: The casing-head assembly of pipes,
valves, etc. that controls the flow of fluids from a
producing well.
Christoffel equation: 共kris’ tof ⳵l兲 A form of the wave
equation for plane waves used for calculating velocity
and slowness surfaces:
␬2 共 ␥C␥T 兲 u⫽ ␳␻ 2 u,
where ␬ is wavenumber, ␥ is the direction cosine
matrix, C is the stiffness tensor, u the particle displace-
ment vector, ␳ the density, and ␻ the angular frequency.
The quantity in parentheses is called the Christoffel
matrix.
chromatograph: 共krō mad’ ⳵ graf兲 See partition gas chro-
matograph.
chron: The time of a reversal of the Earth’s magnetic
polarity; a period of reverse polarity would be marked
by a chron at the top and another at the bottom.
chronographic chart: See chronostratigraphic chart.
chronostratigraphic chart: 共krōn, ⳵ strat’ ⳵ graf, ik兲 A
diagram that summarizes conclusions from seismic-
sequence analysis. Geologic time increases upward and
the geographic distribution of units is plotted horizon-
tally. See Figures C-4 and S-5. Also called chrono-
graphic chart.
chronostratigraphy: Classification of sedimentary rock
strata according to time of deposition. Seismic reflec-
tions generally indicate constant times of deposition.
The study of the age of strata and their time relation-
ships, contrasted with lithostratigraphy, which is based
on the mineralogic composition and grain size. Com-
pare lithostratigraphy and see Figure S-5.
CI: Contour Interval 共q.v.兲.
CIP: Common Image Point 共q.v.兲.
circle shooting: A marine technique for acquiring 3D data
over the flanks of a salt dome or similar structure,
wherein the boat track forms a spiral centered on the
dome. This technique avoids time lost in changing from
one line to another. It also lessens the CMP smearing.
circular error probability „CEP…: Circular error prob-
ability is the radius of a circle such that half of the
measurements fall within the circle. A circle containing
90% of the measurements would be 90% CEP. Where
the probability is anisotropic, it becomes an ellipse.
circular frequency: Angular frequency ␻ ⫽2 ␲ f, where
f ⫽ordinary frequency.
circular patch: Receivers arranged approximately in a
circle.
circulation: 1. The integral along a closed loop, 兰 V•⳵␭,
where V is fluid velocity and ⳵␭ is a segment of a loop
that moves with the fluid. 2. The movement of drilling
fluid from a mud pit through pump, drill pipe, annular
space in the hole, and back into the mud pit.
circulation loss 53 Clarke ellipsoid

circulation loss: Loss of drilling fluid into a porous for- C-language: A general purpose programming language
mation. that combines powerful capabilities with structured
circumferential wave: Seismic wave that travels parallel syntax. See also C⫹⫹. Bell Laboratories tradename.
to the Earth’s surface. Clarke ellipsoid: 共clark兲 The basis for the North Ameri-
cis ␪: Euler’s identity: can geodetic datum, the reference datum in most of the
cis ␪ ⫽cos ␪ ⫹i sin ␪ ⫽e i ␪ . Western Hemisphere; the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid. 共There

FIG. C-4. Chronostratigraphic chart. (a) Cross-section interpreted from seismic line with unconformities interpreted as
sequence boundaries. (b) Chronostratigraphic chart corresponding to (a). (c) Coastal onlap chart (called relative sea
level in early papers) interpreted from (a). (After Vail et al., 1977.)
classification
is also a Clarke 1880 ellipsoid that is used in Africa.兲
See Figure G-2. Named for Alexander Ross Clarke
共1828 –1914兲, British geodesist.
classification: Assigning data to categories on the basis of
measurements of several quantities. Supervised classi-
fication uses foreknowledge of the actual identification
of certain areas to classify similar areas. Used to train
neural networks.
class 1, 2, 3, 4 reservoirs: A classification of reservoir
sands according to their normal-incidence impedance
contrasts with surrounding rocks 共and their AVO
responses兲. Also written with Roman numerals: class I,
II, III, IV. See amplitude variation with angleÕoffset
„AVAÕAVO…, Figure A-12, and Rutherford and Will-
iams 共1989兲.
clastic rock: A rock composed of fragments derived from
other rocks.
clathrate: 共klath’ rāt兲 Gas hydrate 共q.v.兲.
clay smear potential: A ranking of the probability that
clay will be smeared out sufficiently along a fault
surface to prevent the flow of fluids across the fault.
clean: 1. Containing no appreciable amount of clay or
shale. Applied to sandstones and carbonates. Antonym:
dirty 共q.v.兲. 2. To remove soft magnetization so that
hard remanent magnetization may be studied. See
degaussing.
click: 1. Activating some operation of the matrix element
corresponding to the location of a cursor on a video
display. 2. A kilometer or kilometer per second.
client: A program or process that does data processing or
computing.
clinoform: Inclined deltaic foreset or fan deposition. Cli-
noforms 共progradational patterns兲 may produce dis-
tinctive seismic reflection patterns. See Figure D-6.
clip filter: A space domain filter that sets values that
exceed some threshold to the threshold value or, more
often, to zero.
clipped: Distorted because amplitude exceeded a maxi-
mum permitted amount. Clipping in analog systems
usually occurs because of saturation of some element of
the system, resulting in distortion of the waveform; see
Figure C-5. Digital clipping 共loss of a bit兲 may have
variable effects depending on what the lost bit repre-
sents 共i.e., whether it is the sign, the most significant
bit, a complement code, etc.兲; the clipped signal some-
times bears little resemblance to the unclipped signal.
clock: A generator of the basic timing signal pulses to
which system operations are synchronized.
clock rate: The time between clock pulses. Used in elec-
trical work to synchronize transmitter and receiver.
closed data set: Data whose values are subject to a con-
straint so that the parameters are not all independent
FIG. C-5. Clipping. Loss of a digital bit can cause various
effects depending on how the data are formatted (e.g., the
sign bit might be lost).
54 coding
and there are forced correlations between parameters.
An example of a closed data set would be values
expressed as percentages of a whole.
closure: 1. The property of a structure whereby it has a
closing contour. Vertical closure is the vertical distance
from the apex to the lowest closing contour; areal
closure is the area contained within the lowest closing
contour. Compare trap. 2. The cumulative error around
a survey loop; mis-tie 共q.v.兲. 3. The condition where
radioactive daughters are created and preserved, or lost
at a known rate, so that counting them can be used for
age determination. Closure occurs at different tempera-
tures for different minerals.
cluster: 1. Natural grouping of data. 2. A computer made
of a number of interconnected computer processors
共often pentium or alpha chips兲 for massive parallel
processing, such as a Beowulf cluster.
cluster analysis: Analysis to see if data sort out into
separate regions defined by combinations of variables.
clustering: Nonuniform distribution of fold, offsets, or
azimuths in a 3D survey.
clutter: 1. Coherent interference, in contrast to incoherent
nonrepeatable interference. 2. Noise on a radar screen
resulting from unwanted echoes or scattering such as
from a rough sea or from rain.
cmos: 共sē’ mos兲 Complementary metallic oxide semicon-
ductor 共MOS兲. A technology that employs both nega-
tive and positive MOS to minimize power and cooling
requirements.
CNL: Compensated Neutron Log.
coagulation: Grouping of data that have values close to
each other. Especially used prior to making a color
display in which different colors are assigned to differ-
ent groups.
coarsening: Increasing in particle size. The direction of
coarsening tends to be characteristic of different strati-
graphic situations. The portions of gamma-ray or SP
borehole-log curves that indicate coarsening upward
are called funnel shaped; see Figure C-6.
coastal onlap chart: A chart made in sequence strati-
graphic analysis that qualitatively indicates eustatic
changes; see Figure C-4.
coastline effect: Distortions in electromagnetic ground
waves and natural magnetic fields produced by the
contrast in electrical conductivity between land and
highly conductive ocean water.
COBOL: 共kō’ bol兲 Common Business-Oriented Lan-
guage, one of the first languages designed for commer-
cial data processing incorporating commonly used
English nouns, verbs, and connectives.
COCORP: COnsortium for COntinental Reflection Pro-
filing, a program of seismic work to study the Earth’s
deep crust and upper mantle by low-frequency,
common-midpoint techniques.
coda: 1. The concluding portion of an earthquake seismic
record after identifable waves have passed, presumably
caused by scattering, etc. 2. The trailing waveshape that
follows the onset of a wave arrival.
code: 1. A system of characters and rules for representing
information in a language capable of being understood
by a computer. See source program and object pro-
gram. 2. A set of program instructions.
coding: 1. Formatting; see format. 2. The process of writ-
ing a computer program.
coefficient of anisotropy
coefficient of anisotropy: See anisotropy (seismic).
coefficient of coherence: See coherence.
coefficient of variation: Ratio of standard deviation to the
mean. See statistical measures.
coercive force: 共kō ur’ siv兲 The magnetic field intensity
required to reduce the magnetization of a sample to
zero. Generally associated with remanent magnetiza-
tion. See Figure H-14, hysteresis, and coercivity.
coercivity: The demagnetizing field intensity required to
reduce the induction of magnetic material from satura-
tion to zero. Coercivity is used as a figure of merit for
the magnetic hardness of a material, particularly in
reference to the distribution of coercive forces among a
magnetic system’s components. The latter might be
different mineral phases, grain sizes, etc.
coeval: Developing at the same time as.
cofactor: See matrix.
cogeneration: The simultaneous generation of electricity
and process steam or heat.
coherence: 共kō hēr’ ⳵ns兲 1. The property of two
wavetrains having a well-defined phase relationship,
i.e., being in-phase. 2. Measures of the similarity
among more than two functions. For example, seismic
reflection events are coherent in a linear way with
FIG. C-6. Coarsening-upward often produces a funnel-shaped pattern with gamma-ray or SP logs. Resistivity logs
(right trace), commonly plotted to the right of the depth scale, tend to produce the mirror response. Fining-upward
(dirtying-upward) produces the opposite pattern. (After Emery and Myers, 1996, 69)
55 coherence analysis
respect to dip, in a hyperbolic way with respect to
normal moveout, and in a nonanalytic though system-
atic way with respect to geophone locations. The prin-
cipal evidence for a separate seismic event is coherence
among the members of a set of seismic traces over a
short time interval 共of the order of a 1 1/2 or so cycles
of the dominant frequency兲 compared with less coher-
ence elsewhere. Coherence is used qualitatively in
record picking and quantitative measures of coherence
are used in automatic picking schemes. Time slices and
horizon slices often display a coherence measure 共see
Figure A-24d兲. See semblance and Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 145–146; 288 –289兲. 3. A measure of the simi-
larity of two functions or portions of functions. If the
functions have power spectra P ii and P j j and cross-
power spectra P i j 共which may be complex兲, their coher-
ence is P i j /( P ii P j j ) 1/2 . Also called coefficient of
coherence. Coherence is a frequency-domain concept
analogous to correlation in the time domain.
coherence analysis: Correlating small portions of a trace
with respect to surrounding traces. Abrupt changes in
the system of correlation, that is, incoherencies, are
displayed in a variable-density form to emphasize
coherence analysis 56 coherence analysis

FIG. C-7. (a) The color aspects of hue, saturation, and density shown on a color cube. The choices available are usually
displayed on a color pallette at a work station. (b) The selection of colors can enhance or obscure features. The channel
indicated by dark red on this horizon slice is nearly obscurred by use of too many colors. (c) Color compared with
variable area permits visualization of both positive and negative amplitudes in like manner to avoid the polarity bias
associated with variable-area displays. Bright spot and flat spot are shown here. Color enlarges the effective dynamic
range. (From Brown 1999, 28, 29, 40, 41, 34.)
coherence analysis 57 coherence analysis

FIG. C-7(b) and (c).

coherence filtering
changes in correlation, perhaps because of faulting,
stratigraphic change, etc. Common coherence measures
include cross-correlation, semblance, and eigenvector
analysis; see Figure A-24d. Coherence cube is an
Amoco tradename.
coherence filtering: 1. A multichannel filter that empha-
sizes coherent events. 2. A method of noise suppression
that filters out the coherent portion of two signals.
coherency inversion: Identifying interval velocity of a
layer by ray tracing through a velocity model of arbi-
trarily complicated overlying layers. Constructing a
velocity-depth model from picked CMP-stacked data.
Generally, normal-incidence rays are traced through
overlying layers and traveltimes computed, and then the
velocity of the overlying layer is adjusted to minimize
errors. See also stacking velocity inversion 共q.v.兲.
coherent: Said of waveforms that have the same phase
relationship.
coherent detection: Coherence filtering 共q.v.兲.
coherent noise: Noise wavetrains that bear a systematic
phase relation 共coherence兲 between adjacent traces.
Most source-generated seismic noise 共ground roll, shal-
low refractions, multiples, etc.兲 is coherent. The distinc-
tion between random and coherent noise is usually a
matter of sampling 共trace spacing兲, that is, very closely
spaced geophones observe as coherent what phones
more widely spaced 共often ⬎1–2 m兲 perceive as ran-
dom. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 183–184兲.
coincident time line: A line 共surface兲 where two different
waves have the same arrival time. The intersection of a
coincident time line with the surface gives the cross-
over point for refraction data. See Figure H-3.
cokriging: A geostatistical method of interpolating spa-
tially organized data based on a sparse set of data that is
considered as exact and other sets that are dense but
inexact. Often involves interpolating between well data
locations using seismic data as the dense but inexact
data. It is a method of bivariate least-squares prediction
filtering that is essentially a bivariate version of Wiener
filtering. See also kriging and Journel and Huijbregts
共1978兲.
colatitude: Angular distance from the North Pole, the
complement of the latitude, or 90° minus the latitude in
the Northern Hemisphere, or 90° plus the latitude in the
Southern Hemisphere.
Cole-Cole plot: A plotting convention for in-phase versus
quadrature measurements in which frequency relax-
ation appears as a semicircle. Useful for dielectric
relaxation, seismic velocity, and induced polarization
measurements. See Argand diagram.
Cole-Cole relaxation model: 共kōl kōl兲 A model for
induced polarization 共IP兲 effects in which the effective
impedance varies as a power of the frequency. The
complex resistivity ␳共␻兲 is given by
␳ 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽R o 兵 1⫺m 关 1⫺1/ 共 1⫹i ␻ ␶ 兲 c 兴 其 ,
where R o is the dc resistivity, ␶ is the time constant, and
c is the frequency dependence. Typical ranges for
parameters are m⫽0.1 to 1.0, depending on the min-
eral content, ␶ ⫽10 ⫺4 to 10 4 depending on grain size,
and c⫽0.2 to 0.6 depending on the particle size dis-
tribution. Compare Warburg impedance, for which the
value of c is 0.5.
collar: A coupling device to connect two lengths of pipe.
58 Combisweep
collar log: Casing-collar locator 共q.v.兲.
collateral data: 共k⳵ lat’ ⳵r ⳵l兲 Secondary data pertaining to
an area of interest.
collet: 共kal’ ⳵t兲 A cone-shaped sleeve used to hold a rod-
like object.
collimated: Nondivergent, parallel.
collocated: 共kō lō kā t⳵d兲 Located at the same place.
cologarithm „colog…: 共kō, log ⳵ rith’ ⳵m兲 The logarithm of
the reciprocal of a number:
colog共 x 兲 ⫽log共 1/x 兲 .
color: See primary colors, hue, saturation, density and
Figure C-7.
color bar: A display of the values represented by different
colors.
color display: A display of measurements that have been
color encoded. See also attribute and Figure C-7.
colored: Having different values at different frequencies.
Compare white.
colored sweep: A vibroseis sweep that is not linear with
frequency so that its frequency spectrum is not flat.
Also called a nonlinear sweep.
colorimetry: Estimation of intensity or hue of color in a
colored solution by visual comparison or by measuring
the absorption of the complementary color as light is
transmitted through the solution.
color mimicry: A technique for correlating the response
to different types of measurement for features in two-
dimensions. A set of photos, maps, or other displays are
projected through primary color filters and the images
superimposed. See Grossling 共1969兲.
colorÕopacity editor: The function that changes the color
or opacity of portions of a data set in a visualization.
color palette: 共col’ ⳵r pal’ it兲 The colors available for a
display at a work station or by a plotter.
color processing: Encoding a set of measurements as a set
of colors.
color wheel: Distribution of colors at different azimuths
such that complimentary colors are 180° opposite each
other. Thus the color sequence is red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet, and back to red.
column vector: See matrix.
comb: An infinite sequence of impulses ␦ (t⫺n⌬t)
occurring at time intervals ⌬t:
⬁
兺
comb共 t 兲 ⫽ ␦ 共 t⫺n⌬t兲 ,
n⫽⫺⬁
comb共 t 兲 ↔comb共 f 兲 ,
where frequency f ⫽1/t if t is time and ↔ indicates a
Fourier transform operation. See Figures C-8 and F-19.
If the impulses are spaced T apart,
comb共 t/T 兲 ↔comb共 T f 兲 .
Combisweep: A vibroseis sweep technique using several
sequential linear sweeps separated by short listening
commercial
periods used to reduce correlation ghosts. A Prakla-
Seismos tradename.
commercial: See resource.
common-azimuth migration: Migration of data obtained
within a narrow angular range of source-to-receiver
directions.
common-conversion point „CCP…: The common reflect-
ing point where mode conversion from P- to S-waves or
vice-versa occurred for a set of data. Reciprocity 共the
conversion point being the same when source and
receiver are interchanged兲 does not apply 共unless
source and receiver modes are also interchanged兲. See
Figure C-13.
common-depth point „CDP…: The reflecting point that is
common to a subset of data. The use of this term for
common-midpoint 共q.v.兲 is discouraged because the
reflecting point is not in common if reflectors dip. See
Figure C-9.
common-depth-point gather: Common-midpoint gather
共q.v.兲.
common-depth-point stack: Common-midpoint stack
共q.v.兲.
common-focus point: Common-imaging gather 共q.v.兲.
common-geophone gather: A set of seismic traces having
the same geophone location. Also called a common-
receiver gather. See Figure C-9.
common-image gather: A gather of traces from various
offsets or angles, adjusted for traveltime differences
from zero offset, in time or depth. If the events are not
flat in time or depth, the resulting stacked image will
not be optimum.
common-imaging-point gathers: The set of data that are
reflected at the same point after prestack migration.
common-imaging point „CIP…: See common-imaging
gather. See Figure C-9g.
common-midpoint „CMP…: Having the same midpoint
between source and detector. See Figure C-9. Some-
times erroneously called common-depth-point or
common-reflection-point.
59 common-source gather
common-midpoint gather: The set of traces that have a
common midpoint 共q.v.兲.
common-midpoint „CMP… method: A recording-
processing method where each source is recorded at a
number of geophone locations and each geophone loca-
tion is used to record from a number of source loca-
tions. After correcting these data for statics, normal
moveout, and DMO 共q.v.兲 共since dipping reflections do
not involve a common reflecting point兲, they are com-
bined 共stacked兲 to provide a common-midpoint sec-
tion that approximates the traces that would be
recorded by a coincident source and receiver at each
location, but with improved discrimination against
noise. The objective is to attenuate random effects and
events whose dependence on offset is different from
that of primary reflections. See Figure C-9.
common-midpoint stack: A stack 共q.v.兲 of common-
midpoint gather traces.
common mode: Having signals that are identical in phase.
For example, signals that appear simultaneously at both
input terminals of a differential amplifier.
common-mode rejection: A differential amplifier that
ignores a signal that appears simultaneously at both
input terminals.
common-offset gather: 1. A side-by-side display of traces
that have the same source-to-geophone distance 共off-
set兲; see Figure C-9f. 2. A side-by-side display of
crosswell traces in a receiver well that have the same
elevation difference with respect to source elevations.
common-offset stack „COS…: A stack of traces that have
the same offset and which are located within a limited
range of midpoint locations.
common-range gather: Common-offset gather 共q.v.兲.
common-receiver gather: Traces from different source
locations into a single receiver; see Figure C-9e. Used
in borehole-to-borehole measurements.
common-reflection point: 1. A point in the subsurface
where energy is reflected for certain reflectors and
certain source-receiver pairs; see Figure C-9c. 2. Often
used erroneously for common-midpoint 共q.v.兲 because
CMP reflection points are not common where there is
dip.
common-reflection-point gather, common-depth-point
gather: A collection of the seismic traces that all
reflect from the same point, often corrected for normal
moveout 共velocity兲. After correcting for various pos-
sible velocities, events on the gather are horizontal
when the velocities are correct. Same as depth gather.
Differs from common-midpoint gather 共q.v.兲 if there is
dip or lateral velocity changes.
common-scatterpoint „CSP… gather: A collection of
prestack migrated traces that involve the same scatter-
point. The maximum offset is limited by the migration
aperture and the fold may be large. The gathers, formed
with an inaccurate velocity model usually are analyzed
by conventional techniques 共such as semblance analy-
sis兲 to yield a more accurate velocity model. conven-
tional NMO corrections, scaling, and stacking of a CSP
gather is the same as Kirchhoff prestack migration.
common-shot gather: See common-source gather.
common-source gather: 1. A side-by-side display of
traces that have the same source location; such as a field
record; see Figure C-9d. 2. A side-by-side display of
crosswell traces at different depths in the receiver well
communication 60 compaction

that have the same source location.
communication: 1. Different locations connected so that
fluids can flow freely between the locations. 2. The
ability to interchange data, as when two computers
‘‘have communication with each other.’’
commutate: 共kom’ y⳵ tāt,兲 To periodically reverse the
direction of an electric current 共for example, by peri-
odically changing connections兲 so that it becomes uni-
directional; e.g., to reverse every other cycle of an
alternating current.
commutative: Operations that yield the same results
regardless of the sequence in which they are performed.
compaction: Loss of porosity with increasing differential
pressure, usually in a nonelastic way, e.g., by grain
deformation, repacking, recrystalization, etc. The nor-

FIG. C-9. Common-midpoint method. (a) In six-fold shooting with 24-geophone groups and the source point moved
two group intervals between successive shots; the same subsurface is sampled six times (A⇒23, B⇒21, C⇒19, D⇒17,
E⇒15, F⇒13). (b) A reflector that dips does not have a common reflecting point and common-midpoint stacking results
in reflection-point smearing unless DMO (q.v.) processing or migration precedes stacking. (c) To achieve a common-
reflection point in the case of dip requires unequal surface spacing. (d) A common-source gather is a collection of
traces having the same source; (e) common-receiver gather; (f) common-offset gather. (g) If there are horizontal
velocity variations, prestack migration is required to form a common-imaging-point gather. Compare Figure C-13. All
diagrams assume constant velocity.
compaction correction
mal porosity ␾ of shales given by the Hubbert-Rubey
law is
␾ ⫽ ␾ o e ⫺c P ,
where ␾ o is the initial porosity 共the Atterberg limits,
q.v.兲, c is a constant, and P is the differential pressure,
the difference between the overburden pressure and the
formation fluid pressure. This leads to a pressure-with-
depth curve that is roughly logarithmic:
P⫽ 共 1/c 兲 ln共 ␾ / ␾ o 兲 .
Compaction is nearly irreversible, i.e., relieving the
pressure that compacted a rock does not uncompact it,
but releaving the pressure is apt to produce a small
change 共unloading effect兲.
compaction correction: An empirical correction applied
to porosity values 共such as derived from the sonic log兲
in uncompacted formations. Undercompaction is indi-
cated by low velocities in adjacent shales. See also
differential compaction.
comparative interpretation: The comparison of survey
data with type curves that have been calculated for
bodies of assumed contrasts and geometry.
comparator: A circuit that compares two signals and indi-
cates the result of the comparison.
compass: Magnetic compasses are located at strategic
points along streamers to help determine the streamer
position. Gyrocompasses are used to determine vessel
orientation.
compensated log: A well log made with a sonde designed
to correct unwanted effects or one that has been cor-
rected. The compensated density log uses the signal
from a secondary detector to correct for the effect of
mud cake and small irregularities in the borehole wall.
The BHC compensated sonic log uses dual transmit-
ters and receivers to reduce the effects of irregularities
in borehole size and sonde tilt.
compensation test: Aircraft maneuvers to derive compen-
sation coefficients to correct for the effects of the air-
craft on magnetometer measurements. At high altitude
the aircraft flies in different directions 共heading test兲
and undergoes oscillating pitch, roll, and yaw of 5–10°
to determine a figure of merit, which should be ⬍1–2
nT. A new figure of merit has to be determined with
each change of aircraft configuration. After proper com-
pensation, the magnetic effects of the aircraft should
cancel out regardless of the aircraft’s flight direction.
See also lag test.
competent: 共kom’ pi t⳵nt兲 A bed that retains its strati-
graphic thickness under stress. It folds or breaks under
stress, in contrast to an incompetent bed that tends to
flow.
compiler: 共k⳵m pı̄’ l⳵r兲 A program for converting a source
program in a high-level language to an object program
in machine language prior to loading and running. A
program for converting concurrently with running the
program is called an interpreter.
complement: 共kam’ plē m⳵nt兲 The difference between a
particular value and full scale. In the decimal system,
the complement of x is (10 ␮ ⫺x), where ␮ is a fixed
number; and in binary the complement of x is (2 ␮
⫺x). Adding the complement of x is equivalent to
subtracting x, and computers often find it easier to
generate the complement and add than to subtract. See
61 complex resistivity
also one’s complement and two’s complement.
complementary error function „erfc…:
erfc共 t 兲 ⫽1⫺erf共 t 兲 ,
where erf(t) is the error function 共q.v.兲.
complementary filter: A filter that complements another
filter. For example, a 2000-m low-pass filter can be
complemented by a 2000-m high-pass filter to show the
high frequencies that the low-pass filter rejected.
complement of chargeability: An IP time-domain mea-
surement of the area under a decay curve; integrating
over the interval between 0.45 and 1.75 s on a
Newmont-type receiver.
completion: See well completion.
complex delta function: See impulse.
complex frequency: A damped wave can be expressed as
the product of an absorption factor e ⫺ ␣ t and a periodic
factor e j ␻ t :
Ae ⫺ ␣ t e j ␻ t ⫽Ae j 共 ␻ ⫹ j ␣ 兲 t ,
where ( ␻ ⫹ j ␣ ) is the complex frequency.
complex impulse: The complex delta function, ␦ *(t)
⫽ ␦ (t)⫹( j/ ␲ )t, where ␦ (t) is an impulse 共q.v.兲.
complex number: A number with both real and imaginary
parts, such as
z⫽x⫹ jy⫽Ae j ␪ ,
where j⫽ 公⫺1. 关The symbol i is also used to indicate
公⫺1. 兴 The modulus or magnitude of the above com-
plex number is A⫽(x 2 ⫹y 2 ) 1/2 and the angle indicat-
ing its direction with respect to the real axis is
␪ ⫽tan⫺1 共 y/x 兲 .
A graph of a complex function or quantity 共such as a
frequency spectrum兲 is shown in Figure C-10.
complex ratio: See Turam method.
complex relative permittivity: See dielectric constant.
complex resistance: Impedance 共q.v.兲.
complex resistivity: Representation of apparent resistivity
as having real and imaginary parts. Complex resistivity
is the proportionality between voltage and current
where the two are not in-phase. It is used to accomodate
variations in resistivity with frequency as observed in
FIG. C-10. A complex function (such as a frequency
spectrum) requires 3-D representation. The distance from
the frequency axis gives the modulus, and the angle with
the real plane is the phase.
complex spectrum
induced-polarization surveys.
complex spectrum: See Fourier transform.
complex-trace analysis: Finding the complex number
representation F(t) of a real time-series f (t):
F 共 t 兲 ⫽ f 共 t 兲 ⫹ j f ⬜ 共 t 兲 ⫽A 共 t 兲 e j ␥ 共 t 兲 ,
where f ⬜ (t) is the quadrature series, A(t) is the
amplitude of the envelope of the trace 共also called
reflection strength兲, and ␥ (t) is the instantaneous
phase. Displays of instantaneous phase 共or cosine of
the instantaneous phase兲 show the continuity of an
event. Instantaneous frequency is d ␥ (t)/dt. Instan-
taneous frequency can be thought of as the frequency of
the complex sinusoid that locally best fits a complex
trace. Used to determine seismic attributes. In the space
domain, ‘‘local’’ is sometimes used instead of ‘‘instan-
taneous.’’ See Figure C-11 and Taner et al. 共1979兲.
Complex-trace analysis often involves the Hilbert
transform.
compliance: 共k⳵m plı̄’ ⳵ns兲 The relationship of strain to
stress. Compliance is a tensor of rank 4, but it is also
expressible as a 6⫻6 matrix that is the inverse of the
stiffness matrix. See elastic constants. Compliance is
the mechanical or acoustical equivalent of electrical
capacitance.
composite: 共k⳵m’ paz ⳵t兲 1. Made up from two or more
different elements, as a composite decay curve or com-
posite time-distance curve 共q.v.兲. 2. To mix or combine
the energy of different seismic channels without first
applying static and normal-moveout corrections.
composite amplitude: A sum of the absolute amplitude of
reflections attributed to the top and base of a reservoir.
composite decay curve: A time-domain decay curve con-
taining more than one component, usually with differ-
ent time constants or even a combination of positive
and negative decay curves. See Figure D-2.
composite displays: See Figure D-17.
composite reflection: A wavetrain composed of two or
more overlapping reflections.
composite time-distance curve: A refraction traveltime
versus offset-distance graph synthesized from data
obtained by several sources and short spreads at various
locations, as opposed to the graph that would have been
obtained from a single source into an extensive spread
of geophones. See Figure T-8d.
compositor: A device for mixing 共q.v.兲.
compressed section: A record section with the horizontal
scale compressed. Associated with considerable vertical
exaggeration. Used to present regional and stratigraphic
aspects of seismic data. Also called a squash plot.
compressibility: Change of density with pressure; the
reciprocal of bulk modulus. The total compressibility is
the sum of the compressibilities of the various parts.
The compressibility of water is 3⫻10 ⫺6 /psi, of oil 3
to 10⫻10 ⫺6 /psi, of pore spaces 3 to 100
⫻10 ⫺6 /psi. See elastic constants.
compressional wave: A P-wave 共q.v.兲.
Compton scattering: 共k⳵m’ t⳵n兲 The principal interaction
mechanism for gamma photons in the 0.4 to 3.0 MeV
range for media in the intermediate atomic number
range. The incident photon changes direction and is
available for repeated scattering, so that the probability
of total dissipation increases with the volume of the
62 condensed section
scatterer. Named for Arthur Holly Compton 共1892–
1962兲, American physicist.
computational error: See error.
computer: 1. One who computes corrections for geophys-
ical data; a computor. 2. A machine capable of accept-
ing information, applying prescribed processes to the
data 共a sequence of arithmetic and logical operations as
requested by program instructions兲, and supplying the
results to some output device. A simple computer pro-
gram is shown in Figure F-14. 3. An analog computer
uses a physical analogy of position, electric current,
flow, temperature, etc. to solve relationships. 4. A digi-
tal computer applies numerical processes to sets of
discrete numbers.
computer generations: Historical levels of computer
hardware technology: first generation, vacuum tubes;
second generation, transistors; third generation, inte-
grated circuits; fourth generation, very large scale
integration 共VLSI兲; fifth generation, massively parallel
processors.
computer graphics: The visual display of data stored in a
computer.
computerized tomography „CT…: Examination of cores
by x-ray scans 共with medical-type equipment兲 and
tomographic analysis to show the distribution and con-
nectivity of porosity.
computer language: The form in which program instruc-
tions can be supplied to a computer for translation into
a machine language program that then can be executed.
Such languages include Algol, Cobol, Fortran, PL-1,
APL, Pascal, C⫹⫹, Basic, and others.
computer modeling: See numerical modeling.
concatenate: 共kon kat’ ⳵ nāt,兲 To unite in a series; to
connect together; to chain. The action by a computer
program of relating data in some organized manner so
as to treat multiple data sets or files as one.
concentration cell: See electrochemical SP.
concentration overvoltage: See overvoltage.
concentric fold: A flexural-slip fold. See folding.
concession: The right to search for oil or gas or minerals
and to remove any that are discovered, in return for
payments and royalties 共portions of the minerals recov-
ered兲. See also lease.
concordance: 共kon kord’ ⳵ns兲 Parallelism of reflections to
sequence boundaries.
concordia diagram: The time graph of 206Pb/ 238 U vs.
207
Pb/ 235 U, assuming a closed system.
concertina display: Simultaneous display of a number of
plots having a major feature in common, such as dis-
play of a number of parallel seismic lines or of different
attribute displays of the same section or of the same
map.
condensate: A light hydrocarbon liquid consisting of vari-
ous proportions of butane, propane, pentane, and
heavier fractions with little or no ethane or methane,
obtained by condensation of hydrocarbon vapors. Con-
densate is usually gaseous in the subsurface.
condensate well: See gas-oil ratio (GOR).
condensed section: A relatively thin, continuous strati-
graphic succession that encompasses a considerable
time span and has reasonable geographic extent. Usu-
ally a deep marine section of hemipelagic and pelagic
sediments deposited far from the coastline 共distal兲.
Generally, it is very fine grain and rich in both number
condition 63 conditional jump

and diversity of fossils, and hence is useful for age
dating. Often the distal part of a maximum flooding
surface 共q.v.兲 and the top of a transgressive system tract
共q.v.兲. See also Figure S-32.
condition: 1. Treating drilling mud with additives and
circulating mud through a borehole to make the mud
uniform throughout the system. 2. A restriction or con-
straint, as an initial condition or boundary condition
共q.v.兲. 3. See condition number.
conditional jump: An instruction causing a transfer to an
instruction other than the next sequential instruction
only if a specific condition is satisfied. The next sequen-
tial instruction is executed if the condition is not satis-
fied. See branch.

FIG. C-11. Complex-trace analysis. Real (a) and quadrature (b) traces for a portion of a seismic trace. The envelope
is shown as the dotted line in (a) and (b). Instantaneous phase is plotted in (c), instantaneous frequency in (d), and
weighted average frequency as the dotted curve in (d). (e) Isometric diagram of a complex trace. (From Taner et al.,
1979.)
conditional probability
conditional probability: P(E 兩 C i )⫽probability of E if
C i has already occurred. Bayes’s theorem gives the a
posteria probability:
P 共 C i 兩 E 兲 ⫽ P 共 C i 兲 P 共 E 兩 C i 兲 / 关 ⌺ P 共 C j 兲 P 共 E 兩 C j 兲兴 ,
where P(C i )⫽a priori probability of C i .
conditional simulation: A geostatistical method of creat-
ing equally probable images of a regionalized variable
based on spatial data. By relaxing some of the kriging
constraints, conditional simulation reproduces the vari-
ance of the control data so that the result captures the
heterogeneity and connectivity most likely present. It is
used to produce measures of uncertainty such as prob-
ability and uncertainty maps.
conditioning: Preparing data for processing or interpreta-
tion by removing bad data, smoothing, resampling, or
applying other reduction operations.
condition number: The value given when the largest ele-
ment of a diagonal matrix is divided by the smallest
element. For a nondiagonal matrix, the condition num-
ber is the ratio of the largest to smallest eigenvalues.
The condition number is infinity if an element is zero. A
too large condition number means that the matrix is
ill-conditioned and therefore unstable.
conductance: The product of conductivity and thickness;
with direct current, the reciprocal of resistance. With
alternating current, the resistance divided by the imped-
ance squared; the real part of admittance. Measured in
siemens 共⫽mho⫽inverse ohm兲.
conductance referencing: A correction procedure where
the total conductance is kept fixed as the thicknesses
and resistivities are adjusted. Usually the resistivity is
selected to be the average resistivity and the thicknesses
are adjusted.
conduction angle: The number of degrees in a half-cycle
ac wave during which a silicon-controlled rectifier is
turned on. If ␾ is the phase control angle, the conduc-
tion angle is ␲ ⫺ ␾ .
conduction current: Electrical current resulting from the
motion of free charges under the influence of an electric
field. The density of conduction current J at a point in
an isotropic medium is J⫽ ␴ E, where ␴ is the conduc-
tivity and E is the electric field. Conduction currents
usually are more important than displacement currents
in electromagnetic prospecting, depending on the fre-
quency range. Since in general J and E are vectors, the
conductivity ␴ is a symmetric tensor given in Cartesian
coordinates by
冏 冏
␴ xx ␴ xy ␴ xz
␴ yx ␴ y y ␴ yz .
␴ xz ␴ yz ␴ zz
If one of the coordinates is in the direction of maximum
conductivity and one in the direction of minimum con-
ductivity, nondiagonal elements vanish. In isotropic
materials ␴ xx ⫽ ␴ y y ⫽ ␴ zz .
conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct electri-
cal current. In isotropic material, the reciprocal of resis-
tivity. Sometimes called specific conductance. Units
are siemens per meter.
conductivity-depth image: A diagram showing conduc-
tivity as a function of distance and depth, derived from
64 conjugate function
profiles of surface or airborne EM data. See also para-
section.
conductivity log: Induction log 共q.v.兲.
conductivity tomography: Using a transmitter and
receiver in different wells to construct a tomographic
picture. See Figure T-10.
conductor: A body within which electrical current can
flow readily. Often, the ‘‘target’’ of an electromagnetic
survey. An electronic conductor conducts electricity
primarily by electron mobility and an ionic conductor
primarily by ion mobility. Electrolytes are ionic con-
ductors. Resistivity⬍10 ⫺5 ⍀.m.
conductor casing: A second casing string with the annular
space filled with cement to protect fresh-water sands.
conductor pipe: A short string of large-diameter casing
used on offshore and marsh wells and some other
conditions to contain the mud upwelling from the annu-
lus so that it flows into the slush pit.
cone bit: A roller bit having conical cutters with teeth for
cutting into formations. See Figure D-26b.
cone penetrometer: Device used by civil engineers to
determine the shear strength of shallow sediments.
confidence bounds: The probability that an interval con-
tains an element with given characteristics; the limits
between which a specified percentage of measurements
are expected to lie. A measure of the uncertainty in
values. Often taken as the standard deviation 共q.v.兲.
Generally calculated by tracing the estimates of the
uncertainties in the various measurements that contrib-
ute to determining a value, but measurement uncertain-
ties are not always the principal contributors to uncer-
tainty. A rule for calculating uncertainty in
electromagnetic applications is to use confidence levels
of 95% for data with high signal-to-noise ratios to 68%
for noisy data. See Raiche et al. 共1985兲.
configuration: 1. Arrangement, as of geophones in a
group; array 共q.v.兲. 2. The hardware and/or software
making up a computer system, and how it is put
together.
conformability: See conformal mapping and map projec-
tion.
conformable: 共k⳵n for’ ma b⳵l兲 Two adjacent parallel
beds separated by a surface of original deposition,
where no disturbance or denudation occurred during
their deposition.
conformal mapping: Mapping one area into another
when there is a continuous one-to-one correspondence
of points and where angles are preserved.
conic: A curve defined by a quadratic equation. See Figure
C-12.
conical wave: 1. A head wave 共q.v.兲. Also called Mach
waves. 2. A head wave generated by tube waves.
coning: 共kōn’ ⳵ng兲 The upward encroachment of reservoir
water into the oil column at a well because of a high
rate of production, or the downward encroachment of
gas into the oil column.
conjugate: 共kon’ j⳵ gāt,兲 The conjugate of a complex
number is the number with the sign of the imaginary
part reversed. Often designated by a superscript asterisk
or superscript bar.
If Z⫽a⫹ jb⫽Ae j ␪ , then Z*⫽Z̄⫽a⫺ jb⫽Ae ⫺ j ␪ .
conjugate function: Any 2D function F(z) may be writ-
conjugate gradient method
ten in terms of orthogonal conjugate functions ␾ (x,y)
and ␺ (x,y):
F 共 z 兲 ⫽F 共 x⫹iy 兲 ⫽ ␾ 共 x,y 兲 ⫹i ␺ 共 x,y 兲 .
conjugate gradient method: A method for approaching a
minimum for a multidimensional function. Steepest
descent 共q.v.兲 is such a method.
conjugate points: Pairs of object and image points that
correspond to each other. Object and image within any
pair can be interchanged.
conjunction: 共k⳵n junk’ sh⳵n兲 1. The condition for which
an AND-gate is used; intersection. Each of two 共or
more兲 situations must occur. Often written A艚B or
A•B 共read as ‘‘A and B’’兲. See Figure B-5. 2. Align-
ment of celestial objects at the same azimuth and eleva-
tion.
connate water: 共kon’ āt兲 Water trapped in the interstices
of the sediments at the time of deposition, as opposed to
water that migrated into the formations after deposition.
See interstitial water.
connectivity mapping: Determining whether two reser-
voirs are connected hydraulically, e.g., by the ability to
transmit channel waves from one to the other.
Conrad discontinuity: 共k⳵n’ rad兲 A sharp increase in the
P-wave velocity in the crust, commonly at a depth of
17–20 km. The velocity below the Conrad discontinu-
ity is of the order of 5.5– 6.7 共often 6.0– 6.7兲 km/s
共compared to around 8.1 km/s for the upper mantle
immediately below the Moho兲. The Conrad discontinu-
ity is not observed everywhere.
FIG. C-12. Conic section equations.
65 continuous-velocity log „CVL…
console: The computer operator’s control panel. Generally
includes start-stop keys, keyboard for entering instruc-
tions or data, and display. Also, a work station.
constant separation traversing: Electric profiling 共q.v.兲.
constant velocity stack „CVS…: Velocity analysis
involves making trial stacks assuming several trial
velocities that are constant in time and space, to deter-
mine the stacking velocities that produce the best
results. See velocity panels and Figure V-7.
constraint: An auxiliary restriction, usually expressed as
an inequality 共for example, x⭐b 兲. See Figure L-5.
constructive interference: See interference.
contact: A boundary 共often a fault兲 between two blocks of
different lithologies involving different physical prop-
erties.
contact log: A microresistivity log 共q.v.兲 in which the
sonde is held against the borehole wall.
contact resistance: The resistance observed 共a兲 between a
grounded electrode and the ground, 共b兲 between an
electrode and a rock specimen, or 共c兲 between electrical
contacts.
continental crust: The 30– 60-km thick layer of sedimen-
tary and felsic rock lying above the Mohorovicic dis-
continuity that forms the continents and continental
shelves. See Figure P-5.
continental shelf: The zone adjacent to a continent where
the ocean floor dips about 0.1° that lies between the
shoreline and is less than about 200 m deep, where
there generally is a marked increase in water depth
共shelf break兲. The significantly greater slope beyond
this point is called the continental slope; it terminates
at an oceanic trench or where the slope again becomes
more gentle 共continental rise兲, which extends to the
abyssal plain. The continental margin is the part
between the shoreline and 4000 m depth.
continuation: Determining a field over one surface from
measurements of the field over another surface 共specifi-
cally, at another elevation兲. The field at the elevation z,
F(x,y,z), can be found from the field on the surface,
F(x ⬘ ,y ⬘ ,0). Where the surfaces are horizontal and no
sources intervene, the upward-continuation relation
共an application of Green’s theorem兲 is
F 共 x,y,z 兲 ⫽
兩z兩
2␲ 冕冕 F 共 x ⬘ ,y ⬘ ,0 兲
R3
dx ⬘ dy ⬘ .
An interchange of the two fields in this equation gives
the downward-continuation relation. See downward
continuation and Peters 共1949兲, Telford et al. 共1990,
§2.6.7 and 3.7.5兲, and Pawlowski 共1995兲.
continuity: Condition of an unbroken electric circuit.
continuity equation: Where V⫽velocity and ⳵␳ /⳵t is the
time rate of change of density, the relation ⫺ⵜ•V
⫽⳵␳ /⳵t.
continuous profiling: A seismic method in which geo-
phone groups are placed uniformly along the length of
the line and sources are so spaced that continuous
共usually 100%兲 subsurface coverage is obtained along
the line. Continuous profiling can be accomplished with
a variety of spread arrangements. Refraction continuous
profiling requires continuous control on the refractor
being mapped; this may require irregular surface lay-
outs.
continuous-velocity log „CVL…: A sonic log 共q.v.兲.
contour
contour: 共kon’ toor兲 A line separating points whose values
are higher than the contour value from points lower,
representing the locus of a constant value on a map or
diagram. Allowance has to be made for uncertainties so
that noise is not contoured, and a contour value of C i
can be thought of as marking the middle of a zone that
contains values C i ⫾N, where N is the mean noise
level. Often the smallest meaningful contour interval is
about twice the noise level so that uncertainty ranges do
not overlap. See Sheriff 共1989; 13–21兲.
contour interval „CI…: The difference in value between
two adjacent contour lines.
contourite: A mound-like or lenticular sediment mass
deposited ‘‘along a contour’’ by along-slope bottom
currents, in contrast with turbidity deposits that are
deposited by currents flowing down slope.
contrast: The difference in value or tone between high-
light and shadow in an image.
contrast stretching: Increasing the contrast to use the full
range of a display by expanding the original range of
values or tones.
control: 1. Accurately known data that can be used to
check the validity or accuracy of a series of measure-
ments. 2. The data on which a map or section is based.
Posting the control on a map or section allows one to
evaluate the interpretation as to what happens between
control points. 3. The section of computer code that is
currently executing.
control character: A nonprinting character that controls
an operating function.
control lines: Survey lines usually orthogonal to the
traverse lines; commonly acquired with larger spacing,
to control line-to-line instrument variations. Also called
tie lines.
controlled mosaic: A composite aerial photograph made
by rephotographing component vertical photographs to
compensate for scale variations resulting from tilt and
variations in flight altitude.
controlled rectifier: An electronic circuit element consist-
ing of a controlled diode or solid-state switch. The
diode is usually turned ‘‘on’’ by a small voltage from an
external circuit and turned ‘‘off’’ when the voltage is
FIG. C-13. Conversion point. (a) Where P-waves convert to S-waves upon reflection (i.e., C-waves), reflecting angles
r are smaller than incident angles i, and interchanging source and receiver changes the reflecting point. (b) For common
source and receiver points, the conversion point generally moves toward the receiver for shallower reflectors.
66 conversion point
reversed. Used to switch large currents in IP transmit-
ters. When the semiconductor is silicon, a controlled
rectifier is called SCR. A GTO 共gate turn-off switch兲
controlled rectifier can be turned on and off indepen-
dently of the current through the diode.
controlled-source electromagnetics „CSEM…: An elec-
tromagnetic sounding or prospecting system that uses
artificially generated fields with prescribed characteris-
tics rather than natural fields. Includes all electromag-
netic techniques that use their own transmitters.
controller: 1. See depth controller. 2. A computer periph-
eral that handles multiple devices of the same kind
共e.g., a tape controller or a disk controller兲.
control station: A point whose position 共horizontally
and/or vertically兲 is used as a base for a dependent
survey or as control for adjusting survey errors.
control total: A sum obtained by adding the numbers in a
field; used for checking to avoid dropout.
convection: Transfer of energy or mass by motion of the
medium. A transport phenomenon where the field varies
in time with the aid of motion of the medium. Examples
include heat transport because of nonuniform heating
and chemical concentrations in an unstable liquid. Con-
trast with diffusion 共q.v.兲.
convergence: 1. The condition when calculated values
approach finite-limiting values as the number of terms
or iterations used increases. 2. In iterative operations,
such as modeling, the condition when calculated values
become sufficiently close to observed values. 3. The
effect of computing a survey on a curved surface as if
the surface were plane. Applying convergence correc-
tion changes from assumed rectangular coordinates to
geodetic coordinates.
convergence correction: See convergence.
convergent margin: Active margin 共q.v.兲.
conversational mode: An interactive procedure in which
each entry from a terminal elicits a response from the
computer and vice-versa.
conversion point: The reflecting point where P-waves
convert to S-waves or vice-versa. The set of data that
have the same conversion point constitute a common-
conversion-point 共CCP兲 gather; after NMO correction,
converted wave
they can be stacked together to display converted
waves. The conversion point is moved when the source
and receiver are interchanged. See Figure C-13.
converted wave: Seismic energy that has traveled partly
as a P-wave and partly as an S-wave, being converted
from one to the other upon reflection or refraction at
oblique incidence on an interface. Since mode conver-
sion is small for small incident angles, converted waves
become more prominent as the angle of incidence 共and
usually offset兲 increases.
converter: A device to perform digital-to-analog 共D/A兲 or
analog-to-digital 共A/D兲 conversion.
convolution: 共kon, v⳵ loo’ sh⳵n兲 Change in waveshape as
a result of passing through a linear filter. 1. A math-
ematical operation between two functions, g(t) and
f (t), often symbolized by an asterisk:
冕
g 共 t 兲 * f 共 t 兲 ⫽ g 共 ␶ 兲 f 共 t⫺ ␶ 兲 d ␶ .
␶ individual transforms 共or multiplying their amplitude
Convolution is not restricted to one dimension. For
example, in two dimensions,
冕冕
g 共 x,y 兲 * f 共 x,y 兲 ⫽ g 共 ␣ , ␤ 兲 f 共 x⫺ ␣ ,y⫺ ␤ 兲 d ␣ d ␤ .
␣ ␤
2. Linear filtering. If a waveform g(t) is passed into a
linear filter with the impulse response f (t), then the
output is given by the convolution of g with f. In
discrete form where the input is a series of impulses of
varying size, each will generate an f (t) of proportional
amplitude and the output will be the superposition of
these. This can be expressed as
L discontinuity 共⬇2900 km deep兲 that separates it from
g t* f t⫽ 兺gf
k⫽0
k t⫺k .
This expresses that the output of a linear filter at the
instant t is a weighted linear combination of the inputs.
L is the convolution operator length and (L⫹1) is the
number of points in the operator. 共A simple computer
program is shown in Figure F-14.兲 The frequency-
domain operation equivalent to time-domain convolu-
tion consists of multiplying frequency-amplitude curves
and adding frequency-phase curves. Convolution is
sometimes done by 共a兲 replacing each spike of the
input with a proportionately scaled version of the
impulse response and superposition forms the output;
共b兲 folding where the impulse response of the filter is
reversed in time and slid past the input, the output for
each position of the impulse response being the sum of
the products of input and folded impulse response for
corresponding points; 共c兲 multiplying z-transforms of
the input and of the impulse response to give the
z-transform of the output; or 共d兲 multiplying Fourier
or Laplace transforms to give the Fourier or Laplace
transform of the output. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
279– 81 and 540–2兲. Well logs may be thought of as the
convolution of the response of the earth adjacent to the
borehole with the logging sonde impulse response. 3.
Convolution in two dimensions is used with gravity,
magnetic, and other data to produce grid residual, sec-
ond derivative, continuation maps, etc.; see Fuller
共1967兲.
67 corer
convolutional model: The concept that a seismic trace
f (t) can be represented by the convolution of an
embedded 共equivalent兲 wavelet w(t) with a reflectivity
function r(t) plus random noise n(t):
f 共 t 兲 ⫽w 共 t 兲 * r 共 t 兲 ⫹n 共 t 兲 .
This model is a consequence of the concept that each
reflected wave causes its own effect at each geophone
共or hydrophone兲 independent of what other waves are
affecting the geophone and that the geophone response
is simply the sum 共linear superposition兲 of the effects of
all the waves. The model can be modified to allow for
propagation effects such as absorption. The convolu-
tional model is implied in most seismic processing and
interpretation.
convolution theorem: The Fourier transform of the con-
volution of two functions is equal to the product of their
spectra and summing their phase spectra兲. See Figures
F-20 and F-22.
cookbook: A method that is prescribed step-by-step.
cool colors: The blue and green colors as opposed to the
red and yellow colors.
Cooley-Tukey method: A Fourier-analysis algorithm that
considerably reduces computing time; see fast Fourier
transform and Cooley and Tukey 共1965兲.
cooperative inversion: See joint inversion.
coordinate transform: See Figure C-14.
copy: The degree to which events or traces look alike.
core: 1. A rock sample cut from a borehole or retrieved
from the sea floor. See core analysis. 2. The Earth’s
core is the central portion bounded by the Gutenberg
the mantle. The core’s radius is ⬇3500 km; it is pre-
sumed to be composed predominantly of iron and sili-
cates. See Figure E-1. Divided into outer core 共which
will not transmit S-waves兲 and inner core, the radius of
the inner core being about 1220 km. The inner core was
discovered by Inge Lehmann in 1936. 3. A material of
high magnetic permeability placed in the center of a
coil of wire. Used in the flux-gate magnetometer for
measuring magnetic fields. 4. A magnetic core 共q.v.兲 is
a device that used to be used in rapid-access memories.
core analysis: Cores from boreholes are analyzed for
porosity, permeability, fluid content, and fluid identifi-
cation 共water and/or oil saturation, residual oil兲, lithol-
ogy, and structure 共fractures, cross bedding, etc.兲.
Results are often illustrated on a log or graphed against
depth.
coregionalization: 共kō’ rē g⳵n ⳵l ⳵ zā. shon兲 The mutual
spatial behavior between two or more regionalized vari-
ables.
corer: A device for obtaining a solid sample of rock from
a borehole or from the ocean bottom. A core barrel is
a hollow cylinder attached to a special bit, used to
obtain a continuous core section from the bottom of a
borehole. Cores are obtained from the bottom of a
borehole with a wireline corer, the core barrel being
retrievable without having to trip out of the hole. A
sidewall corer obtains a sample from the borehole wall
by firing a hollow cylindrical bullet from a tool sus-
pended in the borehole. A core slicer using diamond-
edged blades cuts a triangular core about 1 inch on a
Coriolis acceleration 68 corner reflector

side and up to 3 ft-long from the side of a smooth
borehole. A box corer usually penetrates less than 3 ft
into the sea floor and has a spade-like device that
retains a sample. A gravity corer penetrates the ocean
floor solely by its own weight. The piston in a piston
corer retracts as the cylinder penetrates the sediments.
The jaws of a grab sampler seize a portion of the sea
bottom for retrieval.
Coriolis acceleration: 共kor, ē ō’ lis兲 1. A velocity-
dependent acceleration in a reference frame that is
moving with respect to an inertial reference frame.
Specifically, the acceleration of a body in motion with
respect to the Earth resulting from the rotation of the
Earth, as seen by an observer on the Earth. The Coriolis
acceleration on a body moving on the surface of the
Earth with a velocity V is 2 ␻ V sin ␾ where ␻
⫽angular rotation of the Earth and ␾ ⫽latitude. A
Coriolis acceleration of a moving gravimeter is
involved in the Eöt v ös effect 共q.v.兲. Named for
Gustave Gaspard Coriolis 共1792–1843兲, French math-
ematician.
corner frequency: 共a兲 The frequency at which a graph of
the logarithm of the frequency response has an abrupt
change of slope. Also called break frequency. 共b兲 For
a seismic wave generated by an earthquake, the fre-
quency at which the spectral field begins to decrease. It
is related to the dimensions of the source.
corner reflector: A radar reflector made of sheets of metal
or metal screen at right angles to each other. It reflects
like a mirror at normal incidence no matter from which

FIG. C-14. Coordinate transforms. Unit vectors in x, y, z, ␪, ␾ directions are indicated by i, j, k, ␪, ␾ (a) Rectangular-
cylindrical conversion; (b) rectangular-spherical conversion. (c) Vector operations in rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinates.
correction
direction it is viewed. See Figure C-15.
correction: A quantity that is applied to a measured quan-
tity to negate known effects, that is, to reduce a mea-
surement to some arbitrary standard.
correlation: 共kor, ⳵ lā’ sh⳵n兲 1. Identifying a phase of a
seismic trace 共or record兲 as representing the same phase
on another trace 共or record兲, indicating that the events
are reflections from the same sequence of reflectors or
head waves from the same marker. 2. The degree of
linear relationship between a pair of traces; a measure
of how much two traces look alike or the extent to
which one can be considered a linear function of the
other. The time-domain concept analogous to coherence
in the frequency domain. See autocorrelation and cross
correlation. 3. Determination of equivalence in strati-
graphic position of formations; for example, in different
wells based upon similarities in well-log character. 4.
Geologic correlation involves determining structural or
stratigraphic units that are equivalent in time 共age兲 or
stratigraphic position. 5. The matching of different well
logs and other well data, either in the same well or in
different wells.
correlation coefficient: A measure of the goodness of fit
of one function to another. A normalized cross-
correlation; see cross-correlation.
correlation filter: A matched filter 共q.v.兲.
correlation ghost: Nonlinearities in generating a vibroseis
signal introduce second harmonics. The correlation of
reflected second harmonics with the generated fre-
quency produces correlation ghosts that follow the sig-
nal for a downsweep but anticipate it for an upsweep.
correlation matrix: See covariance matrix.
correlation method: A seismic method of shooting iso-
lated profiles and correlating events to learn the relative
structural positions of reflection horizons. The correla-
tion is often based on similarities in the character of
events and in the intervals between events.
correlation shooting: See correlation method.
correlation sonar: A navigation/positioning system. The
reflection interference pattern resulting from a pair of
sonar pulses a few tens of milliseconds apart is
observed by a sonar array. Successive observations are
correlated with each other to find the amount of move-
ment of the ship between the observations, and hence
its velocity. The data can be integrated to give position
with respect to a starting point. See Dickey and Edward
共1978兲.
correlative surface: The landward physical extension of a
marine flooding surface not involving any significant
hiatus.
correlator: 1. That which one correlates with; either a
function or a device. 2. Matched filter 共q.v.兲.
correlogram: 1. A measure of the spatial dependence
共correlation兲 of a regionalized variable over some dis-
tance. Related to a variogram 共q.v.兲. 2. Graph of the
autocorrelation function for positive time shifts.
corridor: A short interval following the first arrival in an
upgoing vertical seismic profile 共VSP兲, time shifted to
their two-way arrival times at the surface; this consti-
tutes an outer corridor 共usually no wider than 200–
300 ms兲 and the remaining portions an inner corridor.
The outer corridor is relatively free of upgoing mul-
tiples and these portions are stacked together to give a
corridor stack. Surface multiples are reduced by ver-
69 COST well
FIG. C-15. Corner reflector. After three reflections, a ray
emerges parallel to the incident ray regardless of the
approach direction of the incident ray.
tical seismic profile deconvolution 共q.v.兲. See Figure
C-16.
corridor stack: A summation of some of the traces in an
upgoing vertical seismic profile 共VSP兲 that has been
processed to retain only primary reflection events and
that has been time shifted to their two-way arrival times
at the surface. Summation is over a data window 共a
corridor兲 beginning at the first-break time and usually
ending 200–300 ms later. This eliminates most mul-
tiples. This is also called an outside corridor, and this
is meant when no modifying adjective is used. The
portion of the VSP remaining after the outside corridor
has been removed is sometimes stacked to yield an
inside cooridor stack that emphasizes multiples. See
Figure C-16.
corrugations: Artificial anomalies oriented with or per-
pendicular to survey lines that result from errors in
leveling, gridding, survey locations, etc. A type of
acquisition footprint. See herringbone.
corrupt: To introduce errors into data or a program.
COS: Common-Offset Stack 共q.v.兲.
cosine correction: Multiplying the depth that is estimated
from an anomaly not perpendicular to a profile by the
cosine of the angle between the profile direction and the
anomaly normal.
cosine law: In any plane triangle with sides a, b, and c and
the angle between sides a and b,
c 2 ⫽a 2 ⫹b 2 ⫺2ab cos ␾ .
If ␾ ⬎90°, the cosine is negative and the last term
becomes additive. See Figure S-10.
cosine transform: The Fourier-transform 共q.v.兲 of the
even or symmetrical part of a function. The sine trans-
form involves the odd or antisymmetrical part.
cosmetic: A procedure to improve an image’s appearance
and ease of interpretation rather than its information
content or signal/noise.
cosmic year: The period for the solar system to move
about the Milky Way galaxy, 220–250 Ma.
cospectrum: 共kō spek’ tr⳵m兲 See cross-spectrum.
cost: The consequences of an operation, not necessarily in
monetary measures.
COST well: A well drilled as a Continental Offshore
Stratigraphic Test.
coulomb
FIG. C-16. Corridor stack. ‘‘Corridor stack’’ means the outer corridor unless ‘‘inner’’ precedes it. (1) Median-filtered
VSP; (2) inside corridor; (3) inside-corridor stack; (4) outside-corridor stack; (5) outside corridor (reversed in direction).
(After Hinds et al., 1996.)
coulomb: 共koo’ lom兲 An ampere second, the SI unit for
electrical charge. Named for Charles A. Coulomb
共1736 –1806兲, French physicist.
Coulomb’s law: A force F exists between electrical
charges Q 1 and Q 2 that are separated by the distance r.
The force is attractive for charges of unlike sign and
repulsive for charges of like sign:
F⫽kQ 1 Q 2 /r 2 ⫽Q 1 Q 2 / 共 4 ␲ ␧r 2 兲 ;
k is 9⫻10 9 newton.meter2 /coulomb2 .
couple: Two parallel forces that act with equal magnitude
but in opposite direction on opposite ends of a bar,
producing torque.
coupled wave: A mode of wave propagation that involves
the transfer of energy back and forth between two
different wave-propagation modes with the same appar-
ent phase velocity.
coupler: 1. The telephone cradle used in connecting a
computer or teletype unit with a telephone line, such as
used in time-share computer connections. See acoustic
coupler. 2. A device for connecting explosive charges
together to make a larger explosive.
couplet: Doublet 共q.v.兲.
coupling: 共kup’ l⳵ng兲 Interaction between systems. 1. A
device for fastening together, as a plug for connecting
electrical cables. 2. Aspects that affect energy transfer.
Thus the ‘‘coupling of a geophone to the ground’’
involves the quality of the plant 共how firmly the two are
in contact兲 and also considerations of the geophone’s
weight and base area, because the geophone-ground
coupling system has natural resonances and introduces
a filtering action. 3. The type of mutual electrical rela-
tionship between two closely related circuits. An
ac-coupling would exclude dc voltages by employing a
70 CPU
series capacitive element. A dc or direct coupling may
allow all components to pass, or it may exclude higher
frequency signals by using a capacitive element
shunted across the inputs. Capacative coupling may
occur because of mutual capacitive impedance, as
between the wires in IP circuits or between a wire and
ground. Inductive coupling occurs because of mutual
inductive impedance, such as between grounded IP
transmitter and receiver circuits, especially at higher
frequencies, greater distances, or lower earth resistivity.
This may give rise to false IP anomalies. Also called
electromagnetic or EM coupling. Resistive coupling
in IP surveying is caused by leakage between wires,
between a wire and ground, or through the resistance of
the ground itself between two grounded circuits.
covariance: 共kō ver’ ē ⳵nc兲 1. A measure of the difference
between two quantities; a cross-correlation function
that is not normalized. A mean of zero is implied. See
Kirlin and Done 共1999兲. 2. For a variogram, the differ-
ence between the sill and the variogram model; see
Figure V-1. Kriging weights are based on correlogram
values.
covariance matrix: An indicator of the fit between a
calculated curve 共the ‘‘solution’’兲 and measured data
that indicates the confidence bounds for a solution. It is
a step toward calculating a correlation matrix that
shows the correlation between parameters. See Raiche
et al. 共1985兲.
cpi: Characters Per Inch.
cps: 1. Cycles Per Second; hertz, which is the preferred
SI terminology. 2. Characters per second, a measure of
the speed of data transfer.
CPU: Central Processing Unit 共q.v.兲.
crab
crab: To maintain an angle between a ship’s heading and
the desired course, such as to compensate for a cross-
wind or cross sea. Compare yaw, which is oscillation of
the ship’s heading.
crack porosity: The part of porosity that is thin and flat.
Cramer’s rule: 共krā’ m⳵rz兲 The solution to a set of linear
simultaneous equations,
a 11 x 1 ⫹a 12 x 2 ⫹...⫹a 1n x n ⫽b 1
a 21 x 1 ⫹a 22 x 2 ⫹...⫹a 2n x n ⫽b 2 ,
... ...
which is the determinant of the coefficients obtained by
replacing a column with the b’s, divided by the deter-
minant of the coefficients 共sometimes called ‘‘⌬’’兲:
冏 冏
b1 a 12 ... a 1n
x 1 ⫽ 共 1/⌬ 兲 b 2 a 22 ... a 2n
...
冏 冏
a 12 b1 ... a 1n
x 2 ⫽ 共 1/⌬ 兲 a 22 b2 ... a 2n
...
冏 冏
a 11 a 12 ... a 1n
⌬⫽ a 21 a 22 ... a 2n
...
This is usually not the most economical way for com-
puters to solve simultaneous equations. Named for
Gabriel Cramer 共1704 –1752兲, French mathematician.
Cramer-Rao multipliers: Multipliers equivalent to
changing parameter values that transform a model
curve to fit a data curve. See Raiche et al. 共1985兲.
Crank-Nicholson method: A finite-differencing method
of numerically solving partial differential equations
共such as the heat equation兲 that uses differences to
approximate derivatives. Specifically, a method of solv-
ing the acoustic wave equation 共Claerbout, 1976兲. See
Strang 共1986兲.
crash: Destructive failure of a memory device or of a
computer program.
crater: 1. A funnel-shaped cavity on the sea floor pro-
duced by escaping gas; a pockmark. 2. A funnel-
shaped cavity at the top of a borehole resulting from
loose material falling into the borehole, especially
resulting from the detonation of a shot in the borehole.
3. The result of an impact such as a meteor crater,
sometimes called an astrobleme. 4. To crash 共q.v.兲.
craton: A large ancient stable portion of the Earth’s crust.
creep: 1. Time-dependent strain. Gradually increasing the
deformation of a body under a stress. Creep often
becomes important at 40–50% of the temperature at
which a phase-change occurs. 2. Slow aseismic slip
along a fault.
crest: 1. The highest point on a structure. 2. The peak of
a seismic 共or other兲 wave.
crevasse splay: A small sediment distributary system sec-
ondary to a main channel, formed by flow through a
break in a natural river levee, usually during a flood.
Crevasse splays can also occur for submarine channels.
crew: Party 共q.v.兲.
71 cross borehole
CRIP: Complex-Resistivity Induced Polarization.
critical angle: Angle of incidence ␪ c for which the
refracted ray grazes the surface of contact between two
media 共of velocities V 1 and V 2 兲:
sin ␪ c ⫽V 1 /V 2 .
See Figure C-17. Has meaning only where V 2 ⬎V 1 . In
general, four critical angles can be defined for the ratios
of P- and S-waves in the two media provided they ⬍1:
V P1 /V P2 , V S1 /V S2 , V S1 /V P2 , V P1 /V S2 .
The first is usually intended unless otherwise specified.
critical damping: The minimum damping that will not
allow oscillation. See damping.
critical dip: 1. Dip in the direction opposite to the
regional attitude, possibly indicating a closure. 2. Dip
in the direction that is most critical in establishing
closure.
critical distance: 1. The offset at which the reflection time
equals the refraction time, that is, the offset for which
reflection occurs at the critical angle; see Figure C-17.
2. Sometimes incorrectly used for crossover distance
共q.v.兲, the offset at which a refracted event becomes the
first break.
critical point: 1. The pressure-temperature combination
above which the distinction between gas and liquid no
longer exists. 2. The set of conditions 共pressure, tem-
perature, composition兲 at which two phases become
indistinguishable. See Figure H-11.
critical porosity: Porosity above which grain-to-grain
contact is lost and hence shear strength vanishes. It is
often of the order of 50%.
critical pressure: The pressure needed to condense a
vapor at its critical temperature.
critical reflection: A reflection at the critical angle.
Amplitude may be exceptionally large in this vicinity.
Reflection at angles in this vicinity is called wide-angle
reflection. See Figure C-17.
critical surface: A major geological contrast where the
character changes dramatically; e.g., the top of crystal-
line basement.
critical temperature: The highest temperature at which a
fluid can exist as a liquid and above which its vapor
cannot be liquified regardless of the amount of pressure
applied. See Figure H-11.
CRM: Chemical Remanent Magnetism 共q.v.兲.
CRO: Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope.
Crone shootback: See shootback method. Named for the
company that developed the method, Crone Geophys-
ics.
crooked line: A seismic acquisition line that differs from
straight by a significant amount. Care must especially
be exercised where „a… the offset 共source-to-geophone兲
distance is sufficiently different from distances mea-
sured along the line that normal-moveout corrections
are significantly in error, or where „b… cross-dip is large
enough to confuse inline dip measurements and cause
significant error in dip calculations. Crooked lines tend
to result in crossline smear. Lines are sometimes delib-
erately made crooked so that cross-dip as well as inline
dip can be determined. Figure C-18 shows a crooked-
line plot, also called a scattergram.
cross: Cross-spread 共q.v.兲.
cross borehole: See crosshole tomography.
cross correlation 72 crosscut

cross correlation: A measure of the similarity of two plished by reversing one function in time and convolv-
waveforms, of the degree of linear relationship between ing:
them, or of the extent to which one is a linear function
of the other. For two waveforms G(t) and H(t), the ␾ ab 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽a 共 t 兲 *b 共 ⫺t 兲 .
normalized crosscorrelation function ␾ GH ( ␶ ) is given The equivalent operation in the frequency domain
as a function of the time shift ␶ between the functions involves multiplying the amplitudes of common fre-
by quencies and subtracting phase-response curves. See
⬁ Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 287–288 and 541–543兲.
兰 ⫺⬁ G 共 t 兲 H 共 t⫹ ␶ 兲 dt
␾ GH 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽ . cross-correlation filter: Matched filter 共q.v.兲.
⬁ ⬁
兰 ⫺⬁ G 共 t 兲 dt 兰 ⫺⬁ H 共 t 兲 dt crosscorrelation theorem: The Fourier transform of the
crosscorrelation of g 1 (t) and g 2 (t) is
For digital data this becomes
⬁ ␾ 12 共 f 兲 ↔Ḡ 1 共 f 兲 G 2 共 f 兲 ⫽⌽ 12 共 f 兲 ,
兺 ⫺⬁ G k H k⫹ ␶
␾ GH 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽ ⬁ ⬁ . where G 1 ( f ), G 2 ( f ), ␾ 12 ( ␶ ) are the Fourier trans-
兺 ⫺⬁ G k 兺 ⫺⬁ Hk
forms of g 1 (t), g 1 (t), ⌽ 12 ( f ), and the superscribed
The denominator in the above two expressions is the bar indicates a complex conjugate. Here ⌽ 12 ( f ) is
normalizing factor and is often omitted 共as in Wiener called the cross-energy spectrum. See Figure F-22 and
filtering兲. When normalized, a crosscorrelation of 1 Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 285, 538, and 541–542兲.
indicates a perfect match, values near zero indicate very cross-coupling effect: The effect in shipboard gravity
little correlation, and negative values indicate that one measurements produced by simultaneous accelerations
of the wavelets is inverted. Normalized crosscorrelation in two different directions.
is also called correlation coefficient. See also autocor- crosscut: A horizontal passageway driven from a drift to
relation. Unnormalized cross-correlation can be accom- an ore body.

FIG. C-17. Critical distance. Curvature of the reflection is hyperbolic if velocity above the reflector is constant. Reflec-
tion amplitude is often large in the vicinity of critical reflection and the phase of the reflection generally changes beyond
the critical distance.
cross dip 73 crossover

FIG. C-18. Crooked-line plot (computer drawn). Source points (squares) and geophones are laid out along a road,
there being one source point every third geophone group. Midpoints show as dots. A synthetic line made in processing
has cross-dashes showing the output trace spacing. The black boxes show midpoint locations that might be combined
to make a single trace by projecting (a) perpendicular to the line or (b) along strike. (Courtesy Grant Norpac.)

cross dip: The component of dip in the direction perpen-
dicular to a seismic line.
crossed dipole: A dipole array with orthogonal dipole
transmitters and receivers activated. Sensitive to azi-
muthal velocity variations that may be related to
fracture-induced stresses or anisotropy.
cross-energy spectrum: The Fourier transform of a cross-
correlation; see crosscorrelation theorem.
cross-equalizing: 1. Filtering one channel to match the
frequency spectrum of adjacent channels. The matching
involves a phase shift as well as an adjustment of the
amplitude of frequency components. Tends to align
coherent events better but may increase short-period
reverberations. 2. Filtering one data set to match the
frequency spectrum and arrival times of another data
set, as may be done with time-lapse sets in an effort to
match regions that have not been changed.
crossfeed: Crosstalk 共q.v.兲.
crosshole method: 1. A technique for investigating the
region between two or more boreholes by measuring
the transit times and/or amplitudes of P- and/or
S-waves from a source located in one borehole to
geophones in other boreholes. Usually implies cross-
hole tomography 共q.v.兲. Three-component geophones
may be used. 2. A technique for resistivity or electro-
magnetic measurements between boreholes, used for
fracture and cavity detection, reservoir studies, and
orebody delineation.
crosshole tomography: Reconstruction of an object from
wave projections using sources and receivers in differ-
ent boreholes. Traveltime tomography is based on
arrival times, attenuation tomography on amplitude,
and diffraction tomography 共q.v.兲 on the scattered
wavefield. See also tomography.
cross information: Information about the direction from
which an event approaches the spread, specifically the
component outside the plane of the section 共i.e., outside
of a vertical plane that includes the line兲. The objective
is to determine the orientation of the reflector in space;
see Figure C-19. Cross information is obtained with
cross-spreads, from intersecting seismic lines, from
crooked-line data, or in other ways.
crossing-points: Graphs of horizontal and vertical deriva-
tives of the magnetic field intersect at critical points that
have interpretation significance. Plots cross at two
points over dikes, at one point over contacts.
crossline: 1. The direction at right angles to the direction
in which the data were acquired. 2. Generally the direc-
tion parallel to that of the source lines in 3D surveys,
where receiver lines are perpendicular to source lines,
the direction of the receiver lines. 3. A vertical section
extracted from a 3D data volume in the crossline direc-
tion. 4. A cross-spread 共q.v.兲.
crossline smash: Stacking corresponding offset values for
velocity analysis.
crossover: 1. The reversal of the dip direction of the
electromagnetic field over the apex of a conductor. The
undisturbed electromagnetic field of stations in the
crossover distance 74 cross-spread

FIG. C-19. Cross information. Resolution of data from two nonorthogonal lines. The apparent dip seen on each line
is the component of dip in the direction of the line. For observation point A, reflecting point B is updip as indicated by the
dip-strike symbol.

plane of a vertical source loop that is horizontal. In the distance depending on the type of interaction. See cap-
presence of a subsurface conductor, the field will be ture cross-section.
horizontal over the apex but will have vertical compo- cross-spectrum: The expression of the mutual frequency
nents in opposite directions on either side of the con- properties of two time functions or series. The cross-
ductor. 2. The intersection of two curves. 3. The inter- spectrum is in general a complex-valued function and
section of two lines. hence involves a pair of real relationships; such as the
crossover distance: The source-to-receiver distance at amplitude and phase as functions of frequency. The real
which refracted waves following a deep high-speed part of the cross-spectrum is also called the cospec-
marker overtake direct waves or refracted waves that trum and the imaginary part the quadrature spec-
follow shallower markers. See Figure C-17. trum.
crossplot: A graph used to determine the relationship cross-spread: 1. A spread that makes a large angle 共often
between two different measurements. For example, a a right angle兲 with the line of traverse. The objective is
crossplot of porosity measured from one type of log
against porosity from another type of log 共Figure C-20兲
is used to show lithology or secondary porosity that
affects the two logs differently.
crosspower spectrum: The Fourier transform of the
cross-correlation function.
cross product: 1. A type of vector multiplication. If i, j,
and k are mutually orthogonal unit vectors so that two
vectors A and B may be expressed in terms of compo-
nents in these directions:
A⫽a 1 i⫹a 2 j⫹a3 k and B⫽b 1 i⫹b 2 j⫹b 3 k,
then the cross product A⫻B is orthogonal to both A
and B:
A⫻B⫽ 共 a 2 b 3 ⫺a 3 b 2 兲 i⫹ 共 a 3 b 1 ⫺a 1 b 3 兲 j
⫹ 共 a 1 b 2 ⫺a 2 b 1 兲 k.
Also called outer product. 2. The terms in an algebraic
multiplication that involve elements of different kinds;
e.g., 2ab is the cross product term in (a⫹b) 2 ⫽a 2
⫹2ab⫹b 2 .
cross-section: 1. A diagram showing the spatial relation of
elements in a vertical plane. 2. A geological diagram
showing the formations and structures cut by a vertical
plane. 3. A plot of seismic reflection events along a
seismic line. Events are usually 共but not always兲
migrated and the vertical scale is usually depth 共but FIG. C-20. Crossplot of different measurements on the
occasionally time兲. See plotted section. 4. A concept to same samples. In this example porosity from neutron-logs
represent the probability of collision between particles. is plotted against porosity from density-logs, showing
A particle has to pass within a certain distance of responses for different rock types. (Courtesy Schlum-
another particle for the two to interact, the effective berger.)
crosstalk
to obtain cross information, i.e., information about dip
perpendicular to the line, which will permit determining
the true direction from which energy reaches the spread
so that the true position of the reflector in space can be
determined. See Figure C-19. 2. A spread in the shape
of a cross; for example, a number of groups laid out in
line and perpendicularly. See Figure S-18.
crosstalk: 1. Crossfeed, interference resulting from the
unintentional pickup of one channel of information or
noise on another channel. 2. Specifically, interference
between the two sides of an acoustic system such as
side-scan sonar.
cross-track: Perpendicular to a seismic line.
cross validation: Estimating the reliability of kriged/
cokriged data by comparing predicted with actual val-
ues at locations that have not been involved in the
estimating process 共hidden data兲.
crosswell: See crosshole method.
crown block: See drill rig.
CRP: 1. Common Reflection Point. 2. Common Receiver
Point.
CRP gather: A set of traces having the same reflection
point.
CRT: Cathode-Ray Tube; also CRO 共Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope兲.
crude oil: Unrefined petroleum, i.e., oil as it comes from
the ground.
crust: The outermost shell of the Earth; the portion above
the Moho. The crust has a P-wave velocity that is
usually ⬍7 km/s and a mean density of 2.8 to 2.9
g/cm3. Continental crust 共acidic crust or sial兲 is gra-
nitic to gabbroic; oceanic crust 共basic crust or sima兲 is
basaltic. See Figure E-1.
crustal flexure hypothesis: A hypothesis that allows
some isostatic balance to be accommodated laterally by
the surrounding region rather than only vertically. Also
called the Vening Meinesz hypothesis. See isostasy.
cryogenic magnetometer: 共krı̄, ō gen’ ik兲 A magnetome-
ter that operates at the temperature of liquid nitrogen.
See SQUID magnetometer.
cryptochron: Very rapid magnetic-field reversal.
crystal clock: A clock that uses a crystal oscillator as a
reference frequency.
CSAMT: Controlled Source Audio-Magneto Telluric
technique. A technique similar to magnetotellurics in
the range 1 to 20 kHz using a source transmitter at least
five skin-depths distant from the receiver.
CSD: U.S. Continental Scientific Drilling Program.
CSEM: Controlled-Source ElectroMagnetics 共q.v.兲.
CSP: Common Source Point.
CSP gather: See common-scatterpoint (CSP) gather.
CT: Computerized Tomography 共q.v.兲.
cu: Capture Unit 共q.v.兲.
cube: A 3D volume of data, not generally cubic. A cube
view is a display that conveys the 3D aspect, such as a
perspective view.
cubic packing: A 3D arrangement of atoms described in
rectangular coordinates, with particles centered at each
location (n⌬,m⌬,p⌬) and only at such locations,
where ⌬⫽a constant and n,m,p are integers. Cubic
packing is not gravitationally stable.
cuesta: An erosional remnant with steep dip and scarp
slopes.
culture data: National/state/county/province boundary
75 current waveform
lines, lease lines, roads, buildings, power lines, etc.
cultural editing: Removing cultural effects; deculturing.
cultural magnetic anomalies: Local magnetic fields
caused by man-made features such as transmission and
telegraph lines, electric railways, steel drill casing,
pipelines, tanks, etc. Also called artificial magnetic
anomalies.
cultural noise: Man-made noise including the effects of
industrialization such as power lines.
curie: 共kyoor’ ē兲 A unit of radiation equal to 3.7⫻10 10
disintegrations/second, the number resulting from 1
gram of radium. Named for Maria Sklodowska Curie
共1867–1934兲, Polish-French physicist.
Curie depth: The depth in the earth at which the Curie
point 共q.v.兲 is reached, of the order of 30 km. Named for
Pierre Joliot-Curie 共1859–1906兲, French physicist.
Curie point: The temperature at which a material loses its
ability to retain magnetism, that is, where it changes
from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic behavior. Below
this temperature, atoms interact so that their magnetic
moments couple and behave collectively. At the Curie
temperature the atom’s thermal energy equals the cou-
pling energy, and above this temperature the atomic
magnetic moments are not coupled and the substance
behaves paramagnetically. The Curie temperature of
most rocks is approximately 550 °C which is usually
reached at depths of 30– 40 km. The analogous point
with antiferromagnetic materials is the Neel point.
Curie’s law: Magnetic susceptibility is inversely propor-
tional to the absolute temperature. This law applies
where dipoles are far enough apart that their interaction
is small, as in solutions of paramagnetic salts. In para-
magnetic solids the susceptibility is inversely propor-
tional to the difference between the temperature and the
Curie point, this latter fact being called the Curie-
Weiss law.
Curie-Weiss law: See Curie’s Law.
curl: The curl of the vector A is given by the vector
operation:
curl A⫽ⵜ⫻A,
where ⵜ is the operator del 共q.v.兲. Curl A is expressed
in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates in
Figure C-14.
current channeling: Concentration of electrical current
flow observed in a magnetotelluric or controlled-source
EM survey caused by lateral variations in the local
resistivity structure. Also called current gathering.
Compare static shift.
current density: Current per unit cross-sectional area,
determined by the velocity and density of charge carri-
ers. Current density is a vector quantity, measured in
amperes per square meter.
current electrode: The A or B electrode in electrical log-
ging, resistivity, or IP surveying; see Figures A-18 and
E-10. Low electrical resistance of such contacts is
desirable to maximize the current into the ground.
current waveform: Electrical current as a function of
time as injected by a transmitter. A bipolar waveform
of positive and negative square-wave pulses separated
by off-times is used to avoid electrode polarization
effects.
cursor
cursor: 共kur’ s⳵r兲 An aiming device, such as a symbol
indicating the active point on a display or moveable
cross-hairs on a digitizer.
curvature: The rate of change of direction of a curve or
surface; the reciprocal of the radius of curvature R.
Curvature⫽1/R⫽ 共 d 2 y/dx 2 兲关 1⫹ 共 dy/dx 兲 2 兴 ⫺3/2 .
See Figure C-21.
curvature correction: Correction to gravity data to com-
pensate for Earth curvature because the Bouguer cor-
rection assumes a planar slab. See Bullard B gravity
correction.
curvature of gravity: A vector calculated from torsion-
balance data indicating the shape of an equipotential
surface. It points in the direction of the longer radius of
curvature.
curved path: A seismic raypath that is curved because
refraction changes the direction of the ray as the veloc-
ity changes. Increase in velocity with depth makes a
raypath concave upward.
curve fitting: Finding an analytic equation that approxi-
mates a set of data. The most common curve-fitting
technique is least-squares but other methods 共such as a
quadratic spline兲 are also used.
curve matching: An interpretation method whereby
observations are compared with master or type curves
共q.v.兲. Achieving a close fit implies that the actual
situation is similar to the model that the type curve
represents; this is not necessarily true because of inher-
ent ambiguity.
curve of maximum convexity: A diffraction curve 共q.v.兲.
curvilinear coordinates: A coordinate system that is not
rectangular. Cylindrical and spherical coordinates are
the most common orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.
See Figure C-14.
cusp: The pointed end of a line segment, especially the
points where two arcs intersect and terminate. The
limiting points where the direction sense reverses, as in
a triplication.
cut: To dilute, as may happen to drilling mud if formation
water or gas enters the hole.
CUT: Coordinated Universal Time, same as Greenwich
time 共q.v.兲.
cutoff: The frequency at which a filter response is down
by a predetermined amount, usually 3 dB. The cutoff
points designate the filter; e.g., an 18-57 filter has a
FIG. C-21. Curvature is the reciprocal of radius of curva-
ture. For small arcs, curvature is approximately 2h/S 2 .
76 cylindrical
low-frequency cutoff at 18 Hz and a high-frequency
cutoff at 57 Hz.
cuttings: Rock fragments dislodged by a drill bit and
brought to the surface by the drilling mud.
CVL: A Continuous-Velocity Log or sonic log 共q.v.兲.
CVL is a Birdwell tradename.
CVS: Constant Velocity Stack 共q.v.兲.
CW: Continuous Wave where successive cycles are
nearly identical. Usually 共but not necessarily兲 means
steady-state sinusoidal.
C-wave: 1. Converted wave 共q.v.兲, especially where mode
conversion occurs at the reflector; a PS- or SP-wave.
See Figure C-13. 2. Coupled wave 共q.v.兲.
cyan: 共sı̄’ ⳵n兲 One of the subtractive primary colors 共q.v.兲.
cybernetics: 共sı̄ b⳵r’ ned iks兲 1. Study of systems that
exhibit characteristics of human behavior. 2. The sci-
ence of control and communication between machines,
animals, and organizations. 3. The interaction between
automatic control and humans.
cycle: 1. The interval or distance before a function or
series repeats itself. Where the variable is time, a cycle
is one period; where the variable is distance, a cycle is
one wavelength. See Figure W-2. 2. A period of time
during which sea level falls from a highstand position
through a lowstand and returns to a highstand 共Van
Wagoner, 1995兲. 3. Milankovitch cycles 共q.v.兲.
cycle breadth: Period 共q.v.兲.
cycle-redundancy check: An error-detection scheme,
usually hardware implemented, in which a check char-
acter is generated by the remainder after dividing the
sum of all the bits in a block of data by a predetermined
number. The remainder is recalculated later to verify
that data have not been lost.
cycle skip: 1. Jumping a leg in correlating events, as may
occur in matching noncorresponding peaks in auto-
matic statics programs. 2. In sonic logging, the first
arrival may be strong enough to trigger one receiver but
not the other receiver, which may then be triggered by
a later cycle. The consequence is an abnormally high
calculated transit time. 3. Missing a cycle while count-
ing.
cycle stealing: A characteristic of direct memory access
devices. An input/output 共I/O兲 device can delay CPU
use of the I/O bus for one or more cycles while it
accesses memory.
cycle time: 1. The time required by a computer to cycle a
resource such as the arithmetic logic unit or memory.
The fundamental clock period of that resource. 2. The
time required by a computer to read from or write into
the system memory.
cyclic steam injection: An enhanced recovery method
where steam is injected into a formation to make vis-
cous hydrocarbons flow more readily. Steam is injected
for a time, followed by a soak period during which the
heat energy affects the surrounding formation, and then
the hydrocarbons are produced from the same well. The
pattern then repeats. Also called huff and puff.
cyclographic diagram: 共sı̄’ klō graf, ik兲 A sterographic
projection showing planes as great-circle intersections
of a sphere. Used in 3D structural representation. Also
called beta diagram. Compare pole diagram.
cylindrical: 1. Having symmetry so that measurements do
not depend on azimuth angle. 2. Two-dimensional
共q.v.兲.
cylindrical coordinates
cylindrical coordinates: See Figure C-14.
cylindrical divergence: Decrease in the amplitude of a
wave with distance because of geometrical spreading.
The energy spreads out as a wavefront expands in a
larger circle and hence the energy density varies
inversely as the distance. Surface waves undergo cylin-
drical divergence whereas body waves undergo spheri-
cal divergence.
77 cylindrical hydrophone
cylindrical hydrophone: A voltage is generated between
the outside and inside of a hollow cylinder of piezo-
electric material when subjected to radial pressure.
Such hydrophones are very stable and durable and their
sensitivity is independent of operating depth. Most
streamer hydrophones are of this type. See Figure H-12.
 D
DÕA: Digital-to-Analog 共q.v.兲.
D & A: Dry and Abandoned; refers to an abandoned well.
daisy chain: A method of propagating signals along a bus,
often used in applications in which devices not request-
ing a signal respond by simply passing the signal on.
The first device requesting the signal breaks the daisy-
chain continuity. A daisy-chain scheme assigns priori-
ties based on the electrical position of a device along
the bus.
damped error multipliers: The ratio of damping factors
to the spectral value, indicating the change of param-
eters during successive iterations. See Raiche et al.
共1985兲.
damping: 1. A slowing down or opposition to oscillation
caused by dissipation of the oscillation energy. „a…
Critical damping, ␮ c , is the minimum damping that
will prevent oscillation from taking place. „b… The
damping factor ␮ is the ratio of the system friction to
that necessary for critical damping, or the quotient of
the logarithm of the ratio of two successive oscillations
if the system is underdamped. The damping factor is
one for critical damping, less than one for an under-
damped system 共which will oscillate兲, and greater than
one for an overdamped system. See Figure D-1. „c…
Most geophones are slightly underdamped, often hav-
FIG. D-1. Damping. (a) Effect of damping on an impulsive
input. (b) Effect of damping on the amplitude of a periodic
input.
78
ing optimum damping that is 0.66 ␮ c , which provides
the most rapid convergence. 2. Site damping is con-
cerned with natural resonances and the response to
standing-waves. Site damping can be thought of as
either the rate of amplitude decrease after cessation of
excitation or as the decrease in amplitude response as
the excitation frequency differs from the resonant fre-
quency. Measuring damping and Q generally requires
the use of controlled vibrators.
Daniell window: 共dan’ y⳵l兲 See Figure W-12.
darcy: 共dar’ sē兲 A unit of permeability; the permeability
that will allow a fluid flow of one milliliter per second
of one centipoise viscosity fluid through one square
centimeter under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere
per centimeter. The unit commonly used is the milli-
darcy.
Darcy’s law: A relationship for 1D fluid flow rate q:
q⫽ 共 kA/ ␮ 兲 ⌬p/⌬x,
where k⫽permeability, A⫽cross-sectional area, ␮
⫽viscosity, and ⌬p⫽pressure differential across the
thickness ⌬x. For radial flow into a cylindrical bore-
hole,
q⫽ 共 k/ ␮ 兲 2 ␲ rh 共 ⳵␳ /⳵r 兲 ,
where r⫽radial distance and h⫽height of the cylinder.
dar Zarrouk: 共dar zar ruk’兲 The name given by Maillet to
resistivity parameters or curves that deal with layered
anisotropic materials. The dar Zarrouk variable is the
transversal unit resistance ( ␳ T ), the depth integral of
the transverse resistivity perpendicular to the strata; the
dar Zarrouk function is the longitudinal unit con-
ductance (1/ ␳ L ), the depth integral of the conductivity
parallel to the strata; and the dar Zarrouk curve is a
plot of the mean resistivity ( ␳ T ) of the formation down
to the depth z, plotted versus the anisotropy coefficient
times z( ␳ T ␳ L ) 1/2 :
␳ T ⫽⌺ ␳ i z i and 1/ ␳ L ⫽⌺z i / ␳ i ,
where z i are layer thicknesses. See Maillet 共1947兲.
DAS: Deconvolution After Stack.
data bank: A database 共q.v.兲.
database: 1. Computerized record-keeping system with
the purpose of maintaining information and making it
available on demand. 2. A collection of data organized
and managed by a central facility, not necessarily digi-
tal or computer based. A database management sys-
tem „DBMS… is a centralized computer facility to man-
age and provide consistent and secure access to a
database.
data compression: A scheme for packing data into a
smaller space.
data dimensionality: The smallest number of variables
that could be used to represent the data in a set.
data fusion: Merging data, often at different scales.
data harvesting: 1. Retrieving data that has been stored
temporarily at a geophone or ocean-bottom seismom-
data influence matrix
eter or other type of station. 2. Collection of data from
a storage unit.
data influence matrix: See Jacobian.
data link: A comunication channel for transforming data
between two points.
data mining: Algorithms to search existing data sets to
locate data with certain attributes of interest.
data model: A description of data and data relationships.
data preparation: Translating data into machine-readable
form.
data reduction: Transforming experimental data into a
useful, ordered form, e.g., by correcting for known
effects such as elevation differences, measurement sys-
tem characteristics, etc.
data set: 1. A set of data. 2. A device for converting
signals from a terminal into a form suitable for trans-
mission and vice-versa. 3. A named collection of data
on a computer storage medium.
data storage capacities: Liner 共1999兲 lists current data
storage capacities 共using B for bytes兲 as: 9-track tape,
200-700 MB; CD-ROM disk, 650 MB; optical disk, 2
GB; digital audio tape, 2-5 GB; DVD disk, 5 GB;
digital linear tape, 10-15 GB; magnetic hard disk, 50
GB.
datum: 共dā’ d⳵m兲 1. An arbitrary reference surface, the
reduction to which minimizes local topographic and
near-surface effects. 2. Elevation datum, the reference
level for elevation measurements, often sea level. 3.
Seismic datum, an arbitrary reference surface, the
reduction to which minimizes local topographic and
near-surface effects. Seismic times and velocity deter-
minations are referred to the datum plane 共usually but
not necessarily horizontal and planar兲 as if sources and
geophones had been located on the datum plane and as
if no low-velocity layer existed. 4. A paleo-datum is
used in an attempt to restore strata or reflections to the
structural positions held at some ancient time.
datum correction: A calculation of the time required for a
seismic pulse to travel from the source to the datum
plane and from the datum plane to the geophone. This
value is subtracted from observed reflection times to
give the arrival time as if sources and geophones had
been located on the datum surface without any low or
irregular velocities below the datum. See static correc-
tion 共q.v.兲.
datum correction velocity: The velocity assumed
beneath the datum surface, often the subweathering
velocity.
datum elevation: See datum.
datuming: 共dā’ t⳵m ⳵ng兲 1. The arbitrary flattening and
straightening of a particular reflection for use as a
reference on a cross-section, i.e., using a paleo-datum;
flattening 共see Figure F-12兲 thereby assuming that
everything was horizontal at the time of the paleo-
datum. The result emphasizes differences between this
and other reflections. 2. Changing the reference plane
of a wavefield.
datumized section: See flattened section.
datum plane: See datum.
daughter: An isotope formed by radioactive decay of a
parent isotope.
day number: The number of a day within a calendar year,
referred to Greenwich.
dB: DeciBel 共q.v.兲 and see Figure D-3.
79 decay curve
dBASE: A file format and data-management software
dBm: Decibels less than 1 milliwatt of power. Used, for
example, in specifying sensitivity for a certain input
impedance, such as ‘‘50 dBm at 5000 ohms.’’
DBMS, DBS: Acronym for DataBase Management Sys-
tem. See database.
dBÕoctave: Unit for expressing the slopes of filter curves.
dc: Direct Current
dc component: The amplitude of the Fourier analysis
component at zero frequency.
dc coupling: See coupling.
dc exponent: A quantity used in overpressure studies.
dc pulse method: See pulse method.
DDH: Diamond Drill Hole.
dead: 1. Not electrically connected, as a geophone whose
connection to the cable has pulled loose. 2. Having no
signal, as a dead trace. 3. Said of an area that has no
economical value. 4. Dead oil contains no dissolved
gas.
dead man: A buried anchor to which guy wires are
attached.
dead oil: Crude oil containing very little dissolved gas.
dead reckoning: Determining position by extrapolation of
the track and direction from a previously known point.
Inertial navigation and Doppler sonar are sophisticated
versions of dead reckoning. See positioning.
debris flow: 共d⳵’ brē兲 A mass of fragments that are larger
than sand size that flowed into place. Similar to a
mudflow or turbidite except for larger particle size.
debug: To search for and remedy malfunctions or errors,
as with instruments or computer programs.
decade: A factor of 10 共or 1/10兲, used, for example, in
comparing two frequencies.
decade-normalized PFE: See percent frequency effect.
decay constant: The time for an exponentially changing
voltage to vary by 1/e 共or to change 63%兲 from its
initial value. Also called time constant.
decay curve: 1. A graph of the decay of a quantity as a
function of time. An IP 共induced potential兲 voltage
decay curve may be characteristic of a particular mate-
rial. In theory it can be transformed to a resistivity
spectrum. See Figure D-2. 2. The return of spinning
nuclei to their prior state after a superimposed magnetic
FIG. D-2. Decay curve for material containing two radio-
nucleides. The decay curve can be decomposed into the
two component curves and the slopes of a and b give their
respective half-lives.
decay lifetime 80 deflagration

field has been removed, as in nuclear magnetic reso- the effects of filtering from a filtered waveform; decon-
nance logging 共q.v.兲. Related to relaxation time. volution 共q.v.兲. 4. Deriving resistivity stratification from
decay lifetime: See pulsed neutron-capture log. a kernel function.
Decca: One of several radio positioning systems available deconvolution: 共de kon vō’ lū sh⳵n兲 1. A process designed
from Decca Survey Ltd. to restore a waveshape to the form it had before it
decibel „dB…: 共des’ ⳵ b⳵l兲 A unit used in expressing power underwent a linear filtering action 共convolution兲;
or intensity ratios: 10 log10 of the power ratio. An inverse filtering. The objective of deconvolution is to
amplitude ratio of 2 共which represents a power ratio of nullify objectionable effects of an earlier filter action
4兲 is equivalent to 6 dB. Also expressed as 20 log10 of and thus improve the recognizability and resolution of
the amplitude ratio. See also Figure D-3. 1 dB reflected events. May mean „a… system deconvolution
⫽0.1151 neper. Named for Alexander Graham Bell to remove the filtering effect of the recording system;
共1847–1922兲, American inventor. „b… dereverberation or deringing to remove the filter-
decibelÕoctave: The change in response between frequen- ing action of a water layer; see also Backus filter and
cies that are an octave apart, i.e., between frequencies gapped deconvolution; „c… predictive deconvolution to
having the ratio either 1/2 or 2. Used to describe filter attenuate multiples that involve the surface or near-
slopes. surface reflectors; „d… deghosting to remove the effects
decile: Partitioning into tenths, e.g., values between 90% of energy that leaves the source in the upward direction;
and 100% are the tenth decile. In a distribution, P 90 „e… whitening or equalizing to make all frequency
would include 90% of the elements, i.e., all except the components within a band-pass equal in amplitude; „f…
highest 10%. shaping the amplitude-frequency and/or phase
decimate: 共des’ ⳵ māt兲 To resample systematically to response to match that of adjacent channels; or „g…
reduce the number of samples used to represent data. wavelet processing 共q.v.兲. Deconvolution results may
decision rule: The criterion used to establish discriminate
vary markedly with different phase assumptions, gate
functions, developed during the learning 共training兲
locations or widths, or operator lengths. Often involves
stage of a supervised classification.
Wiener filtering 共q.v.兲. Also called decomposition. See
declination: 共dek l⳵’ nā shun兲 1. The angle between geo-
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 285 and 292–303兲. 2. Poten-
graphic north and magnetic north. Angles east of geo-
tial maps, well logs, and other data sets besides time
graphic north are considered positive, west of north
negative. 2. The angle between the celestial equator and series may be deconvolved.
a celestial body. Differs from celestial latitude. decorrugation: Removing herringbone effects 共see her-
decoder: A logic device that converts data from one num- ringbone兲 that result from mislocation or datum-shifts
ber system to another 共e.g., an octal-to-decimal in acquisition, such as may be employed in aeromag-
decoder兲. Decoders are also used to recognize unique netic data reduction.
addresses 共such as a device address兲 and bit patterns. decoupling: With respect to vibrators, when the pad loses
décollement: 共dā’ kol ma or dā kol’ ma兲 A detachment contact with the ground. Generally peak ground force is
surface across which structural deformation styles dif- set to not exceed 90% of the hold-down weight.
fer. Usually involves slippage along a bedding-plane dedicated: Devoted exclusively to; for example, a ‘‘dedi-
共thrust faulting兲 and/or plastic flow. cated’’ power generator might supply the power for a
decomposition: Separating into components. 1. Separat- seismic recording system only, another dedicated gen-
ing effects of different kinds or attributable to different erator might power the navigation equipment, both
causes. 2. Separating a potential 共e.g., gravity兲 map into being separate from a ship’s normal power supply.
regional and residual; residualizing 共q.v.兲. 3. Removing deep porosity density: Density farther away from the
borehole as measured with a borehole gravimeter 共q.v.兲
rather than with a density log.
Deep Sea Drilling Program „DSDP…: An international
Amplitude Energy program from 1963 to 1983, which resulted in drilling
dB ratio ratio 624 boreholes in the deep ocean floor from the drill ship
⫺120 10⫺6 10⫺12 Glomar Challenger. See also JOIDES. The Ocean Drill-
ing Program (ODP) 共q.v.兲 succeeded it.
⫺80 10⫺4 10⫺8
deep seismic sounding „DSS…: A seismic profile 共usually
⫺40 0.01 10⫺4 refraction兲 that has the objective of studying the crust,
⫺20 0.1 0.01 Moho, and upper mantle.
⫺10 0.316 0.1 DeepStar: A consortium of oil and service companies
⫺6 0.501 0.251 共begun 1992兲 that tries to develop production technol-
⫺3 0.708 0.501 ogy for use in deep marine areas.
0 1 1 deep tow: A sensor towed by a boat at larger-than-usual
⫹3 1.413 1.997 depth, so as to be closer to features being imaged.
⫹6 1.995 3.980 deep water: Water over a depth of 600 ft.
default: A specific action or value to be taken in case an
⫹10 3.162 10 instruction or value is omitted.
⫹20 10 100 deflagration: 共def’ l⳵a grā, sh⳵n兲 An oxidation that pro-
⫹80 104 108 ceeds at less than shock-wave velocity, often ⬍1000
FIG. D-3 Decibel conversion. m/s. When it travels at shock wave velocity it is called
detonation.
deflection angle
deflection angle: See angles (surveying) and Figure A-13.
deflection of the vertical: The angular difference between
a plumb line 共the vertical兲 and a perpendicular to the
geodetic ellipsoid. Produced by irregularities in the
Earth’s mass distribution. See Figure G-1.
deformation coefficient: A measure of rock deformation
based on the ratio of its in-situ resistivity, velocity, or
fracture porosity to that when undeformed.
degaussing: 共dē gous’ ⳵ng兲 Demagnetization 共q.v.兲.
degeneracy: 共dē jen’ ⳵r ⳵ sē兲 The situation where more
than one eigenfunction is associated with the same
eigenvalue, as where two vibration modes have the
same frequency. S-waves have a degeneracy of two
共SH- and SV-waves兲 in isotropic media.
deghosting: See deconvolution.
degree: The highest power that a variable assumes in a
polynomial expression, such as y⫽A⫹Bx⫹Cx 2 ⫹...
For a differential equation, the power of the highest
derivative. Linear implies that the degree is one and
that all terms beyond Bx are zero; quadratic, that it is
two and terms beyond Cx 2 are zero; cubic, three;
quartic, four; etc.
degrees of freedom: The minimum number of indepen-
dent variables that must be specified to define a system.
del „ⵜ…: The vector gradient operator. In rectangular coor-
dinates,
ⵜ⫽i ⳵/⳵x⫹j ⳵/⳵y⫹k ⳵/⳵z,
where i, j, k are unit vectors in the x, y, z directions. ⵜU
is the gradient of the scalar field U. The operator ⵜ 2 ,
the Laplacian, appears frequently:
ⵜ 2 ⫽ⵜ•ⵜ⫽⳵2 /⳵x 2 ⫹⳵2 /⳵y 2 ⫹⳵2 /⳵z 2 .
As an operator on a vector field V, ⵜ•V is called the
divergence, and ⵜ⫻V is called the curl. Del is also
called nabla and the vector operator. See also Figure
C-14 for expressions using del in cylindrical and
spherical coordinates.
delay cap: A cap that detonates a fixed time after an
electrical current is applied.
delay filter: See linear-phase filter.
delay line: A device capable of retarding a signal by a
fixed time interval. Electrical delay lines may use
capacitive and inductive elements. Coaxial cables and
transmission lines delay signals by the transit time
through the lines.
delay lock: A technique whereby a received code is com-
pared with an internally generated code and is time
shifted until the two match.
FIG. D-4. Refraction delay time. At the critical angle: source delay time⫽SB/V 1 ⫺AB/V 2 ⫽SE/V 1 ; geophone delay
time⫽CG/V 1 ⫺CD/V 2 ⫽FG/V 1 . Source delay time⫹geophone delay time⫽head-wave intercept time.
81 delta function
delay time: 1. In refraction work, the additional time
required to traverse a raypath over the time that would
be required to traverse the horizontal component at the
highest velocity encountered on the raypath. Compare
intercept time. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 439兲. The
concept implies that the refractor is nearly horizontal
under both source point and detectors. Delay time is
often assigned separately to the source and geophone
ends of a raypath. See Figure D-4. 2. Delay produced
by a filter; see filter correction. 3. Time lag introduced
by a delay cap. 4. In induced-polarization work, the
time interval between the ‘‘off’’ instant of the charging
current and the instant a measuring voltmeter oscillo-
graph is turned ‘‘on.’’ Delay times up to 500 or 1000 ms
may be necessary to allow dissipation of transient volt-
ages that are not related directly to the polarization
decay voltage.
delimiter: A special character in a string used to denote
units of various kinds 共e.g., blanks delimit words, peri-
ods, commas, delimit sentences, delimit parameters,
etc.兲.
delineation well: Appraisal well 共q.v.兲.
delta ␦, ␦ * : ␦ * is one of the Thomsen anisotropic
parameters 共q.v.兲:
␦ * 共 delta* 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2c 2 33 兲关 2 共 c 13 ⫹c 14 兲 2
⫺ 共 c 33 ⫺c 44 兲共 c 11 ⫹c 33 ⫺2c 44 兲兴 ,
where c i j indicate elements in the elastic constants
matrix. Another Thomsen anisotropic parameter is ␧,
and with weak anisotropy, ␦, which is independent of ␧,
is generally used instead of ␦ * ; it is the most critical
factor for transverse isotropy:
␦ 共 delta兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 兲关 ␧⫹ ␦ * / 共 1⫺ ␤ 2 / ␣ 2 兲兴
⫽ 关共 c 13 ⫹c 14 兲 2 ⫺ 共 c 33 ⫺c 44 兲 2 兴 /
关 2C 33 共 c 33 ⫺c 44 兲兴 .
Several seismic expressions involve ␦, such as the
short-offset moveout correction to the vertical velocity,
V NMO⫽ ␣ 储 (1⫹ ␦ ). For long offsets, another anisotropy
parameter, ␩ 共eta兲 captures the deviation of long-offset
P-wave moveout from what it would have been for
isotropicity:
␩ ⫽ 共 ␧⫺ ␦ 兲 / 共 1⫹2 ␦ 兲 .
delta function: 1. An impulse 共q.v.兲. 2. Kronecker delta
共q.v.兲.
delta t „⌬t…
delta t „⌬t兲: Moveout or stepout. 1. The time difference
between the arrival times at different geophone groups.
See dip moveout and dip calculation. ⌬t ordinarily
does not imply normal moveout unless specifically
stated. 2. Interval transit time, as used with the sonic
log.
demagnetization: 1. A method for determining the stable
component of remanent magnetization by partial
demagnetization and removal of components with low
coercive force. The specimen is placed in a space with
nulled field 共such as produced with Helmholz coils兲 and
then subjected to an alternating magnetic field that is
reduced gradually by decreasing the current of the field
coil or by removing the specimen from the coil. 2.
Reducing the magnetic field to zero to effect complete
demagnetization to clean a magnetic tape 共remove the
data stored on it兲 so that the tape can be reused. A tape
may be rotated during the demagnetization to remove
the effect of the Earth’s magnetic field. Also called
alternating-field demagnetization and degaussing.
demigration: 1. Creating a zero-offset synthetic seismic
section from a structural model. 2. Inverting the seismic
migration process, e.g., to enable use of a different
velocity model.
demodulation: The process of retrieving an original sig-
nal from a modulated signal.
Demoivre’s theorem: 共de mauv’兲 The relationship,
e ir ␪ ⫽ 共 cos ␪ ⫹i sin ␪ 兲 r ⫽cos r ␪ ⫹i sin r ␪ ,
where i⫽ 公(⫺1). Named for Abraham Demoivre
FIG. D-5. Density log. (a) Schematic of compensated density logging sonde. (b) Log showing the density ␳ b and the
correction for mudcake, etc., ⌬␳. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
82 density
共1667–1754兲, English mathematician. Also spelled De
Moivre.
deMorgan’s theorems: See Boolean algebra. Named for
Augustus deMorgan 共1806 –1871兲, English mathemati-
cian.
demulsifier: A chemical used to break down oil/water
emulsions by reducing the surface tension of the oil
film surrounding water droplets.
demultiplex: To separate the individual component chan-
nels that have been multiplexed. See multiplexed for-
mat.
dendrite: One of the branching fibers of a neuron that
conveys impulses. Used with neural networks.
Densilog: A density log 共q.v.兲. Densilog is a Dresser Atlas
tradename.
densimeter: 共den sim’ i t⳵r兲 An instrument for measuring
intensity of electromagnetic 共usually light兲 radiation, as
in determining albedo from remote sensing images.
densitometer: A device to measure the optical density of
a small area of an image.
density: 1. Mass per unit volume. Commonly measured in
g/cm3 or kg/m3, often without the units being expressed
explicitly. Bulk rock densities vary mainly because of
porosity and are generally in the range 1.9–2.8 g/cm3.
The ratio of density to that of water is called specific
gravity and is dimensionless. 2. Frequency of occur-
rence. 3. The equivalent position of a color on a gray
scale. See Figure C-7a. 4. A measure of the degree of
blackening of an exposed photograph after develop-
ment.
density basement
density basement: Where a very large density contrast
exists so that anomalies resulting from deeper contrasts
are lost in the noise.
density contrast: The difference in density between two
formations or rock units. Lateral density contrasts are
responsible for lateral changes in the Earth’s gravity.
density log: A well log that records formation density. The
logging tool consists of a gamma-ray source 共e.g.,
Cs137 兲 and a detector so shielded that it records back-
scattered gamma rays from the formation. This second-
ary radiation depends on the density of electrons, which
is roughly proportional to the bulk density. The com-
pensated density-logging tool 共FDC兲 includes a second
detector that responds more to the mud cake and small
borehole irregularities; its response is used to correct
the readings of the main detector. See Figure D-5.
Sometimes called gamma-gamma log. Compare
nuclear cement log and photon log.
density profile: A line of gravity readings taken over a
FIG. D-6. Depositional patterns resulting from the combination of relative sea level changes and depositional influx.
These patterns are sometimes resolvable in seismic data. The progradational patterns are called clinoforms. (From
Emery and Myers, 1996, 25.)
83 departure curve
topographic feature having appreciable relief that is not
associated with density variations or structure, the
object being to determine the best density factor for
elevation corrections; Nettleton’s method. The most
appropriate density is the one that minimizes the cor-
relation of gravity values with elevation. Method
devised by L. L. Nettleton. See triplets and Telford et
al. 共1990, 18兲.
density slicing: Converting the grey tones of an analog
image into a series of discrete tonal ranges.
dep: DEParture 共q.v.兲.
departure „dep.…: The east or west component of a line
expressed in linear units; the difference of the longi-
tudes of the ends of the line measured at a given
latitude. For a line directed toward the northeast or
southeast quadrant, the departure is positive or easting;
it is negative or westing for a line directed toward the
southwest or northwest quadrant.
departure curve: A graph that allows one to correct for
dephasing
measuring conditions or situations that differ from
‘‘standard.’’ Such curves, for example, might correct
well logs for differences in temperature, hole diameter,
mud type, adjacent beds, invasion, etc.
dephasing: Converting to zero phase.
depletion drive: Production that relies on the natural
fluid-pressure energy to move reservoir fluids to pro-
duction wells.
depocenter: Area of maximum deposition indicated by
the maximum thickness of a stratigraphic unit. The
location of a depocenter generally varies with geologic
time.
depositional energy: See energy.
depositional patterns: See Figures D-6, C-6, and S-32.
depositional remanent magnetism „DRM…: See rema-
nent magnetism.
depositional sequence: A stratigraphic unit composed of
a relatively conformable succession of genetically
related strata, bounded at top and base by unconformi-
ties or their correlative conformities.
depositional system: A 3D assemblage of lithofacies that
are genetically linked. See system tract.
depropagation: Conceptually, seismic energy moved
backward into the earth from the line of observation.
Inversion using a wave-equation algorithm; downward
continuation.
depth controller: A device with moveable wings that
fastens to a marine streamer to maintain it at a prede-
termined depth; see Figure D-7. Often includes a mag-
netic compass. Also called a bird.
depth gather: 1. A collection of the seismic traces that all
reflect from the same point, often corrected for normal
moveout 共velocity兲. After correcting for various pos-
sible velocities, events on the gather are horizontal
when the velocities are correct. Same as common-
reflecting-point gather or common-depth-point gather.
2. The same sort of collection for converted-wave data
except for a common conversion point.
depth imaging: Depth migration 共q.v.兲.
depthing: Conversion from time to depth.
depth map: A seismic structure map that shows the ver-
tical distance from a datum to a stratigraphic horizon,
usually in feet or meters.
depth migration: Any migration that properly handles
FIG. D-7. Depth controller is clamped around (or other-
wise fastened to) streamer. When hydrostatic pressure is
less than the controller setting, the vane tilts so as to
cause the controller to sink as it is pulled through the
water. When pressure is greater than the setting, the vane
tilts the other way, causing the controller to rise. (Courtesy
Conoco.)
84 depth rule
both vertical and lateral velocity variations although
most programs are limited in dip. Depth migration
outputs an accurate image relative to the subsurface,
usually in depth, occasionally in vertical two-way trav-
eltime.
depth of compensation: The assumed depth at which the
pressure caused by overlying crustal elements is con-
stant and below which lateral density variations are
assumed to disappear. Involved in isostatic correction.
Sometimes taken as the top of the asthenosphere. See
also isostasy.
depth of invasion: See invaded zone.
depth of investigation: 1. The depth beyond the surface
to which an exploration system can effectively explore.
Depends on array design, spacing, property contrast,
body geometry, and signal-to-noise ratio. The maxi-
mum depth at which interfaces or the sources of anoma-
lies are resolvable considering the signal-to-noise ratio
and other measurement considerations. Also see skin
depth. 2. The radius of a cylinder about a logging sonde
within which 50% of the signal comes for electrical
tools, 90% for nuclear tools, a loosely defined standard.
See Figure D-8 and Spies 共1989兲.
depth of penetration: 1. Depth of investigation 共q.v.兲. 2.
Skin depth 共q.v.兲.
depth phases: Waves from earthquakes that begin by trav-
eling upward, such as indicated by lower-case initial
letters: pP, pS, sP, sS; ghosts.
depth point: 1. In reflection seismic work as a property of
a set of data, the position midway between source point
and geophone 共the midpoint兲, under which the point of
reflection is located if the reflector is horizontal and if
velocity layering is also horizontal, and if wave conver-
sion is not involved. Earlier called the ‘‘reflection
point.’’ 2. Sometimes used for reflecting points in the
subsurface, in which case its location may be different
for every event, depending on the reflector’s dip and
depth and the velocity distribution. 3. In refraction
work, the point for which the depth to a horizon has
been calculated, usually the point where the headwave
energy leaves the refractor to travel to the geophone.
See Figure D-9. See also conversion point.
depth probe: A group of profiles for which the measuring
system dimensions are successively increased, designed
to obtain information on the layering pattern in an area.
Also called sounding, expander, and depth profile. 1.
A refraction depth probe determines approximate
depths and velocities of refraction markers; also called
refraction test. 2. An electrical-surveying technique of
exploring vertically down into the earth by employing
an orderly horizontal expansion of the interelectrode
interval or by changing the frequencies. Data from a
depth probe are interpreted to give the depth to a
resistivity contrast or anomalous IP material if horizon-
tal layering exists. Also called vertical electrical
sounding 共VES兲. See two-dimensional plot.
depth rule: A rule relating the depth of a body to a feature
of anomaly shape. Depth rules apply to specific
anomaly source-body shapes; see Figure D-10. 1. Rules
used in gravity interpretation include 共a兲 half-width
rules 共the half-width being half the width at half the
anomaly amplitude兲: for point masses: depth⫽1.3
half-width, and for horizontal line masses: depth
⫽half-width. 共b兲 For thin semi-infinite slabs and
depth sampling interval
FIG. D-8. Depth of investigation and resolution for logging tools. Reflection seismic resolution is of the order of
10–100 m. (From Bourke et al., 1989, 31.)
faults: half the width between points where the anomaly
is one-quarter and three-quarters amplitude 共see Figure
H-1兲. 2. Rules used in magnetic interpretation include
共a兲 the straight-slope-measurement rule 共q.v.兲; 共b兲 the
Peters’ rule for dikes: depth⫽5/8 of the horizontal
distance between points where the slope is half the
maximum slope; 共c兲 the Tiburg rule for magnetic
poles: depth⫽2/3 of the horizontal distance at half the
maximum amplitude; 共d兲 the Hannel rule for magnetic
poles: depth⫽half of the horizontal distance at a third
the maximum amplitude; 共e兲 the Thalen rule: the depth
of a magnetic source is 0.7 the horizontal distance
between maxima and minima; and other such rules. See
also automated depth estimation and radial power
spectrum.
depth sampling interval: 1. The interval ⌬z for sampling
a sonic log to make a synthetic seismogram. Generally
⌬z⭐V min⌬t/2,
where V min⫽minimum velocity and ⌬t⫽time sam-
pling interval. 2. Time sampling interval 共q.v.兲 except
after conversion from time to depth. 3. In depth migra-
tion, the interval for sample outputs.
depth section: A seismic cross-section or record section
where the vertical scale is linear with depth. Usually
共but not necessarily兲 the data have been migrated so
that their horizontal and vertical locations represent as
nearly as possible the true positions of features.
depth slices: 1. Horizontal slices through a 3D depth-
migrated volume, sometimes a 3D time-migrated vol-
ume where arrival time has been converted to depth
85 deringing
assuming no lateral velocity changes. 2. The result of
applying a wavelength filter to potential field data to
emphasize anomalies around some depth.
depth slicing: A filtering technique used to emphasize
gravity and magnetic features with a particular apparent
depth. Based on power-spectrum slopes. Also called
pseudodepth slicing. See Ruder 共1997兲.
depth sounder: Fathometer 共q.v.兲.
depth sounding: Sounding 共q.v.兲.
depth stretched: Changing a seismic section from evenly
sampled in time to evenly sampled in depth, i.e., from
linear with arrival time to linear with depth assuming
no lateral changes in velocity. A processing step
employed before frequency-domain migration.
depth-velocity ambiguity: Conversion from a time sec-
tion to a depth section requires better knowledge of the
velocity than is usually available, so that uncertainties
in depth result from the uncertainties in velocity. Depth
migration 共q.v.兲 attempts to remove this ambiguity by
adjusting the velocity model to achieve the sharpest
image.
Deregowski loop: 共der ē gow’ sky兲 A technique used
where the velocity varies slowly in the lateral direction.
Depth-migrated gathers are corrected with a local
velocity function and then reanalyzed for velocity to
update the velocity field.
dereverberation: 共dē ri vur, b⳵ rā’ sh⳵n兲 Deconvolution
共q.v.兲 to attenuate seismic energy that bounces back-
and-forth in a surface water layer or other near-surface
layer. Also called deringing. See also Backus filter.
deringing: See dereverberation.
derivative map 86 designature

FIG. D-9. Depth point. „a… Midpoint, „b… reflecting point, and „c… refraction depth point. Where reflector dips, the
reflecting point is not under the midpoint and the subsurface coverage on the reflector is not exactly the difference
between midpoints.

derivative map: A map of one of the derivatives of a field
of values such as gravity, magnetics, time structure, etc.
The objective of a derivative map is to emphasize short
wavelength 共high-frequency兲 anomalies. 1. Dip and
azimuth maps generally involve the first horizontal
derivative. 2. With potential fields the second vertical
derivative 关based on Laplace’s equation, ⳵2 ␾ /⳵z 2 ⫽
⫺(⳵2 ␾ / ␾ x 2 ⫹⳵2 ␾ /⳵y 2 ) 兴 was once used widely, but it
has largely been replaced by the total gradient or total
horizontal derivative. The horizontal derivatives,
⳵2 ␾ /⳵x 2 and ⳵2 ␾ /⳵y 2 , are usually estimated by finite-
difference methods from values measured at gridded
points on a map, often using a residualizing template
based on polar representation of the Laplacian or by 2D
convolution with such a template. See Cordell and
Grauch 共1985兲.
derrick: See drill rig.
Descartes’ law: 共dā kartz’兲 Snell’s law 共q.v.兲. Named for
René Descartes 共1596-1650兲, French philosopher and
scientist.
designature: Deconvolution to remove the embedded
wavelet 共or a measured or modeled wavelet兲, i.e., to

FIG. D-10. Depth rules showing where various measurements are made on an anomaly curve. Sokolov distance
⫽horizontal distance between intersections of maximum-slope line with the regional and with the line parallel to the
regional through the maximum. Peters distance⫽horizontal distance between half the maximum slope points. Maxi-
mum-slope distance⫽horizontal distance over which the curve is approximately a straight line with the maximum
slope. Hannel distance⫽horizontal distance between points having the maximum amplitude and 1/3 of that amplitude.
Half-width distance⫽horizontal distance between points having the maximum amplitude and 1/2 of that amplitude
[sometimes half width (q.v.) is defined differently].
design gate
estimate what would have resulted from an impulsive
source with broad bandwidth.
design gate: The aperture or window that contains the
data from which parameters are to be determined.
desk accessory: A small computer program, usually a
utility program, that is usable while running another
program.
despiking: Removing spikes that are attributed to noise.
destripping: 1. Eliminating stripes caused by a mismatch
of the sensors in Landsat’s simultaneous scan lines. 2.
Suppressing amplitude stripes caused by acquisition
variations.
destructive interference: See interference.
det: 1 DETonator; an explosive cap 共q.v.兲. 2. DETermi-
nant 共q.v.兲.
detachment zone: See décollement.
detail survey: A survey run after a prospect has been
located, the objective of which is to define details of the
prospect.
detectable limit: The minimum thickness for a bed to
give a reflection that stands out above the background.
Often of the order of 1/25 of the dominant wavelength.
Also called the limit of visibility. Compare resolvable
limit.
detection: In general, signal-processing procedure for
making choices about competitive decisions. Detection
often involves nonlinear signal processing. Binary
detection requires a choice between two decisions.
detector: 1. A device that senses or measures a phenom-
enon; a sensor. 2. A geophone 共q.v.兲.
determinant: A scalar function of a square matrix 共A兲:
det A⫽ 兺a
i
ik A ik ⫽ 兺a
k
ik A ik ,
where A ik is the cofactor of the element a ik . The
cofactor is (⫺1) i⫹k times the matrix found by deleting
the ith row and the kth column.
determinant resistivity: A term used with magnetotellu-
ric methods 共q.v.兲 for the apparent resistivity ␳ a based
on the magnetotelluric impedance tensor, Z:
␳ a⫽ 共 1/ ␻ ␮ 0 兲 det共 Z兲 ,
where ␻ ⫽angular frequency and ␮ 0 ⫽permeability of
free space. This parameter is rotationally invariant and
thus independent of the choice of coordinate axes, as
contrasted with other apparent resistivity definitions
based upon individual components of Z. See Ber-
dichevsky and Dimitriev 共1976兲.
deterministic: From a certain set of causes, a unique
situation will develop. As opposed to probabilistic,
which leads only to the probability that certain situa-
tions will follow.
deterministic deconvolution: Deconvolution where the
particulars of the filter whose effects are to be removed
are known 共or assumed兲. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
292兲
detonating cord: An explosive rope. A detonation at one
end starts an explosion wave traveling down the cord,
detonating other explosives that may be attached to the
cord.
detonator: Cap 共q.v.兲.
detrending: Removing the average or a linear trend from
a data set prior to Fourier analysis.
87 diamagnetic
detrital remanent magnetism „DRM…: See remanent
magnetism.
detuning: Adjusting amplitudes to remove variations
caused by the tuning effect 共q.v.兲 in the vicinity of a
quarter wavelength thickness.
development well: A well drilled within an area believed
to be productive of oil, gas or other economic resource
previously discovered by an exploratory well. Compare
wildcat well, appraisal well.
deviation: 1. In drilling, departure of a borehole from
vertical. See drift, directional survey, and rectify. 2.
Angle with the vertical.
deviation of mean: Standard deviation 共q.v.兲.
deviatoric stress: 共dēv, ē ⳵ tor ik’兲 The stress tensor can
be considered the sum of an isotropic part plus a
deviatoric part 共deviatorix兲. See Bullen and Bolt
共1985兲.
Devilish: An early method of accomplishing DMO pro-
cessing 共q.v.兲. A Digicon tradename.
dextral: 共dek’ str⳵l兲 Rotation to the right or clockwise. A
dextral strike-slip fault is also called right lateral.
Opposite is sinistral. See Figure F-4.
DFN: Delayed Fission Neutron log.
DFS: Digital 共seismic兲 Field System. Texas Instruments
tradename.
DGPS: Differential Global Positioning System 共q.v.兲.
DHD, DHI: Direct Hydrocarbon Detection/Indicator, a
misnomer because it is not ‘‘direct.’’ See hydrocarbon
indicators. DHI has also been called a ‘‘dry-hole indi-
cator’’ because of applying it inappropriately without
completely understanding it.
diachronous: 共dı̄ ak’ r⳵ n⳵s兲 A rock type that in different
areas is of different age; time-transgressive.
diagenesis: Any chemical, physical, or biological change
that a sediment has undergone after it is deposited
共except for weathering and metamorphism兲. It
embraces processes such as compaction, cementation,
leaching, hydration, recrystalization, replacement, dolo-
mitization, reworking, authigenesis, bacterial action,
and concretion formation. Diagenesis may destroy or
create porosity 共secondary porosity兲 or permeability.
diagenetic magnetite: A magnetic mineral formed as a
replacement mineral by sedimentary diagenetic pro-
cesses including hydrothermal alteration, temperature,
pressure, change in EH/pH, dolomitization, and other
mineralization changes. Sometimes formed by hydro-
carbon seepage.
diagnostic check: A routine designed to locate malfunc-
tions.
dialog box: A pop-up on a computer screen that asks for
information or a decision.
diagonal matrix: A matrix that has zeros for all elements
not on the principal diagonal.
dialogue mode: See interactive.
diamagnetic: 共dı̄, ⳵ mag net’ ik兲 Having net negative
magnetic susceptibility and a permeability less than that
of free space 共less than unity in the cgs system兲. The
motion of an electron about a nucleus produces a min-
iature circular current whose magnetic-moment vector
precesses around an applied external field. This addi-
tional periodic motion produces a magnetic moment
opposite in direction to the applied field. Diamagnetic
effects rarely exceed one nanotesla, the most evident
diamagnetic anomalies caused by salt domes generally
diamond array
are evident only because other magnetic sources are so
far away. Compare paramagnetic and ferromagnetic.
diamond array: A type of geophone or source point array
in which the elements are laid out on a grid of lines at
about 45° to the seismic line, the pattern having the
general shape of a diamond. See Figure A-20.
diapir: 共dı̄’ ⳵ per兲 A flow structure whose mobile core has
pierced overlying rocks. Salt and shale are the most
common sedimentary rocks involved in diapirs. Intru-
sive rocks can also form diapir-like features but ‘‘dia-
piric’’ is usually restricted to plastic flow.
dichroic: 共dı̄ krō’ ik兲 A beam-splitting mirror that effi-
ciently reflects certain wavelengths while transmitting
others.
dictionary: A database in which identifiers are structured
and regulated. Identifiers have persistent meaning in all
logical files in which they occur.
die-away: See pulsed neutron-capture log.
dielectric constant „␧…: 共dı̄, ⳵ lek’ trik兲 A measure of the
capacity of a material to store charge when an electric
field is applied. It is the dimensionless ratio of the
capacitivity or permittivity, the ratio of the electrical
displacement D to the electric field strength E, of the
material to that of free space:
D⫽␧E.
Also called specific inductive capacity. It is frequency
and temperature dependent. Typical values are 1.0 for
air, 80 for water, 5-20 for granite, 3-100 for dry-to-
moist sand. A complex relative permittivity ␧ * is
sometimes used:
␧ * ⫽␧⫺ j␧ ⬙ ,
where ␧ ⬙ is the dielectric loss factor, a measure of the
loss of energy through conductivity, polarization cur-
rents, etc.
dielectric log: A class of high-frequency, electric-logging
sondes that operate at a single frequency in the MHz to
low GHz range to measure formation effects of phase-
shift, amplitude, and attenuation on a transmitted elec-
tromagnetic wave. Phase shift, related to dielectric per-
mittivity, is treated as propagation time, t p , a quantity
virtually independent of salinity for water but signifi-
cantly lower than for oil, gas, or rock materials. If the
lithology is known, t p 共corrected for attenuation兲 may
allow porosity determination. The dielectric log offers a
means to calculate residual hydrocarbon saturation in
the shallow flushed zone.
dielectric loss: The energy loss per cycle in a dielectric
material resulting from conduction and slow polariza-
tion currents or other dissipative effects.
dielectric permittivity: Dielectric constant 共q.v.兲.
dielectric polarization: The response of a dielectric mate-
rial to an electric field, producing an induced dipole-
moment per unit volume. In an insulating dielectric
material, no net electric charge need be transferred by
the exciting field. By some definitions, induced polar-
ization is a lossy type of dielectric polarization with a
long time constant.
dielectric susceptibility: See electric susceptibility.
difference section, difference map, difference volume:
The result of subtracting one section, map, or volume
from another. 1. Where two maps/sections/volumes
88 differentiator
were acquired at different times, the difference 共time-
lapse mapÕsection兲 shows the changes that have
occurred. 2. Where the two maps are of different hori-
zons, the difference 共isotime or isopach map兲 repre-
sents the thickness of the intervening interval. Thick-
ness changes may suggest changes in deposition or
removal subsequent to deposition.
differential: 1. A difference between quantities. Thus, a
differential voltmeter measures the difference between
voltages. 2. A differential input on a voltmeter helps
reject noise that originates from the ground. See
common-mode rejection.
differential compaction: Uneven settling of sediments as
a result of loss of porosity. Differences in the irrevers-
ible volume change that rocks suffer when put under
pressure, as by the weight of sediments deposited on
top of them. Reefs, for example, are often less com-
pactable than surrounding shales; the greater compac-
tion of the shales thus produces a drape structure over
the reef, and the amount of the vertical expression of
the drape features becomes smaller gradually with
height above the reef.
differential curvature: For a gravitational equipotential
surface, this is the difference between the curvature of
the surface in the direction in which it curves the most
and the curvature at right angles to this direction, mul-
tiplied by the gravitational constant. Measured by the
torsion balance. Also called horizontal directive ten-
dency „HDT….
differential Global Positioning System „DGPS…: A Glo-
bal Positioning System 共q.v.兲 method for locating a
mobile station that employs a nearby fixed reference
station at a known location to remove unaccounted-for
deviations in a satellite’s location or in the travel path of
its signal through the atmosphere.
differential normal moveout: 1. The difference between
the normal moveouts of adjacent channels within a
gather. 2. Sometimes refers to residual normal moveout
共q.v.兲, the normal moveout that remains after an incor-
rectly assumed amount is removed. 3. Also, may refer
to the difference between the normal moveout for pri-
mary events and that for multiples.
differential pressure: 1. The effective stress on a rock,
the difference between the pressure of a rock’s pore
fluid and that produced by the weight of the overbur-
den. It is important in drilling boreholes, controlling
compaction, and determining seismic velocity. Also
called Terzaghi effective stress. See normal pressure.
2. What drillers mean by differential pressure is usually
the difference in fluid pressures across the borehole
wall, the difference between the pressure induced by
the mud column and that of the formation fluid.
differential weathering correction: The difference
between the weathering corrections at two locations, for
example, at two nearby geophone groups.
differentiation: 1. A mathematical operation giving the
rate of change 共slope兲 of a function with respect to
some variable. The equivalent operation for discrete
series is convolution with the operator 关⫺1, ⫹1兴. 2.
Separation according to some criteria, such as particle
size. 3. Separation of a magma into fractions of differ-
ent bulk composition.
differentiator: Convolution with 关⫹1,⫺1兴, which thereby
diffracted reflection
determines the slope between adjacent samples for a
sample interval of unity.
diffracted reflection: The diffraction resulting from
reflected energy striking a diffracting point; its curva-
ture is appropriate to the diffracting point depth, not to
the arrival time.
diffraction: 共di frak’ sh⳵n or dif frak’ sh⳵n兲 A redistribu-
tion in space of the intensity of waves resulting from
the presence of an object. 1. Penetration of wave energy
into areas forbidden by geometrical optics, e.g., the
bending of wave energy around obstacles without obey-
ing Snell’s law, as explained by Huygens’ principle.
The phenomenon by which energy is transmitted later-
ally along a wave crest. When a portion of a wavetrain
is interrupted by a barrier, diffraction allows waves to
propagate into the region of the barrier’s geometric
shadow. See Figure D-11. 2. An event observed on
seismic data produced by diffracted energy; see Figure
D-12. Such events result at the termination of reflectors
共as at faults兲 and are characterized on seismic records
and sections by a distinctive curved alignment. A
simple diffraction lies along a diffraction curve 共whose
curvature depends on the velocity distribution above
the diffracting point兲. Phantom diffractions involve
energy that reaches the diffracting point by a longer
route than the direct one 共as with a diffracted reflec-
tion兲; they have more curvature than appropriate for
their arrival time. Diffractions generated by a line
source that is not at right angles to the line appear to
have less curvature, becoming flatter as the line gener-
ating the diffraction becomes parallel to the line of
observation. A reflection can be thought of as the
interference result of diffractions from points lying on
the reflector. When correctly migrated, a simple diffrac-
tion collapses at the location of the diffracting point.
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 63-8 and 159-161兲.
diffraction curve: A curve of maximum convexity, the
relation between the arrival time and observer position
for primary energy that has been diffracted from a
point. See Figure D-13. 关One should speak of a diffrac-
tion ‘‘surface’’ to emphasize the 3D aspect.兴 The cur-
vature of reflected energy cannot exceed this curvature
共except for reverse branches and certain situations such
as diffracted reflections兲. Diffraction curves are specific
for a particular velocity function, like the wavefront
chart to which they are related and from which they can
be constructed. Diffraction curves are used in identify-
ing simple diffractions, locating the diffracting points
共see Figure M-11兲, in determining velocity from the
diffraction curvature, and as migration operators in
Kirchhoff migration 共q.v.兲. Errors in interpreting dif-
fractions can result if the diffracting point lies to the
side of the seismic line, if the diffraction event results
from a line diffractor that is not normal to the seismic
line, or if the diffraction is not simple. See Hagedoorn
共1954兲.
diffraction function: The function (sin ␲x)/␲x
⫽sinc ␲ x; a sinc function.
diffraction knot: Where diffraction 共q.v.兲 energy is
approximated by straight line segments and migrated
properly, the migrated segments cluster in an asterisk-
like ‘‘knot.’’
diffraction overlays: A set of diffraction curves such as
shown in Figure D-13, constructed for a specific veloc-
89 digital recording
ity function, used to identify diffraction events on
unmigrated seismic sections.
diffraction stack: A weighted stack of all the elements
along a diffraction curve, which yields a migrated sec-
tion 共to the extent that the data were 2D兲; the Kirchhoff
method of migration of reflection seismic data.
diffraction tomography: Tomography 共q.v.兲 that relaxes
the assumption that energy propagates as a ray, using
wave-equation propagation for finding the physical
properties under investigation. 1. A technique for cross-
hole tomography 共q.v.兲 based on analysis of the scat-
tered wavefield. 2. An inverse scattering technique that
images diffracted and scattered data. See Devaney
共1982兲.
diffuse layer: The outer, more mobile ions of an
electrolyte-solid interface that together with the fixed
layer constitutes a double layer. Also called diffuse
zone, diffuse double layer, or outer Helmholtz
double layer.
diffuse reflector: A surface that reflects incident rays in
many directions.
diffusion: 1. The motion of ions or molecules in a solution
resulting from the presence of a concentration gradient.
2. A method of heat conduction resulting from the
motion of molecules.
diffusion distance: The time-domain equivalent of skin
depth 共q.v.兲.
diffusion equation: 1. A simplification of the wave equa-
tion for EM-waves in a good conductor:
ⵜ 2 E⬇ j ␻ ␮ ␴ E or ⵜ 2 H⫽ j ␻ ␮ ␴ H.
where ␻ ⫽angular frequency, ␮ ⫽magnetic perme-
ability, and ␴ ⫽electric conductivity. 2. An equation for
the rate of temperature change as a consequence of heat
diffusion:
⳵T/⳵t⫽ 共 k/ ␳ c p 兲 ⵜ 2 T,
where T⫽temperature, t⫽time, k⫽thermal diffusiv-
ity, ␳ ⫽density, and c p ⫽specific heat at constant pres-
sure. See Fowler 共1990, 222–223兲.
diffusion impedance: See Warburg impedance.
diffusion potential: Liquid junction potential 共q.v.兲.
diffusion rate law: See Fick’s law.
Digihem: 共dig’⳵ hem,兲 A helicopter-mounted electromag-
netic method; see electromagnetic.
digital: Representation of quantities in discrete 共quan-
tized兲 units. A digital system is one in which the infor-
mation is contained and manipulated as a series of
discrete numbers, as opposed to an analog 共q.v.兲 sys-
tem, in which the information is represented by a con-
tinuous flow of the quantity constituting the signal.
digital clipping: Loss of the most significant bit of a
number, such as that produced by overflow. Produces a
different result from ordinary clipping and generates
spurious high frequencies. See Figure C-5.
digital computer: See computer.
digital filter box: A special-purpose computer to carry out
convolution 共q.v.兲.
digital geophone: A seismic sensor where signals are
digitized at the sensor rather than subsequently.
digital recording: Any method of recording data in digital
form, such as a series of magnetized or nonmagnetized
spots coded to represent numbers.
digital-to-analog „DÕA… 90 dike

digital-to-analog „DÕA…: Conversion of a digital 共usually
binary兲 number into a corresponding voltage.
digitize: To quantize. 1. To sample a continuous voltage at
discrete regular time intervals, quantize the measure-
ments, and record the values as a sequence of numbers
in bit combinations on magnetic tape. 2. To sample a
function regularly. Equivalent to multiplying the func-
tion by a comb 共q.v.兲. 3. To convert coordinates and
other parameters to a form that can be read by a digital
computer, as with an X-Y reader 共q.v.兲.
digitizer: Equipment for sampling curves, seismic traces,
or other data recorded in analog form.
dihedral angle: 共dı̄ hēd’ r⳵l兲 The angle between two inter-
secting planes.
dike: 1. A tabular body that is longer vertically than in
other dimensions 共as opposed to a slab兲; a prism.

FIG. D-11. Diffraction of a plane wave from a semi-infinite barrier. Schematic diagram showing the amplitude at time
t after the onset of the wave struck the tip of the barrier. Shown is the reflected wavefront, the wavefront that missed the
reflector, and diffractions from the reflector termination. Arrows point in the raypath directions. (Courtesy Chevron Oil
Co.)
dike 91 dike

FIG. D-12. Diffractions generated by the termination of three horizontal reflectors. The diffraction curvature becomes
smaller as depth increases. The diffractions under the reflector (the backward branch) have reversed polarity to the
branches that extend beyond the reflection (forward branch). The crest of a diffraction curve locates the diffracting point
and its curvature depends on the depth and the velocity above the diffracting point. Reflection amplitude decreases to
one-half at the point where the reflection is tangent to the diffraction curve and the diffraction-curve amplitude is
antisymmetric about this point of tangency. Amplitudes and waveshapes are continuous at the point of tangency. The
diffraction curve is hyperbolic if the velocity above the diffracting point is constant. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
DIL
Vertical and dipping dike models are used commonly in
potential-field calculations. 2. Igneous rock that cuts
across adjacent rock. Also spelled dyke. See Figure
M-15.
DIL: Dual Induction resistivity Log.
dilatancy: 共dı̄ lāt’ ⳵n sē兲 Volume increase caused by a
crack opening when a rock is under triaxial loading.
dilatancy theory: A hypothesis for the changes in rock
volume near a fault as the result of microfracturing
preceding an earthquake and consequent changes in the
ratio of the velocities of P- and S-waves, which are
used as earthquake predictors.
dilatation: 1. Volumetric strain, change in volume per unit
of volume. 2. A rarefaction 共q.v.兲.
dilatational wave: P-wave 共q.v.兲.
dilation: A transformation that changes only the size of a
geometric figure.
dilution of precision: The geometrical contribution to the
uncertainty in a kinematic position fix.
dimensional analysis: Equating units in a physical rela-
tionship so that the dimensions as well as the number
values balance.
dimensionless induction number: See induction number.
dimensionless units: Ratios that do not depend on the
units in which quantities are measured. For example,
distance is often measured in terms of wavelengths,
frequency is often expressed as a ratio to natural fre-
quency, etc. Often the same as normalized units; see
normalize.
dimple: A shallow velocity anomaly 共such as might result
from local permafrost variation兲 that depresses or raises
FIG. D-13. Diffraction curves or curves of maximum convexity. (From Hagedoorn, 1954, 116.)
92 diodic moveout
all seismic data seen through it and distorts the normal
moveout of deeper events by velocity focusing.
dim spot: A local decrease of the amplitude of a seismic
event. Where a significant acoustic impedance contrast
occurs in the absence of hydrocarbons 共as in a reservoir
with higher acoustic impedance than the surrounding
rock兲, the presence of hydrocarbons may lessen the
acoustic impedance contrast and hence the amplitude of
a reflection. See Figure H-10. Antonym: bright spot.
Dinoseis: A seismic energy source in which a plate is
driven against the ground by a confined explosion of
gas. An ARCO Oil and Gas tradename.
diode transistor logic „DTL…: A family of semiconductor
logic formed by diode gates that are diode-coupled to
the base of the output transistor. DTL logic is charac-
terized by medium speed, low power dissipation, high
drive capability, and low cost.
diodic: 共dı̄’ ⳵d ik兲 1. Behaving differently in different
directions, i.e., like a diode. 2. The traveltimes of
common-conversion point PS-waves change if shot in
opposite directions unless also changing P-source to
S- and S-receiver to P.
diodic moveout: With C-wave gathers the moveout will
not be symmetric and the arrival time expression is
t c2 共 x 兲 ⫽t C0 2 [1⫹C 1 冉 x
冊
t C0 V CNM O
⫹ 2 2
x2
t C0 V CNM O
冉 冊
x 2
C 4 关 x/ 共 t C0 V CNM O 兲兴 4
⫹C 1 ⫺ ,
t C0 V CNM O 1⫹C 5 关 x/ 共 t C0 V CNM O 兲兴 2
dip
that is, it involves odd as well as even powers of x 共see
Thomsen, 2002: 5–1兲.
dip: The angle that a plane surface makes with the hori-
zontal. 1. The angle that bedding makes with the hori-
zontal. 2. The angle that a reflector or refractor makes
with the horizontal. 3. Apparent dip is the angle
between horizontal and the component of dip in the
plane of a section. 4. Electromagnetic pitch 共q.v.兲.
dip-angle method: An electromagnetic surveying method
in which the dip angle of the total magnetic field is
measured. The secondary field resulting from eddy
currents in a conducting body changes the direction of
the total field 共horizontal in the case of a vertical
transmitter loop兲 which would be measured in the
absence of the conductor. See Keller and Frischknecht
共1966兲.
dip-azimuth map: Displays of the azimuth of the dip
along horizon slices following correlated reflection
events through a 3-D volume of seismic data, usually
displayed by color encoding. Also called azimuth map.
Sometimes a display incorporating both dip magnitude
„dip map… and dip azimuth.
dip calculation: Calculation of the dip or dip component
of a reflecting or refracting interface from observations
of the variation of arrival time of seismic events as the
observing point is moved. May involve resolving cross-
spread 共q.v.兲 data. The dip angle for a reflection mea-
sured at the surface is usually less than the angle at the
reflector because of raypath curvature.
dip decomposition method: A Fourier-domain method of
DMO processing 共q.v.兲, superceded by the log-stretch
trick 共q.v.兲. See Jakubowicz 共1984兲.
dip filter: See velocity filter.
dip line: A seismic line that is perpendicular to the strike
of reflecting interfaces of interest.
FIG. D-14. Dipmeter log. „a… Log of field data. „b… Calculated dipmeter log or tadpole plot. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
93 dipole
dip log: A dipmeter 共q.v.兲 log. Diplog is a Dresser Atlas
tradename.
dip map: A horizon slice color coded to indicate the dip
magnitude.
dipmeter: The tool for measuring the dip of formations,
i.e., for making a dipmeter log 共q.v.兲. The resistivity
dipmeter includes 共a兲 three or more microresistivity
readings made using sensors distributed in azimuth
about the logging sonde, 共b兲 a reading of the azimuth of
one of these, 共c兲 a reading of the hole deviation or drift
angle, 共d兲 its bearing, and 共e兲 one or two caliper mea-
surements. Earlier dipmeters used three SP curves,
three wall scratchers, etc.
dipmeter log: 1. A well log from which the magnitude and
azimuth of formation dip can be determined; see Figure
D-14a. The microresistivity curves are correlated to
determine the differences in depth of bedding markers
on different sides of the hole and dip calculations are
based on such correlations. 2. A log showing the for-
mation dips calculated from the above, such as a tad-
pole plot or stick plot; see Figure D-14b.
dip migration: See migration.
dip moveout: 1. A change in the arrival time of a reflec-
tion because of the dip of the reflector. The quantity
⌬t d /⌬x in Figure R-9. 2. See also DMO processing.
dip needle: A magnetic needle free to rotate about a
horizontal axis.
dipole: 共dı̄’ pōl兲 1. A pair of equal charges or poles of
opposite signs that ideally are infinitesimally close
together. 2. In resistivity and IP surveying, a pair of
nearby current electrodes that approximates a dipole
field from a distance, or a voltage-detecting electrode
pair. Where the electrode separation is large, it is some-
times called a bipole. 3. In electromagnetic surveying,
dipole array
an electric- or magnetic-field transmitting or receiving
antenna which is small enough to be represented math-
ematically as a dipole. The near fields 共electric and
magnetic兲 from a magnetic and electric dipole 共respec-
tively兲 vary as the inverse cube of the distance.
dipole array: Dipole-dipole array 共q.v.兲.
dipole-dipole array: Inline electrode array used in
induced polarization, electrical, and electromagnetic
surveying, where both current and potential-measuring
electrodes are closely spaced. See Figure A-19.
dipole field: The major part of the magnetic field of the
Earth 共q.v.兲.
dipole moment: Two equal charges q 共or poles p兲 of
opposite sign separated by the distance ␦ x giving a
dipole strength of q ␦ x 共or p ␦ x 兲.
dipole moment per unit volume: A measure of the inten-
sity of polarization of a material. Units are ampere-
meters per cubic meter.
dipole sonic log: A sonic array tool in which sources are
dipoles as opposed to radially symmetric monopoles, so
that it generates both P- and S-waves in formations.
Analysis involves mode identification and analysis of
dispersion curves and yields both P- and S-wave veloci-
ties. A variant 共crossed dipole mode兲 is an orthogonal
set of horizontal dipole transmitters and an array of
orthogonal dipole receivers to measure azimuthal
anisotropy. This arrangement is suitable for detecting
azimuthal velocity variations in a borehole. The dipole
sonic imager „DSI… is a multiconfigurable tool that can
emulate a BHC sonic, a standard monopole array tool,
or an array dipole tool. Modes are configured to meet
the logging conditions presented by different borehole
environments. While monopoles work well in hard
formations where mode conversion is required for
S-wave recording, dipoles excite flexural modes
directly and are efficient for generating Stoneley waves
in slow formations. The analysis of the proper disper-
sion curves 共modes兲 leads to the estimation of S-wave
velocities in slow formations. Dipoles are directional
and are sensitive to azimuthal velocity variations.
dipole strength: See dipole moment.
dip resolution: 1. Calculation of true dip from cross-
spread data. 2. Recognition and separation of events
having nearly the same dip.
dip shooting: 1. A seismic field method wherein the pri-
mary concern is determining the dip of reflectors. May
involve either isolated or continuous profiles or cross-
spreads. 2. An attempt to acquire data so that the
source-receiver directions parallel geologic dip.
dip spectrum: 1. A graph showing the frequency with
which different dips occur. 2. Sometimes used for a
sonograph that displays coherent energy as a function
of apparent velocity 共or dip兲 and arrival time.
dip sweeping: See Rieber mixing.
dip time slice: See dip map and double time slice.
dip vector: An arrow on a map pointing in the direction of
dip. The arrow length sometimes indicates 共a兲 the dip
magnitude, sometimes 共b兲 the contour spacing, and
sometimes 共c兲 the portion of the line over which such a
dip direction is evident.
Dirac comb: A comb 共q.v.兲; a series of equally spaced
delta functions.
Dirac function: 共di rak’兲 A delta function or impulse
94 direct modeling
共q.v.兲. Named for Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac 共1902–
1984兲, British physicist.
direct arrival: Energy that travels by straight or shallow
diving raypaths from source to detector.
direct coupling: See coupling.
direct current apparent resistivity: See apparent resis-
tivity.
direct detection: A measurement 共never ‘‘direct’’兲 that
may indicate the presence or absence of hydrocarbons.
Sometimes considered synonomous with bright spot
共q.v.兲. Effective under some circumstances, but no uni-
versal method has been found. Also called direct
hydrocarbon detection or indication 共DHD or DHI兲.
See hydrocarbon indicator and Figure H-10.
direct interpretation: 1. Solution of the direct problem
共q.v.兲 or forward solution. 2. Direct mathematical
solution of a potential-field problem without use of
precomputed curves or models.
directional charge: 1. An explosive charge or charge
array in which the explosion front travels at approxi-
mately the velocity of seismic waves in the surrounding
rock, so that energy traveling in a desired direction
共usually vertically兲 adds constructively as opposed to
that traveling in other directions. The charge must
either be shaped to focus the energy in the desired
direction or have a length that is a significant fraction of
a wavelength to achieve appreciable directivity. Some-
times involves the use of broomstick charges, delay
caps, impulse blasters, or sausage powder. In refraction
shooting, a horizontal directional charge detonating at
the refractor velocity is sometimes used to concentrate
the energy traveling as a head wave. 2. Shaped charges
as used for armor piercing or perforating casing.
directional derivatives: The derivative of ␾ in the direc-
tion r1 is ⵜ ␾ •r1.
directional drilling: Intentionally drilling a well in a
direction other than vertical.
directional survey: 1. Measurement of drift, which is the
azimuth and inclination of a borehole from the vertical.
Often made from dipmeter survey data. Sometimes
involves a continuous log and sometimes measure-
ments made only at discrete levels. 2. An IP or
resistivity-survey method starting from a position such
as a drill hole to find the trend direction of an anoma-
lous subsurface body.
directivity graph: 1. A plot 共often in polar coordinates兲 of
the relative intensity versus direction of an outgoing
seismic wave such as that resulting from a directional
charge or from a source pattern; see Figure D-15a. The
directivity results from the interference of the waves
from the various components of the pattern. 2. A plot of
the relative response of a geophone pattern or of direc-
tivity resulting from mixing; see Figure D-15b. Direc-
tivity graphs may be specified in various units 共apparent
velocity for a certain frequency, apparent wavelength,
frequency arriving from a certain direction, apparent
velocity, etc.兲, as indicated in Figure D-15b. The verti-
cal scale is often logarithmic 共i.e., given in dB兲 rather
than linear. The effect on wavelets can be very different
from the effect on a sinusoidal wavetrain so that use of
steady-state patterns can be misleading. A plot in f-k
space is a form of directivity graph showing also the
frequency-dependency. See also Figure C-3.
direct modeling: Calculating the effects of a model 共q.v.兲.
direct problem 95 discrete Fourier transform

FIG. D-15. Directivity graphs. „a… Polar plot showing the relative amplitude of a radiated wave (or the relative sensitivity
to waves approaching a geophone array from different directions). The horizontal axis can be expressed in various
ways. „b… Directivity of five inline geophones spaced 10 m apart. „c… Response of a tapered array of five geophones
spaced 20 m apart and weighted 1:2:3:2:1; such weighting could be achieved with nine geophones distributed as the
weighting. (d) Response of nine geophones equally spaced 5.5 m apart. The solid curves are for harmonic (steady-
state) waves, the dashed curves for a transient with a bell-shaped spectrum peaked at 30 Hz and a width of 30 Hz.
(From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 249.)

direct problem: Computation of the effects of a certain
model; as opposed to the inverse problem of determin-
ing a possible model from observation of effects. See
Figure M-14. Also called forward problem.
direct-push: The use of the weight of a truck or other
heavy vehicle to push a metal probing device into the
ground. The force required to move the probe down-
ward is sometimes monitored to produce a vertical log
of penetration resistance. The probe is often instru-
mented with geophysical logging tools to obtain physi-
cal parameters of engineering or environmental interest.
No soil or rock samples are brought to the surface with
this technique. The hole may be backfilled with grout as
the probe is removed from the ground. Sometimes
referred to as a Geoprobe technique, which is a trade-
name.
direct recording: Magnetic tape recording in which the
magnetization intensity is proportional to the signal
strength 共or signal strength plus a bias兲.
direct wave: A wave that travels directly by the shortest
path. Other waves traveling by longer routes may arrive
earlier because they travel at higher velocity.
Dirichlet conditions: 共dir’ ⳵ klā兲 The necessary and suf-
ficient conditions for a Fourier series: In any region: 共a兲
f (x) is continuous except for a finite number of finite
discontinuities and 共b兲 it has only a finite number of
maxima and minima. Named for Peter Guster Dirichlet
共1805–1859兲, German mathematician.
Dirichlet problem: An initial-value problem where the
behavior of the points bounding a spatial region of
interest are specified as a function of time.
dirty: Shaly; containing appreciable amounts of shale dis-
persed in the interstices. Such shale lowers the perme-
ability and effective porosity and affects the readings of
many types of logs. A composite electrolyte system of
clay and sand can be responsible for membrane polar-
ization effects. Clay particles in the sand act as selective
ion sieves and surface conduction along the clay min-
erals causes low resistivity.
DISC: Distinguished Instructor Short Course, one of the
SEG’s annual lecturer series and corresponding books.
disc hydrophone: A piezoelectric hydrophone similar to a
bender. Two piezoelectric discs are supported around
their circumference so that pressure tends to bend them,
causing stresses that generate a voltage across the disc
thickness.
disconformity: An unconformity in which formations on
opposite sides of it are parallel to the unconformity.
discovered: See resource.
discrete Fourier transform: A Fourier transform 共q.v.兲
discriminant function
FIG. D-16. Dispersion. „a… Change in wavelet shape because of dispersion in a Voigt solid. Amplitudes have been
normalized. „b… Change of waveshape because of energy shifting to later cycles. The axes of time and offset could be
interchanged on either graph. (From Balch and Smolka, 1970.)
calculated for a wavelet over a finite interval so that
values are given only for the fundamental frequency
共the reciprocal of the interval兲 and its harmonics.
discriminant function: One of a set of mathematical rela-
tions used to divide measurement space into decision
regions in classification. Such functions usually result
from the study of a learning 共training兲 set.
discriminator: An electronic circuit that responds only to
␥-ray energies greater than some threshold value.
disharmonic folding: 共dis’ har mon, ik兲 Folding in which
there is an abrupt change in fold profile across a dec-
ollement surface.
disjunction: 共dis jungh’ sh⳵n兲 The logical operation,
‘‘either A or B’’ 共written A 艛 B兲, performed by an OR
gate. Also called union. See Figure B-5.
diskette: A floppy disk 共q.v.兲.
dispersion: 1. Variation of velocity with frequency. Dis-
persion distorts the shape of a wavetrain; peaks and
troughs advance toward 共or recede from兲 the beginning
of the wave as it travels. Leads to the concept of group
velocity U distinct from phase velocity V. Where ␭
⫽wavelength, f ⫽frequency, and V⫽phase velocity,
V⫽ f ␭⫽ f / 共 1/␭ 兲 .
U⫽d f /d 共 1/␭ 兲 .
The dispersion of seismic body waves is very small
under most circumstances, but surface waves may show
appreciable dispersion in the presence of near-surface
velocity layering. See Figure D-16. The dispersion of
electromagnetic body waves is large in most earth
materials. For ground roll and channel waves 共see Fig-
ure C-2c, d兲, phase velocity decreases with frequency,
sometimes called normal dispersion, and where veloc-
ity increases with frequency, inverse dispersion. 2. A
statistical term for the amount of deviation of a value
96 display
from the norm. See statistical measures. 3. Angular
dispersion is variation of velocity with direction, as in
an anisotropic medium. Leads to the concept of ray
velocity distinct from phase velocity; see Figure A-14a.
dispersion curve: A plot of wave velocity as a function of
frequency. See normal modes.
dispersion equation: A relation between angular wave-
number ␬, angular frequency ␻, and velocity V:
␬ 2 ⫽ ␬ x 2 ⫹ ␬ y 2 ⫹ ␬ z 2 ⫽ ␻ 2 /V 2 .
See Hilbert transform and Yilmaz 共2001, 489兲.
dispersive filter: A phase-shifting filter that does not
affect the amplitude spectrum.
displacement: 1. The distance a particle is removed from
its equilibrium position, as in the ground motion asso-
ciated with a seismic wave. 2. Relative movement of
the two sides of a fault. 3. The amount by which
refraction data are displaced horizontally from the geo-
phone positions to indicate where the head-wave energy
presumably left the refractor. Sometimes called offset
or transplacement. See Figure O-1. 4. See displacement
current.
displacement current: A current that is proportional to
the time rate of change of electric flux density. In most
earth materials, displacement currents are negligible
compared with conduction currents for the range of
frequencies used in electromagnetic methods, but dis-
placement currents dominate in radar methods.
display: 1. A graphic hard-copy representation of data,
especially of seismic data. See Figure D-17. A graph of
amplitude as a function of time gives a wiggle trace,
squiggle, or conventional display. Variable area dis-
play has the area under the wiggle trace shaded to make
coherent events more evident; it often involves a bias
and trace clipping. A variable density display repre-
sents amplitude values by the intensity of shades of
disseminated sulfide mineralization
gray. Superimposed modes or combined modes
involve the use of both wiggle trace and variable area or
variable density simultaneously; they retain many of
the good features of each type display. Data are also
represented by color encoding 共see Fig. C-7兲, and in
other ways. Color displays of different types are shown
in Figures D-18 and H-8. 2. A soft-copy representation
of data on a cathode-ray tube or similar nonpermanent
device.
disseminated sulfide mineralization: Sulfide minerals
scattered as specks and veinlets through rock and con-
stituting not over 20% of the total volume.
distal: 共dis’ t⳵l兲 Referring to the portion of a sedimentary
unit remote from the sediment source.
distance meter: A device for measuring line-of-sight dis-
tances, generally by transmitting a light pulse to a prism
reflector at a station and timing the arrival of the
reflected light.
distortion: An undesired change in waveform, as opposed
to desired changes in waveshape like those from modu-
lation. „a… Amplitude distortion is caused by undesired
FIG. D-17. Display modes. „a… Wiggle (or squiggle)
trace. „b… Variable area. „c… Variable density. „d… Wiggle
trace superimposed on variable area. „e… Wiggle trace
superimposed on variable density.
97 distortion point
amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics. „b… Har-
monic distortion is a nonlinear distortion characterized
by the generation of harmonics of an input frequency.
The percent harmonic distortion is a measure of fidel-
ity; if E f is the rms voltage of the fundamental and E n
is the rms voltage of the nth harmonic, the percent
harmonic distortion is
冉兺 冊 冒
1/2
100 E n2 Ef.
„c… Intermodular distortion is a nonlinear distortion
characterized by the appearance in the output of fre-
quencies equal to the sum and difference of integral
multiples of the component frequencies present in the
input. „d… Nonlinear distortion is caused by a devia-
tion from a linear relationship between input and out-
put. „e… Phase distortion results when phase shift is not
linear with frequency over the bandpass or where it is
linear but where the zero frequency intercept is not a
multiple of ␲. Where the intercept is a multiple of n ␲ ,
the waveshape is not changed in n is even and is
inverted if n is odd, although the entire waveform may
be delayed. See linear-phase filter.
distortional wave: S-wave 共q.v.兲.
distortion point: The input amplitude for which the
distortion-generated third harmonic becomes a certain
percentage, generally 3% but sometimes 1%. For
smaller inputs the system is nearly linear.
FIG. D-18. Displaying data at a work station. „a…
Synthetic seismogram or other data may be inserted into a
seismic section to aid in correlating. „b… A two-level
display showing data from two nearby time slices super-
imposed to illustrate dip magnitude and direction; the
black is 8 ms shallower than the green. See also Figure
T-6. (From Brown, 1999, 57.)
distortion tail
distortion tail: A correlation ghost. Harmonic distortion
with vibroseis surface sources produces spurious corre-
lations, especially for the second harmonic 共which may
be very large兲. This produces a distortion tail that
follows the correlation for a down-sweep and appears
as a forerunner for an upsweep.
distributed: Referring to electric circuits, the smearing
out of resistive, capacitative, or inductive circuit ele-
ments such as with a transmission line. Opposite of
lumped.
distributed computing: Use of multiple, loosely coupled
processing systems to accomplish a task; distributed
processing.
distributed systems: 1. A seismic recording system where
signals from one or more geophone groups are col-
lected at remote units before transmitting them to the
recording truck. 2. At-the-geophone digitization rather
than each geophone group having its own dedicated
channel to the recording system.
distribution function: A relationship that describes the
probability that a quantity will have a value less than a
particular value. It is thus the cumulative integral of the
probability density P[x] of the random variable x
共which is not necessarily a proper function兲:
冕
F共 x 兲⫽ P 关 x 兴 dx.
diurnals: 共dı̄ ur’ n⳵ls兲 Phenomena with a periodicity of
about one day. Changes in the geomagnetic field related
principally to the rotation of the Earth in the magneto-
sphere 共q.v.兲 and also involving amplitude and phase
variations with season and latitude 共by as much as 100
nT兲; records from a stationary magnetometer are used
for their removal. Average daily changes in radio-wave
propagation because of diurnal changes in the iono-
sphere affect radio-positioning systems. Published
tables allow one to correct for major skywave varia-
tions with systems like Omega, but unpredictable local
skywave variations and sun-spot effects remain.
diurnal variation: Daily fluctuations, also called diurnals
共q.v.兲.
divergence: 1. The decrease in amplitude of a wavefront
because of geometrical spreading. The energy in body
waves spreads out as the spherical wavefront expands,
causing the energy density to vary inversely as the
square of the distance 共spherical divergence兲. With
surface waves the energy density varies inversely as the
distance 共cylindrical divergence兲. Tube waves do not
suffer energy loss because of divergence. Energy den-
sity also decreases because of raypath curvature,
absorption, and other reasons. 2. The divergence of a
vector field is expressed in Figure C-14 for rectangular,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.
divergence theorem: The flux ␾ through a surface 共or the
integral of the vector flux density g over a closed
surface兲 equals the divergence of the flux density inte-
grated over the volume contained by the surface:
冕冕 冕冕冕
␾⫽ g•ds⫽ “•g dx dy dz.
Commonly called Gauss’s theorem.
divergent reflections: A reflection configuration 共see Fig-
ure R-8兲 indicating differential subsidence.
98 DMO „dip moveout… processing
diversity stack: A stack in which amplitudes that exceed
some threshold are excluded; amplitudes less than this
threshold may not be affected. Used with vertical stack-
ing to prevent occasional large bursts of noise 共such as
traffic noise兲 from dominating the stacked record, and
also used with common-midpoint stacking to discrimi-
nate against ground roll and similar high-amplitude
wavetrains.
diving waves: Refraction in a strong velocity-gradient
zone may reverse the downward component of seismic
ray travel and bend the rays back to the surface. Such
refraction arrivals have apparent velocity appropriate to
that at their greatest depth of penetration even when
they have no appreciable path through a distinctive
refractor. See Figure D-19. If there are no velocity
reversals, diving waves may be used to derive the
velocity distribution by means of the Wiechert-Herglotz
integral. See Meissner 共1966兲, Sheriff 共1989, 217 and
262兲, and Blondeau method.
divining: 共di vı̄n’ ⳵ng兲 Use of a forked stick 共or other
device兲 that allegedly bends toward water, petroleum or
other sought-for accumulations; used meaning ‘‘unsci-
entific.’’
Dix formula: 共dicks兲 For reflections from a sequence of
flat, parallel layers and small offsets, the interval veloc-
ity in the nth layer V n is given by
V n⫽ 冋 V 2n t n ⫺V n⫺1
2
t n ⫺t n⫺1
t n⫺1
册 1/2
,
where V n⫺1 and V n are the stacking velocities from the
datum to reflectors above and below the layer and t n⫺1
and t n are reflection arrival times. This formula is often
misused to calculate interval velocities in situations that
do not satisfy Dix’s assumptions. Named for C. Hewitt
Dix 共1905–1984兲, American geophysicist. See Dix
共1955兲. Some call this the Postma equation.
D-layer: 1. The innermost layer of the ionosphere. It
occurs at heights of 50 to 90 km during daylight hours,
reflects ELF, VLF, and LF waves, absorbs MF waves,
and partially absorbs HF waves. Some consider the
D-layer as starting at 70-80 km and merging with the
E-layer. See Figure A-22. 2. A layer within the Earth;
see Figure E-1.
DMO „dip moveout… processing: A seismic processing
operation to correct for the fact that, for dipping reflec-
tions, the component traces of a CMP gather do not
involve a common reflecting point. Dip-moveout pro-
cessing creates apparent common-reflection-point gath-
ers by a convolution applied to adjacent common-
midpoint gathers, with the feature that the moveout
with offset for reflections from a dipping bed no longer
depend on the dip angle 共see Figure C-9b兲. DMO
effectively corrects for the reflection-point smear that
results when dipping reflectors are stacked by the CMP
method. After DMO is applied, events with various dips
stack with the same velocity. DMO stands for dip
moveout, but it is different from the classical dip
moveout that is simply the effect of dip on arrival
times. DMO can be performed in a number of ways,
including prestack partial migration 共Yilmaz and Claer-
bout, 1980兲, time-domain, finite-difference methods
共offset continuation兲 共Bolondi et al., 1982兲, Fourier-
domain implementation 共Hale, 1984兲, integral 共Kirch-
DMO „dip moveout… processing 99 DMO „dip moveout… processing

FIG. D-19. Diving waves. „a… Raypaths are curved because of vertical velocity gradient. The inverse of the slope of the
time-distance curve indicates the velocity at the bottom of the travel path. „b… A large velocity gradient can produce a
reverse branch on traveltime-versus-distance curves. „c… An inversion of velocity may produce a gap in the time-
distance curve, but the gap (if small) may not be evident because diffracted energy may fill the gap. The lower velocity
layer constitutes a hidden layer (q.v.). „d… Diving waves reflected on their upward travel are called turning waves (q.v.);
they often show negative moveout with offset. Turning waves are sometimes used to map the overhanging flank of a salt
dome or the footwalll of a fault.
DMO „dip moveout… processing 100 DMO „dip moveout… processing

FIG. D-20. DMO. „a… Depth section showing the updip movement of the reflecting point for an offset geophone for
constant velocity; ⌬⫽(h 2 /D)cos ␰ sin ␰, where ␰ is the dip (Levin, 1971). To avoid reflection point smearing, an offset
trace should be gathered with the updip zero-offset trace at a distance G⫽(⫺h 2 /D)sin ␰, but such a gather is not
hyperbolic; the DMO correction makes this gather hyperbolic. „b… A diffraction in location-offset space, a Cheops
pyramid, is not a hyperboloid. „c… Applying NMO changes the Cheops pyramid into a saddle-shaped surface. „d…
Applying DMO along with NMO yields data that can be stacked without reflection-point smear. „e… NMO corrects for the
time delay on an offset trace assuming horizontality, DMO moves the data to the correct zero-offset trace for a dipping
reflection, and migration further moves it to its subsurface location. (After Deregowski, 1986, 13.)
DNAPL 101
hoff兲 methods 共Deregowski, 1985兲. Velocity-dependent
DMO is usually applied after velocity-dependent NMO.
Gardner’s DMO 共Forel and Gardner, 1988兲 applies
velocity-independent DMO prior to velocity-dependent
NMO. See Figure D-20 and double square-root equa-
tion.
DNAPL: Dense NonAqueous Phase Liquids, the most
commonly found environmental pollutants, typically
chlorinated solvents that are denser than water. Their
flow may be controlled by geology and gravity inde-
pendently of groundwater flow. Compare LNAPL.
DNMO: Differential Normal MoveOut 共q.v.兲.
document: A unit of information sent from servers to
clients; a file.
DOD: U.S. Department Of Defense.
DOE: U.S. Department Of Energy.
doghouse: The hut 共or cab兲 that contains seismic or well-
logging recording instruments in the field.
dog-leg: An abrupt angular change in direction, as in a
survey traverse or in a borehole.
dolomitization: 共dō, l⳵ m⳵d ⳵ zā’ sh⳵n兲 The process by
which limestone is converted to dolomite or dolo-
mitized limestone by magnesium carbonate replacing
calcium carbonate. Usually produced by flushing with
magnesium-bearing meteoric water or seawater.
domain: 1. The set of elements to which a mathematical
or logical variable is limited; the set on which a func-
tion is defined; the set of values that an independent
variable may take. 2. The class of terms that have a
given relation to something is called the ‘‘domain of
that relation.’’ Thus, when we speak of a seismic trace
in the time domain, we mean that time is the indepen-
dent variable; in the frequency domain, frequency is
the independent variable; in the f,k domain or f,k
space, frequency and wavenumber are the independent
variables; etc. 3. A region of magnetic polarization in a
single direction 共magnetic moments parallel兲 that
behaves as a unit during change in magnetization. The
dimensions of magnetic domains are about 1␮m. 4. The
areal extent of a given lithology or environment. 5. The
region occupied by a cluster set in cluster analysis.
dome: A structure where all of the beds dip away from a
central area; e.g., a salt dome.
Domenico effect: 共dō men’ i cō兲 A few percent of gas in a
rock’s pore space may have more effect on seismic
velocity than complete saturation; see Domenico
共1974兲.
dominant frequency: The dominant frequency is usually
determined by measuring the time between successive
peaks or troughs and taking the reciprocal. See Figure
W-2.
dominant wavelength: The wavelength associated with
the dominant frequency 共q.v.兲.
donor: See n-type semiconductor.
doodlebugger: A geophysicist engaged in field work.
Originally used derisively to mean unscientific.
doors: Paravanes, devices that hold streamers apart.
doping mud: Adding paramagnetic material to drilling
mud to kill the mud influence on NMR measurements.
Generally not required with modern instrumentation.
Doppler count: 共dop’ l⳵r兲 1. The apparent frequency of a
constant frequency signal broadcast by a satellite varies
because of the velocity of the satellite with respect to
the observing station 共Doppler effect, q.v.兲 共see Figure
Doppler sonar
D-21兲. A count of the number of cycles in a given time
interval 共Doppler count兲 along with knowledge of the
satellite’s position in its orbit 共which the satellite broad-
casts兲 can be used to determine an observer’s location
and velocity. This forms the basis of the Global Posi-
tioning System 共q.v.兲, as it did with the Transit system
共q.v.兲. 2. Doppler counting is also used in connection
with Doppler radar and Doppler sonar.
Doppler effect: Apparent change in frequency of a wave
caused by motion of a source with respect to a receiver
and/or vice-versa. Frequencies are increased if the
source and receiver are approaching, decreased if they
are moving apart; see Figure D-21. For sound and water
waves, the observed frequency f o is given in terms of
the source frequency f s the velocity of propagation V,
the velocity of the source V s , and the velocity of the
observer V o 共components of velocity toward each
other兲:
V⫹V o
f o⫽ f s .
V⫺V s
The relationship for light and radio waves is slightly
different because of relativistic effects and the con-
stancy of the velocity of electromagnetic waves irre-
spective of any motion of source and observer:
f o⫽ f s 冋 V⫹V o ⫺V s
V⫺V o ⫹V s 册 1/2
.
See Doppler navigation. Named for Christian Johann
Doppler 共1803–1853兲, Austrian physicist.
Doppler navigation: Positioning in which frequency shift
because of the Doppler effect is involved. Usually
refers to Doppler radar 共for aircraft兲 or Doppler sonar
共for ships兲, occasionally to satellite navigation 共see
Doppler count兲.
Doppler radar: A radio-navigation system used by air-
craft. A radio beam transmitted from the aircraft and
reflected back by various landscape features is received
at the aircraft. Because the aircraft transmitter and
receiver are in motion, the signal undergoes a frequency
shift 共the Doppler effect兲 which is measured and con-
verted to aircraft velocity. A computer on the aircraft
determines the plane’s position by integrating the
velocity over time. Actually, two transmitter-receivers
beam to the ground ahead of and behind the aircraft to
determine the forward speed and two transmitters beam
to the right and left of the aircraft to determine the
crosstrack speed. The arrangement is similar to that
used with Doppler sonar 共Figure D-21b兲. The Doppler
data combined with a compass heading give the direc-
tion of the aircraft. Velocity can be measured to about
0.5%, somewhat less over water because the surface of
the water may itself be in motion.
Doppler shift: 1. Change in observed frequency because
of the Doppler effect 共q.v.兲. 2. The shift toward lower
frequencies that results from stretching long-offset seis-
mic traces in the removal of normal moveout.
Doppler sonar: A sonic location system used by ships,
based on the Doppler effect. See Figure D-21b. Velocity
measurements together with gyro-compass direction
may be integrated to give position. Signals are reflected
from the sea floor or from the water mass 共volume
reverberation or water-track mode, often when the
Doppler sonar 102 Doppler sonar

FIG. D-21. „a… Doppler effect in observing a satellite. Along with knowledge of the satellite’s orbit, s, the time of closest
approach of a satellite in near-polar orbit gives the latitude and the rate of change of frequency gives the longitude. The
quantity measured is often the beat frequency (offset frequency) between the signal from the satellite and a reference
frequency. „b… Doppler sonar uses four transducers to send sonar beams fore and aft and to each side, and to receive
the reflections of these beams from the sea floor. The use of four beams allows the effects of the ship’s roll, pitch, and
yaw to be reduced. The ship’s velocity is computed from the Doppler-effect frequency shift of the reflected beams.
(Courtesy Marquardt.)
DOS
water is deeper than 600–1000 ft, but resulting in
poorer accuracy兲.
DOS: Disc Operating System 共q.v.兲. Often refers to an
IBM-compatible operating system used with personal
computers. IBM tradename.
DOSECC: Deep Observation and Sampling of the Earth’s
Continental Crust, a National Science Foundation pro-
gram to increase knowledge of the continental lithos-
phere, particularly by deep drilling for scientific pur-
poses.
dot chart: A chart used to hand-compute the theoretical
gravity 共or other potential兲 effect of a 2-D mass distri-
bution; see Figure D-22. The number of dots within the
mass outline when a chart is superimposed on a scaled
cross-section of the mass multiplied by the anomalous
density is proportional to the gravity effect at the chart
origin. Also called graticule.
double: Two joints of drill pipe or casing screwed
together.
dot product: The dot product 共also called inner product兲
of the vectors X⫽[x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 ,...,x n ] and Y
⫽[y 1 ,y 2 ,y 3 ,...,y n ] is
X•Y⫽ 关 x 1 y 1 ⫹x 2 y 2 ⫹x 3 y 3 ⫹...⫹x n y n 兴 .
The dot-product reverse is
关 x 1 y n ⫹x 2 y n⫺1 ⫹x 3 y n⫺2 ⫹...⫹x n y 1 兴 .
Compare cross product.
double Bouguer correction: 1. The Bouguer correction
共q.v.兲 to sea level for measurements made on the ocean
floor involves a correction to replace the upward attrac-
tion of the sea water above the meter with the replace-
ment density of rock. 2. Corrections for measurements
made in mines or in boreholes, usually involving mea-
surements made both above and below a layer.
double coverage: Reverse control 共q.v.兲.
double dipole array: Dipole-dipole array 共q.v.兲.
FIG. D-22. Dot chart (2D). The gravity effect at the origin of a mass anomaly of a given cross-section is k ⌬ ␳ n, where
k is a scale constant, ⌬␳ is the density contrast, n is the number of dots lying in the anomalous mass when superim-
posed on the dot chart.
103 double-square-root equation
double layer: The layers of molecular ions and charged
dipoles at a solid/solution interface. It is electrically
analogous to a capacitor in that there is charge separa-
tion between the solid 共electrode兲 and the charge center
of the oriented ions or dipoles. Next to an electrode
there may be an adsorbed fixed layer of ions called the
inner Helmholtz double layer. A diffuse layer 共outer
Helmholtz double layer兲 in the electrolyte contains an
excess of ions that is usually of the same charge as the
electrode but opposite to that of the fixed layer. The
thickness of the double layer is less than 100 Ång-
stroms (10 ⫺8 m). The double-layer capacitance is
effectively in parallel with the Warburg impedance.
double-layer weathering: Situation where corrections
must be made for two distinctive near-surface low-
velocity layers.
double precision: The retention of twice as many digits
共bits兲 to specify a quantity as the computer normally
uses.
double refraction: See birefringence.
double-run: A resurvey of a traverse to tie back to the
same reference point, to reinforce the certainty that
errors have not been made. Used where tie to an inde-
pendent reference point is not feasible.
double-square-root equation: The traveltime surface of a
point diffractor in offset space where raypaths are
straight and the source and receiver are not coincident;
see Figure D-20b. If x⫽midpoint location and y
⫽offset 共source-geophone distance兲, it is the surface
t(x,y)
t⫽ 关共 h/2V 兲 2 ⫹ 共 m⫹y/2 兲 2 /V 2 兴 1/2
⫹ 关共 h/2V 兲 2 ⫹ 共 m⫺y/2 兲 2 /V 2 兴 1/2 ,
where m⫽inline distance from diffracting point to the
midpoint and h its depth. The surface is called a Cheops
pyramid 共ke’ ops兲. This equation contrasts with the
doublet
hyperbolic single-square-root equation for a zero-
offset 共CMP兲 section,
t⫽ 关共 h/V 兲 2 ⫹4m 2 /V 2 兴 1/2 .
DMO processing transforms a Cheops pyramid so that
a cylindrical hyperbola 共see Figure D-20d兲 is obtained
after normal moveout correction with the correct veloc-
ity. After a transformation y⫽Ut that constitutes slic-
ing the pyramid by radial planes containing the x-axis,
NMO can be applied correctly.
doublet: 共dub’ lit兲 1. Two closely spaced peaks on a
seismic trace, between which the trace does not cross
the zero-amplitude axis. 2. A two-stick wavelet 关a,b兴,
whose z-transform is a⫹bz. If 兩 a 兩 ⬎ 兩 b 兩 , 关a,b兴 is mini-
mum phase; if 兩 a 兩 ⬍ 兩 b 兩 , maximum phase. Sometimes
called a dipole. 3. See doublet modulation. 4. The first
derivative of the Dirac delta function.
doublet filter: A digital filter containing only two nonzero
values, such as the differentiating filter 关⫺1, 1兴.
double time slice: Two time slices at nearby times dis-
played together but in different colors, so that the dip
direction and magnitude is evident. Also called a dip or
two-level time slice. See Figure D-18b.
double refraction: See birefringence.
doublet modulation: A phase-modulation scheme. Used
to encode the message broadcast in transit satellite
navigation. A phase shift of ⫹60° for 2.5 ms 共Figure
D-23兲 is followed by a phase shift of ⫺60° so that there
is no net phase shift. A bit consists of two such doublets
in opposite sense following each other by 5 ms.
double 2-D migration: Migration by first migrating in
one direction and then migrating this intermediate
result in the cross direction to approximate 3D migra-
tion.
double zig-zag: A recording geometry involving two zig-
zag paths for the sources.
Douglas sea state: A scale of sea wave heights. See
Figure B-2.
downbuilding: The concept that a salt structure does not
pierce its way up through the sediments but rather that
the salt stays relatively stationary while the sediments
around it subside.
downdip: The direction of the gradient, e.g., the direction
of surveying in which reflectors or refractors dip toward
the geophones.
downhole: Measurements made in a borehole.
downhole ground: A long electrode often attached to the
logging cable some distance 共perhaps 100 ft兲 above an
electrical logging sonde or hung just below the casing,
FIG. D-23. Doublet phase-modulation code used for the
message from some navigation satellites.
104 drag window
used as the reference electrode instead of a reference
electrode at the surface. Used in the case of bad SP
interference from electrical surface facilities or telluric
currents. Also called a bridal.
downhole method: 1. Measuring near-surface velocity
with geophones or hydrophones in a borehole and a
source on or near the surface. 2. Engineering seismol-
ogy measurement of P-and S-wave velocities using a
source at the surface and a clamped triaxial geophone in
a borehole. S-wave energy is often enhanced by use of
directional sources. 3. Induced-polarization method that
explores the region near a drill hole using a single
potential or current electrode in the drill hole and other
electrodes on the ground surface. Compare in-hole IP
method.
downhole motor: A method for rotating drill bits without
rotating the entire drill string. Used to drill horizontal
holes, laterals, etc.
downhole source: A seismic source located in a borehole.
downlap: Angular termination of a reflection event in the
down-dip direction against an older reflector; the termi-
nal event in a clinoform. See Figures R-8 and S-32.
downlap surface: An unconformity characterized by the
events above it downlapping onto it. Occurs in the
middle of a seismic sequence, usually within fine grain
sediments. See Figure S-32a.
download: To retreive files and applications from the
Internet.
downscaling: Making units smaller to show more detail.
downstairs: In the denominator of a fraction.
downstream: Refining, marketing, and transportation
operations, as opposed to upstream operations of
exploration and production.
downsweep: Vibroseis sweep in which the frequency
decreases with time.
downtime: Time when data is not being recorded.
downward continuation: 1. Determining the value of a
potential 共e.g., gravitational兲 field at a lower elevation
from values measured at a higher elevation, based on
the field continuity. A potential field is not continuous
across the boundaries of anomalous masses. As the
depth from which an anomaly originates is approached,
its expression becomes sharper and tends to outline the
mass better until its depth is reached; beyond this point
the field computed by continuation becomes erratic.
Noise data often precludes successful application.
Sometimes used in depth estimation. See continuation.
2. Calculating over a surface at depth the values of any
quantity that can be determined from shallower mea-
surements. Often refers to calculating the seismic wave-
field at depth, as is done in finite-difference migration.
DOWS: Downhole Oil-Water Separator.
dowser: 共dou’ z⳵r兲 One engaged in divining 共q.v.兲.
drag: 1. See drag window. 2. To pull a seismic cable into
position, especially a sea-floor cable. 3. The movement
of vibroseis sources between stations of a single source
array.
drag bit: A type of drill bit 共q.v.兲 characterized by fixed
teeth. See Figure D-26a.
drag window: A rectangle of data on a monitor screen
that can be selected and then moved about on the
screen; see Figure D-24. Used to determine how pat-
terns of events correlate across faults, from line to line,
etc.
drainage 105 drape planting

drainage: The region around a borehole from which fluids
are being produced.
drape: 1. Sag in bedding around a feature such as a reef,
usually as a consequence of differential compaction,
sometimes because of initial dip. 2. To drop a bottom
cable into place rather than drag it into place.
draped image: A display in which one quantity 共often
shown in color兲 is superimposed on the display of
another quantity.
drape planting: Geophones in an ocean-bottom cable

FIG. D-24. Drag windows allow data from different parts of a display to be moved to a different region to aid in
correlating, such as across faults. „a… Two drag windows at the bottom have been enlarged (zoomed) and juxtaposed.
„b… Sometimes a small portion of a display (the left rectangle) is moved to another part of a section to see how it
matches. (Courtesy G.S.I.)
drape survey
dropped onto the sea floor rather than dragged into
place.
drape survey: An airborne geophysical survey flown at a
somewhat-smoothed constant distance above the sur-
face rather than at a constant elevation above mean sea
level.
draw-down test: Observing the lowering of pressure as a
well produces fluids.
drawworks: The lifting equipment for pulling the wire
ropes, usually located on the floor of a drill rig.
drift: 1. A gradual and unintentional change in the refer-
ence value with respect to which measurements are
made. If drift is slow and fairly uniform in time, the
difference produced by drift can be determined by
subsequently rereading the value of the quantity being
measured and prorating the difference over other read-
ings made in between. Gravity-meter drift may be
caused by gradual heating up of the meter as the day
progresses, ‘‘creep’’ in the spring, elastic aging, hyster-
esis, lunar tide, etc. Drift is different from tare, which
is a sharp, sudden change in reference value. 2. A layer
FIG. D-25. Rotary shot-hole drill.
106 drill
of glacial deposits. Glacial drift may vary with position
and hence may require a variable correction on seismic
records, the effect being similar to that of a weathering
layer. Drift often requires a double-layer weathering
correction 共part for the entire drift layer and part for the
lower-velocity layer of the top part of the drift兲. 3. The
attitude of a borehole. The drift angle or hole devia-
tion is the angle between the borehole axis and the
vertical; the drift azimuth is the angle between a
vertical plane through the borehole and north. 4. A
shoran measurement of location with respect to one
fixed point. Measurement with respect to a second fixed
point is called rate or range. Both drift and rate values
are necessary to establish a fix. 5. A horizontal opening
driven from a shaft to an ore body, generally along
strike. Crosscuts are driven from it. 6. In geostatistical
analysis, a trend in data.
drill: A device for boring holes. Seismic shot-hole drills
are usually mechanically driven rotary drills 共see Figure
D-25兲, often truck mounted but at times portable. They
generally include the same elements as used for drilling
drill bit
oil wells 共see drill rig and Figure D-28兲, a means for
rotating the drill pipe and a pump for circulating a fluid
共mud兲. Water jets, auger, spudder 共q.v.兲 or percussion
共cable兲 tools, and air-blast equipment are also used
under certain conditions.
drill bit: The element on the end of a drill pipe that
actually does the cutting 共see Figure D-26兲. Drill bit
diameters are often 12.25 in. 共31 cm兲, 8.5 in. 共21 cm兲,
or 6 in. 共15 cm兲. A drag bit or fish-tail bit has teeth that
cut and tear soft formations as the bit is rotated. A roller
bit has hardened teeth on wheels that alternately put
formations under pressure and relieve the pressure,
which causes rock pieces to flake off. A diamond bit
uses industrial diamonds set into the cutting surfaces to
drill very hard formations. Core bits are designed to
retreive rock cores.
drill-bit seismic: Use of drill-bit noise as a seismic
source. See Tomex.
drill collar: See drill rig and Figure D-27.
driller’s log: A record that describes formations encoun-
tered and their depths. Lists the drilling time relative to
depth, usually in 5- to 10-ft intervals.
driller’s report: A record of what happened during each
shift 共tour兲: footage drilled, tests run, unusual circum-
stances, etc.
drilling: 1. Making a borehole; see drill and drill rig. 2.
Electric drilling⫽sounding 共q.v.兲.
drilling break: A sudden increase or decrease in the rate
of penetration by the drill bit. It sometimes indicates
that the bit has penetrated a high-pressure zone and thus
warns of the possibility of a blowout.
drilling recorder: An instrument that records hook load,
penetration rate, rotary speed and torque, pump rate and
pressure, mud flow, and so forth, during drilling.
drilling-time log: A record of the time to drill a unit
thickness of formation.
drill pipe: The pipe that is rotated by a drill, to which a bit
is attached and through which the drilling fluid circu-
lates.
drill-pipe log: A well log that is obtained from an instru-
ment that has a self-contained recording mechanism.
FIG. D-26. Drill bits. „a… Drag bit or fishtail bit; the teeth on drag bits tear into soft formations like sand and clay as the
drill stem is rotated. „b… Rock bit or roller bit; teeth on rock bits are on wheels that turn as the drill stem is rotated, so that
they alternately put pressure on the rock and relieve the pressure, which causes rock pieces to flake off. „c… Diamond
bits containing diamonds embedded in the bottom can be used in very hard formations.
107 drill rig
The log consists of self potential 共SP兲 and short and
long normals. The tool is lowered through the drill pipe
and the flexible electrode assembly is pumped out
through a port in the bit. The log is recorded by a tape
recorder within the tool during the process of coming
out of the hole. The tape is played back to obtain the
log. Welex tradename.
drill rig: The equipment for rotary drilling a borehole
共Figure D-28兲. Usually consists of hoisting, rotating,
circulation, blow-out prevention, and power systems.
Hoisting usually involves a derrick 共generally
assembled at the site兲 or a mast 共mostly preassembled兲
topped with a crown block 共an assembly of pulleys or
sheaves兲 and a traveling block 共a pulley assembly that
can move up and down that supports the swivel that
allows the kelly to rotate freely兲. Drawworks for pull-
ing the wire ropes are usually located on the rig floor. A
rotary table and kelly bushing to rotate the kelly and
drill stem is usually located in the center of the rig floor.
The kelly is a heavy steel pipe 共often square or hexago-
nal in shape兲 that passes through the rotary table and is
connected to the drill stem; it transmits torque from the
kelly bushing to rotate the drill stem 共drill pipe兲. The
rig floor is usually elevated to leave room for blow-out
preventors 共valves that can be closed in event high-
pressure fluids threaten to eject material from the bore-
hole兲. A drill bit 共q.v.; see Figure D-26兲 to cut or bore
the hole is located at the lower end of the drill stem. A
heavy drill collar to put weight on the bit is located
immediately above the bit and additional down-hole
tools are often located immediately above the drill
collar 共Figure D-27兲. Circulation is accomplished by
pumping fluid 共mud, q.v.兲 down through the drill stem
and bit and up in the annulus surrounding the drill stem.
The mud that emerges from the annulus is sampled, its
viscosity and density are measured, and gas and matter
suspended in the mud are removed to clean up the mud
and condition it for being pumped back through the
drill stem. Other types of drills are also used, including
the use of downhole motors often powered by the
circulating mud.
drillstem
drillstem: The length of tubular pipes that make up the
drilling assembly from the surface to the bottom of the
hole. Composed of the kelly, the drill pipe, and drill
collars.
drillstem test: A procedure for determining the potential
productivity of a reservoir while the drillstem and mud
are in the uncased borehole. The tool includes packers
to isolate the section to be tested, a chamber to collect
the formation fluid, and a pressure-measuring device.
After the packer is set, a port on the tool allows the
trapped pressure to bleed off, exposing the formation to
atmospheric pressure and allowing the well to produce.
Hydrostatic, flow, and shut-in pressures are recorded.
drill string: Drillstem 共q.v.兲.
drive: The energy source that causes fluids to flow. Natu-
ral drives include expansion of a gas cap, gas coming
out of solution as the pressure is lowered 共solution
drive兲, water drive, and gravity drive. Natural drives are
supplemented by secondary and enhanced recovery
efforts; see secondary recovery and enhanced oil recov-
ery 共EOR兲.
driver: Operating-system software that controls a periph-
eral attached device such as a printer or tape drive.
DRM: Depositional 共or Detrital兲 Remanent Magnetiza-
tion; see remanent magnetization.
dromochrone: 共drō, m⳵ chrōn’兲 A time-distance curve, as
for first arrivals. From the Greek for ‘‘running time.’’
drop: 1. To drop a weight on the ground to generate a
FIG. D-27. Drill-collar usage. A heavy drill collar puts
weight on the bit without bending the drill pipe. Increasing
the weight on the drill bit by pushing on the drill stem might
cause it to bend, resulting in a crooked hole.
108 dual polarity display
seismic wave; see thumper. 2. To eliminate, as in drop-
out 共q.v.兲.
drop-dead time: The latest time when something must be
done to affect an outcome.
dropout: A loss of information upon reading or writing on
magnetic tape. Usually caused by defects in the mag-
netic tape or dirt on the tape surface or recording head.
dropped coverage: Portion of a seismic line not shot,
usually for permit or access reasons or because of
danger of doing damage.
drop-point: 1. The surface location where a weight drop
occurs, usually simply called a source point. See
thumper. 2. The point where one drops an ocean-
bottom seismometer or ocean-bottom cable.
drop rate: The rate of decrease of deviation in the curved
part of a deviated hole; often measured in degrees/100
ft. Antonym: build rate.
drowning: A term for depositional environment changes
that stop reef growth, usually turbidity, temperature
change, areal exposure, hardly ever excessive water
depth since reef growth can be extremely rapid.
drum: 1. A 50 or 55 gallon steel container for liquids. 2. A
cylinder upon which wire rope is wound.
drunkard’s walk: A simulated annealing algorithm to
find an optimum in model space by sometimes taking
steps in random fashion but gradually biasing the walk
by taking more steps in the ‘‘uphill’’ direction 共assum-
ing a maximum is sought兲.
dry: Incapable of producing hydrocarbons.
dry gas: Gas containing less than 3 gallons/MCF of con-
densable hydrocarbons.
dry hole: 1. A well judged to be incapable of producing
oil, gas, or geothermal fluids in economic quantities.
Operations on such a hole are terminated by its being
‘‘plugged and abandoned’’ 共abbreviated P&A兲 instead
of being ‘‘completed.’’ 2. Any unprofitable exploration
venture.
dry steam: 1. Steam that lies above the vapor curve for
water, that is, has an enthalpy greater than that for
equilibrium with water at the existing pressure. 2.
Where the total mass is all steam. See steam quality.
DSDP: Deep Sea Drilling Project.
DSO: Digital Storage Oscilloscope.
DSS: Deep Seismic Sounding 共q.v.兲.
DST: DrillStem Test 共q.v.兲.
DTL: Diode Transistor Logic 共q.v.兲.
dual completion: A well in which two separate forma-
tions can be produced at the same time without mixing
their fluids.
dual induction log: An induction log 共q.v.兲 consisting of
two induction curves with different depths of investi-
gation. Usually run with a resistivity device that has a
shallow depth of investigation, such as a shallow Lat-
erolog or spherically focused log. Dual induction tools
operate around 20 kHz and measure phase and ampli-
tude. Also known as Dual-Phase Induction Log 共Baker
Atlas tradename兲. Now superceded by the array induc-
tion log 共q.v.兲.
dual polarity display: A section or map on which both
peaks and troughs are shown without one predominat-
ing 共as happens on variable area displays where the
peaks are usually shaded while the troughs remain
unshaded兲. Troughs may be colored red and peaks blue
dual recording 109 dummy variable

or black, or some other combination of colors may be
used.
dual recording: Parallel recording from the same input
data.
dual sensor: A combination of a gimbaled vertical geo-
phone and a hydrophone used together. The natural
frequencies and damping coefficients of the hydro-
phone and geophone are matched. The device is
attached to or contained within an ocean-bottom cable
(OBC) 共q.v.兲 that is deployed on the sea floor. The
signals from the hydrophone and geophone are
recorded separately at each receiver station and are
combined in processing to attenuate ghost reflections
and water-column reverberation.
dual-vessel operation: Marine survey using more than
one boat.
dummy load: 1. A load connected during calibration and
maintenance. 2. A ground-matching resistance used
with pulsed-square-wave transmitters to balance the
output load from the transmitter during the ‘‘power off’’
portion of the duty cycle.
dummy variable: 1. A variable that disappears in a defi-

FIG. D-28. Drill rig. A drilling rig includes component systems for hoisting the drill pipe and other equipment, a system
for delivering energy to (and rotating) the drill bit, and a circulation system for removing rock fragments, plastering the
drill hole, controlling formation pressure, cooling the bit, etc. (From Gerding, 1986, 112.)
dump 110 dynamic gravity

nite integration. 2. An identifier in a program that will dyke: See dike.

be replaced with another variable when the program is
run.
dump: 1. To write out for examination the contents of a
data storage such as a magnetic tape. 2. Unintentional
shutdown of a computer, as by loss of power.
duplex: Simultaneous and independent transfer of data in
both directions. Compare half-duplex and simplex.
duplication check: See check.
duricrust: 共dur’ ⳵ kr⳵st兲 A resistive, hard crust formed on
the surface of soil in semi-arid climates by minerals that
move upward by capillary action of groundwater and
are then deposited as the water evaporates.
duty cycle: 1. The proportion of time a switch is ‘‘on.’’ 2.
The percent of time in which current is delivered during
a complete cycle of a transmitter 共such as an IP trans-
mitter兲.
DVD: Digital Video Disc. A storage device with about 10
times the capacity of a CD.
dwell: The additional sweep effort applied to high fre-
quencies in nonlinear sweeps.
DWT: A Deep Well Thermometer, a sonde for recording
temperature logs.
dyadic: 共dı̄ ad’ ik兲 A second-order tensor.
dynamic: 共dı̄ nam’ ik兲 Involving force, sometimes in con-
trast to kinematic, which involves motion. From the
Greek for powerful; in contrast to kinetic, from the
Greek for motion.
dynamic bin: A term used in marine data collection for a
data window that varies dynamically with the line spac-
ing.
dynamic correction: Normal-moveout corrections 共q.v.兲;
which depend on record time.
dynamic correlation: A velocity-analysis operation that
involves cross-correlating traces for different offsets,
summing the cross-correlations for similar pairs of
traces over a number of nearby subsurface points, dis-
playing the cross-correlations for successive differences
of offset squared, picking alignments on this display,
and computing the residual normal moveout and stack-
ing velocity for such alignments.
dynamic equalization: Adjusting the gain of different
time windows so that all are comparable.
dynamic gravity: Gravity measurements made from a

FIG. D-29. Dynamic range concerns the magnitude of signals that can be recorded and recovered faithfully. For a
binary-gain recording system, the shaded area represents nonrecoverable signals.
dynamic memory
moving platform, such as a surface ship at sea or an
aircraft.
dynamic memory: A type of semiconductor memory in
which the presence or absence of a capacitive charge
represents the state of a binary storage element. The
charge must be refreshed periodically.
dynamic positioning: Remaining at the same location by
powering motors that receive their instructions from
navigation readings such as GPS.
dynamic range: 1. The ratio of the maximum reading to
the minimum reading 共the minimum often being the
noise level兲 which can be recorded by and read from an
instrument without change of scale. 2. The ability of a
system to record very large and very small amplitude
signals and subsequently recover them. The smallest
recoverable signal is often taken to be the noise level of
the system, and dynamic range as the ratio of the largest
signal that can be recorded with no more than a fixed
amount of distortion 共often 1 to 3%兲 to the rms noise;
see Figure D-29. However, sometimes signals that are
buried in the noise can be extracted. The definition
sometimes considers the entire signal extraction pro-
111 dynode
cess rather than the recording equipment only. 3. For
direct recording magnetic tape, the noise level is for
unrecorded tape; bandwidth should be specified
because selected narrow bandwidths may give
improved dynamic range. The maximum range of stan-
dard magnetic tape is about 50 dB, of high output tape
about 60 dB. 4. Instantaneous dynamic range or
significance is the smallest signal that will cause a
measurable change in the presence of a large signal.
Word length imposes a limitation 共14 bits represents
about 84 dB兲.
dynamic resolution: To read a weak signal in presence of
large signal; see dynamic range and resolution.
dynamic similarity: A ratio of masses, involved in physi-
cal modeling. See modeling theory.
dynamic structure: A data structure that may expand or
contract during execution of a program.
dynamite: A high explosive, originally one made with
nitroglycerin and a cellulose material, but now used for
any high explosive.
dynode: 共dı̄’ nōd兲 An intermediate electrode in a photo-
multiplier 共q.v.兲. See Figure S-2.
 E
E: 1. Exa, the SI prefix for 10 18 . 2. The electric field
vector.
␧: Epsilon 共q.v.兲. 1. Dielectric permittivity; see Maxwell’s
equations. 2. One of the Thomsen anisotropic param-
eters 共q.v.兲.
␩: Eta 共q.v.兲. 1. Electric susceptability 共q.v.兲. 2. One of the
Thomsen anisotropic parameters 共q.v.兲.
EAGEÕSEG 3D models: See SEG/EAGE 3D models and
Figure S-3.
E&P: Exploration and Production.
early-time apparent resistivity: See apparent resistivity.
earth, Earth: 1. Ground or soil, the solid component of
the Earth. 2. Ground potential; the electrical reference
potential. 3. Capitalized when it means the third planet
in the solar system.
Earth’s gravity field: The field varies from about 978 000
mGal at the equator to 983 000 mGal at the poles. See
International gravity formula and gravitational con-
stant.
earth holography: 共⳵rth hō’log r⳵ fē兲 Recording of the
wave pattern from a constant frequency source along
with a reference wave. The resulting hologram can be
viewed by light to allow one to ‘‘see’’ in 3D the
structure that generated the wave pattern. See hologra-
phy and Hoover 共1972兲.
Earth’s magnetic field: See magnetic field of the Earth
and normal magnetic field.
Earth model: A numerical representation of some prop-
erty 共e.g., seismic velocity or density兲 as a function of
location. Geophysical models of the whole Earth often
assume that it consists of concentric, homogeneous, and
isotropic layers within each of which the velocity varies
smoothly. The deeper layering and variation of physical
properties with depth is indicated in Figure E-1. Ray-
paths and wavefronts for direct P-waves are shown in
Figure E-2.
earthquake: Sudden movement of the earth resulting
from the abrupt release of accumulated strain, usually a
result of faulting or volcanism. An earthquake is clas-
sified according to the depth of its focus or hypocenter:
shallow ⬍60 km, intermediate ⬍300 km, deep
⬎300 km (sometimes⬎450 km). The seismicity of
an area is its likelihood of having earthquakes. Some of
the energy released in an earthquake is radiated as
seismic energy. Intensity is a measure of the effects of
the ground motion at a specific locality; magnitude is a

FIG. E-1. Earth layering. „a… Terminology. „b… Variation of physical properties with depth within the Earth. P
⫽pressure in 10 11 Pa, ␳ ⫽density in g/cm3, ␤ ⫽S-wave velocity in km/s, ␣ ⫽P-wave velocity in km/s, G⫽gravity in Gal,
T⫽temperature in K. The dashed curve represents the solidus in the core. (After Haddon and Bullen, 1969.)

112
earthquake prediction 113 eccentricity

measure of the energy released in an earthquake; see
intensity scale and magnitude of earthquake.
earthquake prediction: The aspect of seismology that
deals with the conditions or indications that precede an
earthquake, with the objective of predicting the magni-
tude, time, and location of an impending shock.
earthquake seismology: Study of earthquakes and their
resulting seismic waves as a means of understanding
the structure of the Earth. A schematic seismic record
showing several of the wave arrivals from an earth-
quake is shown in Figure E-3. The scheme for identi-
fying different arrivals is discussed under wave notation
共q.v.兲. The time intervals between different arrivals
depend upon the distance from the earthquake hypo-
center to the observing station; see Jeffreys-Bullen
curves.
Earth tide: Deformation because of Earth-Moon-Sun
gravitational effects. Produces displacements of the
solid Earth up to about 10 cm and creates up to 0.2–0.3
mGal gravity effect.
easting: 1. Distance east of a reference line. See depar-
ture. In the Universal Transverse Mercator system
共q.v.兲 each standard meridian is assigned the value 500
000 m so that distances west of it will have positive
values; this is called false easting. 3. Component of a
survey leg in the east direction.
EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code, a computer code for character symbols. Used
mainly on IBM mainframe computers.
eccentering arm: A device that presses a well-logging
sonde against the borehole wall. See Figure D-5a.
eccentricity: 共ek, sen tris’ ⳵ t⳵兲 1. The ratio of the focus-
to-center distance to the length of the semimajor axis
for an ellipse; see Figure E-12. 2. The condition occur-

FIG. E-2. „a… Earthquake wavefronts and raypaths for direct P-waves. (From Gutenberg 1959.) „b… Raypaths for some
reflected and refracted waves illustrating wave nomenclature. See also wave notation.
Eccles-Jordan trigger
FIG. E-3. Earthquake seimogram schematic (a) The vertical component; (b) one horizontal component.
ring when the source is not located at 共or perpendicu-
larly offset to兲 the center of what is intended to be a
split spread. This occurs on marine records when a
separate source boat is employed.
Eccles-Jordan trigger: 共ek’ ⳵lz jord’ ⳵n兲 A flip-flop 共q.v.兲
device.
ECF: Elevation Correction Factor. See elevation correc-
tion.
echelon: 共esh’ ⳵ lon兲 A staggered arrangement of parallel
features; see Figure E-4. Usually called en echelon.
echo check: See check.
echogram: An echo sounder or fathometer record.
echo logging: Ultrasonic surveying of a cavity such as a
storage reservoir in a salt dome.
echo sounder: Fathometer 共q.v.兲.
ecliptic: 共i klip’ tik兲 The apparent annual path of the Sun
among the stars. The plane of the Earth’s orbit and the
approximate plane of the solar system.
ecliptic coordinates: Celestial latitude and celestial longi-
tude.
economic basement: See basement.
EDA: Extensive Dilatancy Anisotropy. See anisotropy
(seismic).
eddy current: 共ed’ ē兲 A circulating electrical current
induced in a conductive body by a time-varying mag-
netic field. Lenz’s law states that the direction of eddy
current flow is such as to produce a secondary magnetic
field that opposes the primary field. The secondary field
has a quadrature component that depends on the ratio of
the resistance to the reactance of the eddy-current path.
In electromagnetic prospecting, eddy currents should be
distinguished from naturally occurring currents or those
of natural electrochemical origin.
edge detection: Processing to emphasize edge disconti-
nuities.
edge effects: Distortions at the edge of a domain that are
artifacts of the implicit assumptions of a numerical
algorithm or of the limited span of data used to solve
the problem. Common in computer contouring.
edit: To prepare data, text, etc. for processing. 1. Specifi-
cally, to prepare a digital tape containing geophysical
information. Editing often involves rearranging data
共reformatting兲, testing data validity, deleting unwanted
data 共killing兲, selection of data, insertion of data 共such
FIG. E-4. Echelon arrangement.
114 effort
as headers, process parameters, or instructions兲, break-
ing the data up into blocks 共gapping兲, etc. Editing may
involve some calculations 共such as removing the effects
of the gain changes that were made in recording and
substituting a correction for spherical divergence兲. It
may include static-shift and normal-moveout correc-
tions. 2. The removal of data that are judged not to be
members of the set to be analyzed 共perhaps because a
measurement does not fit with other data兲, e.g., the
removal from navigation-satellite data of Doppler
counts for which the satellite was low in the sky.
editor: A program that permits a user to create new files or
to modify existing files.
EDM: Electronic Distance Measurement.
eel: 共ēl兲 An array of hydrophones in a separate cable. A
tube containing a hydrophone group fastened to a
streamer that floats on the surface or to a cable that is
laid on or dragged along the sea floor. With a surface
streamer, this permits the hydrophones to be deep
enough in the water to improve their response and still
remove them from surface noise while keeping the
streamer above obstacles such as reefs or wrecks that
would threaten it if it were deeper in the water or
dragged along the sea floor. With a bottom cable, eels
allow use of a light cable and modular replacement of
arrays, and it permits the hydrophones to float above
the bottom so that they have good uniform coupling.
EEZ: Exclusive Economic Zone, a marine area where
mineral exploration/exploitation activities are reserved
to the adjacent country but that is generally open to
shipping.
effective aperture: See aperture.
effective array length: See array (seismic).
effective bandwidth: See bandwidth.
effective depth: Skin depth 共q.v.兲.
effective permeability: The presence of one fluid effec-
tively changes the permeability to another fluid, hence
the effective permeability of fluids depends on their
relative saturations.
effective porosity: Connected porosity through which
pore fluids can flow freely. See porosity.
effective pressure: Differential pressure 共q.v.兲.
effective stress: Differential pressure 共q.v.兲.
efferent: Opposite of afferent 共q.v.兲.
E-field ratio telluric method: See telluric profiling.
effort: The number of separate elements combined
together to produce the final product. For example, the
number of separate raypaths that are combined, that is,
the number of energy sources 共holes, thumps, pops,
etc.兲 per source point times the number of geophones
per group times the number of records stacked or
Eh
mixed. Also called multiplicity.
Eh: Oxidation potential.
eigencurrents: Eddy currents that circulate in a finite con-
ducting body.
eigenfrequency: See eigenfunction.
eigenfunction: 共ı̄ g⳵n fun, sh⳵n兲 One of a set of functions
that satisfies both a differential equation and a set of
boundary conditions. For example, a stretched string or
an organ pipe might vibrate in a number of modes, each
with a characteristic frequency 共eigenfrequency, eigen-
value, or characteristic root兲. The superposition of
these eigenfunctions is the general solution. The eigen-
functions corresponding to different eigenvalues are
orthogonal 共or independent兲. ‘‘Eigen’’ is German for
‘‘characteristic.’’
eigenstate: The condition of a system represented by one
eigenfunction 共q.v.兲.
eigenvalue: 共ı̄ g⳵n val, yoo兲 See eigenfunction.
eigenvector: A nonzero vector whose direction is not
changed in a linear transformation in multicomponent
parameter space. The multicomponents distinguish the
mode of the system. Also called a characteristic vec-
tor.
eikonal equation: 共ı̄ kōn’ ⳵l兲 A form of the wave equation
for harmonic waves in which the local velocity V is
compared to a reference velocity V R 共analogous to
comparing a velocity to the speed of light in vacuum兲:
FIG. E-5. Elastic constants for isotropic media expressed in terms of each other and P- and S-wave velocities (␣
⫽V P and ␤ ⫽V S ,) and density ␳.
115 elastic constants, elastic moduli
ⵜ 2 ␾ ⫽ 共 V/V R 兲 2 ⫽n 2 ,
where n is an index of refraction and ␾ is the wave
function. Valid only where the variation of properties is
small within a wavelength, sometimes called the ‘‘high-
frequency condition.’’
eikonal traveltimes: Depth-migration operators.
elastic: 共ē las’ tik兲 The ability to return to its original
shape after removal of a distorting stress. The return of
shape is complete and essentially instantaneous rather
than gradual.
elastic afterworking: Slow creep following the cessation
of a stress.
elastic binning: Flex binning 共q.v.兲, filling out missing
elements in a bin 共especially offset elements兲 using
elements in surrounding bins.
elastic constants, elastic moduli: Elasticity deals with
deformations that vanish entirely upon removal of the
stresses that cause them. For small deformations,
Hooke’s law holds and strain is proportional to stress.
The passage of a low-amplitude seismic wave is an
example. The general elasticity tensor relating stress
and strain can be expressed as a matrix equation 共Figure
H-7兲. In anisotropic media this tensor possesses up to
18 –21 independent constants. In transversely isotro-
pic media 共where properties are the same measured in
two orthogonal directions but different in the third兲,
elastic deformation 116 Elastic wave generator™

these reduce to five independent constants 共see also
Thomsen parameters兲. Isotropic media 共where proper-
ties are the same measured in any direction兲 have only
two independent elastic constants. The stress-strain
properties of isotropic materials that obey Hooke’s law
are specified by elastic moduli 共Figure E-6兲.
elastic deformation: A nonpermanent deformation; the
body returns to its original shape when the stress is
released. Often limited to deformations in which stress
and strain are linearly related in accordance with
Hooke’s law.
elastic impedance: Acoustic impedance 共q.v.兲 that is angle
dependent, generally determined from the gradient of
an AVO plot.
elasticity tensor: The Hooke’s law relationship between
stress and strain, each of which are 2nd rank tensors, so
that the elasticity tensor is a 4th rank tensor. However,
because of symmetry, stress and strain can each be
expressed as 6 ⫻ 1 vectors so that the elasticity tensor
can be expressed as a 6 ⫻ 6 matrix. See Figure H-7.
elastic limit: The greatest stress that can be applied with-
out causing permanent deformation.
elastic medium: A material that supports both P- and
S-wave travel.
elastic moduli: Elastic constants 共q.v.兲.
elastic rebound: The sudden release of energy that has
been gradually stored as strain energy because a fault
was locked; the cause of an earthquake.
elastic wave: A seismic wave, including both P- and
S-waves.
Elastic wave generator™: An impulsive seismic energy
source that involves a spring-powered rubber mecha-

FIG. E-6. Elastic moduli in isotropic media.

elastodynamic modeling
nism that accelerates a 550 lb mass against a ground-
coupled baseplate. Tradename of Bison Instruments
Inc.
elastodynamic modeling: Seismic modeling that includes
frequency effects 共dispersion兲.
E-layer: 1. The Heaviside layer, a layer of very thin air
about 110 km high in the ionosphere that is ionized by
sun light and that reflects high-frequency 共HF兲 radio
waves back to the earth during the daytime and medium
frequency 共MF兲 waves at night. See Figure A-22 and
also F-layer and D-layer. 2. A layer within the Earth;
see Figure E-1.
elbow: A change in the direction of a line.
Elcord: An explosive delay unit, used to match explosion
velocity to formation velocity, the objective being to
send more of the energy vertically downward. Dupont
tradename. See also elongated charge.
electrical anisotropy: See anisotropy (electrical).
electrical basement: See basement.
electrical imager: See: electric imager.
electrical imaging: Inversion of a pseudosection to an
estimate of subsurface distribution of electrical conduc-
tivity. A nonunique process.
electrical methods and units: See Figures E-7 and E-8.
electrically square: Consisting of a number of similar
FIG. E-7. Electrical and electromagnetic methods. (From Swift, 1987.)
117 electric field
elements connected in a parallel-series arrangement so
that the apparent impedance is the same as that of a
single element; see Figure E-9.
electric current: Types of electric circuits encountered in
geophysics include conduction currents 共flow of elec-
trons兲, electrolytic conduction 共flow of ions兲, and
dielectric conduction 共currents involved in capacitive
storage of electric charge兲.
electric dipole: Two equal charges q of opposite sign that
are separated by the very small distance ␦ x giving a
dipole strength of q ␦ x.
electric drilling: Electric sounding 共q.v.兲.
electric field: A spatial vector quantity equal to a potential
gradient, produced by charged bodies or a time-varying
magnetic field. Unit is volts per meter. The electric field
E induced in a loop equals the negative time derivative
of the magnetic flux ␾ cutting the loop 共dI is a length
element of the loop兲:
冖
E•dI⫽⫺⳵␾ /⳵t.
It is also expressed in terms of the change in the
magnetic induction B with time t:
ⵜ⫻E⫽⫺⳵B/⳵t.
electric imager 118
electric imager: A logging tool that has numerous elec-
trodes in the form of small buttons on multiple pads.
The pads are pressed against the formation while the
tool is being logged. The image is used for dip analysis
and to determine formation fractures and vugs. See
Figure I-1 and formation microimager (FMI).
electric log: 1. A generic term including all electrical
borehole logs 共SP, normal, lateral, laterologs, induction,
microresistivity logs, electrical image log, through-
casing resistivity log兲. Two basic electrode configura-
tions are shown in Figure E-10. 2. Records of surface
resistivity surveying; compare electric survey. 3. Elec-
trolog, a borehole log that usually consists of SP and
two or more resistivity logs, such as short and long
normal and long lateral logs. Electrolog is a Dresser
Atlas tradename.
electric match: The part of a blasting cap that ignites
when heated by an electric current passing through a
wire imbedded in it.
electric potentials: Electric potentials involved in geo-
physics include the zeta 共adsorption兲 potential, liquid-
junction 共diffusion兲 and shale 共Mounce or Nernst兲
potentials 共see electrochemical SP兲, electrolytic contact
potential, electrokinetic 共streaming兲 potential, and
polarization potential 共see IP兲. See italicized entries.
electric profiling: An IP, resistivity, or electromagnetic
method using fixed spacing of electrodes or antennas in
which the measuring system is moved progressively
along profile lines to detect resistivity changes along
the profiles. See moving source method.
electric sounding: A dc resistivity or IP method in which
electrode spacing is increased to obtain information
from successively greater depths at a given surface
location 共assuming horizontal layering兲. See also elec-
tromagnetic sounding.
electric survey: 1. Measurements made at or near the
earth’s surface of natural or induced electric fields, the
objective usually being to map mineral concentrations
or for geologic or basement mapping. See Figure E-7
and electric profiling, electric sounding, electromag-
netic method, induced-polarization method, magneto-
telluric method, resistivity method, self-potential
method, telluric current method. 2. Electric log 共q.v.兲
run in a borehole.
electric susceptibility: The ratio of electric field to elec-
tric polarization, the electrical analog of magnetic per-
meability. Symbol: ␩.
electrochemical SP: The component of the SP 共self-
potential兲 comprising the sum of the liquid-junction
potential and the shale potential, both of which are
determined by the ratio of the activity of the formation
water to that of the mud filtrate. The liquid-junction
potential is produced at the contact between the inva-
sion filtrate and the formation water as a result of
differences in ion diffusion rates from a more concen-
trated to a more dilute solution 共concentration cell兲.
Negatively charged chloride ions have greater mobility
than positive sodium ions and an excess negative
charge tends to cross the boundary, resulting in a poten-
tial difference. The shale potential 共also called the
shale membrane, Nernst, or Mounce potential兲
results because shale acts as a cationic membrane per-
mitting sodium cations to flow through it but not chlo-
ride anions. The liquid-junction and shale potentials are
electromagnetic array profiling „EMAP…
additive. See also SSP and electrokinetic potential.
electrode: 1. A piece of metallic material that is used as an
electric contact with a nonmetal. Can refer to a ground-
ing contact, to metallic minerals in a rock, or to electric
contacts in laboratory equipment. 2. Porous pot 共q.v.兲.
electrode array: See array (electrical).
electrode equilibrium potential: The reversible 共no
energy loss兲 equilibrium potential across the interface
between an electrode and an electrolyte, measurable
when no current passes through the interface. Measured
as the voltage difference between a reference electrode
and the electrode in question. It is primarily caused by
the free energy of the electron-transfer process.
electrode impedance: 1. In electrochemistry, the total
impedance across the interface between an electrode
and an electrolyte. The equivalent-circuit model
includes solution resistance, capacitances in the fixed
and diffuse layers, and Warburg impedance. 2. In
electrical-circuit theory, the self-impedance of a single
electrode or the mutual-impedance between electrodes.
electrode polarization: 1. In electrochemistry, an elec-
trode is polarized if its potential deviates from the
reversible or equilibrium value. 2. Polarization also can
be induced because of the passage of current through an
interface or to a change in ion concentration at an
electrode surface. The amount of extra polarization is
the overvoltage or induced polarization of the elec-
trode.
electrode potential: See electrode equilibrium potential.
electrode resistance: The electric resistance between an
electrode and the immediate surroundings; sometimes
called contact resistance, self resistance, grounding
resistance, or mutual resistance, depending on the
situation.
electrodialysis: 共i lek, trō dı̄ al’ i sis兲 Migration of charge
through a membrane in an electric field.
electrodynamic geophone: 共i lek, trō dı̄ nam’ ik兲 Moving-
coil geophone; see geophone.
electrofacies: The set of well-log responses that charac-
terize a lithologic unit and permit that stratigraphic
interval to be correlated with, or distinguished from,
others.
electrokinetic potential: 共i lek, trō kı̄ net’ ik兲 A voltage
that results from flow of a fluid containing ions; stream-
ing potential 共q.v.兲. Application of a voltage also causes
fluid flow.
Electrolog: Electric log 共q.v.兲. Dresser-Atlas tradename.
electrolyte: 共i lek, tr⳵ lı̄t’ or i lek, trō lı̄t’兲 1. A material in
which the flow of electric current is accompanied by the
movement of matter in the form of ions. 2. Any sub-
stance that disassociates into ions.
electrolytic contact potential: A potential developed
between dissimilar metals when immersed in an elec-
trolyte.
electrolytic polarization: Membrane polarization 共q.v.兲.
electrolytic tank: A container holding a conductive solu-
tion in which electric model experiments can be carried
out. See analog modeling.
electromagnetic array profiling „EMAP…: 1. Electro-
magnetic measurements, airborne or ground, using a
multiplicity of transmitters and/or receivers in an
invariant configuration. 2. A variant of the magnetotel-
luric method 共q.v.兲 where electric field measurements
along a profile are made in a continuous fashion. Data
electromagnetic coupling
is then processed to remove the effects of near-surface
inhomogeneities. See Bostick 共1986兲.
electromagnetic coupling: See coupling.
electromagnetic method „EM method…: 共i lek, trō mag
net’ ik兲 A method in which the magnetic and/or electric
fields associated with artificially generated subsurface
currents are measured. In general, electromagnetic
methods are considered to be those in which the electric
and magnetic fields in the earth satisfy the diffusion
equation 共which ignores displacement currents兲 but not
Laplace’s equation 共which ignores induction effects兲
nor the wave equation 共which includes displacement
currents兲. One normally excludes methods such as
ground-penetrating radar 共q.v.兲 that use microwave or
higher frequencies 共and which consequently have little
effective penetration兲 and methods that use dc or very
low frequencies where induction effects are not impor-
tant 共resistivity and IP methods兲. Natural field meth-
ods 共such as Afmag and magnetotellurics兲 employ natu-
ral energy as the source; controlled source
electromagnetis methods 共CSEM兲 共such as loop-loop
techniques兲 require a man-made source. See Figure
E-7.
electromagnetic propagation tool „EPT…: A tool that
measures the velocity and attenuation of EM waves
using microwaves. Occasionally used to identify hydro-
carbon zones.
electromagnetic radiation: Energy propagated through
space or material in the form of an advancing interac-
tion between electric and magnetic fields.
electromagnetic sounding: An electromagnetic technique
designed to determine variations in electrical conduc-
tivity with depth, usually assuming horizontal layering.
Measurements are usually made at a number of fre-
quencies 共in frequency-domain sounding兲 or at sev-
eral time intervals after a transient pulse 共in time-
domain or transient electromagnetic sounding兲 using
a fixed source and receiver. Soundings can also be
made at constant frequency by varying the spacing
between source and receiver. See transient electromag-
netic method and Spies and Frischknecht 共1989兲 and
compare electric sounding.
electromagnetic spectrum: The range of frequencies or
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. See Figure
E-11.
electron density: Number of electrons per unit volume,
including both free and orbital electrons that are part of
atoms. See density log.
electronic: Relating to devices, circuits, or systems in
which conduction is primarily by electrons moving
through a vacuum, gas, semiconductor, or conductor.
electronic conductor: A material such as a metal that
conducts electricity by virtue of electron mobility. See
conductor.
electron-positron pair formation: Creation of an elec-
tron and positron that may result from radiation or
collisions more energetic than 1 MeV.
electron-transfer reaction: An electrode surface phe-
nomenon involving an oxidation-reduction reaction,
generating a Faradaic current.
electron volt „ev…: The energy acquired by an electron by
accelerating through a one volt potential difference.
electro-osmosis: 1. The phenomenon whereby an electric
field moves a fluid through a membrane. 2. Charge
119 elliptical polarization
separation in an electrolyte by osmotic action.
electrostatic plotter: 共i lek, trō stat’ ik兲 A rastor-oriented
plotter in which the image is produced by implanting an
electrostatic charge on the medium 共paper or film兲 that
is then passed through a toner 共the fine black powder
that makes the image readable兲.
electrostrictive: 共i lek, tr⳵ strik’ tiv兲 The property of a
material that causes it to change dimensions when
subject to an electric field. See piezoelectric.
elevation angle: In transit satellite navigation, the angle
measured from horizontal at the receiver location to a
satellite. Satellite passes are often designated by the
elevation angle at closest approach.
elevation correction: 1. The correction applied to reflec-
tion or refraction arrival times to reduce observations to
a common reference datum. 2. In gravity, the sum of the
free-air and Bouguer corrections. The elevation correc-
tion is obtained by multiplying the difference between
station and reference elevation by the elevation correc-
tion factor „ECF…: ECF⫽(0.09406⫺0.01278 ␳ )
mGal/ft⫽(0.3086⫺0.04192 ␳ ) mGal/m, where ␳
⫽density in g/cm3.
elevation correction factor „ECF…: See elevation correc-
tion.
elevation datum: See datum.
ELF: Extremely Low Frequency; electromagnetic energy
between 300 and 3000 Hz. Natural energy in this band
originates most often from lightning strikes. See sferics
and Figure E-11.
ELFAST: Multifrequency version of Turam method 共q.v.兲.
ellipse: 共i lips’兲 A conic section; see Figure C-12 and
E-12.
ellipse area: A quantity measured in telluric surveys that
can be interpreted in terms of variations in earth resis-
tivity.
ellipse of polarization: See polarization ellipse.
ellipsoid: 共i lip’ soid兲 A solid figure for which every plane
cross-section is an ellipse. An ellipsoid of revolution
can be generated by rotating an ellipse about one of its
axes. An ellipsoid of revolution is usually used to
approximate the geoid 共q.v.兲. Some standard ellipsoids
are listed in Figure G-2. See Geodetic Reference Sys-
tem.
ellipsoid of anisotropy: An equipotential surface about a
point current source in an anisotropic, homogeneous
medium. Such a surface is an ellipsoid of revolution,
whose flattening is the coefficient of anisotropy; see
anisotropy (seismic).
elliptical anisotropy: The situation where a graph of seis-
mic velocity vs. azimuth has an elliptical shape.
SH-waves in a transverse isometric medium exhibit
elliptical anisotropy. P-or SV-waves, or waves in other
symmetry systems, generally do not involve elliptical
anisotropy except for special situations. Fitting a hyper-
bolic NMO equation to CMP data to obtain the stacking
velocity of the horizontal component is equivalent to
assuming an ellipsoidal wavefront. Nonelliptical wave-
fronts yield offset-variable stacking velocities. See
anisotropy, transverse isotropy, Figure A-14c, and Hel-
big 共1983兲.
elliptical polarization: The situation where motion in two
orthogonal directions has the same frequency and a
constant phase relationship; the hodograph has ellipti-
cal shape.
ellipticity
ellipticity: 共i lip tis’ ⳵ tē兲 1. The ratio of the major to minor
axes of an ellipse 共Figure E-12兲. 2. Specifically, in
electromagnetic surveying, the ratio for the polarization
ellipse, which can be determined by measuring the
amplitudes and phases of two orthogonal components
of the magnetic field.
E-log: Electric log 共q.v.兲.
elongated charge: A long column of explosives used in
an effort to achieve directivity. Types used include
sausage powder, Elcord delay units, acoustic delay
units, and broomstick units. An elongated charge is
designed to direct the input pulse downward by match-
ing the effective detonation velocity to the formation
velocity. Its physical dimensions must be an appre-
ciable fraction of a seismic wavelength to achieve sig-
nificant directivity.
EM: ElectroMagnetic; see electromagnetic method.
EMAP: ElectroMagnetic Array Profiling 共q.v.兲.
emanometer: 共em, ⳵ nom’ ⳵d ⳵r兲 An instrument for mea-
suring the radon content of water or soil. See radon
sniffer.
embedded wavelet: The wavelet shape that would result
from reflection of an actual wavetrain by a single sharp
interface with positive reflection coefficient. See con-
volutional model. Often called equivalent wavelet or
basic wavelet.
EM coupling: See coupling.
emergent angle: 1. The angle of a seismic ray on leaving
an interface. 2. The critical angle at which energy
emerges 共peels off兲 from a refractor.
FIG. E-8. Electric quantities and units.
120 endian
EMIDSH: A numerical code for computing the electro-
magnetic response of a thin tabular conductor lodged in
a two-layer medium. Written at E.O. Lawrence Berke-
ley National Laboratory.
emission spectroscopy: Measuring the unique emission
lines of atomic species in an arc or plasma 共inductively-
coupled plasma兲.
emissivity: The ratio of radiation emitted to that of a
blackbody at the same temperature.
empty hole: A borehole that is filled with air or gas.
EM 37: A shallow transient electromagnetic system devel-
oped by Geonics Ltd. of Canada.
emu: The cgs-ElectroMagnetic system of Units, which is
similar to the cgs-esu system except that ‘‘practical’’
electrical units 共except for the abampere兲 are used. See
Figure E-8.
emulate: 共em’ yo lāt,兲 To have the same input/output
characteristics as a different system so that, from a
performance standpoint, it appears identical to the dif-
ferent system 共except as regarding speed兲.
emulator: A program or hardware device that duplicates
the instruction set of one computer on a different com-
puter. It is used in program development for the emu-
lated computer when that computer is not available.
EMW: Equivalent Mud Weight; see mud weight 共q.v.兲.
encapsulation: 共en kap’ sū lā sh⳵n兲 Modeling and imple-
mentation technique that separates external aspects of
an object from internal implementation details.
endian: 共en’ dē ⳵n兲 Refers to the byte 共and bit兲 order of
multibyte quantities. Big Endian order means that the
end-of-file gap
FIG. E-9. Electrically square arrangement of nine similar
geophones.
most significant byte preceeds less-significant bytes,
whereas little endian means the opposite. Refers to
Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift, who debated
whether it was better to crack an egg at the big or the
small end.
end-of-file gap: An elongated gap on magnetic tape to
indicate the end of a file of records.
end-of-file mark: Machine-readable mark on digital mag-
netic tape indicating the end of a complete group of
data, such as the end of a seismic record.
end-on: Seismic field arrangement wherein the source is
at 共or near兲 the end of the geophone spread. See Figure
S-18. Sometimes called end-line.
endothermic: 共en d⳵’ th⳵r mik兲 A reaction that absorbs
heat.
en echelon: Echelon 共q.v.兲.
energy: 1. The capacity to do work. 2. The sum of the
squares of the amplitudes of the elements in a wavelet
共times a proportionality constant that is often omitted兲.
Thus if the wavelet b t is
b t ⫽ 关 b 0 ,b 1 ,b 2 ,b 3 ,...b n 兴 ,
the energy is
FIG. E-10. Electric-log configurations. „a… Normal log; „b… lateral log.
121 enhanced oil recovery „EOR…
k 共 b 0 2 ⫹b 1 2 ⫹b 2 2 ⫹b 3 2 ⫹...⫹b n 2 兲 ⫽k 兺b i
2
,
given by the value of the autocorrelation at zero shift. 3.
Depositional energy refers to the kinetic energy
共because of waves or currents兲 present in the environ-
ment in which sediments were deposited. High energy
has the capability of producing good particle-size sort-
ing.
energy surge: An increase in amplitude used as a picking
criterion.
energy reflectivity: See reflectivity.
engineering geophysics: Use of geophysical methods to
get information for civil engineering. The aim is usually
to describe not only the geometry of the subsurface but
also its nature 共for example, its elastic characteristics as
determined by measurements of seismic velocities and
densities兲. Shallow seismic reflection and refraction,
gravity, magnetic, electric, and sampling methods are
commonly employed to find the depth of bedrock and
the strength of sediments for foundation purposes, to
determine the rippability 共q.v.兲 of rock, to measure the
degree of fracturing, to detect underground cavities, to
detect near-surface gas pockets, to locate buried-
pipeline hazards below the sea floor, buried barrels of
polutants, the integrity of landfills. In water-covered
areas high-powered fathometers, sparkers, gas guns,
and other seismic reflection methods employing high
frequencies 共up to 5 kHz兲 are used to obtain reflections
from shallow interfaces so that bedrock and the nature
of fill material can be diagnosed. Such methods are also
used to locate large pipelines on, or buried in, the sea
bottom by the prominent diffractions that they generate.
Usually restricted to shallower than 1000 ft penetration.
enhanced oil recovery „EOR…: Thermal, miscible, and
enhancement 122 envelope

chemical methods for producing oil left behind in the
ground after primary and secondary recovery 共q.v.兲.
Thermal enhanced-recovery methods 共q.v.兲 include
steam stimulation 共huff and puff兲, steam flooding, and
in-situ combustion. Miscible recovery methods 共q.v.兲
include injection of hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogen. Chemically enhanced recovery 共q.v.兲 includes
flooding with polymers, surfactants, and alkaline fluids.
enhancement: Improvement of data by filtering or noise-
rejection processes.
enthalpy: 共en thal’ pē or en’ thal pē兲 The internal energy
of a thermodynamic system plus the product of the
reaction, according to the second law of thermody-
namics. See thermodynamic functions and Figure T-2.
2. A set G has the entropy H(G):
H 共 G 兲 ⫽log2 N,
where N is the minimum number of elements needed to
specify G. 3. A measure of the uncertainty in a message.
If P(m i ) is the probability that the message m i has
been transmitted, then the entropy H, where there are i
possible messages, is given by

兺 P 共 m 兲 log
system’s pressure and volume. The heat transferred
during an isobaric process equals the change in H⫽⫺ i 2 P共 mi兲.
i
enthalpy. See thermodynamic functions and Figure T-2.
entity: Thing of significance, whether real or imagined, The entropy of a situation with no uncertainty is zero.
about which information needs to be known or held. Entropy is a measure of the average information con-
entropy: 共en’ tr⳵ pē兲 1. A thermodynamic quantity that tent of a message.
measures the unavailable energy. Higher entropy repre- envelope: The low-frequency curves encompassing or
sents increased disorder. Entropy never decreases in a bounding deflections of higher frequency. The curves

FIG. E-11. Electromagnetic spectrum. Designation of portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The blackened areas
in the right-hand graph show attenuation caused by atmospheric absorption. The window in the absorption spectrum at
V is visible light and window T is the thermal infrared window. In terms of energy, 10 ⫺6 m wavelength⫽1 eV;
10 ⫺12 m⫽1 keV; 1 m⫽1 meV. (after Reeves et al., 1975, 54.)
envelope amplitude
are usually drawn by smoothly connecting adjacent
peaks and adjacent troughs. See Figure C-11.
envelope amplitude: See complex trace analysis and ana-
lytic signal and Figure C-11.
environmental geophysics: The use of geophysical mea-
surements of part of the shallow earth to evaluate or
help remediate problems in the Earth’s environment.
EOM: Equivalent Offset Migration 共EOM兲, a prestack
migration that forms common-scatter-point 共CSP兲 gath-
ers at each migrated trace location. Used to refine a
velocity model for depth migration.
EOR: Enhancd Oil Recovery 共q.v.兲.
Eötvös effect: 共⳵t’ v⳵sh兲 The vertical component of a
Coriolis acceleration observed when measuring gravity
while the measuring instrument is in motion with
respect to the Earth, as in dynamic gravity. The meter’s
velocity over the surface adds vectorially to the velocity
because of the Earth’s rotation, varying the centrifugal
acceleration and hence the apparent gravitational attrac-
tion. The Eötvös correction E in mGal for a meter
whose speed is V knots at an azimuth angle ␣ and
latitude ␾ is
E⫽7.503 V cos ␾ sin ␣ ⫹0.004154 V 2 .
The Eötvös uncertainty dE in terms of direction uncer-
tainty d␣ and speed uncertainty dV is
dE⫽ 共 7.503 V cos ␾ cos ␣ d␣
⫹ 共 7.503 cos ␾ sin ␣ ⫹0.008308 V 兲 dV.
See Glicken 共1962兲. Named for Baron Roland von
Eötvös 共1848 –1919兲, Hungarian physicist.
FIG. E-12. Ellipse terminology. An ellipse is
the locus of points for which the sum of
the distances from the two foci is constant. A
satellite follows an elliptical path about a body at one
focus. If a⫽semimajor axis, b⫽semiminor axis,
eccentricity ⫽␧ ⫽c/a ⫽(2 f⫺f 2 ) 1/2 ⫽[1⫺(1/E) 2 ] 1/2 ;
ellipticity ⫽E ⫽a/b ⫽1/(1⫺f ) ⫽(1⫺␧ 2 ) ⫺1/2 ;
flattening⫽f⫽(a⫺b)/a⫽1⫺1/E; and
␪ ⫽eccentric anomaly when satellite is at S.
The polar equation of an ellipse with one focus at the
origin is ␳ ⫽␧h/(1⫺␧ cos ␾) where h⫽distance from the
focus to a directrix line.
123 equinoctial
Eötvös unit „EU…: 共et’ vos兲 A unit of gravitational gradi-
ent or curvature; 10 ⫺6 mGal/cm.
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency, a U.S. govern-
ment agency.
epeiric sea: A sea on the continental shelf or continental
interior.
epeirogenic: 共ep, i roj’ ⳵ nik兲 See tectonic types.
E-phase VLF: An airborne electromagnetic method based
on a remote VLF transmitter that measures the quadra-
ture component of the electric-field wavetilt. Barringer
tradename.
ephemeral data: 共⳵ fem’ ⳵ r⳵l兲 The part of the data broad-
cast by a navigation satellite that varies with each
broadcast. The ephemeral data include the time since
the hour or half hour and corrections to the satellite
location; see Figure K-1.
ephemeris: 共⳵ fem’ ⳵ r⳵s兲 Predicted position of celestial
共and satellite兲 bodies at a particular time.
ephemeris time: 共i fem’ ⳵ ris兲 A table showing the posi-
tion of a body 共such as a navigation satellite兲 at various
times.
epicenter: 共ep’ i sen, t⳵r兲 The location on the Earth’s
surface below which the first motion in an earthquake
occurs. Compare hypocenter.
EPIS: Exploration and Production Information System.
epithermal neutron: 共ep, ⳵ therm’ ⳵l兲 A neutron with
energy larger than the thermal range 共⬍0.025 eV兲; see
neutron log.
Epoch: A geochronologic subdivision; see stratigraphic
classification.
E-polarization: See transverse electric.
EPROM: Erasable, Programmable, Read-Only Memory.
epsilon ␧: 1. Dielectric permittivity; see Maxwell’s equa-
tions. 2. The fractional change in the P-wave velocity:
␧ 共 epsilon兲 ⫽ 共 c 11 ⫺c 33 兲 /2c 33 )⫽ 共 ␣⬜ ⫺ ␣ 储 兲 /2 ␣ 储 ,
where c 11 and c 33 are transverse isotropy elastic con-
stants. See Thomsen anisotropic parameters.
EPT: Electromagnetic Propagation Tool 共q.v.兲.
EQ magnitude: See magnitude of EarthQuake.
equalization: 1. Trace equalization involves adjusting
the gain of different channels so that their average
amplitudes 共probably their rms amplitudes兲 over some
analysis window are equal. 2. Cross-equalization
involves matching the frequency spectrum of different
channels to each other or to a predetermined curve,
possibly including adjustments because of phase differ-
ences. 3. Filtering to correct for frequency discrimina-
tion in recording or playback such as the linear-with-
frequency response inherent in magnetic-tape pickup
from direct analog recordings.
equalizing: See deconvolution.
equal-ripple filter: See Chebyshev array.
equatorial array: A configuration of electrodes used in
resistivity surveying. See Figure A-19.
equilibrium condition: 1. A condition of balance at a
state of minimum energy where energy is neither pro-
duced nor consumed. 2. A condition predicted by the
law of mass action where the velocities of forward and
reverse reactions of a reversible process are equal.
equinoctial: 共ē’ kw⳵ nok, sh⳵l兲 The celestial equator; the
intersection of the plane of the Earth’s equator and the
celestial sphere.
equipotential method
equipotential method: Mapping the potential field pro-
duced by stationary 共often remote兲 current electrodes.
The mapping is done by moving a potential electrode
over the area. Also called equipotential survey and
applied-potential method. In the equipotential-line
method the line of points on the surface of the ground
that constitutes the locus of a given voltage difference
from another electrode is mapped with a ‘‘probe’’ elec-
trode.
equipotential surface: The continuous surface that is
everywhere perpendicular to lines of force. No work is
done against the field when moving along such a sur-
face. Mean sea level is an equipotential surface with
respect to gravity. An electrical equipotential surface is
everywhere perpendicular to current flow.
equipotential survey: See equipotential method.
equiripple response: A directivity pattern in which the
minor lobes are of equal height, as results from a
Chebyshev array. See Figure C-3.
equivalence: 共i kwiv’ ⳵ l⳵ns兲 1. See map projection. 2. See
equivalent electrical response.
equivalence principle: See principle of equivalence.
equivalencing: Reducing a multilayer model to a single-
layer model by applying the relationships given under
principle of equivalence 共q.v.兲.
equivalent circuit: An electrical circuit that has the same
input-output relationship as another circuit.
equivalent electrical response: Combinations of layer
resistivities and thicknesses that would produce practi-
cally indistinguishable electrical sounding responses.
Also called layer equivalence.
equivalent mud weight „EMW…: The mud weight needed
to balance formation-fluid pressure; see mud weight.
equivalent offset: The offset for which the two-way trav-
eltime for any source-scatterpoint-receiver raypath is
the same as one where the source and receiver are
colocated. The equivalent offset converts the double-
square-root equation into hyperbolic form.
equivalent offset migration „EOM…: Prestack migration
that uses the equivalent offset to form common-scatter-
point 共CSP兲 gathers at each migrated trace location.
equivalent source layer: A single layer containing gravity
or magnetic sources that yields the same gravity or
magnetic field as the actual distribution. See Dampney
共1969兲.
equivalent velocity: 1. Stacking velocity 共q.v.兲, the con-
stant velocity that gives nearly the same normal
moveout as observed in a velocity analysis. 2. Apparent
velocity 共q.v.兲.
equivalent wavelet: See embedded wavelet.
equivalent width: The width of a boxcar with the same
peak amplitude that contains the same energy.
equivoluminar wave: S-wave 共q.v.兲, not involving vol-
ume changes.
erf„x…: ERrorFunction 共q.v.兲.
ergodic: 共⳵r gad’ ik兲 Having the same statistical properties
throughout the ensemble. An ergodic system will even-
tually return arbitrarily close to any prior state. The
statistical properties measured over sufficiently long
intervals anywhere throughout the ensemble will be the
same. From the Greek for ‘‘road.’’
error: A deviation from the correct value. Errors arise 共a兲
because the problem description is not exact, as when
the data are not exact „inherent error…, 共b兲 because the
124 Euclidian space
method used is not exact, as when an exact solution
would require an unacceptably large number of calcu-
lations „method error…, and 共c兲 because of round-off
errors „computational error…. Gross errors are the
results of blunders or mistakes. See round-off error,
truncation error, random error, systematic, accuracy,
and probable error. Error differs from uncertainty,
which is the precision with which a measurement or
value is known.
error bar: A graphic representation showing the range of
probable error or some range 共90%兲 of probable error.
error checking: Techniques for detecting errors which
occur during the processing and transfer of data. See
check, cycle-redundancy check, and parity check.
error control: A system for detecting errors and some-
times for also correcting them. See check.
error ellipse: A measure of the uncertainty in a position
measurement. UKOOA recommend that position
ellipses contain 95% of estimates.
error function: The error function erf(t) is
冕
erf共 t 兲 ⫽ 共 1/ ␲ 1/2 兲 e ⫺y2 dy⫽e y2 ,
erf共 0 兲 ⫽0, erf共 ⬁ 兲 ⫽1.
The complementary error function erfc(t) is erfc(t)
⫽1⫺erf(t). For data which have a Gaussian distribu-
tion, the probability that an error lies between ⫾a is
erf(ha), where h⫽precision index.
error message: A message from a computer application or
operating system about an incompatibility in program
instructions or erroneous conditions in the data.
ERTS: See Landsat image.
ES: Electric Survey 共q.v.兲.
ESP: Electric Submersible Pump.
E3D: A staggered-grid, finite-difference code, 2nd order
in time and 4th order in space, used in acoustic or
elastic calculations. Written at Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory.
eta, ␩: 1. Electric susceptability 共q.v.兲. 2. One of the
Thomsen anisotropic parameters 共q.v.兲 that captures the
deviation of long-offset P-wave moveout from what it
would have been for isotropicity:
␩ ⫽ 共 ␧⫺ ␦ 兲 / 共 1⫹2 ␦ 兲 ,
where ␦ 共delta兲 is another Thomsen anisotropic param-
eter.
eTh, eU: Equivalent thorium, equivalent uranium. Used
because measurements are often of daughter products
( 208 Tl, 214 Bi) rather than of Th, U themselves.
Ethernet: 共ē’ th⳵r net兲 A communications standard for
local area networks involving both hardware and soft-
ware, with the purpose of connecting computers and
terminals.
eU: See eTh.
EU: Eötvös Unit 共q.v.兲.
Euclidian space: 共yoo klid’ e ⳵n兲 An orthogonal linear
space where the distance between (x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n ) and
(y 1 ,y 2 ,...,y n ) is given by
Euler-Cauchy method
冋兺 n
i⫽1
共 x i ⫺y i 兲 2 册 1/2
.
The dimension of the space is n. Named for Euclid of
Alexandria, the ‘‘father’’ of geometry.
Euler-Cauchy method: A finite-difference method of
solving differential equations. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 529兲.
Euler deconvolution: 共oi’ l⳵r兲 A procedure applied to
profile gridded map data to solve Euler’s homogeneous
equation 共q.v.兲 for the locations and depths of sources
for an assumed Euler structural index. On profiles, each
calculation is run for different window lengths to obtain
solutions for different depths. With gridded magnetic or
gravity maps, calculations are run over square windows
that are moved by a grid unit for the next depth calcu-
lation. Pick values cluster together at a valid structural
index; a fault might be indicated by a vertical align-
ment. See Thompson 共1982兲; Reid et al. 共1990兲.
Eulerian differential operator: The differentiation
operator ⳵/⳵t, which implies differentiation at a fixed
point in space. Compare the Lagrangian differential
operator d/dt, which implies differentiation following
the motion of a wave or of material.
Euler equation: See Euler’s homogeneity equation.
Euler identity: The relationships
e i ␪ ⫽cos ␪⫹i sin ␪⫽cis␪,
cos ␪ ⫽ 共 e i ␪ ⫹e ⫺i ␪ 兲 /2⫽cosh共 i ␪ 兲 , and
sin ␪ ⫽ 共 e i ␪ ⫺e i ␪ 兲 /2i⫽⫺i sinh共 i ␪ 兲 ,
where i⫽ 公(⫺1). Named for Leonhard Euler 共1707–
1783兲, Swiss mathematician.
Euler pole: Movement of a portion of the surface of a
sphere over the sphere can be described as a rotation
about an Euler pole. Pole of spreading 共q.v.兲.
Euler’s homogeneity equation:
共 x⫺x o 兲 dF/dx⫹ 共 y⫺y o 兲 dF/dy⫹ 共 z⫺z o 兲 dF/dz
⫽N 共 B⫺F 兲 ,
where (x o ,y o ,z o ) is the source location whose mag-
netic field F is measured at 共x, y, z兲; B is the regional
value of the total field; and N is Euler’s structural
index. N is a measure of the rate of field change with
distance. For example, the magnetic field of a sphere
falls off as the cube (N⫽3), of a pipe as the square
(N⫽2), of a thin dike linearly (N⫽1), for a more or
less linear basement fault or dyke 共N ⫽ 0.5兲, of a semi-
infinite body, not at all (N⫽0). An Euler depth esti-
mate increases with increased N. Real bodies are simu-
lated by a superposition of bodies.
Euler structural index: See Euler’s homogeneity equa-
tion.
eustasy: 共yoo’ st⳵ sē兲 Worldwide sea level regimes and
their changes. The interplay of eustatic changes with
isostatic subsidence and tectonic 共thermal兲 uplift pro-
duces relative sea-level changes. Relative sea level and
sediment supply produce sequence boundaries 共q.v.兲.
eustatic cycle: 共yoo tek’ tik兲 The time interval during
which a worldwide rise and fall of sea level takes place.
See Figure E-13.
125 exchange current
eutectic mixture: A mixture of two materials that has a
lower melting point than either of the materials by
themselves.
eutectic temperature: The lowest melting point of a mix-
ture of alloy substances.
eV: Electron Volt, the energy change of an electron in
being accellerated by one volt gradient.
evanescent waves: 共ev, ⳵ nes’ ⳵nt兲 Waves that fade away
rapidly with distance from a boundary. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 63兲. From the Latin for ‘‘vanishing.’’
evaporite: A rock formed by precipitation from evaporat-
ing saline water. Salt, gypsum, and anhydrite are typical
evaporites.
even function: A function that has the same value when
the sign of the variable is changed; i.e., f (x)⫽ f
(⫺x). The Fourier transform of an even function is the
cosine transform; its frequency-domain representation
is zero phase. Any function can be represented as an
even part plus an odd part. Aeromagnetic anomalies are
sometimes separated into even and odd parts for inter-
pretation. Antonym: odd function.
event: 1. A lineup on a number of traces that indicates the
arrival of new seismic energy, denoted by a systematic
phase or amplitude change on a seismic record; an
arrival. May indicate a reflection, refraction, diffrac-
tion, or other type of wavefront. The distinguishing
features of various types of events are discussed in
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 145–146兲. 2. A command
entered by a user, such as a mouse click or a typed
command. 3. Evidence in the stratigraphic column of
something happening within a very short period of
time, such as a volcanic eruption that produces a layer
of volcanic ash or tephra, a meteor impact that involves
a rare element, etc.; an event bed or event horizon.
Events during deposition may be caused by storm
waves, flooding, sediment gravity flows 共e.g., slumps,
turbidite flows兲, volcanic eruptions, etc. Nondeposi-
tional events may be caused by erosion or depositional
hiatus 共such as sediment bypassing兲. Events related to
sea-level variations, such as condensed sections 共q.v.兲,
are sometimes included. Events should be thin and have
at least reasonable geographical extent to be useful in
age dating. Especially distinctive events are called
marker beds 共q.v.兲.
Evison wave: 共ev’ ⳵ son兲 Channel wave of SH-type par-
ticle motion in a low-velocity layer between two higher
velocity half-spaces. Compare Krey wave and see Evi-
son 共1955兲.
evolute: 共ev ⳵ loot’兲 The locus of centers of curvature of
another curve, or the curve that is the common tangent
to normals to the other curve.
exaggeration: Use of a different vertical than horizontal
scale. See Figure V-9.
EXCEPT gate: A circuit with multiple inputs that func-
tions when signal is present on one input and absent on
other inputs. Also called exclusive OR. Differs from an
OR gate, which does not have the restriction of absent
signal on the other inputs. See gate and Figure B-5.
excess-three code: See binary-coded decimal, and Figure
N-4.
excess time: The vertical traveltime through the weather-
ing minus the time it would have taken if travel had
been at the subweathering velocity.
exchange current: A term in electrochemistry for the
exchange current 126 exchange current

FIG. E-13. Eustatic cycles. (a) Generalized orders of cyclicity. (b) Changes in the Earth system. The period from about
450 to 100 Ma is a first-order eustatic cycle. (From Busch, 2000, 22.).
excitation-at-the-mass method
reversible electric current at an electrode that is in
equilibrium with an electrolyte.
excitation-at-the-mass method: Mise-à-la-masse method
共q.v.兲.
exclusion zone: An area within a 3D survey area where
either sources or receivers cannot be placed.
exclusive filter: A filter with a very sharp, narrow pass-
band.
exclusive OR: EXCEPT gate 共q.v.兲.
executive: An operating system 共q.v.兲 or supervisor.
exhumation: Exposure of earlier geologic section because
of erosion.
exothermic: A reaction that liberates heat.
expand: 1. To break down into elements, as to expand in
terms of frequency components. 2. To increase the gain,
as with a gain control. 3. To extend a spread to longer
offsets.
expander: 1. Expanding spread 共q.v.兲; specifically, a
depth probe. 2. An IP and resistivity-surveying tech-
nique in which the electrode-separation interval is suc-
cessively expanded so as to achieve greater depth of
exploration. Also called sounding or probing. Data
from an expander is usually interpreted to give the
depth to horizontal layers with contrasting physical
properties, if such exist.
expanding spread: 1. A spread moved to greater offsets
for successive energy releases from the same location,
to give the equivalent of recording more geophone
groups from a single source. Used in refraction work, in
noise analysis, and in velocity analysis. 2. Depth probe
共q.v.兲.
expanding-spread vertical-loop technique: Electromag-
netic-survey method using a fixed transmitter and mov-
able receiver, often along lines at about 45° to the
anticipated strike of the conductor sought.
expectation: 1. An operator that denotes the mean, or
weighted mean where values are not equally probable.
Usually denoted by braces, E兵...其. 2. In seismic process-
ing usage, it indicates the sum of elements for finite
wavelets (b t ), or the mean of an infinite time series
(u t ):
E 兵 b t 其 ⫽b 1 ⫹b 2 ⫹b 3 ⫹...⫹b n , or
E 兵 u t 其 ⫽ lim 共 u ⫺n ⫹u ⫺n⫹1 ⫹...⫹u 0 ⫹u 1 ⫹u 2 ⫹...
n→⬁
⫹u n 兲 / 共 2n⫹1 兲 .
expected value: Expectation 共q.v.兲.
expert mode: A mode of work-station operation that is
more efficient, though less user-friendly, than the ordi-
nary system.
expert system: A system of rules that mimics the behavior
of an expert in analysis or diagnosis. A part of artificial
intelligence. Also called knowledge-based system.
exploded view: An illustration showing the parts or com-
ponents of a unit or of an operation.
exploding reflector: A direct modeling scheme in which
the model surfaces are assumed to explode at time zero
with explosive strengths proportional to their reflectiv-
ity; velocities are cut in half so that the one-way trav-
eltime to the surface equals the two-way traveltime for
coincident source-receiver pairs at the surface. A form
of wave-theory modeling.
127 external drift
exploding wire: A modification of a sparker 共q.v.兲 for use
in fresh water where the conductivity of the water
between the sparker electrodes is not sufficient to ini-
tiate a spark. A thin wire connects the electrodes; the
sparker discharge vaporizes the wire to initiate vapor-
izing the water.
exploration: The search for commercial deposits of useful
minerals, including hydrocarbons, geothermal
resources, etc.
exploration geophysics: The application of geophysics to
exploration 共q.v.兲 and also to engineering and archae-
ology. Synonym: applied geophysics.
exploration 3D: A widely spaced form of 3D acquisition
with lines spaced 2–3 times as far apart as required by
the sampling theorem, relying on interpolation to give
the data sampling required for migration. An explora-
tion 3D survey reveals broad structural aspects but
lacks resolution.
exploratory well: A well drilled some distance from a
previously demonstrated accumulation, or drilled to a
stratigraphic objective not previously known to be pro-
ductive; a wildcat. See Figure W-8.
exponential distribution: A frequency distribution of the
form
F 共 f 兲 ⫽1⫺e ⫺ f / ␾ ,
where ␾ is the mean. It has a high initial value and then
declines with increasing f. Often used to model effects
that vary with their separation.
exponentiate: 共ek’ spō nen, sh⳵ āt兲 1. To introduce time-
dependent gain in processing, that is, to multiply input
values by e kt where k may be either a positive or
negative real number. The value of k is often deter-
mined arbitrarily or empirically. Often refers to addi-
tional gain adjustment after removal of gain effects
during recording and correction for spherical diver-
gence. 2. To magnify variations in input data so that the
output is proportional to a constant raised to an expo-
nent of the input value.
exponential decay: Decrease of amplitude proportional to
e ⫺ ␣ x or e ⫺ ␤ t where ␣ and ␤ are decay constants, x
⫽distance, and t⫽time. See Figure D-2.
exponential ramp: A taper used at the edge of a window.
Involves multiplying values for t⬎t 1 by e k(t⫺t 1 ) , where
k is a negative real number.
extended-range shoran: An extremely sensitive shoran
system that depends on energy refracted around the
Earth’s curvature and hence is not line-of-sight limited,
as ordinary shoran is. Has a range of the order of 250
km.
extended resolution: Efforts to increase the upper fre-
quency response of a bandpass system to improve reso-
lution. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 253兲.
extended spread: Inline-offset spread; see inline offset.
extended well test: A formation test that extends for an
appreciable time to determine the probable long-term
rate of decline.
extensive dilatancy anisotropy „EDA…: Microcrack-
generated anisotropy that results in azimuthal anisot-
ropy when the microcrack orientation is nonhorizontal.
See anisotropy (seismic).
external drift: Use of a regionalized variable 共e.g., a
seismic attribute兲 to control the shape of a map created
by kriging or simulation. A geostatistical linear regres-
external magnetic field 128 eyebrow structure

sion technique that uses a spatial model of covariance.
external magnetic field: See solar wind.
extrinsic conduction: The low-temperature ionic or elec-
tronic conduction in solid electrically conducting mate-
rials, caused by weakly bonded impurities or defects.
Also called structure-sensitive conductivity. See
intrinsic conduction.
eyeball: To make an educated guess after casual visual
inspection, without actually measuring or calculating.
eyebrow structure: A seismic line across a buried reef
may show two convex-upward events 共the opposite
sides of the reef兲 separated by a low central lagoon or
reef collapse.
 F
F: Farad, the SI unit of capacitance. The capacitance
where one volt of potential causes the storage of one
coulomb. 共See farad兲.
fabric: The spatial configuration of features 共trends兲 char-
acterizing a region. Also called grain and signature.
facies: 共fā’ shēz兲 1. The characteristics that distinguish a
rock from adjacent rocks, such as lithology 共lithofa-
cies兲, fossil content 共biofacies兲, color, sedimentary
structures, grain-size distribution, etc. 2. Reflection pat-
terns that are characteristic of depositional environ-
ments; see seismic facies.
facies analysis: See seismic facies analysis.
factor analysis: A method of finding a mathematical rela-
tionship among values. Assume that a set of observa-
tions [x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x k ] can be accounted for by a set of
linear relationships involving the factors
关 z 1 ,z 2 ,...,z p 兴 ,
where p⬍k: x i ⫽a i1 z 1 ⫹a i2 z 2 ⫹...⫹a ip z p ⫹E i ,
where E i is an error term 共also called the specific
factor兲. Factor analysis 共also called multivariant
analysis兲 is a method of finding the parameters a i j .
Application usually begins with a learning set, a data
subset used to establish correlations between observa-
tions and the factors being determined, and then pro-
ceeds to a predicting set, where the relations are used
for predicting the factors associated with additional
observations.
fade: Mute.
failed arm: That arm of a triple junction 共q.v.兲 which
ceased to be a spreading center after the other two arms
formed an ocean basin; aulacogen.
fairing: Irregularities that induce turbulent flow. Drag on a
cable pulled transversely through the water is less for
turbulent than for nonturbulent flow. Irregularities 共such
as short strings fastened to the cable兲 create small
vortices that reduce fluid friction. A pulled cable with-
out fairing alternately tends to shed large vortices
accompanied by spurts of motion, causing vibration and
inducing noise.
fairway: 1. The region within which effort is to be con-
centrated, such as 共in velocity analysis兲 a band of
possible velocities within which one searches for veloc-
ity picks from normal-moveout measurements. 2. A
trend of hydrocarbon accumulations. 3. The region
within which data values must lie to be considered
valid.
FAL: Formation-Analysis Log 共q.v.兲.
false color: 1. Color arbitrarily assigned to values;
pseudocolor. 2. Specifically, the use of colors to rep-
resent different frequency bands 共or other measurable
characteristics兲 where the colors are not those naturally
characteristic. For example, infrared differences dis-
played as parts of the visible spectrum on satellite
imagery.
129
false crossover: A reverse crossover, often the result of
seeing the bottom of a body.
false easting, false northing: See easting, northing.
faltung: Folding, convolution 共q.v.兲. Faltung is German
for ‘‘folding.’’
Famous: French-American mid-ocean undersea survey, a
1974 investigation of the mid-Atlantic ridge using sub-
mersibles.
fan-filter: Velocity filter 共q.v.兲.
fan shooting: Refraction technique to search for local
high-velocity bodies. See Figure F-1.
fantom: Phantom 共q.v.兲.
farad „F…: 共fair’ ad兲 The SI unit of capacitance; where one
volt of potential causes the storage of one coulomb.
Named for Michael Faraday 共1791–1867兲, English
physicist.
faradaic: 共far, ⳵ dā’ ik兲 Pertaining to an electrochemical
electron-transfer reaction at an electrode by the conver-
sion of atom to ion or vice-versa; i.e., as the result of an
electrochemical reaction. See Warburg impedance. A
nonfaradaic path involves the ionic layers that are adja-
cent to the electrode acting as a condenser.
faraday: 共far’ ⳵ dā兲 The electric charge required to liberate
one gram-equivalent of a substance by electrolysis: 96
487 coulombs.
Faraday’s law of induction: The voltage E 共in volts兲
induced in a wire of length l 共in meters兲 cutting a
magnetic field of strength B 共in gauss兲 at the velocity v
共in m/s兲 is:
E⫽B v l⫽⫺d␾ / dt,
where d␾ /dt⫽rate of cutting of lines of magnetic flux
in maxwell per second and the minus is inserted
because of Lenz’s law 共q.v.兲. In vector notation,
冕
E⫽ 共 v ⫻ B兲 •dl.
far-angle stack: A combination of only the seismic traces
for which the angles of incidence are large 共often
30– 45°兲. Used in studies of the variation of amplitude
with offset 共AVO兲 to compare with a stack of small
angle-of-incidence traces.
far-field: Field remote from the source. Spherical waves
involve terms that decrease as both 1/r and 1/r 2 ,
where r is distance from the source 共see Sheriff and
Geldart, 1995, 48兲; far-field implies that the terms that
depend on 1/r 2 are unimportant. The far-field repre-
sents radiated energy and implies that rⰇ␭, where ␭
⫽wavelength. Compare near-field.
farm-out, farm-in: A sublease granting the farm-in com-
pany the lease rights held by the farm-out company.
The sublease often includes an override granting cer-
tain royalties to the farm-out company.
far-offset stack: A stack of only traces with large offset,
often the farthest third of the traces; a far-range stack.
See also far-angle stack.
far-zone sounding 130 fault

far-zone sounding: An electromagnetic sounding 共q.v.兲 in
which the source-receiver spacing is much greater than
the depth of investigation 共q.v.兲. Compare near-zone
sounding. Also known as long-offset sounding.
Fast Fourier transform „FFT…: An algorithm 共such as
the Cooley-Tukey method兲 that accomplishes the dis-
crete Fourier transform more rapidly than direct evalu-
ation. Most FFTs involve iterative methods and take
advantage of mathematical symmetry and redundancy.
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 549–550兲.
fast in, slow out „FISO…: A sample/hold circuit 共q.v.兲.
fathom: 6 ft or 1.8288 m.
fathometer: A device for measuring water depth by tim-
ing sonic reflections from the water bottom; an echo
sounder.
fatigue: 共fe’ tēg兲 See hole fatigue.
fault: 1. A displacement of rocks along a shear surface;
see Figures F-2, F-3, and F-4. The surface along which
displacement occurs is called the fault plane 共often a
curved surface and not ‘‘plane’’ in the geometric sense兲.
The dip of the fault plane is the angle that it makes with
the horizontal; the angle with the vertical is called the
hade; other terms related to faulting are defined in
Figures F-2, F-3, and F-4. The trace of a fault is the
line that the fault plane makes with a surface 共often the
surface of the ground, sometimes a bedding surface兲.
Faults are classified as normal, reverse, or strike-slip,
depending on the relative motion along the fault plane;
see Figure F-3. A fourth type of fault, associated with
plate movement, is a transform fault 共q.v.兲. A hinge or
scissors fault is produced by rotation of the blocks
across the fault about an axis perpendicular to the fault
plane so that throw varies along the fault trace. Primary
faults may produce secondary stresses that produce
secondary faults 共which may be of different type兲. Thus
thrusting may produce tensions that cause secondary
normal faults. Faulting and folding are common
responses to the same stresses; see Figure F-17. Fault-
ing during sediment deposition 共growth faulting兲 often
affects the stratigraphy such that beds may abruptly
thicken and become more sandy downthrown at a nor-
mal growth fault. Evidences of faults in seismic data
共see Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 376, 461兲 are principally
by: 共a兲 abrupt termination of events, 共b兲 diffractions, 共c兲

FIG. F-1. Fan shooting. Detectors are located roughly on the arc of a circle centered at the source point in different
directions. Expected arrival times are determined from a normal traveltime curve (versus distance) where no local
high-velocity body is present. An early arrival (lead) with respect to the normal indicates that part of the travelpath is at
an abnormally high velocity, signifying the presence of a local high-velocity body such as a salt dome. This method was
used in early seismic exploration to locate salt domes within the thick low-velocity Gulf Coast sediments. (From
Nettleton, 1940.)
fault cut 131
changes in dip, either flattening or steepening, 共d兲 dis-
tortions of dips seen through the fault, a consequence of
raypath bending because of velocity changes across a
fault, 共e兲 deterioration of data beneath the fault produc-
ing a ‘‘shadow-zone,’’ 共f兲 changes in the pattern of
events across the fault, and 共g兲 occasionally a reflection
from the fault plane. Faults 共especially small ones兲 are
often en echelon or braided rather than parallel and
continuous. 2. In gravity or magnetic data, the edge of
a thin, roughly horizontal slab with density or suscep-
tibility different from that of horizontally adjacent
material.
fault cut: Fault trace 共q.v.兲.
faulted slab: A semi-infinite slab 共plate兲 of uniform thick-
ness, commonly used in potential-field modeling.
fault-plane solutions: Resolution of the direction of ini-
tial slippage along an earthquake fault determined from
variations in the direction of first motion at stations in
different directions from the epicenter. See Fowler
共1990, 99–101兲.
fault polygons: Normal faults create a gap in a mapped
surface, which are represented by planar polygons at
interpretation workstations. Reverse faults create over-
FIG. F-2. Fault nomenclature.
feather pattern
lap 共double-valued兲 surfaces.
fault seal analysis: Efforts to predict whether a fault rep-
resents a barrier to the flow of formation fluids because
it juxtaposes impermeable rocks against permeable
ones. Generally footwall and hanging-wall fault slices
共q.v.兲 are interpreted as to probable permeability and
then they are superimposed. Fault seal analysis may
also involve predicting a probability that clay will be
smeared out sufficiently along a fault surface to prevent
the flow of fluids across the fault 共clay-smear poten-
tial兲.
fault shadow: Distorted or relatively dead reflections in
the footwall zone of a fault, the result of reflection
raypaths bending differently as they traverse a fault at
locations where the velocity contrast differs 共e.g., for
the traces that make up a CMP gather兲.
fault slice: Slicing through a 3D data volume along a
curved surface parallel to a fault plane. Because data
are usually distorted when very near a fault, fault slices
are made a short distance 共perhaps 50–100 m兲 on either
side of the fault, resulting in footwall and hanging-
wall slices. These are then projected into vertical sec-
tions to indicate splinter faulting or closure against the
fault. Footwall and hanging-wall slices are often super-
imposed to indicate sealing against the fault; see fault
seal analysis. See Brown 共1999, 20–22, 225–232兲 and
Figures F-5 and T-5.
fault trace: Intersection of a fault with a line or surface
such as a horizon, time, or depth slice.
Faust’s equations: Empirical relationships between seis-
mic velocity V in ft/s, geologic age T, true formation
resistivity ␳ in ohm feet, and depth of burial z in feet:
V⫽K 共 zT 兲 1/6 ,
V⫽2000 共 ␳ z 兲 1/6 .
z is sometimes taken to be the maximum depth to which
the formation has ever been buried, not necessarily its
present depth. See Faust 共1951, 1953兲. The reciprocal
of the second equation above is sometimes written with
three constants 共k,a,b兲 to be evaluated empirically from
sonic-log transit time (⌬t) data:
1/V⫽⌬t⫽k ␳ ⫺a z ⫺b .
Named for Lawrence Y. Faust, American geophysicist.
FD: Frequency Domain. See frequency-domain method.
FDC: Compensated Formation-Density log; see density
log. Schlumberger tradename.
FDEM, FEM: Frequency-Domain ElectroMagnetics; see
electromagnetic sounding.
FDL: Formation-Density Log; see density log.
feathering: En-echelon arrangement of successive
spreads, as produced in marine shooting when a cross-
current causes the cable to drift at an angle to the
seismic line. See Figures F-6 and T-4.
feather edge: 共of pinchout兲: The line of disappearance of
a wedge of material. Evidence of the wedge’s presence
in seismic data disappears when the wedge gets too thin
to be detected but before the wedge itself disappears.
See Figures T-17.
feather pattern: A weighted or tapered pattern of geo-
phones within a group 共or of shotholes, weight-drop
points, etc.兲 such that the contributions of the elements
of the pattern decrease with distance from its center.
feedback
feedback: The use of part of the output of a system as a
partial input. Negative feedback, where part of the
output is fed out-of-phase into the input, attenuates
variations for self-correcting or control purposes. Used
in AGC systems. Positive feedback, where a portion of
the output is fed in-phase into the input, is used to
produce oscillation.
feedback filter: Recursive filter 共q.v.兲.
Fejer kernel window: 共fā’ j⳵r兲 A window shaped accord-
ing to
sinc2 共 ␲ t/T 兲 ⫽ 共 T/ ␲ t 兲 2 sin2 共 ␲ t/T 兲 .
Named for Lipot Fejer 共1880–1959兲, Hungarian math-
ematician.
FIG. F-3. Fault types.
132 fence effect
felsic: 共fel’ sik兲 Applied to an igneous rock having abun-
dant light-colored minerals. A mnemonic for feldspar
⫹lenad (feldspathoids)⫹silica. The complement of
mafic.
FEM⫽FDEM: Frequency-Domain ElectroMagnetics;
see electromagnetic sounding.
fence diagram: Network of cross sections, usually sim-
plified and often displayed in vertical isometric projec-
tion, to illustrate variations in the third dimension.
Commonly used to show the relationships among a
number of wells. A fence-diagram is shown in Figures
F-7 and T-6.
fence effect: An IP, resistivity, or electromagnetic
anomaly produced by the presence of a nearby
fence effect 133 fence effect

FIG. F-4. Fault types. (a) A secondary antithetic fault, has throw in the direction opposite to that of the primary fault
P and secondary synthetic fault S. (b) Faulting involving rotation that increases the throw of the fault. (c) Growth fault
curved (listric) in both plan and cross-section. Fault movement contemporaneous with deposition produces thickening
into the fault and a rollover anticline. (d) Development of a duplex structure by thrust faulting (overthrusting or
underthrusting). (From Boyer and Elliott, 1982.)
fence effect 134 fence effect

FIG. F-4. Fault types. (Continued). (e) Wrench (strike-slip) faulting. A wrench fault often has associated secondary
wrench, normal, and thrust faults and folding at roughly 30° to the wrench fault. Wrench fault traces are often en echelon
rather than continuous. (f) Right-lateral wrench fault. Components of convergence or divergence may produce flower
structures (see Figure F-12). (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 369–370.) (g) Transitions from fault to fault may be
accompanied by tear faults, folds, or in other ways. (h) Faulting associated with subduction zone. The accretionary
wedge is generally built by underthrusting. (From Lowell, 1985.) (i) Transform fault offsetting spreading center. Rift
faulting associated with extension is usually asymmetric. (From Bally and Snelson, 1980.)
fence effect 135 fence effect

FIG. F-5. A fault slice is made by slicing a 3D volume parallel to a picked fault; data from downthrown and upthrown
slices are often color coded and superimposed to aid in seeing connectivity across faults, secondary faults, or changes
that may indicate an accumulation against the fault. See also Figure T-5. (From Brown, 1986, 186.)
Fermat path
grounded conductor, such as a metal fence. The nature
of a fence is usually indicated on IP maps, for example,
‘‘wooden post fence,’’ ‘‘steel post fence,’’ etc.
Fermat path: A curve that satisfies Fermat’s principle and
Snell’s Law; a raypath 共q.v.兲.
Fermat’s principle: 共fer maz’兲 The seismic raypath
between two points is that for which the first-order
variation of traveltime with respect to neighboring
paths is zero. It is sometimes phrased as that path for
which the traveltime is a minimum 共or, in certain cases,
a maximum or a stationary value兲 compared with
neighboring paths. If the intervening media have differ-
ent speeds, the path will not be straight, but will be such
that the over-all traveltime is minimized 共usually兲. The
resulting raypath is called the least-time path or bra-
chistochrone. Snell’s law follows from Fermat’s prin-
ciple. Named for Pierre Fermat 共1601–1665兲, French
mathematician.
ferrimagnetism: 共fe rı̄’mag n⳵, tiz ⳵m兲 Property of some
spinel-structured ferrites that show both ferromagnetic
and antiferromagnetic properties because ionic interac-
tions favor both parallel and antiparallel alignments of
group 共domain兲 magnetic moments. Ferrimagnetic sub-
stances include distinct ferromagnetic sublattices that
couple antiferromagnetically so that the observed mag-
netism is the difference.
ferromagnetic: 共fe rō’mag n⳵, tik兲 Having positive and
relatively large susceptibility and generally large hys-
teresis and remanence. In ferromagnetic materials the
atoms interact and atomic magnetic moments couple so
that groups of atoms 共domains兲 behave collectively and
orient in a parallel configuration. As the temperature of
such materials rises to the Curie point, the thermal
energy of the atoms becomes sufficient to overcome the
coupling energy and the material behaves paramagneti-
cally. See also diamagnetic and paramagnetic.
FET: Field-Effect Transistor 共q.v.兲.
fetch: The action of obtaining an instruction from a stored
program and decoding the instruction. Also refers to
that portion of a computer’s instruction cycle where this
action is performed.
FFI: Free Fluid Index 共q.v.兲. See also nuclear-magnetism
log.
FFT: Fast Fourier Transform 共q.v.兲.
Fick’s law: The diffusion-rate law of electrochemistry:
the time rate of diffusion is proportional to the negative
of the rate of change of the concentration of the diffus-
ing substance.
fiducials: 1. Points accepted as fixed bases of reference. 2.
Marks that indicate points of simultaneity; e.g., a mark
on a magnetic-intensity record showing which point
corresponds to a point on an altimeter record and to a
point on the map or navigation records that were made
FIG. F-6. Feathering of a marine streamer. See also Figure T-4.
136 field timing
at the same time. 3. Time marks on a seismic record.
fiducial time: 共fi doo’ sh⳵l兲 1. Arrival time on a seismic
record with respect to a datum. 2. The absolute chro-
nological time of magnetic or other geophysical mea-
surements.
field: 1. That space in which an effect, e.g., gravity, elec-
tric, or magnetic, is measurable. Fields are character-
ized by continuity and have one and only one value
associated with every location within the space. 2. The
outdoors, where geophysical surveys are made. 3. A
large tract or area containing valuable minerals, such as
a coal field or an oil field; see resource. 4. Space on a
storage or display device where related arrangements of
characters or digits represent a quantity, amount, name,
identity, etc. 5. Domain 共q.v.兲.
field balance: See Schmidt field balance.
field continuation: See continuation.
field-effect transistor „FET…: A transistor whose integral
operation is unipolar in nature; used in integrated cir-
cuits because of its small size, low-power dissipation,
and low cost. A semiconducting device that uses a
transverse electric field as input to vary its conductance
and thus control its output current. Ideally it is a
voltage-controlled current source.
field file: A common-source gather that has not undergone
very much processing; often multiplexed.
field filter: A band-pass filter used in recording seismic or
other data.
field impedance: See impedance.
field intensity: Force per unit. For a magnetic field, force
per unit magnetic pole 共or current per unit length兲; for a
gravitational field, force per unit mass 共or acceleration兲;
for an electric field, force per unit charge 共or voltage
gradient兲. Also called field strength. Sometimes
expressed as flux density, lines of force per unit area.
field of view: The solid angle through which an instru-
ment is sensitive to radiation.
field processing: 1. Processing performed at the time of
data acquisition or at the acquisition site. 2. Separation
of the formation fluids 共natural gas, crude oil, water,
and sediments兲 after being brought to the surface.
Involves gravity settling, filtering, and breakdown of
emulsions 共suspensions of one fluid in another fluid兲 by
chemicals or heating.
field tape: A magnetic tape containing geophysical data
recorded in the field, as opposed to a processed tape on
which the data have been modified by computer pro-
cessing.
field timing: The timing signals recorded in the field
共usually displayed on a field monitor record as timing
lines兲, on an analog field tape as a 100-Hz timing
signal, and on digital tape as timing words or words
counted from the time break. Commonly originates
figure of merit 137 file protect

from a crystal-controlled oscillator or from a tuning
fork. See Figure R-6.
figure of merit: A measure of the effectiveness of aero-
magnetic survey aircraft compensation for maneuver
effects. The sum, without regard to sign, of the ampli-
tudes in nT of the 12 magnetic signatures recorded
when the aircraft carries out 10 rolls, 5 pitches, 5 yaws
peak-to-peak on north, east, south, and west headings
over a period of 4 –5 seconds. See Canada Geol. Survey
共1991兲.
figure of the Earth: Geoid 共q.v.兲.
file: 1. A collection of related records or program instruc-
tions treated as a unit. 2. A set of records on a recording
medium 共such as magnetic tape兲 that are delimited by
end-of-file marks.
file protect: An interlock that prevents writing new infor-

FIG. F-7. (a) Fence diagram composited from a grid of seismic record sections. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.) (b)
Computer-drawn isometric fence diagram of six seismic lines. (Courtesy Grant-Norpac.) (c) Same as (b) except with
data above some picked horizon removed. (d) Fence diagram to show spatial relationship of data from a series of eight
wells. (From Brown and Fisher, 1977, 222.)
file transfer protocol „FTP… 138
mation on top of information already stored, and thus
inadvertently destroying it.
file transfer protocol „FTP…: An internet protocol that
facilitates transferring files between computers.
filter: 1. A part of a system that discriminates against
some of the information entering it. The discrimination
is usually on the basis of frequency, although other
bases such as wavelength, moveout, coherence, or
amplitude may be used. See Figure F-8. 2. Linear
filtering is called convolution 共q.v.兲. A linear filter may
be characterized by its impulse response or by its
frequency-domain transfer characteristics 共amplitude
and phase response as a function of frequency兲. 3. Alias
filters 共q.v.兲 are very sharp high-cut filters designed to
prevent aliasing. 4. Band-pass filters are often speci-
fied by listing their low-cut and high-cut component
filters. Filter characteristics are often specified by the
frequencies at which the amplitude is down by 3 dB
共70% or half power兲 and by the slope of the cutoff.
Thus ‘‘14/18 –56/36’’ specifies a band-pass filter with a
low-cut down 3 dB at 14 Hz with an 18 dB/octave slope
and a high-cut down 3 dB at 56 Hz with a 36 dB/octave
slope. Typical seismic filter curves are shown in Figure
F-9. See also high-cut filter 共⫽low-pass filter兲 and
low-cut filter 共⫽high-pass filter兲. The order of the speci-
fication is sometimes reversed. 5. Notch filters sharply
reject a very narrow band of frequencies. 6. Digital
filters permit filtering in accord with arbitrarily chosen
characteristics that might prove difficult or impossible
FIG. F-8. Filtering types.
filtration rate
to achieve with physical circuit components. Filtering
can be accomplished by optical methods as well as by
electrical and digital methods. 7. Specific types of fil-
ters used commonly include the Butterworth filter
共q.v.兲, a band-pass filter design with flat response, and
the Chebychev filter „Tchebyscheff filter…, a band-
pass filter with a steep rolloff, characterized by a uni-
form ripple in the pass band. 8. See also inverse filter
共Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 284, 292, 550兲. Stacking is
a filtering process. 9. To remove solids from a suspen-
sion by passage through a sieve.
filter analysis: Determining the filter band pass to use.
filter cake: Mud cake 共q.v.兲.
filter correction: Correction of record times to compen-
sate for time delays associated with filters.
filtering: The attenuation of components of a signal based
on some measurable property. Usually implies that the
measurable property is frequency. May be done by
analog methods 共often electrically兲 or numerically. See
filter and Figure F-8.
filter panel: A display showing data filtered by a sequence
of narrow band-pass filters to see the effects of different
passbands. Also called frequency slices.
filter scan: Filter panel 共q.v.兲.
filtrate: Fluid that has passed through a filter. Specifically,
the drilling fluid that has passed through the mud cake
共q.v.兲.
filtration rate: The velocity V of fluid movement, equal to
the volume of fluid moved through a cross-section of
fines 139
area A per unit of time, given by
V⫽qÕA⫽⫺ 共 k/ ␮ 兲 ⵜ P,
where ⵜ P is the pressure gradient, k the permeability,
and ␮ the viscosity. The apparent filtration rate in a
porous medium is V⫽q/ ␾ A, where ␾ is the porosity.
fines: Particles smaller than 1 mm across.
fingering: Fluid flow along higher permeability channels
in a reservoir where the permeability is inhomoge-
neous.
fingerprinting oil: Determining distinguishing character-
istics by gas chromatography, carbon isotopes, biomar-
kers, and other properties.
fingers: Probes on the sonde of a caliper log 共q.v.兲 or
dipmeter log 共q.v.兲 that feel where the borehole wall is.
fining upward: Clastic sediments that are becoming finer
upward; see Figure C-6.
finite-difference method: 1. A scheme to solve differen-
tial equations by substituting difference quotients for
derivatives. 2. Method of approximating a derivative by
taking the difference of the function at two discrete
points.
finite-element method: A numerical scheme for approxi-
mating a solution to differential equations by represent-
ing curved lines as sequences of small straight-line
elements.
fire-flood: See in-situ combustion.
firewall: A security system that prevents unauthorized
access.
FIR filter: A filter with Finite-duration Impulse
Response.
firing: Generating a seismic wave. Originally meant, deto-
nating an explosion, but now includes any means.
firing rate: The rate at which a transducer, sparker, or
other energy source is discharged.
FIG. F-9. Filter curves for typical seismic amplifier.
fission track dating
firmware: A computer program that is implemented in
hardware, such as read-only memory.
first arrival: First break 共q.v.兲.
first break: The first recorded signal attributable to
seismic-wave travel from a known source. First breaks
on reflection records are used for information about the
weathering. An initial compression usually shows as a
downkick 共SEG polarity standard兲. First-break times
are used in static corrections and in headwave interpre-
tation.
first-break intercept-time method: A method of making
static corrections based on first breaks; refraction stat-
ics. See Figure S-22.
first motion: The direction of the first motion at a given
location because of a P-wave from an earthquake. See
Figure F-10.
first-order triangulation: See triangulation.
first point of Aries: See Aries.
fish: 1. A sensor that is towed in the water, such as
side-scan sonar. A magnetometer fish is typically towed
200–300 m behind a vessel at a depth of 3–5 m. 2. An
object unintentionally left in the borehole during drill-
ing or workover operations that must be recovered
before work can proceed.
fishnet plot: An isometric plot such as drawn by a com-
puter, where the three-dimensional aspect is illustrated
by displacement of the grid lines.
fishtail bit: A drilling bit with cutting edges of hard
alloys; also called a drag bit. Used to drill soft forma-
tions. See Figure D-26a.
fish trap: Government conservation agent attached to a
seismic marsh or water crew.
fission track dating: 共fish’ ⳵n trak兲 A method of calculat-
ing age by measuring the track density left by sponta-
neous splitting of 238U. Tracks show the physical dam-
five spot pattern 140 fixed-source method

age to mineral grains produced by spontaneous fission
of 238U. The number of tracks is proportional to the
isotope’s concentration and the age. The tracks are
made visible under electron microscope by etching a
thin sample with acid. The 238U count is obtained by the
238
U/ 235 U ratio and neutron irradiation that causes 235U
to fission.
five spot pattern: A pattern of four injection wells sur-
rounding a producing well. Used in secondary and
enhanced oil production techniques.
fix: A determination of location, as by the intersection of
two lines-of-position 共q.v.兲 See Figure L-6. A fix is
made without reference to a former position. Fixes are
determined by terrestrial, electronic, or astronomic
means.
fixed data: Parameters and other data that are constant for
a collection of data and thus need to be input to a
computer only once.
fixed field: A preassigned memory location.
fixed layer: A compact layer of ions and molecules held in
place on an electrode or solid by chemical or electro-
static adsorption forces. Also called the bound layer or
inner Helmholz double-layer.
fixed-layer capacitance: Capacitance resulting from the
presence of fixed-layer ions.
fixed point: 1. A method of data representation in which
the radix point 共decimal point兲 is fixed. Compare float-
ing point. 2. Sometimes implies integer operation.
fixed-source method: A profiling method in which the
source of energy is stationary and the receiver is moved

FIG. F-10. First motion (focal mechanism) in an earthquake. ‘‘Beach balls’’ (Sykes diagrams) are map views showing
where the first motion is compressional (black) and dilatational (white); the epicenter being at the center of each
diagram. (a) Map view of a strike-slip fault and its beach ball; (b) vertical section of a reverse fault and its beach-ball
map; (c) vertical section of a normal fault and its beach-ball map; (d) Map of earthquakes in the Mediterranean region.
(After McKenzie, 1972).
fizz water 141 F-layer

about to explore the area. Electromagnetic sounding value to the chosen value; clipping. May be caused by
techniques are often fixed-source methods. Compare loss of sensitivity because of the saturation of some part
moving-source method. of the measuring system. Compare digital clipping and
fizz water: Formation water that contains a small non- see Figure C-5.
commercial amount of free, nonsolution gas. It may F-layer: 1. One of the layers of ionized air in the iono-
give a false hydrocarbon indicator 共q.v.兲 evidence. sphere; it reflects radio waves up to about 50 MHz. In
f-k analysis: See f-k domain. the daytime the F-layer subdivides into two layers, the
f-k domain: The frequency-wavenumber domain in lower of which (F 1 ) is usually 175 to 250 km high and
which the independent variables are frequency 共f兲 and
wavenumber 共k,兲 the result of a 2D Fourier transform of
a seismic record or seismic section; f-k space. Seismic
data analysis sometimes involves f-k plots 共see Figure
F-11兲 in which energy density within a given time
interval is contoured on a frequency-versus-
wavenumber basis. Used to examine the direction and
apparent velocity of seismic waves and in velocity-filter
design.
f-k filtering: Removing energy from seismic data by
applying frequency, wavenumber, or velocity filters
共q.v.兲 in the frequency-wavenumber domain. See Figure
F-11.
f-k migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 in the frequency-
wavenumber domain; Stolt migration. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 329–330兲.
f-k plot: See f-k domain.
flag, flagging: 1. A piece of cloth, rope, or nylon used to
mark a position on a wireline. 2. Strips of plastic, cloth,
or paper used to mark instrument or source locations or
to indicate access points in the field. 3. A bit attached to
a computer word to indicate the boundary of a field. 4.
An indicator to tell a later part of a computer program
about a condition that occurred earlier in the program.
Used to synchronize within a program or to lock out
data. Also called semaphore.
Flair: A marine seismic method employing a streamer
dipping at a small angle 共about 1°兲, often from about 10
to 50 m. Since ghosting depends on receiver depth, the
notch frequencies associated with receiver ghosting
共and the ghosts兲 are effectively eliminated after CMP
stacking. Also known as the slant cable method.
Tradename of Deatex Services.
flash memory: A persistent computer memory used to
store data or programs instead of on a disk or tape.
flat address space: Logical organization of memory stor-
age into a sequence of consecutive locations.
flat spot: A horizontal seismic reflection attributed to an
interface between two fluids such as gas and water or
gas and oil. See hydrocarbon indicator.
flattened sectionÕsurface: A datumed section/surface. 1.
A seismic record section 共or volume兲 in which a par-
ticular event has been made flat 共or sometimes merely
smooth兲 by introducing arbitrary time shifts. If the
event represents a bed that was deposited horizontally,
the flattened section resembles a paleosection showing
the attitude of deeper events at the time of deposition of
the flattened bed; see Figure F-12. Useful in studies of
FIG. F-11. f,k plot. (a) The region passed by array,
variations in the time interval between events and frequency, and velocity filters is cross-hatched. Radial
sometimes used for static corrections. 2. A paleosection lines through the origin represent constant apparent
共q.v.兲. velocity V a (V a ⫽f/k⫽ ␻ / ␬ ). (b) Data beyond the Nyquist
flattening: 1. The difference between the major and minor wavenumber f N (determined by discrete spatial sampling)
axes of an ellipse divided by the major axis; see Figure wraps around (aliases) and may get mixed up with the
E-12. The flattening of the Earth is about 1/295.25. signal. In wraparound, data to the right of ⫹k N continues
2. See flattened section/surfaces. rightward from ⫺k N, where K N is the Nyguist wave-
flat-topping: Reducing values that exceed some chosen number.
fled
is found only during daylight. The higher F 2 layer at
250 to 400 km is present both night and day and is the
principal reflector of HF radio waves at night. See
Figure A-22. 2. A transition layer between the Earth’s
outer and inner cores; see Figure E-1.
fled: Flood 共q.v.兲.
flex binning: Locally increasing bin size to maintain con-
stant multiplicity, designed to compensate for acquisi-
tion irregularities. Bin-flexing schemes usually use
some uniqueness criteria involving trace selection so
that only one trace in each offset range is retained. See
fold.
flexing: See flex binning.
flexural rigidity of the Earth’s crust: See radius of
regionality.
flexural ice wave: A source-generated horizontally propa-
gating noise wave that typically occurs in Arctic
regions when surface seismic reflection data are
recorded on a floating sheet of ice. The noise train is
much higher amplitude and usually has a wider band-
width than does the ground roll that occurs on dryland.
flexural wave: 共flek’ sh⳵r ⳵l兲 1. A normal mode in a thin
plate with motion antisymmetric about the median sur-
FIG. F-12. Flattening can be done by tracking horizons
(picking) and then time-shifting. Flattening on one horizon
illustrates structure at the time of deposition of that
horizon, assuming it was deposited horizontally. (Courtesy
C.G.G.)
142 flow chart
face of the plate. 2. Guided wave in a borehole.
flight line: A line on a map or chart to represent the track
over which an aircraft or satellite has flown or is to fly.
flight-path recovery: Process 共especially in older aero-
magnetic surveys兲 where the location of the aircraft is
tied to known ground points. Usually done with photo-
graphs or videotape.
flip: To switch back and forth between screen displays.
flip polarity: The polarity of an in-line SV-section inverts
at zero offset.
flip-flop: 1. Use of two sources fired alternately, or of two
boats that fire their sources alternately. Either or both
boats may tow streamers. Used in marine 3D acquisi-
tion to record more than one line on a single traverse. 2.
A bistable oscillator; a device with exactly two stable
states. Used to store one bit of information.
floating: Not electrically connected to ground or to the
system reference voltage.
floating charge: A seismic charge that is not as deep as
intended. Characterized by early uphole time and
delayed reflection times.
floating datum: A variable reference used in areas of
appreciable topography. The elevation of the datum is
varied to lessen the sensitivity to the approximations in
static corrections if a constant-elevation datum were
used and to compensate for velocity variations because
of the increased loading of the topography. The relief
on a one-third floating datum is one-third of the
surface elevation above a flat plane. Tilted plane
datums are also used sometimes.
floating point: A number expressed by the significant
figures times a base raised to a power. Thus 139 000
might be written as 1.390⫻10 5 to indicate four signifi-
cant figures. Writing numbers in floating-point format
prevents the loss of significant figures in case the num-
ber becomes too small or too large for a fixed register.
Computers usually use bases that are a power of 2
rather than the base 10.
flood: 1. To drive oil through a reservoir by injecting
water or another fluid under pressure into the reservoir
formation. 2. To drown out a well with water. 3. To
make the velocity the same everywhere below some
given surface as a step in depth-migrating data; see
depth-migration. For example, in migrating subsalt
data, one often assumes that the sediment velocity
function applies everywhere 共sediment velocity flood兲
while migrating the top of the salt, then assumes salt
velocity everywhere below the top salt 共salt flood兲 to
migrate the base of the salt, and finally one assumes a
sediment velocity function below the base salt. Hope-
fully produces a clear sharp image of subsalt reflec-
tions.
flood the topography: Use of an elevated datum in grav-
ity data reduction.
flooding surface: A depositional surface that marks an
abrupt increase in water depth 共Van Wagoner, 1995兲.
flood-plain deposits: Sediments deposited outside of a
river channel by flooding; overbank deposits.
flops: Floating-point operations per second.
floppy disk: A portable disk storage; a diskette.
flow chart: A diagram showing the operations involved in
a process. Often used to show the steps of a computer
program or steps in processing. See Figures F-14 and
P-14.
flower structure 143 flyer

flower structure: A geologic structure that results from
strike-slip movement associated with convergence 共pro-
ducing a positive flower structure兲 or divergence 共a
negative flower structure兲. Generally shows as an
upward-widening cone containing a number of faults.
See Figure F-15.
flowing pressure: Fluid pressure measured at the well
head.
flowmeter: A device that measures the flow of fluid. In
borehole studies the flowmeter may be lowered through
the flow stream or set in one spot with a packer. See
spinner survey.
flow test: A measure of the pressure drop associated with
a fluid-flow rate.
fluid factor: A measure that indicates that the pore fluid is
gas rather than liquid. On a crossplot of S-wave veloc-
ity (V S ) versus P-wave velocity (V P ), the mudrock
line for water-filled sandstones has water velocity as its
intercept with the V P -axis but gas-filled sandstones
have a different slope and the intercept zero. The fluid
factor ⌬F⫽R P ⫺1.16(V S /V P )R S , where R P and R S
are, repectively, the normal reflection coefficients for P-
and S-waves;
⌬F⫽R P ⫺1.16 共 V S /V P 兲 R S ,
See Castagna and Backus 共1993, 20-21兲.
fluid incompressibility: The Lamé parameter ␭.
fluid pressure: Interstitial pressure 共q.v.兲 or pore pressure.
fluid replacement: A calculation that predicts changes if
the nature of the fluid is changed.
fluid sampler: See formation tester.
fluid substitution: Calculation, usually using the
Gassmann-Biot-Geertsma equations, of the changes in
physical properties that should result from changing the
pore fluids from brine to oil or gas with specific fluid
properties. The calculations are used to predict how to
interpret time-lapse measurements.
fluid-travel log: A recording of the flow of fluid past a
logging tool. A radioactive slug is injected into the fluid
stream through ports in the logging tool and the radio-
active counting rate is measured as a function of time at
two detector positions. Used to locate leaks.
fluorimetry: 共flu rim’ ⳵ t ry兲 Estimate of the intensity of
fluorescence of a solution or solid excited by ultraviolet
light.
flushed zone: See invaded zone and Figure I-6.
flutter: Noise caused by variations in speed of magnetic
tape in analog recording.
flux: A representation of magnetic, electrical, and other
lines of force. The flux density is proportional to field
intensity.
flux density: See field intensity.
fluxgate magnetometer: 共fl⳵ks’ gāt mag n⳵ tam’ ⳵t ⳵r兲 An
instrument capable of detecting changes in the mag-
netic field of the order of 0.2 nanotesla. See Figure
F-16. The magnetometer measures the magnetic field
component along the axis of its core and must be
oriented with the field if the total intensity is to be
measured. This is usually accomplished by using three
mutually perpendicular fluxgate instruments and servo-
mechanisms that vary the orientation to minimize the
magnetic field in two of these, thus maximizing the
field for the third. Compare proton magnetometer, opti-
cally pumped magnetometer, and Squid cryogenic mag-
netometer.
flyer: A number of geophones permanently connected at
intervals along a short cable, used for one geophone
group. A typical flyer might contain, for example, 6

FIG. F-13. (a) Flexichoc. (1) Two plates are separated by compressed air until they lock into position; (2) the air
between them is pumped out; (3) on signal the plates are unlocked and water pressure forces them together; the inrush
of water into the consequent empty space creates a shock wave in the water. (b) Flexotir; small charges (about 2
ounces) are propelled through a rubber hose by water under pressure into a steel cage, where they are detonated; holes
in the cage allow water repelled by the explosion to flow out and in, dissipating the energy. (Courtesy C.G.G.)
FM
geophones connected in series at 6 m intervals, with
clips at the end for connecting it to the main cable that
carries the signal to the recording equipment. Synonym:
geophone string.
FM: Frequency Modulation 共q.v.兲.
FMI: Formation Micro Imager 共q.v.兲.
FMS: Formation Micro Scanner 共q.v.兲.
focal length: The distance along the optical axis from the
optical center of a lens to the point where the image of
a very distant object focuses.
focus: 1. The location of the first rupture in an earthquake;
the hypocenter. 2. The point where the rays from a
point source reunite and cross after passing through a
lens or after reflecting from a mirror. 3. See buried-
focus effect.
focusing analysis: Varying a parameter 共usually velocity,
in a migration operation兲 to select the parameter that
achieves the clearest, most coherent, and most sensible
display.
FIG. F-14. Flow chart for the convolution of g(t) with
f(t). Input: G⫽(G 0 ,G 1 ,G 2 ,...,G L ); filter F⫽(F 0 ,F 1 ,
F 2 ,...,F M ); output: Z⫽(Z 0 ,Z 1 ,Z 2 ,...,Z L⫹M ), where Z i
⫽⌺G k F i⫺k .
144 foreshock
focused log: A laterolog or guard log. Sometimes refers to
FoRxo, microlaterolog, or proximity log. See Figure
L-3.
fold: 1. The multiplicity of common-midpoint data or the
number of midpoints per bin. Where the midpoint is the
same for 12 offset distances, e.g., the stack is referred to
as ‘‘12-fold.’’ 2. See also folding.
foldback: 1. A cable that is doubled back on itself such
that two or more geophone stations are located at the
same position on the ground. Used for making compari-
sons 共for example, of different types of geophone
arrays兲. 2. Frequencies greater than the Nyquist fre-
quency are folded back, causing data to alias 共q.v.兲. See
also wrap around. 3. If too many cables are connected
together and too many geophone groups are connected,
groups at different locations may feed the same chan-
nel, producing confusing results.
folding: 1. Frequency folding such as results from inad-
equate sampling, producing alias 共q.v.兲 problems. 2.
Convolution 共q.v.兲. 3. Bending of geological strata.
Primary folding is a response to deep-seated forces
with a strong horizontal component. Gravitational
folding results from downward sliding and flow, which
are secondary results of uplift and tilting. Local folding
can be caused by compaction or by the upwelling of salt
or igneous rocks. The upraised part of a fold forms an
anticline, the downwarped portion a syncline. Folding
terminology is shown in Figure F-17. Materials respond
differently to the same stresses 共and stress durations兲
and cleavage, flow, and faulting are usually associated
with folding; see Figure F-17. Competent beds tend to
retain their thickness in folding; they govern the folding
wavelength, which is of the order of 25 times the
thickness of the most competent member. Incompetent
beds flow in response to folding stresses, but the dis-
tinction with competent beds is gradational. Two fold-
ing styles are illustrated in Figure F-17d, e. Folding is
disharmonic where the folding of one bed is not geo-
metrically related to the folding of nearby beds, incom-
petent beds intervening between them.
folding frequency: The Nyquist frequency; see alias.
fold test: Variation in the direction of remanent magne-
tism in a rock that has been folded; it can indicate
whether or not the magnetization predated the folding.
footprint: A pattern in data caused by acquisition or pro-
cessing methodology or irregularities, rather than hav-
ing geologic significance.
footwall: The side of a fault that lies below a dipping fault
plane; the upthrown side of a normal fault. A footwall
slice is a seismic section showing reflections along a
curved surface parallel to and displaced 50–100 m
away from the fault plane 共to get away from distorted
data along the fault itself兲. See Brown 共1999, 20–21,
225–232兲 and Figures F-3 and T-5e.
forced regression: Seaward movement of the shoreline
during a lowstand; usually without progradation.
force majeure: A legal clause that provides for the
responsibilities of contracting parties because of events
beyond the reasonable control of the contracting par-
ties.
fore-reef: The region in front of a reef, facing the deep-
water basin.
foreshock: An earthquake that precedes a larger earth-
quake.
foreign 145 formation evaluation

format: The arrangement of data 共as on a magnetic tape兲.

FIG. F-15. A flower structure results when there is a
component of convergence on a strike-slip fault, some-
times called an upthrust structure. Flower structures
usually involve asymmetry. A component of divergence
produces a negative flower structure (not shown) with the
center dropped down to accommodate the extra space.
Bends in a strike-slip fault may produce positive and nega-
tive flowers at different places (see Figure F-4f). (From
Lowell, 1985, 63.)
foreign: 1. Not part of a system. 2. Not part of one’s own
company.
foresight: A surveying measurement with the objective of
determining the position and elevation of the stadia rod
with respect to the survey instrument.
Digital seismic formats are specified by SEG 共1980兲,
positional data standards by SEG 共1983兲, MT/EMAP
data interchange standards by SEG 共1988兲. Involves the
placement of bits of different significance, number of
bits per byte and bytes per word, parity, multiplexing
arrangement, timing and gain information, record iden-
tification, other auxiliary data, gaps, start-stop codes,
etc. Specific computer systems may use their own for-
mat so that the first step with new data may be to
reformat it.
formation: A body of rock that is distinguishable from
other rock bodies by significant differences in lithology
共and therefore is mappable兲. Its boundaries may be
either sharp or arbitrarily specified in a gradational
sequence. Formations are subdivided into members,
which in turn are subdivided into beds. Members and
beds have lithological characteristics that distinguish
them from other members and beds, but which are
insufficient to classify them as separate formations or
members. Several adjacent formations may form a
group, whose boundaries are marked by major changes
in lithology and/or depositional environments, or by a
major break in sedimentation. The divisions are some-
what arbitrary but are usually specified by Stratigraphic
Commissions; see Hedberg 共1976兲 and Salvador
共1994兲. Nonsedimentary rock units that do not conform
to the law of superposition are called lithodemes 共Greek
for stone bodies兲. See stratigraphic classification.
formation-analysis log „FAL…: A computed log of appar-
ent fluid resistivity and apparent porosity based on
induction log and either sonic- or density-log data. Also
called Rwa-analysis log.
formation damage: Reduction of permeability because of
the invasion of drilling fluid.
formation-density log „FDL…: See density log.
formation evaluation: The analysis and interpretation of
well-log data, drill-stem tests, cores, drill cuttings, etc.,

FIG. F-16. Fluxgate magnetometer. Two permalloy cores approach saturation in the weak magnetic field of the Earth.
A 1000 Hz cyclic field superimposed by a coil around the core completes saturation. The place in the energizing cycle
at which saturation is reached is a measure of the strength of the Earth’s field. A secondary coil detects the changes in
flux. Two parallel cores are used with windings in opposite directions and the difference is measured. A current through
an additional winding nullifies most of the background magnetic field so that the magnetometer is sensitive to small
changes in the Earth’s field. The current through the nulling coil is a measure of the magnetic field strength.
formation evaluation 146 formation evaluation

FIG. F-17. Folding. (a) The plunge of an anticline is the angle that the axial line makes with the surface. The b-axis
is the direction of the axial line, the a-axis is the plane containing the axial line and the axis of the fold, and the c-axis
is perpendicular to this plane. (b) Folding, cleavage, or flow may result from stresses. The stress duration often is
involved as well as the stress magnitude. (From deSitter, 1956.) (c) Faulting is often combined with folding. (After Hobbs
et al., 1976.) (d) In concentric or flexural-slip folding, competent beds tend to slip along the bedding planes and retain
constant thickness perpendicular to the bedding, whereas incompetent beds fold and fault and separate the fold from
deeper structure. (e) In similar folding, beds tend to retain their vertical thickness t, thinning on the sides of the fold.
formation factor 147
in terms of the nature of the formations and their fluid
content. The objectives of formation evaluation are to
ascertain if commercially productive hydrocarbons are
present and, if so, the best means for their recovery.
Other objectives are to derive lithology and other infor-
mation on formation characteristics for use in further
exploration. See Figure W-9. Compare formation test.
formation factor: The ratio of the resistivity of a forma-
tion to the resistivity of the water with which it is
saturated. See Archie’s formula.
formation fluid pressure: The pressure of fluid in the
pore spaces „pore pressure…. Also called interstitial
pressure.
formation microimager „FMI…: An electric imager
resistivity tool with four arms that unfold from the tool
body, each with two pads containing multiple electrode
buttons. Yields high-resolution resistivity logs from the
high-density of pads; these are displayed as an image of
80–90% of the borehole wall surface. Used to detect
fractures and stratigraphic features. Schlumberger
tradename. See Figure I-1.
formation microscanner „FMS…: An early analog ver-
sion of the formation microimager 共q.v.兲. Schlumberger
tradename.
formation test: Gathering data on a formation to deter-
mine its potential productivity, usually before installing
casing in a well. See drill-stem test and compare for-
mation evaluation.
form factor: 1. Geometric factor, the geometric multiply-
ing factor that depends on the type of electrode array
and interval being used. 2. The type curve for a profile
across an idealized body, e.g., across a sphere.
Fortran: 共for’ tran兲 FORmula TRANslation; a high-level
language designed to simplify programming for digital
computers. Designed for solving algebraic problems
and for scientific procedural programming. Fortran has
developed by a series of improvements since the base
language 共Fortran 66兲 was introduced. Fortran 77 added
string capabilities and Fortran 90 and 95 added array
processing and free-form syntax. Fortran HPF 共High-
Performance Fortran兲 is designed for parallel process-
ing.
Fortsch discontinuity: 共fortsch兲 An irregular seismic dis-
continuity sometimes seen at 8 –11 km in continental
crust, usually attributed to a change from granitic to
dioritic composition.
forward bias: See bias.
forward modeling, forward process, forward solution:
Determining the expected effects from a model 共see
Figure M-14兲, solving a direct problem 共q.v.兲, such as
predicting the electric potential for a given distribution
of resistivity current sources. The input is a subsurface
picture, the output is the expected observations.
forward shot: Activation of a seismic source into a spread
in the same direction in which the line is moving.
FoRxo: See microlaterolog. Welex tradename.
fossil remanence: See remanent magnetism.
Foucault current: 共foo kō’兲 See induction log. Named for
Jean Bernard Leon Foucault 共1819–1868兲, French
physicist.
Fourier transform
foundation coefficient: A coefficient expressing how
many times stronger the effect of an earthquake is in a
given rock than it would have been for undisturbed
crystalline rock.
fourble: 共for’ bl⳵兲 Four joints of drill pipe screwed
together.
four-component recording „4-C…: Recording marine data
with an ocean-bottom seismometer 共OBS兲 on the sea-
floor where the OBS consists of three orthogonal geo-
phones and a hydrophone. Ocean-bottom cables 共OBC兲
contain a number of OBS. See Tatham and McCormack
共1991兲.
four-dimensional data „4D…: Data that represent a 3D
volume plus an additional dimension. The additional
dimension is usually the time at which the data were
recorded, yielding time-lapse 共q.v.兲 data. Sometimes the
4th dimension is offset. See Brown 共1999兲 and Weimer
and Davis 共1996兲.
Fourier analysis: 共foor’ ē ā,兲 The analytical representation
of a waveform as a weighted sum of sinusoidal func-
tions. Determining the amplitude and phase of cosine
共or sine兲 waves of different frequencies into which a
waveform can be decomposed. Fourier analysis can be
thought of as a subset of the Fourier transform 共q.v.兲.
See Figure F-18. Opposite of Fourier synthesis. Named
for Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier 共1768 –1830兲, French
mathematician.
Fourier integral: See Fourier transform.
Fourier pairs: Operations and functions that Fourier-
transform into each other. See Figures F-19, F-20, and
F-22. Fourier pairs can be generalized into more dimen-
sions, such as illustrated in Figure F-21 共where the
domains might be offset-time versus frequency-
wavenumber ( f -k space兲.
Fourier plane: Frequency domain 共q.v.兲.
Fourier series: Representation of a periodic function by
the sum of sinusoidal components whose frequencies
are integral multiples of a fundamental frequency. See
Fourier transform.
Fourier synthesis: Superimposing cosine and/or sine
waves with appropriate amplitude and phase to con-
struct a waveform 共or time-domain representation兲. See
Figure F-18. Fourier synthesis can be thought of as a
subset of the Fourier-transform 共q.v.兲.
Fourier transform: Formulas that convert a time function
g(t) 共waveform, seismic record trace, etc.兲 into its
frequency-domain representation G( f ) and vice versa.
G( f ) and g(t) constitute a Fourier-transform pair;
see Figure F-19. An example is
冕 冕
⬁ ⬁
g 共 t 兲 ↔G 共 f 兲 ⫽ g 共 t 兲 e ⫺ j2 ␲ f t dt⫽ g 共 t 兲 cos共 2 ␲ f t 兲 dt
⫺⬁ ⫺⬁
冕
⬁
⫺j g 共 t 兲 sin共 2 ␲ f t 兲 dt.
⫺⬁
The inverse transform is
冕
⬁
g共 t 兲⫽ G 共 f 兲 e j2 ␲ f t d f
⫺⬁
冕 冕
⬁ ⬁
⫽ G 共 f 兲 cos共 2 ␲ f t 兲 dt⫹ j G 共 f 兲 sin共 2 ␲ f 兲 dt .
⫺⬁ ⫺⬁
Fourier transform 148 Fourier transform

Finding G( f ) from g(t) is called Fourier analysis and

finding g(t) from G( f ) is called Fourier synthesis.
G( f ) is the complex spectrum, the real part being the
cosine transform and the imaginary part the sine
transform whenever g(t) is real. Another expression
for G( f ) is
G 共 f 兲 ⫽ 兩 A 共 f 兲兩 e i␥共 f 兲,
where the functions A( f ) and ␥ ( f ) are real. They are,
respectively, the amplitude spectrum and the phase
spectrum of g(t):

A 共 f 兲 ⫽ 兵 关 real part of G 共 f 兲兴 2
⫹ 关 imaginary part of G 共 f 兲兴 2 其 1/2 ;

␥ 共 f 兲 ⫽tan⫺1 关 imaginary part/real part兴 ;

␥ ( f ) is in the first or second quadrant if the imaginary
part is positive, in the first or fourth quadrant if the real
part is positive. A record trace h(t) that extends only
from 0 to T may be assumed to be repeated indefinitely
and so expanded in a Fourier series of period T:

冉 冊 冉 冊
⬁ ⬁
t t
h共 t 兲⫽ 兺
n⫽0
a n cos 2 ␲ n
T
⫹
n⫽1
兺
b n sin 2 ␲ n ,
T
where

a n⫽
2
T 冕 T

0
冉
h 共 t 兲 cos 2 ␲ n
t
T冊dt,

FIG. F-18. (a) Fourier analysis involves finding the

b n⫽
2
T 冕 0
T
冉
h 共 t 兲 sin 2 ␲ n
t
T冊dt,
amplitude of frequency components for a waveform. The
frequency-domain representation or spectrum G(f) of a and
discrete time function g t (waveform, seismic record trace,
etc.) can be decomposed into a series of sinusoids by any h 共 t 兲 ↔H n ⫽ 兩 A n 兩 e i ␥ n ,
of the following equivalent equations:
A n ⫽ 共 a n 2 ⫹b n 2 兲 1/2 ; ␥ n ⫽tan⫺1 共 b n /a n 兲 .
gt⫽a0/2⫹ 兺 关a cos共2␲f t兲⫹b cos共2␲ft兲兴
n n n The same rules for quadrants apply to ␥ n as expressed
for ␥ ( f ); a 0 is the zero-frequency component 共or dc
⫽co/2⫹ 兺 c cos共2␲f t⫺␥ 兲⫽兺 ␣ exp关j 2␲f t兴,
n n n n n
shift兲. The frequency spectrum is discrete if the func-
tion is periodic. If h t is a sampled time series sampled
at intervals of time t 2 , then we can stop summing when
where a n ⫽ (2/T) 兺 g i cos(2␲ f it), bn ⫽ (2/T)兺 gi sin(2␲ f it), n⬎2T/t 2 共see sampling theorem兲. In this case a n and
c n ⫽(2/T) 兺 g i cos(2␲ f it⫺␥i), ␥ n ⫽ 0, ␥ n ⫽ tan⫺1(bn/an), b n can be expressed as sums:

冉 冊
n⬎0, ␣ n ⫽ (2/T) 兺 g i exp[j2␲ f it]. 2T/t 2
2 t
If g(t) is a continuous waveform, the sum signs become a n⫽
T 兺
n⫽0
h t cos 2 ␲ n
T
integrals. 共b兲 Fourier synthesis involves superimposing
the components to reconstitute the waveform. For an anti- and
symmetric sawtooth waveform, the first four components

冉 冊
2T/t 2
2 t
兺
are:
b n⫽ h t sin 2 ␲ n .
sin x; ⫺ 共 1/2 兲 sin 2x; 共 1/3 兲 sin 3x; ⫺ 共 1/4 兲 sin 4x. T n⫽1 T

For a Fourier transform the limits are 0 and ⫾⬁, and G(f)
and g(t) constitute a Fourier-transform pair; see Figure
F-19.
Also see phase response and fast Fourier transform.
Operations in one domain have equivalent operations in
the transform domain 共see Figure F-20兲. Computations
can sometimes be carried out more economically in one
domain than the other and Fourier transforms provide a
means of accomplishing this. The Fourier-transform
relations can be generalized for more than one dimen-
sion 共see Figure F-21兲. For example,
four-shot method 149 fractals

G共 ␬,␻ 兲⫽ 冕 冕 ⬁

⫺⬁
⬁

⫺⬁
g 共 x,t 兲 e ⫺ j 共 ␬ x⫹ ␻ t 兲 dxdt
spread 共short shots兲 are supplemented by additional
inline offset shots 共long shots兲.
fourth-order sequence: A sequence resulting from a
and cycle of about 100 to 150 ka duration 共Van Wagoner,

g 共 x,t 兲 ⫽
1
4␲ 冕 冕
⬁

⫺⬁
⬁

⫺⬁
G 共 ␬ , ␻ 兲 e j 共 ␬ x⫹ ␻ t 兲 dxdt.
关The 1/4␲ factor is sometimes distributed between the
two integrals; where calculations involve an arbitrary
scaling factor, the 1/4␲ factor may be dropped entirely.兴
Fourier transforms are discussed in Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 277, 532–533兲. Theorems relating to Fourier
transforms are shown in Figure F-22.
four-shot method: A reversed-refraction method used in
engineering studies. Sources at each end of a geophone
1995兲.
four-way dip: Dip calculated from a cross-spread 共espe-
cially where both inline and cross-spreads are splits兲.
See Figure C-19.
FPSO: Floating Production Storage and Offloading sys-
tem.
fractals: Geometrical models that exhibit similar patterns
when viewed at different scales, i.e., with different
resolutions. If a measurement M is proportional to some
scale S raised to a power D, D is the fractal dimen-

FIG. F-19. Fourier transform pairs. The time functions on the left are Fourier transforms of the frequency functions on
the right and vice-versa. Many more transform pairs could be shown. The above are all even functions and hence have
zero phase. Transforms for real odd functions are imaginary, i.e., they have a phase shift of ⫹␲/2. Transforms of
functions that are neither odd nor even involve variations of phase with frequency. Note f⫽1/t.
fractional halftime 150 free-air correction

sion; the fractal dimension is generally not integral. See
Mandelbrot 共1982兲.
fractional halftime: The time to reach half energy.
fracturing: Breaking the rock of a producing formation
by subjecting it to very high fluid pressure, a method of
stimulating production. Proppants 共q.v.兲 may be
injected into the fractures to keep them open when the
fluid pressure is released. Called hydraulic fracturing.
Explosives were used for fracturing until the 1930s.
fracture log: A well log of the amplitude of sonic log to
show fracture zones, which generally attenuate acoustic
energy. Analysis of amplitude loss associated with
Stoneley wave modes is related to simple models to
compute an equivalent aperture for a fracture.
fracture permeabilityÕporosity: Natural fractures are pla-
nar discontinuities that may contribute significantly to a
formation’s permeability in either a positive 共if they are
open兲 or negative way 共if they are cemented兲. Fractures
may result from structural deformation associated with
folding or faulting, from shrinkage because of dewater-
ing, dessication, or cooling, pore-fluid pressure that
exceeds rock strength, and other causes. They often
have the same orientation and hence may result in
strong anisotropy of permeability and other properties.
Detecting fractures is an objective of S-wave birefrin-
gence studies and of imaging of the borehole wall 共see
Figure I-1兲. The storage capacity in fractures 共fracture
porosity兲, a type of secondary porosity, is usually very
small. Fractures can be induced by hydraulic fracturing
共hydrofracing; q.v.兲 to improve fluid flow into a well-
bore. See Aguilera 共1998兲.
fracture pressure: The pressure that will cause forma-
tions to fracture 共break兲.
Fraunhofer diffraction: 共froun’ hō f⳵r兲. The special case
of Fresnel diffraction 共q.v.兲 at a distance approaching
infinity 共or by using a lens to make rays parallel兲.
Named for Joseph von Fraunhofer 共1787–1826兲, Ger-
man physicist.
free-air anomaly: Gravity data that have been corrected
for latitude and elevation 共free-air correction, q.v.兲 but
not for the density of the rock between the datum and
the measurement elevation 共Bouguer correction兲. Mea-
sures the attraction because of the mass of the subad-
jacent earth. Also called free-air gravity.
free-air correction: 1. A correction for the elevation of
a gravity measurement required because the measure-
ment was made at a different distance from the center
of the Earth than the datum. The correction

FIG. F-20. Equivalence of Fourier transform operations. Doing the time operation is equivalent to doing the frequency
operation on the transform of the data. Note: g(t)↔G(f) and h(t)↔H(f).
free-air gravity 151 frequency

is 0.308 768⫺0.000 440 sin2 ␭⫺0.000 000 1442
h mGal/m, where ␭ is the latitude and h is elevation
above the ellipsoid. Usually only the first term is used,
0.3086 mGal/m or 0.09406 mGal/ft. See Figure G-7.
2. In Turam, normalizing a ratio of successive measure-
ments by dividing by the calculated free-space vertical
magnetic field. Compare normal correction.
free-air gravity: See free-air anomaly.
free energy: See thermodynamic functions.
free-fall gravimetry: Measuring the absolute gravity by
timing the free fall of a weight in a vacuum.
free field: Not relating to a preassigned or fixed field.
free-fluid index „FFI…: The percent of the bulk volume
occupied by fluids that are free to flow, often measured
by the nuclear-magnetism log 共q.v.兲. Gas gives a low
FFI.
free format: Not relating to a preassigned or fixed format.
free nutation of the Earth: See Chandler wobble.
free oscillation of the Earth: A simple change-of-shape
oscillation of the whole Earth induced by very large
earthquakes. The period is 53 minutes in the lowest
mode. See Figure F-23 and Fowler 共1990, 85兲.
free-space field: The field about an antenna in the absence
of nearby conductors. See primary field.
freeware: Software for which there is no cost, including
its source code.
freezing point: See solidus, liquidus.
French model: A particular physical model 共Figure F-24兲
used extensively for demonstrating 3D aspects of seis-
mic data and for testing migration algorithms. See
French 共1974兲.
frequency: 1. Symbol, f. The repetition rate of a periodic
waveform, measured in ‘‘per second’’ or Hertz. The
reciprocal of period. Compare spatial frequency. 2.

FIG. F-21. Two-dimensional Fourier transform pairs. (From Lindseth, 1970.)

frequency domain „FD…
Angular frequency ␻, measured in radians per second,
is to frequency f as 2␲:
␻ ⫽2 ␲ f .
3. The dominant frequency of wavelets refers to an
approximate repetition 共the reciprocal of the peak-to-
peak time interval兲 even though the entire wavelet does
not repeat. See Figure W-2. 4. The frequency content
of a waveform refers to the amplitudes of the sinusoidal
components into which the waveform can be decom-
posed by Fourier analysis, even where there is nothing
repetitive about the waveform itself; frequency spec-
trum. For mathematical symmetry, the Fourier integral
is usually written for frequencies from ⫺⬁ to ⫹⬁.
Negative frequencies can be thought of as the repetition
rate where one counts backward in time.
frequency domain „FD…: A representation in which fre-
quency is the independent variable; the Fourier trans-
form variable when transforming from time.
frequency-domain method: A method of potential-field
analysis in which parameters of interest are estimated
from characteristics of amplitude and phase spectra. In
induced-polarization measurements, frequency-domain
parameters include relative phase shift and percent fre-
quency effect 共PFE兲. Involves the variation of apparent
resistivity with frequency.
frequency-domain migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 in which
the wave equation ␾ (x,o,t) is transformed into the
frequency-wavenumber domain.
␾ 共 x,o,t 兲 →⌽ 共 ␬ x , ␬ z , ␻ 兲 ,
various operations are performed, and then it is trans-
formed back,
⌽ 共 ␬ x , ␬ z , ␻ 兲 → ␾ 共 x,z,0 兲 ,
FIG. F-22. Fourier transform theorems.
152 frequency standard
which is the sought-for solution. See Sheriff and Gel-
dart 共1995, 334兲.
frequency-domain sounding: See frequency-domain
method.
frequency effect „FE…: The difference between apparent
resistivity measurements 共␳ a1 and ␳ a2 兲 made at two
frequencies f 1 and f 2 , divided by the apparent resistiv-
ity at one of the frequencies:
FE⫽ 共 ␳ a2 ⫺ ␳ a1 兲 / ␳ a1 .
Percent frequency effect „PFE… is often used. Fre-
quency effect can also be related to chargeability M by
M ⫽FE/ 共 1⫹FE兲 .
frequency filtering: Filtering 共q.v.兲.
frequency modulation „FM…: Modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave differs
from the carrier frequency by an amount proportional to
the instantaneous value of the modulating wave. The
amplitude of the modulated wave is usually constant.
See Figure M-16.
frequency panel: A display of a set of sections filtered
with adjacent narrow bandpass filters.
frequency response: The characteristics of a system as a
function of frequency. See Fourier transform.
frequency slices: A frequency panel 共q.v.兲 or filter panel.
frequency sounding: See electromagnetic sounding.
frequency spectrum: The characteristics of a waveform
described as a function of frequency. See Fourier trans-
form.
frequency standard: A hydrogen maser, based on its
1.420 405 757 68 GHz resonance frequency of a hyper-
fine transition of atomic hydrogen, is the most stable of
atomic clocks. A cesium beam based on 9.192 631 770
GHz hyperfine transition of 133Cs atoms provides the SI
standard. A rubidium vapor cell based on 6.834 682 605
fresh 153 Fresnel zone

FIG. F-23. Free oscillations of the Earth. The simplest modes are (a) radial, breathing, or balloon; (b) spherical or
football; and (c) toroidal or twisting.

GHz transition of 87RB atoms is the least expensive of
atomic clocks. Vibrating quartz crystals provide the
most common inexpensive standards.
fresh: Very low in dissolved salts. Sometimes used com-
paratively with respect to normal sea water 共which is 35
000 parts of dissolved salts per million兲, sometimes
used comparing formation water with mud filtrate.
Fresh water has less than 2000 ppm dissolved salts.
Fresnel diffraction: 共fre nel’兲 Diffraction observed close
to the diffracting object. Compare Fraunhofer diffrac-
tion. Named for Augustin Jean Fresnel 共1788 –1827兲,
French physicist.
Fresnel lens: See Fresnel zone.
Fresnel zone: 1. The portion of a reflector from which
reflected energy can reach a detector within one-half
wavelength of the first reflected energy. The central
first Fresnel zone is elliptical 共circular for zero offset
data兲 for a horizontal reflector; successive Fresnel
zones are annular rings of successively larger radii; see
Figure F-25. Most of the energy reflected from the first

FIG. F-24. (a) French 3D model. (b) Seismic line 7: raw (unmigrated) data, 2D migrated, and 3D migrated. From
French (1974).
Fresnel zone 154 Fresnel zone

FIG. F-25. Fresnel zones. (a) For coincident source and receiver at S, the first Fresnel zone radius is R 1 (perpendicular
to h). The second Fresnel zone is the annular ring. Higher-order zones (not shown) are also annular rings. The dominant
wavelength is ␭. Another way of thinking of this is that a reflecting point in the subsurface influences a similar Fresnel-
zone region on the surface. (b) The build-up of energy integrating outward from the reflecting point. (c) Migration
collapses the Fresnel zone to a much smaller area, but 2-D migration collapses it in only one direction.

FIG. F-26. Fresnel-zone nomogram. A straight line connecting two-way traveltime and the frequency intersects the
central line at the same point as a straight line connecting the velocity and the radius of the zone. For example, a 20 Hz
reflection at 2.0 s and a velocity of 3.0 km/s has a Fresnel zone radius of 470 m.
fringe 155
Fresnel zone interferes constructively but the outer por-
tion does not contribute much, and the effective size of
the Fresnel zone is smaller by about a factor of 冑2.
Because the size of the Fresnel zone is frequency-
dependent, the dominant frequency is often used where
a spectrum of frequencies is involved. 2. The first
Fresnel zone only, the portion of a plane reflector
mainly effective in generating a reflection since, for a
harmonic wave, the effects of successive zones gener-
ally cancel each other. A nomogram for determining the
radius of the first Fresnel zone is shown in Figure F-26.
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 152兲. 3. A Fresnel lens
has alternate zones blacked out so that only construc-
tive zones pass light.
fringe: 1. The extra area around the area to be surveyed
that must be covered because of the inward movement
of dipping reflections and focusing of seismic ampli-
tude dispersed over Fresnel zones during 3-D migra-
tion. Often referred to as a migration fringe or migra-
tion halo. 2. The portion of imaged area where
coverage is not uniform because of differences in mul-
tiplicity, offset or azimuth mixes, or other factors that
lessen confidence in data comparisons.
front end: The portion of a seismic line ahead of the
source point 共in the direction of travel along the line兲.
frontier area: A relatively unexplored area 共at least by the
organization classifying it as frontier兲.
front-loaded: Minimum-phase 共q.v.兲.
fuzzy logic
front-to-back ratio: See peak-to-bubble ratio.
frost breaks: The effect of repetitive shots at random
times following a shot, produced by ice fracturing when
shooting in permafrost. Also called ice noise. See Sher-
iff and Geldart 共1995, 126兲.
frown: Overmigrated so that data become concave-
upward. Compare smile.
FTP: File Transfer Protocol 共q.v.兲.
Fuller filter: A moving-average space-domain convolu-
tion. See Fraser et al., 1966.
function: A rule that assigns to each element in set A one
and only one element in set B.
functionality: The ability to satisfy a stated purpose.
function key: A key or combination of keys on a com-
puter console that causes the computer to perform some
function other than simply entering data.
fundamental: The lowest frequency of a periodic func-
tion. Also called the first harmonic.
fundamental strengh: The stress a material is able to
withstand over a long time under a given set of condi-
tions 共temperature, pressure, solution, etc.兲 without
deforming continuously.
funnel shaped: Coarsening-upward; see coarsening and
Figure C-6.
fuzzy logic: Reasoning involving fuzzy sets, that is,
where elements do not fit within compact boundaries.
Involves probability concepts.
 G
g: The SI symbol for gram.
G: 1. Giga-, the SI prefix meaning 10 9 . 2. The nominal
acceleration of gravity at the surface of the Earth, about
9.8 m/s2. 3. Designation for Love waves, also LQ. See
also wave notation and Figure W-7.
gabbro: 共gab’ rō兲 A dark, coarse basic igneous rock com-
posed principally of calcic feldspars and pyroxene. The
intrusive equivalent of basalt.
Gabor wavelet: 共ga’ bor兲 The wavelet
F 共 t 兲 ⫽exp关 ⫺ 共 2 ␲ f M t/ ␥ 兲 2 兴 cos共 2 ␲ f M t⫹ ␾ 兲 ,
where t is time, f M is the main frequency, and ␥ is an
arbitrary parameter. See Hubral and Tygel 共1989兲.
GAG: Geophysical Analysis Group 共q.v.兲.
GAGC: Ganged Automatic Gain Control; see gain con-
trol.
Gadzag migration: Phase-shift migration, a method of
migration in the frequency domain by phase-shifting at
each step in downward continuation. The process can
be used to discriminate against dipping coherent noise.
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 330兲.
Gaia hypothesis: 共gā’ ⳵兲 The concept that the Earth acts as
a living organism with regulating feedback mechanisms
that dampen perturbations and runaway processes. Bio-
logical processes stabilize the atmosphere and climate.
Named for the Greek Earth goddess.
gain: A change in signal amplitude 共or power兲 from one
point in a circuit 共or system兲 to another, often from
system input to output. Gain usually means time invari-
ant unless specified otherwise.
gain control: Control for varying the amplification of an
amplifier, used to compensate for variations in input
signal strength. „a… Automatic gain control uses a
feedback loop whereby the output level controls the
gain so as to keep the output level within certain limits,
but then information contained in the variable gain is
apt to be lost. „b… Ganged automatic gain control has
the gain of all channels be the same although automati-
cally determined, the basis being one single channel or
the average energy level of a number of the channels.
„c… Preset or programmed gain control has the gain as
a function of record time determined beforehand.
„d… Binary gain control 共or quaternary gain control兲
has the gain vary only by factors of two 共or four兲, but
the times at which the gain changes occur are deter-
mined automatically; the times at which the changes
occur are recorded so that the gain effects can be
removed 共see Figure B-3兲. „e… With instantaneous-
floating-point control the gain is determined for each
sample based on the amplitude of that channel without
prejudice by earlier samples or the amplitude of other
channels.
gain trace: A trace on a seismic record that indicates the
gain 共amplification兲 used on one or more channels. See
Figure R-6.
Gal: A unit of acceleration or of gravitational force per
mass, used in gravity measurements. One Gal⫽1
156
cm/s2 ⫽10 ⫺2 m/s2 ⫽10 ⫺2 newton/kg. The Earth’s
nominal gravity is 980 Gal. Named for Galileo Galilei
共1564 –1642兲, Italian physicist.
Gal’perin geophone: A geophone geometry consisting of
three orthogonal identical geophones, each making an
angle of 54°35 ⬘ with the vertical. Named for E. I.
Gal’perin, Russian geophysicist.
galvanic contact: An actual electrical contact with the
ground, as opposed to inducing electric current flow by
induction. Called an ohmic contact if linear and recti-
fication is not involved. Named for Luigi Galvani
共1737–1798兲, Italian anatomist.
galvanometer: A device to measure small currents. A coil
suspended in a constant magnetic field rotates through
an angle proportional to the electrical current flowing
through the coil. Often abbreviated galvo.
gamma „␥…: 1. A unit of magnetic field equal to one
nanotesla, the preferred SI name. 1 gamma⫽10 ⫺5
gauss⫽10 ⫺9 tesla. 2. The ratio of S- to P-wave veloci-
ties. 3. A Thomsen anisotropic parameter 共q.v.兲, the
fractional change in the S-wave velocity兲:
␥ 共 gamma兲 ⫽ 共 c 66 ⫺c 44 兲 /2c 44 ⫽ 共 ␤⬜ ⫺ ␤ 储 兲 /2 ␤ 储 ,
where c 44 , c 66 are transverse isotropy elastic constants.
gamma „␥… configuration: See array (electrical).
gamma-gamma „␥-␥… log: See density log.
gamma-ray interactions: Low-energy gamma rays can
interact with matter by the photoelectric effect 共q.v.兲,
middle-energy rays by Compton scattering 共q.v.兲, high-
energy gamma rays 共⬎1.02 MeV兲 by pair production
共q.v.兲.
gamma-ray log „GR…: A well log that records natural
radioactivity. Also a generic term for any logging sys-
tem based on gamma irradiation and measurement of
resulting reactions. 1. In sediments, the log mainly
reflects shale content because minerals containing
radioactive isotopes 共the most common of which is
potassium兲 tend to concentrate in clays and shales.
Volcanic ash, granite wash, some salt deposits, and
some sedimentary uranium also give significant
gamma-ray readings. The log often functions for corre-
lation purposes, especially in cased holes. See Figures
D-5, L-3, and N-2. 2. Used in exploration for radioac-
tive minerals such as the uranium minerals. 3. See
natural gamma-ray spectroscopy log and induced
gamma-ray spectroscopy log.
gamma-ray spectrometer: An instrument that measures
the abundance of gamma rays with different energy
values. See scintillometer.
gamma-ray spectroscopy log: 1. A log of natural gamma-
radiation intensity within discrete energy bands that are
characteristic of specific radioactive series. Differs
from the conventional gamma-ray log that measures
broad-spectrum, undifferentiated gamma energy. Useful
for correlation where other methods fail, and also useful
for uranium exploration where potassium or minerals in
the thorium series contribute significantly to total
gamma-ray surveying
gamma radiation. The natural gamma-ray spectros-
copy log looks at several energy windows to identify
the natural radiation from potassium ( 40 K), uranium
( 238 U), and thorium ( 232 Th). It is useful in identifying
clay content where other radioactive minerals are
present. Also called spectral gamma-ray log. 2. The
induced gamma-ray spectroscopy log involves bom-
bardment by high-energy 共14 MeV兲 neutrons that
causes elements to emit gamma rays of characteristic
energy. Also called neutron activation log.
gamma-ray surveying: Measurement of naturally occur-
ring gamma rays in the search for radioactive materials.
Portable gamma-ray spectrometers incorporate energy-
discrimination ability that permits distinguishing
between radio-materials. Thus one might measure all
gamma rays, only those above 1.3 MeV 共for
potassium⫹uranium⫹thorium兲, only those above 1.6
MeV 共for uranium⫹thorium兲, or only those above 2.5
MeV 共thorium兲.
ganged gain control: Gain control 共q.v.兲 in which the
gain of several channels varies in the same way.
gangue: 共gang兲 The worthless parts of rock in which valu-
able minerals are found.
Gantt chart: 共gant兲 A chart showing when various aspects
of a job are to be accomplished.
gap: 1. Source-point gap, where there is a larger interval
between geophone groups on either side of the source
point than between other groups. The result is that very
short offsets 共which are often noisy兲 are not recorded.
2. Interrecord gap, an interval of space on a digital
magnetic tape during which no information is recorded.
Serves to indicate the beginning of a new record or a
new block of data. 3. Prediction lag 共q.v.兲.
gapped deconvolution: Deconvolution with a gapped
operator 共q.v.兲.
gapped operator: A deconvolution operator that has
groups of nonzero filter elements appreciably separated
from each other by zeros. Used to attenuate multiples
that involve water-layer peg-legs in deep water. See
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 298兲.
Gardner’s DMO: A method whereby velocity-
independent DMO 共q.v.兲 is applied prior to velocity-
dependent NMO. See Forel and Gardner 共1988兲.
Gardner’s equation: 共gard’ n⳵r兲 The empirical relation-
ship that density is proportional to the 1/4 power of
P-wave velocity:
␳ ⫽aV 1/4 ,
where a is 0.31 when V is in m/s, 0.23 when in ft/s. See
Gardner et al. 共1974兲.
Gardner’s method: A refraction interpretation method
that involves separating intercept time into constituent
delay times associated with the source and geophone
ends of the trajectory. See Gardner 共1939兲.
gas-cap drive: A situation where gas expansion provides
the energy for moving oil to producing wells. See drive.
gas chimney, gas cloud: A region of low-concentration
gas escaping and migrating upward from a gas accu-
mulation. Generally shows as a region of severely dete-
riorated seismic data quality associated with low veloc-
ity and with velocity sags 共push down兲 underneath the
chimney. The effects are probably caused by incoherent
scattering, absorption, and poor stacking because of
157 gated row plot
nonhyperbolic NMO. S-waves appear to be little
affected by gas chimneys.
gas chromatograph: An analytic instrument used to iden-
tify gases and volatiles by their time in passing through
an adsorption column.
gas-cut mud: Drilling mud containing entrained forma-
tion gas, which then lowers the density and pressure in
the borehole.
gas exploder: A seismic energy source in which a mixture
of propane or butane with oxygen or air is exploded
under the water. Also called gas gun. Compare
Dinoseis.
gas gun: Gas exploder 共q.v.兲.
gas hydrate: Hydrated methane in a solid state. A lattice-
like chemical structure in which one molecular group is
surrounded by others, such as H2 O by CH4 . Such
crystalline, ice-like clathrate compounds can exist at
low temperature and high pressure, as in deep-water
areas, where its base often gives rise to a bottom-
simulating reflection 共BSR兲; see hydrate reflection.
Sometimes found in permafrost areas. Hydrates also
tend to clog and block flow lines and pipelines. See
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 128兲.
gas lift: See artificial lift.
gas-oil ratio „GOR…: The ratio of the gas to the oil that a
well produces. A well is usually classed as an oil well if
its GOR⬍15 000 ft3 /bbl, as a gas well if GOR
⬎150 000 ft3 /bbl, or as a condensate well if inter-
mediate.
gas sag: An apparent depression under a gas accumulation
resulting from the lowering of velocity associated with
passing through the gas.
gas seep: A place where gas bubbles are escaping. Marine
seeps can sometimes be seen on profiler data. Often
results in a wipeout of coherent reflection energy from
underneath the seep region. Gas seeps constitute a
drilling hazard.
Gassmann-Biot modeling: See fluid substitution.
Gassmann equation: 共gasz’ man兲 Seismic P-wave veloc-
ity through a dense packing of uniform spheres is
proportional to
关 E 2 z/ 共 1⫺ ␴ 2 兲 2 兴 1/6 ,
where E⫽Young’s modulus, z⫽pressure 共or depth
where proportional to pressure兲, ␴ ⫽Poisson’s ratio.
See Gassmann 共1951兲. Named for Fritz Gassmann,
Swiss geophysicist.
Gassmann theory: A special case of Biot theory for cal-
culating the seismic velocity of a porous fluid-filled
rock.
gas well: See GOR.
gate: 1. The interval of record time over which a function
共such as an autocorrelation or crosscorrelation兲 is
evaluated. Also called window 共q.v.兲. A gate where the
boundaries are abrupt is called a boxcar 共q.v.兲. 2. A
circuit with several inputs and one output that is used in
digital logic 共computer design兲. Truth tables for inputs
of certain types of gates are shown in Figure B-5. See
also Boolean algebra.
gated row plot: A mode of velocity analysis display
where the coherence measure is plotted vertically for
discrete arrival times on a plot of time versus stacking
velocity.
gather
gather: A side-by-side display of seismic traces that have
some acquisition parameter in common. A common-
midpoint gather displays data for the same midpoint,
usually after correction for normal moveout and statics.
A common-offset or common-range gather displays
data for the same offset for a sequence of nearby
midpoints. A common-conversion point gather dis-
plays traces that have been converted from P- to
S-wave upon reflection at the same point. A common-
image point gather displays data that image at the
same point after prestack migration.
gathering system: The system for collecting the fluids
from various wells within a field.
gauge pressure: Pressure above one atmosphere.
gauss „G…: 共gous兲 The cgs-emu unit of magnetic induction
共or flux density兲 B. It is a measure of the magnetic force
per unit area. 1 gauss⫽1 maxwell/cm2 ⫽10 5 gamma
⫽10 ⫺4 tesla⫽10 ⫺4 weber/m2 . ‘‘Gauss’’ is also used
in the cgs system as a unit for magnetization, or dipole
moment per unit volume. In cgs units, a magnetizing
force 共in oersteds兲 gives rise to a flux density or field 共in
gauss兲, with the values being equal in magnitude if in
free space. Named for Karl Friedrich Gauss 共1777–
1855兲, German mathematician and natural philosopher.
Gauss-A, Gauss-B: Measurement positions with respect
to the field of a dipole. Gauss-A is measurement along
the dipole’s axis, also called end-on, Gauss-B is per-
pendicular to the dipole, also called side-on.
Gaussev filter: 共gaus’ ⳵f兲 A space-domain operator that
calculates the scalar difference between the total and
horizontal gradients of a magnetic field. It increases the
lateral resolution and amplitude of thin-dike anomalies
and suppresses noise.
Gaussian distribution: 共gaus’ ē ⳵n兲 A normal or bell-
shaped distribution. A set of values so distributed
about a mean value m that the probability ␧(⌬a) of a
value lying within a small interval ⌬a centered at the
point a is
2 detector primarily sensitive to ␤-rays. The ions that
e ⫺ 共 a⫺m 兲 ⌬a
␧ 共 ⌬a 兲 ⫽erf共 ⌬a 兲 ⫽ ,
␴ 冑2 ␲
where ␴ is the standard error and ␧(⌬a) is called the
error function.
Gaussian elimination: Reduces a matrix to upper 共lower兲
triangular form. Simultaneous equations involving this
modification can then be solved by back substitution
共q.v.兲.
Gaussian error function: See error function.
Gaussian window: A window whose shape is Gaussian.
One of its properties is that its Fourier transform is also
Gaussian:
2
e ⫺at ↔ 共 ␲ /a 兲 1/2 e ⫺ ␻
2 /4a
. genetic algorithms: A class of global optimization algo-
The double-headed arrow indicates ‘‘transforms to.’’
Gauss-Jordan elimination: A modification of Gaussian
elimination 共q.v.兲 dispensing with the need for back
substitution at the expense of more calculations. Uses
the property that the solution is unchanged when any
row of the matrix involved is replaced by a linear
combination of itself and any other row.
Gauss-Newton Method: A least-squares optimization
technique used in the generalized linear inversion
method. See Lines and Treitel 共1984兲.
158 genetic algorithms
Gauss-Seidel iteration: 共gaus’ zī d⳵l兲 A method of solving
simultaneous equations by reducing the equations
matrix to triangular form. Involves successive substitu-
tion. The method is used in tomography 共q.v.兲. See
Stark 共1970兲.
Gauss’s theorem: The total flux ␾ through any closed
surface is equal to 4 ␲ k times the source strength m
enclosed by the surface
冕冕 冕冕
␾ ⫽4 ␲ km⫽ g•ds⫽ ⵜU•ds
⫽ 冕冕冕 ⵜ•gd v ⫽4 ␲ k 冕冕冕 ␳dv.
Here, ds is a vector surface element and dv a volume
element. 共The 4␲ is often deleted in the mks system.兲 k
is a constant that depends on the units of measure. This
can also be expressed in terms of the flux density or
field strength g, the source density ␳, and the potential
U. ␾ may be electrical flux if m is electrical charge. In
the mks system, ␾ is in webers if m is in coulombs and
k⬇9⫻10 9 , or ␾ may be gravitational flux if m is
mass, in which case k⫽⫺ ␥ , where ␥ is the gravita-
tional constant. Or ␾ may be magnetic flux if m is
magnetic pole strength. Also called Gauss’s law: The
equality between the surface and volume integrals
involving g is also called the divergence theorem 共q.v.兲.
This theorem postulates the inherent nonuniqueness of
potential fields.
Gazdag migration: 共gaz’ dag兲 See phase-shifting migra-
tion.
GDSN: Global Digital Seismometer Network.
GCT: Greenwich Civil 共mean兲 Time, usually written
GMT 共q.v.兲.
Geertsma formula: 共gert’ sma兲 An equation for predict-
ing the P-wave velocity in a porous fluid-filled rock.
See Geertsma 共1961兲.
Geiger-Mueller counter: 共gī g⳵r mūl’ ⳵r兲 A radiation
result from radiation that enters the chamber through a
mica window are collected on an axial anode wire and
a surrounding cylindrical cathode. Named for Hans
Geiger 共1882–1945兲 and W. Mueller, German physi-
cists.
gelatin: An explosive, often of the dynamite type.
generalized reciprocal method „GRM…: A refraction
interpretation method that is a generalization of the
plus-minus method 共q.v.兲. It is based on determining the
critical distance, i.e., the point where head waves leave
the refractor when shooting in opposite directions. It
takes into account noncoincidence of the stations used
for calculating plus values. See Palmer 共1980兲.
rithms that begin with a loose analogy between optimi-
zation and a biological system composed of a relatively
few organisms that react in a relatively complex way.
Algorithms try to evolve a population of trial members
in a way mimicking biological evolution. Points in the
domain are called ‘‘models’’ and each model has a
‘‘fitness’’ associated with it; the goal is to find the most
fit of possible models. A genetic algorithm is a set of
operations that we apply to a population of models to
produce a new population whose average fitness
exceeds that of its predecessors. The characteristics of
geoceiver
models are specified by ‘‘chromosome strings.’’ One
type of genetic algorithm selects parents randomly but
weighted by their fitness 共selection兲; the chromosomes
for the ‘‘child’’ are somewhat randomly selected from
the two parents 共crossover兲. The child then joins the
population and the least fit member of the population
共which might be the child兲 is eliminated. At random
times a ‘‘mutation,’’ a random change in a member’s
chromosomes, occurs; this permits introducing into the
species chromosome elements not present in the origi-
nal population. See Smith et al. 共1992兲 and Stoffa and
Sen 共1991兲.
geoceiver: A geodetic receiver for making location obser-
vations in the Transit system. See satellite navigation.
geocentric latitude: The angle between a line through the
center of the Earth and a plane through the equator.
Compare geodetic latitude and Figure G-1.
geochronology: See geophysics.
geochronologic subdivisions: See stratigraphic classifi-
cation.
geocosmogony: 共jē’ ō kos mog, ⳵ nē兲 See geophysics.
geodesic: 共jē ⳵ des’ ik兲 The shortest distance between two
points subject to some constraint, such as being on the
surface of the earth.
geodesy: 共jē od’ ⳵ sē兲 The study of the Earth’s form and
gravitational field. Involves the location of points on
the Earth with respect to reference systems.
geodetic datum: 共jē ⳵ det’ ik兲 The reference point for a
geodetic system 共q.v.兲. Coordinates and azimuth are
specified with respect to a defined station where the
ellipsoid is made to coincide with the geoid.
geodetic latitude: Ordinary, geographic, or Laplace lati-
tude, the angle between the Earth’s axis and a tangent
to the ellipsoid that approximates the Earth’s shape; see
Figure G-1. Geodetic latitude ␾ differs from ‘‘geocen-
tric latitude’’ ␺ because of the ellipticity of the Earth;
FIG. G-1. Geocentric, geodetic, and astronomic lati-
tudes.
159 geomagnetic field
␾ ⫺ ␺ ⫽11.7 sin 2␾ 共approximately兲 in minutes of arc.
The maximum difference 共at 45°兲 is about 21.5 km.
Geodetic latitude also differs from ‘‘astronomic lati-
tude’’ where the mass distribution causes a vertical line
not to be perpendicular to the ellipsoid. Sometimes a
location is projected parallel to the Earth’s axis onto a
sphere whose radius is the ellipsoid’s major axis; then
the angle between the axis and a radius to this point is
the reduced latitude.
Geodetic Reference System 1967 „GRS67…: The gravity
field 共acceleration of gravity兲 at the latitude ␭ is given
by
g⫽978 031.846 共 1⫹0.005 278 895 sin2 ␭
⫹0.000 023 462 sin4 ␭ 兲 mGal.
This gives the correction for latitude as
1.3049 sin 2␭ mGal/mile⫽0.8108 sin 2␭ MGal/km.
See also World Geodetic System 1984.
geodetics: The study and translation of coordinate sys-
tems.
geodetic system: Reference for latitude and longitude.
Location systems in different parts of the world are
based on different reference positions and ellipsoid
assumptions. The major systems are listed in Figure
G-2.
geodimeter: An electro-optical distance meter. Trade-
name of Geodimeter Co.
Geodynamics Project: A 1971 – 1977 international
research program on the dynamics and dynamic history
of the Earth with emphasis on deep-seated geologic
phenomena.
geograph: Thumper 共q.v.兲 or the weight-drop method.
Tradename of Mandrel Industries.
Geographic Information System „GIS…: Software 共usu-
ally on PCs or workstations兲 that stores, analyzes, and
displays multiple forms of geographic information.
geographic latitude: Geodetic latitude 共q.v.兲.
geohazard survey: See hazard survey.
geohistory plot: A graph showing sediment thickness ver-
sus age, assuming that none of the sediments has been
removed by subsequent erosion. See Figure G-3.
geoid: 共jē’ oid兲 The sea-level equipotential surface to
which the direction of gravity is perpendicular every-
where. An oblate ellipsoid of revolution 共the ellipsoid
or spheroid兲 that approximates the geoid is the refer-
ence for geodetic latitude determinations.
geoidal height: Height of the geoid above the reference
ellipsoid.
geo-inversion: Inversion 共q.v.兲.
geologic, geological: The Oxford English Dictionary says,
‘‘There is now a slight distinction between the use of
geologic and geological: the former tends to be used
only as an epithet of things forming part of the subject
matter of the science: we may say a geologic epoch, but
hardly a geologic student, a geologic history.’’ My
personal preference is to use whichever word sounds
best depending on what it’s associated with; thus I
would write ‘‘seismic and geologic data’’ and ‘‘geo-
physical or geological data.’’
geologic age: See Appendix I and Figures A-5 and G-4.
geologic basement: See basement.
geomagnetic field: See magnetic field of the Earth.
geomagnetic polarity time scale
geomagnetic polarity time scale: Reversals of the Earth’s
magnetic field that can be used to age-date formations.
See Figure G-4.
geomagnetic pole: The north or south magnetic poles, the
poles of the best-fitting dipolar magnetic field to the
Earth’s magnetic field. See magnetic field of the Earth.
geomagnetic reversal: Change in the polarity of the
Earth’s magnetic field from its present polarity. See
magnetochronology.
geomagnetic-variation method: Studies of deep conduc-
tivity variations in the earth 共particularly lateral varia-
tions兲 by simultaneously observing variations in the
three components of the magnetic field at different
stations, as the field varies naturally.
geometric factor: 1. The geometry-dependent weighting
factor for determining how the conductivities of each
medium in the vicinity of sonde affect apparent-
conductivity measurements; especially used with the
induction log. 2. A numerical factor used to multiply a
measured voltage-to-current ratio to give apparent
resistivity 共q.v.兲. Geometric factor is dependent on the
type of electrode array and spacing used. Also called
geometric constant, array factor, or form factor.
FIG. G-2. Major geodetic systems.
160 geophone
geometric mean: The nth root of the product of n values:
冋兿 册
n 1/n
Xi .
1
geometric shadow: The area 共or volume兲 outlined by
drawing straight lines paralleling the direction of wave
approach through the extremities of a structure. It dif-
fers slightly from the actual shadow because of diffrac-
tion and refraction.
geometric similarity: Said of two systems in which cor-
responding angles are equal and lengths proportional.
Involves the ratio of length involved in physical mod-
eling. See modeling theory.
geometric sounding: A resistivity or electromagnetic
depth sounding in which the geometry is varied while
other parameters such as frequency are held constant.
Compare parametric sounding, frequency-domain
sounding, and time-domain sounding.
geometric spreading: See spherical divergence.
geophone: The instrument used to transform seismic
energy into an electrical voltage; a seismometer, seis,
detector, receiver, jug, bug, or pickup. Geophones
geophone array 161 geophysical survey

ordinarily respond to only one component of the
ground’s displacement, velocity, or acceleration that is
involved in the passage of a seismic wave. Three mutu-
ally orthogonal phones are used to record all three
components; see triphone. Most land geophones are of
the moving-coil type; see Figure G-5. A coil is sus-
pended by springs in a magnetic field 共the magnet may
be integral with the case of the instrument兲. A seismic
wave moves the case and the magnet, but the coil
remains relatively stationary because of its inertia. The
relative movement of a magnetic field with respect to
the coil generates a voltage across the coil, the voltage
being proportional to the relative velocity of the coil
with respect to the magnet 共when above the natural
frequency of the geophone兲. Below the natural fre-
quency, the output 共for input of constant velocity of
magnet motion兲 is proportional to frequency and hence
to the acceleration involved in the seismic wave pas-
sage. See Evenden et al. 共1971兲. Compare hydrophone
and streamer.
geophone array: The use of areal, linear, or 共occasion-
ally兲 vertical patterns with more than one geophone per
channel. Used to discriminate against events with cer-
tain apparent wavelengths. See Figure A-20 and array
(seismic).
geophone cable: Insulated cable to which geophone
groups are connected.
geophone distance: Usually group interval 共q.v.兲, some-
times geophone interval or geophone offset 共q.v.兲.
geophone distortion: Waveshape changes produced by
nonlinear response of a geophone. Very small with
modern geophones. See also distortion.
geophone interval: 1. The distance between adjacent geo-
phones within a group. 2. Sometimes used for group
interval, the separation between the centers of adjacent
geophone groups.
geophone offset: The distance from the source point to a
geophone or to the center of a geophone group.
geophone pattern: See array (seismic).
geophone planter: A device or a person that positions
geophones for receiving seismic signals; used espe-
cially for planting phones several feet deep in marsh.
geophone station: The location of the center of a geo-
phone array, sometimes of an individual geophone.
Geophysical Analysis Group „GAG…: A research project
at Massachusetts Institute of Technology during
1952–57 that applied communication theory to seismic
analysis. See Flinn et al. 共1967兲.
geophysical exploration: Making and interpreting mea-
surements of physical properties to determine subsur-
face conditions, usually with an economic objective,
e.g., discovery of fuel or mineral deposits. Properties
measured include seismic traveltime and waveshape
changes, electric potential differences, magnetic and
gravitational field strength, temperature, etc. Syn-
onyms: applied geophysics, geophysical prospecting.
geophysical survey: A program of geophysical explora-
tion 共q.v.兲. See electric survey, geothermal prospecting,
gravity survey, magnetic survey, reflection survey,
refraction survey, remote sensing, and well log.

FIG. G-3. A geohistory plot shows the age of the rocks at various depths for a specific location. This plot also shows
which sediments were under the proper pressure-temperature conditions to have generated hydrocarbons, that is,
which were in the ‘‘hydrocarbon kitchen.’’ (From Bédir et al., 2001, 903.)
geophysicist 162 geopressure

geophysicist: One who studies the physical properties of
the earth or applies physical measurements to geologic
problems; a specialist in geophysics.
geophysics: 1. The study of the Earth by quantitative
physical methods, especially by seismic reflection and
refraction, gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromag-
netic, and radioactivity methods. 2. The application of
physical principles to studies of the Earth. Includes the
branches of 共a兲 seismology 共earthquakes and elastic
waves兲; 共b兲 geothermometry 共heating of the Earth,
heat flow, volcanology, and hot springs兲; 共c兲 hydrology
共ground and surface water, sometimes including glaci-
ology兲; 共d兲 physical oceanography; 共e兲 meteorology;
共f兲 gravity and geodesy 共the Earth’s gravitational field
and the size and form of the Earth兲; 共g兲 atmospheric
electricity and terrestrial magnetism 共including iono-
sphere, Van Allen belts, telluric currents, etc.兲; 共h兲 tec-
tonophysics 共geological processes in the Earth兲; and 共i兲
exploration, engineering, and environmental geo-
physics. Geochronology 共the dating of Earth history兲
and geocosmogony 共the origin of the Earth兲 are some-
times added to the foregoing list. 3. Often refers to
solid-earth geophysics only, thus excluding 共c兲, 共d兲, 共e兲,
and portions of other subjects from the above list. 4.
Exploration geophysics is the use of seismic, gravity,
magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic, etc., methods in
the search for oil, gas, minerals, water, etc., with the
objective of economic exploitation.
geopressure: 1. Usually, overpressure 共q.v.兲. 2. ‘‘Above
geopressure’’ sometimes means ‘‘pressure larger than
normal’’ but it also sometimes means ‘‘shallower than
the top of overpressure’’ 共that is, normal pressure兲.

FIG. G-4. Geomagnetic polarity time scale showing the present polarity in black, reversed polarity in white. Magnetic
anomaly numbers are also shown. (From Cox, 1982.)
georadar
georadar: Ground-penetrating radar 共q.v.兲.
Geosat: An Earth satellite funded by the U.S. Navy. A
high-resolution radar altimeter measures the geoid, sea
waves, sea ice, etc.
Geoshare standard: GPS vendor-neutral standards set by
the Geoshare User Group. See The Leading Edge 共Feb.
2000, p. 173兲.
geostatic pressure: See abnormal pressure.
geostatistics: Statistical estimation techniques applied to
spatially correlated variables for geological/geophysical
applications. It uses the spatial continuity of natural
phenomena to predict interpolated and extrapolated val-
ues using correlation and probability concepts. Among
FIG. G-5. Geophone. (a) Schematic of essential
elements: a wire (or coil) with inertial mass that remains
steady as the magnet moves. (b) Half of a moving-coil
geophone. (c) Cutaway of a digital-grade geophone.
(Courtesy Geo Space.)
163 Gibbs’ phenomenon
the methods are regression techniques, kriging, and
cokriging 共q.v.兲.
geosteering: Directing a horizontal well so that it stays
within the same formation.
geosyncline: 共jē’ ō sin’ klīn兲 A subsiding area of extensive
sediment and/or volcanic accumulation; a more-or-less
continually sinking area, usually roughly linear.
geotechnical geophysics: The use of shallow geophysical
methods of investigation in civil and construction engi-
neering for road and building construction and evalua-
tion, dam safety, and solution of related problems;
engineering and environmental geophysics.
Geotem: An airborne digital time-domain electromagnetic
system. Geoterrex tradename. See also Input system.
geothermal field: An area characterized by high heat
flow, usually a consequence of fairly recent magma
emplacement, sometimes attributed to concentrations of
radioelements.
geothermal gradient: The rate of change of temperature
with depth in the earth 共often about 30 °C/km at shal-
low depths兲.
geothermal heat flow: The heat flow from the Earth’s
interior per unit area per unit time. The product of
thermal conductivity and thermal gradient. See HFU.
geothermal prospecting: 1. Prospecting for high-
temperature water and/or steam close to the surface,
that can be used profitably for electric power generation
and/or direct heat utilization. Geothermal methods also
may be used to locate geologic features that affect heat
flow 共salt domes, dikes, faults, etc.兲 or groundwater
variations. 2. Measurements of variations in earth tem-
perature that are not attributable to variations in solar
heating. Diurnal temperature variations penetrate to
about 1 m 共and annual temperature variations to 20 m兲.
See Poley and van Steveninck 共1970兲.
geothermal reservoir: 1. A subsurface layer of rock con-
taining steam or hot water that is trapped in the layer by
overlying impermeable rocks. 2. A subsurface layer of
rock that is hot but contains little or no water. Geother-
mal reservoirs are a potential source of energy.
geothermometry: 1. The study of the Earth’s heat. See
geophysics. 2. Determining geothermal reservoir tem-
peratures from the relative concentrations of Na, K, Ca,
and Mg ions in natural waters.
Geovision: The seismic system developed by Frank Rie-
ber in the late 1930s that included photographic record-
ing and playback with stacking 共summing兲 as a function
of apparent dip.
ghost: 1. Energy that travels upward from an energy
release and then is reflected downward, such as occurs
at the base of the weathering or at the surface. Ghost
energy usually joins with the down-traveling wavetrain
to change the effective waveshape. Sometimes called
secondary reflection 共which is also applied to other
multiples兲. 2. Energy reflected from the water surface
before being picked up by a submerged receiver. 3. A
correlation ghost 共q.v.兲 that results from harmonic dis-
tortion when using vibroseis. 4. A reflection of light
from the front side of a mirror as well as from the
silvered back side, thus producing a double image.
Gibbs’ free energy, Gibbs’ functions: 共gibz兲 See thermo-
dynamic functions.
Gibbs’ phenomenon: When a waveform that includes a
discontinuity 共or whose derivatives are discontinuous兲
giga „G… 164
is Fourier synthesized, the fit is poor near the disconti-
nuity. As the number of frequency components included
in the synthesis increases, the region of poor fit
becomes narrower, but some overshoot at discontinui-
ties continues. The poor fit sometimes is called Gibbs’
ears. Named for Josiah Willard Gibbs 共1839–1903兲,
American mathematician and physicist. See Figure
F-18 and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 539–540兲.
giga „G…: 共ji’ g⳵兲 A prefix meaning 10 9 .
gigabytes: 10 9 groups of binary digits that are manipu-
lated as a unit. Sometimes called gigs.
gigaflops: 10 9 floating-point operations per second, a unit
of computer performance.
GIGO: 共gı̄’ gō兲 ‘‘Garbage In, Garbage Out.’’ A ‘‘prin-
ciple’’ in data processing that emphasizes that meaning-
ful data must be input if a meaningful result is to be
obtained.
gigs: See gigabytes.
Gl gun: An air gun with two chambers designed to be
fired sequentially to minimize bubble oscillation.
Sodera tradename.
gimballed geophone: A geophone containing a mecha-
nism that orients the geophone element in a desired
direction independent of the geophone case orientation.
gimbals: Devices for supporting an instrument so that it
will remain essentially horizontal even when the sup-
port tips.
GIS: Geographic Information System 共q.v.兲.
Gish-Rooney method: 1. An electrical-surveying method
in which the polarity of both current flow and potential-
measuring electrodes is reversed frequently to cancel
the effects of electrode polarization. 2. A resistivity-
interpretation method. Mainly obsolete.
GLI: Generalized Linear Inversion 共q.v.兲.
glitch: An unexpected and usually random event that may
alter data or functions performed on data. A transient
spike.
global: Common to the entire system or entire data set.
global equalization: Adjusting the gain and spectrum of
an entire data set so that overall it matches another data
set; employed in matching surveys in time-lapse stud-
ies.
global optimization: A method for finding a maximum by
widely searching in model space.
Global Positioning System „GPS…: The GPS Navstar
positioning system of the U.S. Defense Dept. provides
location determination by observation of 24 satellites 共4
each in 6 different 55° orbital planes兲 at 20 200 km
altitude; they orbit the Earth in about 12 hours. Each
satellite broadcasts on two frequencies, L1 共1575.42
MHz兲 and L2 共1227.60 MHz兲; they broadcast a hand-
over word 共q.v.兲 and almanac 共q.v.兲 information that are
superimposed on the carrier by biphase phase-shifting
using C/A-, P-, and Y-codes. The system is available
worldwide with six or seven satellites continuously
observable. A receiver determines its distance 共pseudo-
range兲 from a satellite by correlating the satellite’s
phase-encoded signal with one it generates; the pseu-
dorange differs from actual range because the receiver’s
and satellite’s clocks are not synchronized. From simul-
taneous observation of the various satellites, a station-
ary or moving observer can calculate precise time, 3-D
position, and 3-D velocity. When combined with simi-
lar information received at a nearby fixed station 共dif-
gradient-dip estimation
ferential GPS or translocation兲, accuracy of less than
a meter can be achieved. Provisions are made to
degrade the accuracy if required by the military.
Global Positioning System timeÕweek: The Global Posi-
tioning System counts time by numbered weeks and the
number of seconds in that week. Week counting began
in January 1980 and rolled over to zero on August
21/22, 1999.
global variable: A variable in a computer program that
can be used by the main program and all subprograms.
G-log: Seismic acoustic impedance log 共q.v.兲. GSI trade-
name.
Glomar Challenger: See JOIDES.
GLONASS: Russian equivalent of the Global Positioning
System 共q.v.兲.
Gloria: An early side-scan sonar 共q.v.兲.
GMT: Greenwich Mean 共civil兲 Time, the international
reference time, the time at the observatory at Green-
wich, England. Also GCT.
gnomonic projection: 共nō mon’ ik兲 See Figure M-4.
GOC: Gas-Oil Contact.
goodness of fit: See chi squared.
Gopher: 共gō fer兲 A menu-driven system that presents files
available for retrieval in a hierarchical fashion.
GOR: Gas-Oil Ratio 共q.v.兲.
gouge: Crushed, sheared, and powdered rock associated
with faulting and rock deformation.
Goupillaud medium: 共goo’ pē ō兲 A medium of parallel
layers of such thickness that the traveltime perpendicu-
larly through each is equal. Used in computing syn-
thetic seismograms. See Goupillaud 共1961兲.
GPR: Ground Penetrating Radar 共q.v.兲.
GPS: Global Positioning System 共q.v.兲.
GPS time: An atomic time system that commenced with
zero time on January 6, 1980.
GPTS: Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale 共q.v.兲.
GR: Gamma-Ray Log 共q.v.兲.
grab sampler: See corer.
graben: 共gra’ b⳵n兲 A down-dropped block bounded by
normal faults, often relatively long and narrow. Com-
pare horst.
gradient: 共grā dē ⳵nt兲 1. The first derivative or rate of
change of one variable with respect to another variable,
often with respect to distance. For example, the change
in gravity, temperature, magnetic susceptibility, or elec-
trical potential with respect to horizontal or vertical
distance. Sometimes measured with a gradiometer
共q.v.兲. 2. The operation that finds the gradient from a
potential function:
Gradient of U⫽grad U⫽ⵜU
⫽i⳵U/⳵x⫹j⳵U/⳵y⫹k⳵U/⳵z;
ⵜ is the operator del 共q.v.兲. See Figure C-14 for expres-
sions of the gradient in cylindrical and spherical coor-
dinates. 3. A component of the gradient in an arbitrary
direction, as the horizontal gradient of the magnetic
field. See also tensor gradient.
gradient array: 共grā’ dē ⳵nt ⳵ rā’兲 Schlumberger array
共q.v.兲. See also array (electrical).
gradient-dip estimation: A method of estimating the dip
␰ of a contact based on the distance d between the
maximum of the total gradient and that of its horizontal
component:
gradient method 165 gravitational potential

d⫽h cot ␰ , The gravitational force on a mass in the meter is bal-

anced by a spring arrangement. A third force is pro-
where h is the depth of the contact. See Grauch and vided that acts when the system is not in equilibrium; it
Lindrith 共1987兲. intensifies the effect of changes of gravity and increases
gradient method: An iterative method of solving simul- the sensitivity of the system. Usually a zero-length
taneous equations, occurring in optimization problems. spring is used; it has a stress-strain curve that passes
gradient plot: The slope of a best-fit line to a graph of through zero length when projected back to zero strain.
amplitude versus sin ␪, where ␪ ⫽angle of incidence. See Figure G-6.
Used in amplitude-variation-with-offset 共q.v.兲 studies. gravitational constant: The proportionality constant ␥ in
grading: Indicating the relative reliability of data or of an Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. The gravi-
interpretation, an important aspect of interpretation. tational force F between two point masses m 1 and m 2
Usually a subjective process. Sometimes grading can be related to the distance r between them:
systems employ letters: v g⫽ very good, g⫽good,
f ⫽fair, p⫽poor, v p⫽very poor, and ?⫽question- F⫽ ␥ m 1 m 2 /r 2 ;
able. Coherency-measuring criteria are sometimes used ␥ has the value 6.670⫻10 ⫺11 newton•m2 /kg2 . The
in an attempt to make grading quantitative. Contours force is a vector directed toward the attracting mass.
are often graded by varying the type of line: solid The gravitational field g 共also a vector, often called the
contour⫽reliable; dashed contour⫽less reliable or acceleration of gravity兲 is the force per unit mass
interpolated between data; and dotted contour 共measured by the force on the mass m 1 in the gravime-
⫽speculative. ter兲:
gradiomanometer: 共grā dē ō man om’ ⳵t ⳵r兲 A device for
determining the density of the wellbore fluid by mea- g⫽F/m 1 ⫽ ␥ m 2 /r 2 ;
suring the vertical pressure at two points.
gradiometer: 共grād’ ē om’ ⳵t ⳵r兲 A device for measuring a g is the vector sum of the effect of all the masses 共e.g.,
component of the gradient of a potential or electromag- the masses in the Earth兲.
netic field. 1. An arrangement of two magnetometers gravitational potential: The negative of the work
共or gravimeters兲, one above the other, so that the dif- required to move a unit mass from infinity to a given
ference in their readings is proportional to the vertical point against gravitational forces. In the field of a point
gradient of the magnetic 共gravity兲 field, or of magneto- mass m a distance r away, this is ␥ m/r, where ␥ is the
meters on opposite wingtips and in a tail stinger of an
aircraft, so that the difference in their readings is pro-
portional to the horizontal gradients of the magnetic
field, or some similar arrangement. The direction with
respect to the Earth’s magnetic field is a factor in
interpretation. 2. A three-arm torsion balance that is
sensitive to gravity gradients but not to curvature. 3.
Borehole gravimeter 共q.v.兲.
grain: 1. Alignment of features which define a preferred
direction; a trend. The spatial configuration of features
共lineations, trends兲 that characterizes a region; fabric,
signature. 2. A small particle. 3. One of the discrete
clumps of silver particles resulting from the develop-
ment of exposed light-sensitive material.
grainstone: A grain-supported carbonate rock containing
less than 1% mud. Compare wackestone, packstone,
mudstone.
grammar: Rules for a computer language.
granite: A coarse, intrustive, acidic igneous rock rich in
quartz, predominant in continental crust.
granularity: Coarseness in a calculation or representa-
tion.
graphical user interface „GUI…: A program used to pro-
duce displays.
graphic log: Sample log 共q.v.兲.
graphics: Displays of data by means of graphs, pictures,
etc.
graticule: 共grat’ ⳵ kyool兲 1. A template for graphically
integrating gravity or similar data. See also dot chart
and zone chart. 2. A grid network such as lines repre-
senting parallels and meridians on a plotting sheet.
gravel pack: See completion.
gravimeter: 共gr⳵ vim’ i t⳵r兲 An instrument for measuring FIG. G-6. Gravimeters. (a) LaCoste-Romberg schematic.
variations in gravitational attraction; a gravity meter. (b) Worden schematic. Gravimeters are basically very
Most gravimeters are of the unstable or astatic type. sensitive spring balances.
gravity 166
gravitational constant. Also called Newtonian poten-
tial.
gravity: The force of attraction between bodies because of
their masses. Usually measured as the gravity field of
the Earth that varies from about 978 000 mGal 共9.78
m/s2兲 at the equator to 983 000 mGal at the poles. See
International gravity formula and gravitational con-
stant.
gravity anomaly: 1. The difference between the gravity
that is observed and that expected from a model. 2.
Bouguer anomaly 共q.v.兲. 3. Free-air anomaly 共q.v.兲. See
also Figure G-7.
gravity basement: Where a very large density contrast
exists so that anomalies resulting from deeper contrasts
are lost in the noise. See also basement.
gravity corer: See corer.
gravity coupling: The coupling of detectors only by vir-
tue of their weight or weight in water.
gravity meter: Gravimeter 共q.v.兲.
gravity reduction: Applying Bouguer, free-air, isostatic,
latitude, or terrain corrections to gravity measurements;
see Figure G-7. For air and marine gravity, also
includes Eötvös correction.
gravity resolution: Goussev and Peirce 共1999兲 give the
data in Figure G-8 dealing with resolution.
gravity standard: The International Gravity Standardiza-
tion Network 1971 共IGSN71兲 is now standard. See
International gravity formula and Woollard 共1979兲.
gravity survey: Measurements of the gravitational field at
various locations over an area of interest. The objective
in exploration work is to associate variations with dif-
ferences in the distribution of densities and hence of
rock types. Occasionally the whole gravitational field is
measured 共as with a pendulum兲 or derivatives of the
gravitational field 共as with a torsion balance兲, but usu-
FIG. G-7. Corrections to gravity data and the names of the resulting anomalies. The terrain correction is not always
applied to free-air data. Eötvös corrections also have to be made if the meter was moving during the measurement.
(From Sheriff, 1989, 62.)
greenstone belt
ally the difference between the gravity field at two
points is measured 共as with a gravimeter q.v.兲. Gravity
data usually are displayed as Bouguer or free-air
anomaly maps.
gravity unit: A unit of gravitational acceleration, equal to
0.1 mGal or 10 ⫺6 m/s2 .
gray code: A binary number code in which successive
numbers differ by only one bit; see Figure N-4. The
gray code is used in error minimization because the
number of bit changes is the same for a one step change
regardless of the magnitude of the quantity.
grazing incidence: A raypath tangent to an interface.
Green’s equivalent layer: See surface density.
Green’s functions: Solution of a differential equation
with an impulse as the exciting force. Exact seismo-
grams in a given medium can be viewed as the convo-
lution of the source wavelet and the medium’s Green’s
function. See convolutional model.
Green’s theorem: A form of Gauss’s 共divergence兲 theo-
rem relating a volume integral to surface integrals. If F
and G are two scalar functions, then
冕冕冕 共 Fⵜ 2 G⫺Gⵜ 2 F 兲 d v
冕冕
⫽ 共 FⵜG⫺GⵜF 兲 ds,
where d v is a volume element and ds is a surface
element. Named for George Green 共1793–1841兲,
English mathematician.
greenstone belt: Elongate areas within Precambrian
shields characterized by abundant altered basic igneous
rock, and which may contain volcanic-sedimentary
complexes of economic interest.
Greenwich
FIG. G-8. Gravity methods resolution. (Courtesy Goussev and Peirce, 1999.)
Greenwich: 共gren’ ich or grin’ ich兲 1. Longitude measured
with respect to the prime meridian that passes through
the Royal Astronomic Observatory at Greenwich,
England. 2. The time at the Greenwich observatory:
GMT, sometimes GCT.
Greenwich hour angle: See hour angle.
Greenwich time: The time at Greenwich 共q.v.兲, England.
Gregory-Newton formula: A relationship used to inter-
polate between sample values. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 528兲.
grey bar: A display relating intensity to the values repre-
sented.
grey body: A radiating surface whose radiation has the
same spectral distribution as that of a blackbody at the
same temperature, but whose emissive power is less.
grey level: In black-and-white variable-area and variable-
density record sections, the overall ‘‘greyness’’ of the
section is an important factor affecting the interpretabil-
ity.
grid: 1. To interpolate irregularly spaced values onto a
167 grid residual
regular spacing. 2. A regular spacing, e.g., at the inter-
sections of integral coordinate values.
grid cell: A small area that together with other small areas
constitutes a continuous surface; a bin 共q.v.兲.
grid effect: Systematic error created in interpolating onto
a grid.
grid residual: A method of emphasizing anomalies of a
certain size in a potential-field map. A grid 共usually
square or triagonal兲 is drawn on a contour map and
values are determined at the grid intersections by inter-
polation. The residual at one of the grid intersections is
the value at that point less the average at other inter-
sections a fixed distance away. Averages at several
distances may be used and weighted to approximate
second-derivative or other functions. The process of
making grid residuals is also called map convolution
共a 2D convolution兲 because it represents map data
convolved with a residualizing operator 共or template兲.
This technique has largely been replaced now by gra-
grid smoothing 168
dient filters and other digital high-pass filters. See also
residualize.
grid smoothing: A method of smoothing sharp irregulari-
ties in potential-field measurements that arise from very
shallow sources. The average of values a fixed small
distance away is taken as the smoothed value. This
method has been replaced for the most part by using
digital filters.
grid-stitching: Merging map data involving different grid
systems.
GRM: Generalized Reciprocal Method 共q.v.兲, a refraction
interpretation method.
Gröningen effect: 共grern ing ⳵n兲 An effect observed with
dual laterologs when a thick resistive unit overlies the
measured formation, shielding the formation and giving
misleading resistivity readings. This effect can be over-
come by adding a return electrode below the tool. Also
called the Delaware effect.
ground: A point in an electrical circuit used as a common
reference point, often the conducting chassis on which
the electrical circuit is physically mounted. It is fre-
quently, but not necessarily, connected to the earth by a
low-resistance conductor.
ground coupling: The mechanical connection of a geo-
phone to the earth. Most often a spike on the geophone
base is pressed into the earth. The geophone plant.
ground force: A measure of the energy input into the
ground in vibroseis exploration.
ground loop: The feature of an electrical circuit in which
the circuit is connected to the common conductor
共ground兲 at two or more points, thus forming closed-
loop circuits of which the common conductor is a part.
Current flow in these loops may result in the ‘‘ground’’
being at different potential levels at different points, an
undesirable feature.
ground mix: The use of an array or pattern of sources or
FIG. G-9. A ground-penetrating radar record appears similar to a very shallow-penetration seismic section. (From
Annan and Gosway, 1992.)
group
geophones distributed over a sizeable surface area. The
objective of arrays usually is to have vertically travel-
ing reflection energy add up in-phase while horizontally
traveling energy and random noise partially cancel, the
entire array in effect acting as one large source or
geophone. The term is sometimes reserved for situa-
tions where adjacent geophone or source patterns actu-
ally overlap.
ground noise survey: Noise survey 共q.v.兲.
ground-penetrating radar „GPR…: A means of exploring
the shallow subsurface with electromagnetic waves
共radar兲, usually in the 10 to 1000 MHz band. The
two-way traveltimes of reflected radar waves give the
depths where changes in electrical properties occur.
Also called georadar, ground probing radar, and
surface penetrating radar. See Figure G-9.
ground roll: Surface-wave energy that travels along or
near the surface of the ground. It is usually character-
ized by relatively low velocity, low frequency, and high
amplitude. Ground roll tends to mask desired reflection
signals. Source and geophone patterns, frequency filter-
ing, f -k filtering, and stacking are used to discriminate
against it. It is usually a modified Rayleigh wave 共q.v.兲,
and ground roll is sometimes called pseudo-Rayleigh
waves. See Figure R-3.
ground truth: 1. Data obtained on the ground concerning
the significance of albedo anomalies observed in
remote sensing, to help interpretation. 2. Data from a
ground monitor used to show that extraneous events,
such as a disturbing magnetic storm, did not occur
during the acquisition of airborne data.
ground unrest: Background or ambient noise, such as
produced by wind, microseisms, etc.
group: 1. The various geophones or hydrophones that
collectively feed a single channel. The number of
phones may vary from one to several hundred. A large
groupÕungroup 169 GTO

FIG. G-10. Gyrocompass. (a) A gyroscope tends to maintain its orientation in space, making it appear to change
direction as seen from the rotating Earth. (b) A weight on the vertical circle makes a gyroscope into a gyrocompass. Tilt
of the gyroscope axis because of the Earth’s rotation tends to raise the weight, thus exerting a torque that makes the
gyroscope precess unless the axis is aligned parallel to the Earth’s axis. This ‘‘meridian-seeking ability’’ is the essence
of a gyrocompass.

group is sometimes called a patch. See array (seismic).
2. A source group consists of the several sources or
source locations that are combined together to form one
seismic trace. They may be activated together or com-
bined subsequently. 3. A lithostratigraphic subdivision;
see stratigraphic classification.
groupÕungroup: In interactive computer graphics, associ-
ating separate objects as a unit for moving, sizing,
coloring, etc.
group delay: The time delay associated with a geophone
group, the delay 共or advance兲 being produced by the
group’s elevation, near-surface conditions, and/or the
choice of reference datum.
group interval: The horizontal distance between the cen-
ters of adjacent geophone groups.
group shoot: Seismic, gravity, magnetic, etc. data
acquired for a group of companies who share the cost.
Usually after some time the contractor can sell the data
to other parties.
group velocity: 1. The velocity with which the energy in
a wavetrain travels. In dispersive media where velocity
varies with frequency, the wavetrain changes shape as it
progresses so that individual wave crests travel at dif-
ferent velocities 共phase velocities, V 兲 than does the
envelope of the wavetrain. The velocity of the envelope
is the group velocity U:
U⫽V⫺␭ 共 dV/d␭ 兲 ⫽V⫹ f 共 dV/df 兲 ,
where ␭⫽wavelength and f ⫽frequency. Normal
mode propagation 共q.v.兲 results in dispersion and thus
different values for group and phase velocities. See also
Figure D-16 and compare phase velocity. 2. Angular
dispersion; in anisotropic media, group velocity is the
velocity of energy transport radially outward from a
point source. Also called ray velocity; see Figure A-14.
3. When frequency dispersion and angular dispersion
occur together, the velocity of the wave envelope
共group velocity兲 and energy velocity 共the ratio of the
time-average Poynting vector to the time-average
stored energy density兲 are not the same.
group velocity surface: The surface of elastic wave arriv-
als from a point source at a given time, that is, a
wavefront 共q.v.兲 or a surface of equal phase. Separate
surfaces exist for each wave type 共P-, S1-, and
S2-waves兲. In isotropic media the two S-wave surfaces
coincide; in anisotropic media they are separated over
most but not all angles.
groupware: Computer tools that let distributed teams
work together independent of geography or time.
growth fault: See fault.
GRS67: Geodetic Reference System 1967 共q.v.兲.
GTO: Gate Turn-Off switch; see controlled rectifier.
g.u.
g.u.: Gravity Unit; 0.1 milligal.
guard electrodes: Extra electrodes whose function is to
focus the current flow by injecting current of the same
polarity. Also called bucking electrodes. See laterolog.
guard log: A log made with guard electrodes 共q.v.兲. A
laterolog or focused log.
guest: A mineral introduced into and usually replacing
another mineral.
GUI: Graphical User Interface, a program to produce
displays.
guided wave: 1. A channel wave 共q.v.兲. 2. An interface
wave or surface wave 共q.v.兲.
Gulf magnetometer: A type of fluxgate magnetometer
共q.v.兲.
gumbo: 共gum’ bō兲 1. A clay soil that becomes sticky and
plastic when wet. 2. Any relatively sticky formation
encountered in drilling.
gun: 1. An air gun 共q.v.兲, a seismic energy source from
which a bubble of highly compressed air is released;
see Figure A-6. 2. A gas gun 共gas exploder, q.v.兲, a
seismic energy source in which an explosive gas mix-
ture is detonated. 3. A water gun 共q.v.兲, a seismic source
in which a volume of water is suddenly projected into
the water. 4. A Buffalo gun 共q.v.兲, a seismic source used
in near-surface studies. 5. A device for obtaining side-
wall cores in a borehole. 6. A perforating gun, a device
used to perforate or open holes in casing so that fluid
can flow into the borehole.
170 gyrotropic
Gutenberg-Weichert discontinuity: 共goot’ ⳵n burg, wı̄’
k⳵rt兲 The boundary between the Earth’s mantle and
core. See Figure E-1. Named for Beno Gutenberg
共1889 – 1960兲, American seismologist, and Emil
Weichert, German seismologist.
guyot: 共gē ō’兲 A flat-topped seamount 共q.v.兲. Named for
Arnold Henry Guyot 共1807–1884兲, Swiss-American
geologist.
G-wave: A long-period 共40 to 300 s兲 Love wave 共q.v.兲,
usually restricted to an oceanic path. Velocity is often
nearly constant at 4.4 km/s so the wave appears nearly
impulsive. Named for Gutenberg.
gyre: 共jīr兲 Mammoth rotating currents 共benthic storms兲 in
the deep ocean.
gyrocompass: 共jı̄ rō kum, p⳵s兲 A gimbal-mounted gyro-
scope incorporating unbalanced masses which make the
axis of rotation precess about true north. See Figure
G-10. If a torque tries to change the plane of rotation of
a gyroscope, the gyroscope axis rotates about an axis
that is perpendicular to both the gyroscope’s axis of
spin and the torque; this is called precession.
gyrotropic: 共jı̄, rō trop’ ik兲 A material in which two of the
three principal values of conductivity are equal 共usually
the maximum values兲. Similar to transversely isotropic
共q.v.兲.
 H
h: Planck’s constant; 6.626⫻10 ⫺34 joule.
H: 1. Henry 共q.v.兲, the SI unit of inductance. 2. The
magnetizing field vector. 3. See H-type section.
hachure: 共ha’ sur兲 A short line or mark along a contour or
fault trace that points in the down-dip direction or
toward smaller values.
Hadamard transform: 共had’ ⳵ mard兲 A means of trans-
forming an image from the spatial to the frequency
domain.
hade: The complement of dip; see Figure F-2.
Hagedoorn method: 共hag ⳵ doorn’兲 Plus-minus method
共q.v.兲 of refraction interpretation.
Hales’s method: 共hālz兲 1. A graphical refraction interpre-
tation method, particularly useful where the refractor
changes depth markedly, such as where there is consid-
erable relief or over large faults, but with constant
velocity above the refractor. See Hales 共1958兲 or Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 443– 446兲. 2. A method for the
Fourier-domain implementation of DMO 共q.v.兲. See
Hale 共1984兲.
half adder: A circuit with two inputs 共A and B兲 and two
outputs, sum and carry 共S and C兲. Its truth table is:
A B S C
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
C is an AND gate and S is an EXCEPT gate. See gate.
half adjust: Rounding in which the value of a particular
digit determines whether a one shall be added to the
next-higher significant digit.
half-duplex: A system in which transmission can occur in
only one direction at any time. Transmissions in oppo-
site directions alternate. Compare duplex.
half plane: A plane that exists everywhere to one side of
a line but not on the other side.
half-maximum distance: See Half-width method.
half-power point: The frequency value on an amplitude
response curve for which the amplitude reaches 1/&
or 70.7%.
half-space: A mathematical model bounded only by one
plane surface, i.e., the model is so large in other dimen-
sions that only the one boundary affects the results.
Properties within the model are usually assumed to be
homogeneous and isotropic, though other models are
also used.
half-width: See half-width method.
half-width method: A method of estimating the depth to a
gravity or magnetic source from anomaly shape.
Depending on the model, the half-width is 共a兲 half the
width of an anomaly at half the maximum 共or mini-
mum兲 value, or 共b兲 half the width between points where
the anomaly is one-quarter and three-quarters ampli-
tude. The depth to the center of a horizontal cylinder is
171
given by 共a兲, to the center of a spherical mass by 1.3 共a兲,
to the center of a spherical magnetic sphere by 2.0 共a兲,
to the mass center of a thin semi-infinite slab 共fault
anomaly兲 by 共b兲. See also depth rule and Figure H-1.
Hall effect: A transverse potential that develops across a
semiconductor or strip of metal when it carries a current
when located in a strong magnetic field. Named for its
discoverer, Edwin Herbert Hall 共1855–1938兲, Ameri-
can physicist.
halo: 1. A false anomaly surrounding an anomaly as a
result of the residualizing technique employed. See
halo effect. 2. The fringe ring of data at the edges of a
3-D survey where full multiplication is not achieved.
halo effect: 1. Many residual and second-derivative meth-
ods produce a ring or halo of an opposite sign around
an anomaly, reflecting the opposite field curvature
around the periphery of the anomaly. Halos do not
represent separate anomalous masses, and they can be
reduced or eliminated by biasing. 2. A ring anomaly,
claimed to be characteristic of certain electromagnetic
or geochemical effects of structures or hydrocarbon
accumulations.
halokinesis: Salt tectonics 共q.v.兲.
hammer: A hammer striking a steel plate is used as a
seismic source for shallow refraction or reflection mea-
surements. The hammer incorporates a switch that
starts a timer when the hammer strikes. Alternatively,
closure can be produced by the hammer touching the
plate to complete an electrical circuit. In some systems
the timer is stopped when energy received by a geo-
phone reaches some threshold value.
Hammer chart: A template for making gravity terrain
corrections. See Hammer 共1940兲.
Hamming: Smoothing with weights 0.23, 0.54, 0.23. See
Hamming function.
Hamming function: 共ham’ ⳵ng兲 A function used to shape
the cutoff of a window or gate in data processing to
avoid the undesirable effects of sharp truncation. See
Figure W-12. The Hamming function 共different from
the Hanning function兲 is
0.54⫹0.46 cos ␾ , ⫺␲⬍␾⬍␲,
0, ␾ ⬍⫺ ␲ or ␾ ⬎ ␲ ,
where ␾ increases linearly from ⫺␲ to ␲ across the
window. For the kth element out of n elements within
the window, ␾ ⫽2 ␲ k/(n⫹1)⫺ ␲ . Named after R. W.
Hamming.
handover word: 1. The word in an electronic message
that contains time synchronization information. 2. A
coded signal from GPS satellites that permits synchro-
nizing a user’s start time with the satellite’s.
handshake: The sequence of signals required for commu-
nication between system functions. The I/O bus proto-
col for a system defines its handshaking requirements.
For example, asynchronous I/O systems require a
hands-off tuning 172 Hankel transform

response 共reply兲 to each signal to complete an I/O
operation.
hands-off tuning: Automatic tuning of a side-scan sonar.
Tradename of Klein Associates.
hanging wall: The side of a fault that lies above a dipping
fault slope; the downthrown side for a normal fault. A
hanging-wall slice is a seismic section showing reflec-
tions along a curved surface parallel to and displaced
50–100 m away from the fault plane 共to get away from
distorted data along the fault itself兲. See Brown 共1999,
20–21, 225–232兲 and Figure F-2.
Hankel transform: 共hank’ ⳵l兲 The Hankel transform of
order m of the real function f (t) is
F共 s 兲⫽冕 f 共 t 兲 tJ m 共 st 兲 dt,

FIG. H-1. Half-width. (a) Gravity anomaly resulting from a point or line element (sphere or horizontal cylinder). Depth
to center of sphere⫽1.305 half-width, depth to center of cylinder⫽half-width. (b) Gravity anomaly resulting from a thin
semi-infinite slab (step or fault). Depth to center of the anomalous mass⫽half-width.

FIG. H-2. Mohs hardness scale is a measure of the resistance to scratching. (From Busch, 2000, 33.)
Hannell rule
where J m is the m-order Bessel function. Also called a
Bessel transform. Named for Hermann Hankel 共1839–
1873兲, German mathematician.
Hannell rule: 共han’ ⳵l兲 See depth rule.
Hanning: Smoothing with weights 0.25, 0.50, 0.25.
Hanning function: 共han’ ⳵ng兲 A function used to shape
the cutoff of a window in data processing to avoid
undesirable effects of sharp truncation:
1/2⫹ 共 1/2 兲 cos ␾ , ⫺␲⬍␾⬍␲,
0, ␾ ⬍⫺ ␲ or ␾ ⬎ ␲ .
See Figure W-12. Named after Julius von Hann 共1839–
1921兲, Austrian meteorologist. Slightly different from
Hamming function 共q.v.兲.
haptics: 共hap’ tiks兲 Use of the sense of touch in virtual
reality. Often involves a haptic pen or haptic glove.
Haq chart: 共hack兲 A table showing Mesozoic and Ceno-
zoic eustatic cycles, sequence chronostratigraphy, and
relationships to other time scales. See sequence stratig-
raphy and Figure S-5.
hard copy: A printed 共or otherwise displayed on paper兲
copy of data in human-readable form, such as a paper
copy of an image on a computer terminal screen.
hard data: Data that are believed to be more accurate than
other data.
hard disk: A random-access, high-capacity digital storage
device.
hardening: Increase in acoustic impedance as a result of
fluid production and loss of porosity.
hardness: The Mohs scale for the hardness of rocks is
shown in Figure H-2.
hard pressure: Formation-fluid pressure that approaches
the fracture pressure, often taken as ⬎ 90% of the over-
burden pressure or requiring ⬎ 16 lb/gal mud.
hard rock: Rock whose P-wave velocity ⬎2500 m/s.
hardware: Equipment, especially computing-machine
equipment.
hard-wired logic: A group of logic circuits permanently
interconnected to perform a specific function.
harmonic: 共har mon’ ik兲 1. A frequency that is a simple
multiple of a fundamental frequency. The third har-
monic, for example, has a frequency three times that of
the fundamental. 2. Two frequencies are harmonically
related if they are each harmonics of a common fun-
damental. 3. Any component of a Fourier series except
the fundamental.
harmonic analysis: Decomposing a periodic waveform
into constituent cosine waves, i.e., into a Fourier series
共or its Fourier transform兲. Same as Fourier analysis
共q.v.兲.
harmonic average: The reciprocal of a harmonic average
is given by the sum of the weighted reciprocals of the
elements to be averaged. For example, for three ele-
ments,
1/V har.av⫽a/V 1 ⫹b/V 2 ⫹c/V 3 , where a⫹b⫹c⫽1.
harmonic distortion: Distortion 共q.v.兲 characterized by
the generation of harmonics of input frequencies.
harmonic function: A function that satisfies Laplace’s
equation, has continuous single-valued first derivatives,
and has second derivatives.
harmonic mean: See mean.
hash total: Summation check; see check.
173 Heaviside layer
Haskell matrix: 共has’ k⳵l兲 See Thomson-Haskell method.
hat: The superscript symbol ˆ; used to designate a quan-
tity such as x̂ that is analogous to another quantity x.
haversine: 共hav’ ⳵r sīn兲 Haversine ␣ ⫽(1⫺cos ␣)/2.
Hayford modification: 共hāy’ ford兲 An isostatic hypothesis
that modifies the Pratt hypothesis where the pressure is
balanced at the ‘‘depth of compensation.’’ See isostasy.
Named for John Filmore Hayford 共1868 –1925兲, Ameri-
can geodesist.
Hayford spheroid: An approximation to the Earth’s fig-
ure proposed by Hayford 共see above兲 in 1909. Adopted
as the International Spheroid in 1924. It is used exten-
sively worldwide for coordinate systems.
hazard data: Information used to gauge risks.
hazard survey: A survey employing several sensors 共such
as side-scan sonar, magnetometer, and high-resolution
seismic兲 to obtain shallow data to identify potential
hazards, such as pockets of gas leaking from deeper
formations, submarine landslides, gas hydrates, man-
made obstacles, etc.
HC effect on overpressure: The change in fluid pressure
with depth depends on the density of the fluid. Where
an appreciable gaseous or liquid hydrocarbon column
exists, the pore fluid develops a pressure difference
from what is expected for normal brine fluid. Measure-
ments of the fluid pressure can be used to determine the
bases of accumulations even where contacts are not
themselves observed.
HCI: HydroCarbon Indicator 共q.v.兲.
HDS: Hue, Density, and Saturation, the three color param-
eters; see Figure C-7.
HDT: High-resolution dipmeter; a dipmeter 共q.v.兲 that
records four microresistivity curves and has an addi-
tional electrode on one pad that yields another curve at
displaced depth. The displaced-depth curve is used to
correct for variations in the speed of the logging sonde.
head: 1. A magnetic head 共q.v.兲. 2. The pressure resulting
from a given height of fluid.
head-check pulse: An impulse applied simultaneously to
all channels of an analog magnetic recorder so that the
alignment of magnetic heads can be checked. See Fig-
ure R-6.
header, heading: 1. The identification information and
tabulation of parameters that precedes data, as on mag-
netic tape. 2. First part of a borehole log containing
information about the well and logging operation.
heading: 1. A navigational direction. 2. The first part of a
borehole log that contains information about the well
and logging operations.
headwall: Hanging wall 共q.v.兲 of a fault.
head wave: A wave characterized by entering and leaving
a high-velocity medium at the critical angle. See Fig-
ures C-17, H-3, and T-8. Also called a refraction,
Meisner, Mintrop, von Schmidt, conical wave.
heat conductivity: Thermal conductivity 共q.v.兲.
heat flow unit „HFU…: 10 ⫺2 cal/m2 s⫽41.86 mW/m2 .
The mean heat flow of the earth is 1.2–1.5 HFU. Heat
flow ranges from about 0.9 in shield areas to over 2
HFU in Cenozoic volcanic areas; midocean ridge val-
ues reach 8 HFU.
Heaviside function: A step function that has the value
zero for negative argument and ⫹1 for positive values.
Heaviside layer: 共hev’ ē sı̄d,兲 The E-layer 共q.v.兲. Named
for Oliver Heaviside 共1850–1925兲, English physicist.
heighting 174 henry „H…

heighting: Determining the difference in elevation
between two stations, often determined trigonometri-
cally by measuring the distance and the angle between
the line of sight and horizontal.
height of instrument „HI…: The elevation of a survey-
instrument eyepiece with respect to the ground level.
Used with theodolites, levels, alidades, etc.
Heiskannen modification: 共hīs’ kan ⳵n兲 See isostasy.
helicopter electromagnetics „HEM…: Frequency-domain
electromagnetic measurements that employ a number
of coaxial coil pairs, made from a helicopter. Systems
such as Aerodat and Digihem.
helicopter gravity: See aerogravity. Helicopters are
sometimes used in gravity surveying merely for trans-
port.
helicopter landing officer: The personnel responsible for
helicopter landing safety on a marine vessel.
Helmholtz coil: 共helm’ hōltz兲 A pair of coaxial coils sepa-
rated by a distance equal to their radius, which provides
a nearly constant magnetic field over a large volume
between the coils. It permits an accurate calculation of
the magnetic field between the coils and is used in
calibration of magnetometers and nulling an ambient
magnetic field for magnetic measurements. Named for
Hermann Ludwig von Helmholtz 共1821–1894兲, Ger-
man scientist.
Helmholtz double layer: See double layer.
Helmholtz equation: The space-dependent form of the
wave equation for a wave that is harmonic in time:
共 ⵜ 2 ⫹␬2 兲 ␺ ⫽0,
where ␬ ⫽ ␻ /V, ␻ ⫽angular frequency, and V
⫽velocity.
Helmholtz separation method: A method of separating
scalar and vector potentials into other scalar and vector
functions that facilitate solution of the wave equation.
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 40兲.
help: A callable explanation of computer options avail-
able. Especially used with user-friendly personal com-
puters and interactive workstations.
HEM: 1. Helicopter ElectroMagnetics 共q.v.兲. 2.
Horizontal-loop electromagnetic method.
henry „H…: The SI unit of electrical inductance; the induc-
tance where one volt is induced by a current change of
one ampere per second. Named for Joseph Henry

FIG. H-3. Head waves. (a) Time-distance plot showing head waves that extend as straight alignments to the right of ␪ 1
and ␪ 2 , where they are tangent to the respective reflections. (b) First-arrival wavefronts for horizontally layered media.
(c) Same as (b) except for addition of a high-velocity mass (salt dome). (d) A number of types of head waves are
possible from an incident P-wave depending on relative velocities, but usually only the P2 P1 type is observed.
hermaphroditic connector
共1797–1878兲, American physicist.
hermaphroditic connector: 共h⳵r ma. fr⳵ did’ ik兲 A con-
nector that can accommodate both male and female
plugs.
Hermitian matrix: A matrix that equals the transpose of
its conjugate:
共 A쐓 兲 T ⫽A.
It has real eigenvalues and can be diagonalized by
similarity transformations. Named for Charles Hermite
共1822–1901兲, French mathematician.
Hermite polynomials: 共h⳵r mēt兲 The set of polynomials
H n (x) orthogonal with respect to the weight function
2
e ⫺x on the interval 共⫺⬁, ⬁兲. See Abramowitz and
Stegun 共1965兲.
herringbone: 共her’ ⳵ng bōn兲 A pattern of systematic
deviation of contours on a contour map produced when
one or several lines of data is systematically mislocated
or has systematic bias. See Figure H-4.
hertz „Hz…: 共hurtz兲 The SI unit of frequency, the same as
cycles per second⫽cps. Named after Heinrich
Rudolph Hertz 共1857–1894兲, German physicist who
discovered electromagnetic waves.
Hertz equation: A relation for the radius of contact of
elastic spheres when under pressure. See Love 共1944兲.
Hertz vector potential: A vector potential ⌸ from which
both the EM vector potential A and the scalar potential
␾ can be derived by differentiation:
A⫽ ␮ ␧⳵⌸/⳵t⫹ ␮ ␴ ⌸
␾ ⫽⫺ⵜ•⌸.
Hessian matrix: 共hesh’ ⳵n兲 The matrix of second partial
derivatives of a function. For a function
f (x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n ), the Hessian matrix H has entries
h i j ⫽⳵2 f /⳵x i ⳵x j .
Used in nonlinear modeling. See Press et al. 共1986兲.
heterogeneity: 共het, ⳵ rō j⳵ nē’ i tē兲 Lack of spatial uni-
formity. Opposite of homogeneity.
heuristic: 共hyoo ris’ tik兲 1. A method or scheme used for
teaching. 2. Pertaining to learning, especially a ‘‘trial
FIG. H-4. Herringbone effect. Flight lines e and i are
displaced southward from their correct positions and n is
displaced eastward, thus producing fictitious anomalies.
The effect on the contours is called ‘‘herringbone.’’
175 high-line eliminator
and error’’ method. 3. A rule 共used in artificial intelli-
gence兲 stating a probable 共but not certain兲 consequence.
hexadecimal: 共hek’ s⳵ des, ⳵ mal兲 A radix 16 number
system. See Figure N-4.
hexagonal packing: The most compact arrangement for a
packing of uniform spheres. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 108兲.
HFMAG: High-Frequency MAGnetics 共q.v.兲.
HFVS: High-Fidelity VibroSeis 共q.v.兲.
HFU: Heat Flow Unit 共q.v.兲.
HI: Height of Instrument 共q.v.兲.
hiatus: 共hı̄ ā’ t⳵s兲 An interval of time not represented by
rock strata. May be depositional 共because strata were
never deposited兲 or erosional 共because they were
removed subsequent to deposition兲.
hidden layer: A layer that cannot be detected by refrac-
tion methods. See Figure H-5. 1. A layer of lower
velocity lying beneath a layer of higher velocity. 2. A
layer that is too thin or has insufficient velocity contrast
to give a distinct arrival 共sometimes insufficient to give
a first arrival兲. See blind zone.
hierarchy: 共hī’ ⳵ rar, kē or hī rar kē兲 The protocol 共q.v.兲
among the various subprograms 共or displays兲 that gov-
ern how they communicate with each other. Especially
used for work station protocol.
hi-fix: See Decca. Decca Survey tradename.
high-cut filter: A filter 共q.v.兲 that transmits frequencies
below a given cutoff frequency and substantially
attenuates frequencies above the cutoff. The same as
low-pass filter.
high-fidelity vibroseis „HFVS…: An alternative to
vibroseis correlation for compressing vibrator field
data. The vibrator’s baseplate or reaction-mass’s accel-
eration is recorded along with the geophone traces.
Each geophone trace is compressed by dividing its
Fourier transform by that of the baseplate or reaction-
mass acceleration signal. The resulting trace is
minimum-phase bandpass filtered and spike decon-
volved. The resulting fundamental reflection wavelets
are minimum phase. The method claims to remove
detrimental effects of changing near-surface properties
and vibrator-generated harmonics. ExxonMobil trade-
name.
high-frequency magnetics „HFMAG…: Magnetic anoma-
lies of shallow sedimentary origin, often ⬍1 nT, seen in
areas of deep magnetic basement. Possible sources
include detrital magnetite, diagenetic magnetite, or
other minerals possibly related to hydrocarbon micro-
seepage, salt or anhydrite diamagnetism, or fault min-
eralization.
high-level language: A computer programming language
that uses words and symbols to make it relatively easy
to read and write a program. It must be translated into
machine language to be executed by a computer.
high-line: Voltages induced in cables or instruments by
nearby electric transmission lines. Characterized by the
frequency of power transmission 共usually 60 or 50 Hz,
or 16 2/3 Hz for some electric railways兲 or its harmon-
ics. Coupling may be capacitive, by electromagnetic
induction 共especially if the transmission lines are unbal-
anced兲, or by leakage currents from ground-return sys-
tems. The problem is most severe when the cables and
sensors are not well insulated electrically.
high-line eliminator: A part of seismic recording equip-
high-pass filter
ment used to attenuate high-line interference. May con-
sist of bridges that balance the voltage across the input
transformers with respect to a center tap at ground
potential, the assumption being that voltages with
respect to ground are noise. Such bridges usually have
two adjustments, for the resistive and reactive compo-
nents of the high-line-induced voltages. High-line inter-
ference is also sometimes reduced with a notch filter
which removes a narrow band of frequencies around
the high-line frequency. See also humbucking.
high-pass filter: A filter that passes without significant
attenuation frequencies above some cutoff frequency
while attenuating lower frequencies. The same as low-
cut filter.
high-resolution „HR…: Seismic frequencies above the
normal exploration range, recorded with the objective
of improving resolution, expecially of shallow events.
Usually implies frequencies from 80–150 Hz, some-
times to 500 Hz or higher.
high-resolution aeromagnetics „HRAM…: High-
precision aeromagnetics flown at low terrain clearance
共80–150 m兲 with close line spacing 共100–500 m兲
recorded with a high-sensitivity magnetometer 共0.001–
0.005 nT兲 at high sample rates 共0.1–0.25 s兲 using a
high-precision positioning system 共usually differential
GPS兲.
high-resolution sequence stratigraphy: Sequence strati-
graphic 共q.v.兲 studies of cycles smaller than those dis-
cernible in seismic data. These may be derivable from
borehole logs or outcrop studies and often refer to fifth
and sixth-order cycles.
FIG. H-5. Hidden layers. (a) A layer whose velocity (V 3 ) is lower than that of an overlying layer (velocity inversion) does
not produce a head wave. (b) The head wave from a thin layer (V 2 ) without sufficient velocity contrast or too thin may
not produce a first arrival and not be observable as a distinct event.
176 Hilbert transform
high-resolution thermometer: A small-diameter fast-
response thermometer for logging open or cased bore-
holes with a temperature resolution of 0.5 °F.
high-speed layer: A layer in which the speed of wave
propagation is greater than that in the layer above it and
which therefore can carry head-wave 共refraction兲
energy.
highstand systems tract: The upper systems tract within
a sequence, characterized by aggradation followed by
progradation. Involves deposition on a shelf during the
late part of a cycle of eustatic rise, stillstand, and the
early part of an eustatic fall. See Figure S-32.
Hilbert space: 共hil’ b⳵rt兲 A Euclidean space of
n-dimensional complex-valued vectors.
Hilbert transform: Given an h(t) that is nonsingular at
t⫽0 and that is a causal response so that h(t)⫽0 for
t⬍0, then its Fourier transform,
H 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽R 共 ␻ 兲 ⫾iX 共 ␻ 兲 ,
共where ␻ ⫽angular frequency兲 has the special property
known as the Hilbert transform, expressed by
X 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽⫺ 共 1/ ␲ 兲 R 共 ␻ 兲 * 共 1/ ␻ 兲
冕
⫽⫺ 共 1/ ␲ 兲 P R 共 y 兲 dy/ 共 ␻ ⫺y 兲 ,
and R 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽⫺ 共 1/ ␲ 兲 X 共 ␻ 兲 * 共 1/ ␻ 兲
冕
⫽⫺ 共 1/ ␲ 兲 P X 共 y 兲 dy/ 共 ␻ ⫺y 兲 ,
Hilbert-transform technique
where P denotes the Cauchy principal value at discon-
tinuities. If H( ␻ ) vanishes for ␻ ⬍0, its Fourier trans-
form,
h 共 t 兲 ⫹ jx 共 t 兲 ,
has h(t) and x(t) forming a Hilbert transform pair.
h(t) and x(t) have the same amplitude spectrum but
differ in phase by 90°. [h(t)⫹ j ⬘ x(t)] is called the
analytic signal belonging to h(t), and x(t) is the
quadrature signal corresponding to h(t). Often used
in complex trace analysis 共q.v.兲. Named for David
Hilbert 共1862–1943兲, German mathematician.
Hilbert-transform technique: A technique for determin-
ing the phase of a minimum-phase function from its
power spectrum, used in computing a deconvolution
operator. Given the power spectrum P( f ) and that the
wavelet is minimum phase, the wavelet’s frequency-
domain representation W( f ) is
W 共 f 兲 ⫽A 共 f 兲 e j ␥ 共 f 兲 ⫽ 兩 P 共 f 兲 兩 1/2 e j ␥ 共 f 兲 .
The amplitude A( f ) is the square root of the power
spectrum. Taking the logarithm of both sides splits the
function into real and imaginary parts:
ln关 W 共 f 兲兴 ⫽ 共 1/2 兲 ln关 P 共 f 兲兴 ⫹ j ␥ 共 f 兲 .
To be minimum phase, the function must be analytic in
the lower half-plane. Then the Hilbert transform can be
used to find the phase ␥ ( f ) from ln P(f )/2:
␥ 共 f 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 兲 ln关 P 共 f 兲兴 * 1/ 共 ␲ f 兲 .
Since the amplitude and phase are known, the Fourier
transform can be computed and the time-domain
expression for W(t) determined. See Sheriff and Gel-
dart 共1995, 544兲.
hi-line: See high-line.
hinge: The part of a fold where the curvature is greatest.
hinge fault: A fault where the blocks across the fault have
rotated about an axis perpendicular to the fault plane.
Thus the throw varies along the fault strike. Also called
scissors fault. See Figure F-3.
hiran: High-precision shoran 共q.v.兲.
hi res: High-resolution sequence stratigraphy 共q.v.兲.
histogram: 共his’ t⳵ gram,兲 A multiple bar diagram show-
ing the relative populations of a sequence of regularly
arranged classes. It shows the number of occurrences
共on the y-axis兲 in each class of equal width 共along the
x-axis兲.
histogram equalization: Adjusting histogram intervals so
that colors concentrate in the range of the majority of
values.
history matching: Comparing actual oil/gas production
history of a reservoir to that calculated from a simula-
tion model as a way of evaluating the model. A rule-
of-thumb is that the model should be useful for predic-
tion into the future for about the same duration as the
length of the history match.
hit: The occurrence of a successful search.
HLEM, HEM: Horizontal Loop Method 共q.v.兲.
hoax: See virus.
hockey stick: The turn-up at long offsets in a CMP gather
that has been flattened by applying NMO based on the
assumption that the moveout curve is hyperbolic. A
consequence of the failure of the assumption in the
177 holography
NMO correction that the overlying velocity is constant.
See normal moveout.
hodogram: 共hod’ d⳵ gram兲 1. The figure described by the
terminus of a moving vector. 2. A plot of the motion of
a point as a function of time, that is, a display of a
particle path especially with multicomponent detectors.
Used to determine the direction of a wave’s approach to
the detectors and, with borehole geophones, the orien-
tation of the detectors. See Figure R-3. 3. A time-
distance curve.
hold-down weight: The static weight that prevents a
vibrator pad from decoupling at peak acceleration in the
upward direction. This weight is achieved by jacking up
the carrier vehicle so that part of its weight is supported
by the baseplate reaction-mass assembly. See reaction
mass.
hole: 1. A mobile vacancy in the electronic valence struc-
ture of a semiconductor 共an atom with less than its
normal number of electrons兲. P-type semiconductors
have an excess of holes. An electron from a neighbor-
ing atom can fill the hole so that in effect the hole
moves to the neighboring atom. The apparent move-
ment of holes in an electric field is equivalent to an
electric current. 2. A borehole.
hole blow: 1. Ejection of water, mud, and sometimes
rocks from the shothole as a result of the shot explo-
sion. 2. Noise on a seismic record caused by such
ejection; see hole noise.
hole deviation: See drift.
hole fatigue: A delay between the detonation of a shot and
the initiation of the seismic impulse from it; a conse-
quence of changes in the shot environment 共usually
formation of a cavity兲 produced by an earlier shot in the
same hole.
hole logging: 1. Making a well log 共q.v.兲. Compare VSP.
2. Drill-hole IP or resistivity surveying. See hole probe.
hole noise: Noise from the shot, cause by hole blow 共q.v.兲
or rumbling around in the borehole of the gases result-
ing from an explosion. Hole noise may last for several
seconds. It is often excessively strong on geophone
groups near the shothole and attenuates rapidly with
distance.
hole plug: A device used to plug a shothole after shooting.
Usually the plug is pushed far enough into the hole to
prevent its being dislodged and earth is shoveled over it
level with the surrounding ground. Also called bridge
plug. Hole plugs are also used to close shotholes tem-
porarily between the drilling/loading operation and the
detonation of the charge.
hole probe: A drill-hole IP or resistivity survey in which
closely spaced in-hole electrodes are used to determine
the electrical properties of rock near the drill hole. Also
called electric log, IP log, resistivity log, and hole
logging.
Hollerith code: 共hol’ ⳵ rith兲 A code to designate numbers
and letters on punched cards. Invented by Herman
Hollerith 共1860–1929兲.
hologram: 共hō’ l⳵ gram or hōl’ ⳵ gram兲 A recording 共usu-
ally photographic兲 of the amplitude and phase distribu-
tion of interfering wavefronts, one of which is a refer-
ence wave. The nonreference waves can be
reconstructed by illuminating the recording with the
reference wave. See Figure H-6.
holography: Recording of the intensity of the interference
homocline 178 horizon slice

pattern that results from the scattering of coherent may be called a horizon map, sometimes contrasted to
radiation and a reference beam. Optical holography a phantom map 共see phantom兲.
usually involves photographing the interference from horizon migration: Map migration 共q.v.兲.
laser light 共to achieve a coherent source兲; subsequent horizon offset section: A display of the amplitude of a
illumination of the photographic plate allows one to single reflector, where the independent parameters are
‘‘see’’ the photographed object in three dimensions. See located along a seismic line and offset distance.
Figure H-6 and also earth holography. horizon-oriented velocity analysis „HVA…: NMO-based
homocline: 共hō’ m⳵ klīn兲 A region of broadly uniform dip. velocity analysis at closely spaced midpoints 共some-
homogeneous: 共hō, m⳵ ji nē’ ⳵s兲 The same throughout; times every one兲 for one or a few selected reflection
uniformity of a physical property throughout a material. events.
homomorphic deconvolution: 共hō, m⳵ mor’ fik or hōm’ ⳵ horizon slice: A display made from a 3D data set of the
mor, fik兲 Removal of the effects of an earlier filter in the data elements that lie on the same picked reflecting
cepstral domain; see cepstrum. horizon, thus showing areal variations in amplitude or
homomorphism: A relationship between two algebraic
systems of the same type that preserves the algebraic
operation. A correspondence between elements of two
sets D 共the domain兲 and R 共the range兲 such that each
element of D determines a unique element of R and
each element of R is the correspondent of at least one
element of D.
homoscedastic: 共ha mō, sk⳵ das’ tik兲 Having equal vari-
ance in probability distributions. In a multivariate dis-
tribution, a variable is homoscedastic if its conditional
distribution function has a constant variance regardless
of the values of other variables. See Johnson and Kutz
共1969, 23兲.
hook: The large hook that hangs from the traveling block
of a drill rig 共q.v.兲 used for supporting the swivel.
Hooke’s law: 共hookz兲 Stress is directly proportional to
strain. Valid for many materials for small strains. See
elastic constants and Figure H-7. Named for Robert
Hooke 共1635–1703兲, English physicist.
hop: Travel of a radiowave to the ionosphere and back to
Earth.
horizon: 1. The surface separating two different rock lay-
ers. Where such a surface 共even though not itself iden-
tified兲 is associated with a reflection that can be carried
over a large area, a map based on the reflection event

FIG. H-6. Holography. (a) An image is formed by the

interference between laser light reflected from the object
and the reference beam. (b) The image is reconstructed
by shining laser light onto the interference pattern
recorded on film. FIG. H-7. Generalization of Hooke’s law.
horizon slice 179 horizon slice

FIG. H-8. (a) A horizon slice shows amplitudes along tracked horizons. It may show changes resulting from strati-
graphic changes or hydrocarbon accumulations (both in this instance); structure contours are superimposed. (b) A
horizon slice displayed in isometric view (Brown, 1999, 168–169).
horizontal coplanar EM „HCP…
other attributes 共such as dip magnitude or azimuth兲.
Usually made by slicing through the 3D volume paral-
lel to a nearby picked horizon that is believed to con-
form with it. Also called an amplitude map where it
displays amplitude. Different from a horizontal slice
共time slice, q.v.兲; see also Figures H-8 and T-5. Also
called a surface slice and sometimes a ‘‘geological
time slice.’’
horizontal coplanar EM „HCP…: Horizontal-loop
method 共q.v.兲.
horizontal cylinder: A model used in calculating
potential-field effects; a small-diameter horizontal cyl-
inder so long that the ends of the cylinder do not
produce any effects. The model is equivalent to a hori-
zontal line whose mass per unit of length is ␳A, where
␳ is the density contrast and A is the cross-sectional area
of the cylinder.
horizontal-dipole sounding: Electromagnetic sounding
configuration using either a transmitting coil with its
axis horizontal or a horizontal grounded wire.
horizontal-directive tendency „HDT…: Differential cur-
vature 共q.v.兲.
horizontal-loop method „HLEM, HEM…: A frequency-
domain electromagnetic method in which coplanar
共usually horizontal兲 transmitter and receiver coils sepa-
rated by a constant distance are moved over a survey
area. The primary field is nulled and then in-phase and
quadrature components are measured. Also called hori-
zontal coplanar, Ronka EM, and slingram. See Fig-
ure E-7.
horizontal mixing: 1. Common-midpoint stacking 共q.v.兲.
2. Occasionally, ground mix or array forming 共q.v.兲.
horizontal profiling: See profiling.
horizontal section: A time slice or depth slice 共q.v.兲;
compare horizon slice.
horizontal stacking: Common-midpoint stacking 共q.v.兲.
horizontal well: A well that is directed more-or-less hori-
zontally to stay within the same geologic horizon.
horizon tracking: Picking a seismic section or a 3-D data
volume at a chosen point on the seismic waveform for
a particular horizon, often made automatically by a
picking algorithm. See tracking.
horst: 共horst兲 A crustal block raised up with respect to
neighboring blocks by normal faulting. A horst is usu-
ally long compared to its width. Compare graben.
hot colors: Reds, oranges, and yellows.
hot keys: Programmable computer-keyboard keys or com-
binations of keys configured to initiate common opera-
tions.
hot shot: 1. To carry out a short urgent program, often
without moving the field camp or crew headquarters. 2.
A daily living allowance paid crew members on such a
program. 3. Slang for an expert in a particular field.
hot spot: 1. A localized high heat-flow region with a deep
cause, often associated with volcanism and other geo-
thermal activity. Hawaii and Yellowstone are presum-
ably hot spots. The hot-spot hypothesis uses hot spots
as a fixed reference frame for determining plate motion
with respect to them. 2. An image region that records a
large amount of backscattered solar radiation. 3. A
specular reflection of the sun. 4. A bright spot hydro-
carbon indicator 共q.v.兲.
hot-wire analyzer: A device used to detect hydrocarbon
gases returned to the surface by the drilling mud. Basi-
180 hung on a formation
cally a Wheatstone bridge, two arms of which are kept
at a high temperature. Hydrocarbon gases become oxi-
dized as they pass over one arm, which increases its
temperature, changes its resistance, and unbalances the
bridge. Hot-wire analyzer response is usually plotted in
well log format and called a mud log 共q.v.兲.
hour angle: Angular distance of a body west of the pro-
jection of a meridian onto the celestial sphere. Local
hour angle is the angle between a body and the pro-
jection of the observer’s meridian onto the celestial
sphere. Greenwich hour angle is with respect to the
projection of the Greenwich meridian. Sidereal hour
angle is angular distance west 共unlike the others that
are measured east兲 of the vernal equinox; it is thus the
supplement of right ascension.
Householder reduction: A method for finding the eigen-
values of a symmetric matrix.
housekeeping: Administrative, accounting, or overhead
operations for a computer.
H-polarization: See transverse magnetic.
HR: High Resolution 共q.v.兲.
HRAM: High-Resolution AeroMagnetics 共q.v.兲.
h-scatterplot: A plot of values for the separation h using
as the bivariate-plot axes z(x) and z(x⫹h). The shape
and correlation of the resulting cloud of points relates to
the variagram at the distance h.
HSE: Health, Safety, and Environment.
HST: Highstand System Tract consisting of sediments
deposited when sea level stood relatively high.
HTI: Horizontal Transverse Isotropy or azimuthal anisot-
ropy.
html: HyperText Markup Language, the basic language
for world-wide-web development; the styles used to
define the components of a hypertext document.
H-type section: A three-layer resistivity model in which
the middle layer is more conductive than the layers
above or below it. See Figure T-7.
Hubbert curves: Curves drawn by King Hubbert reflect-
ing the fact that the Earth’s mineral 共hydrocarbon兲
resources are finite and thus predicting their ultimate
depletion.
hue: The spectral content of a color, the attribute by which
it differs from grey of the same brilliance; see Figure
C-7a. Other color parameters are saturation and density
共q.v.兲.
huff and puff: A production technique whereby a fluid is
alternately injected into a borehole for a period of time
and then the well is produced. See steam stimulation.
hum: Electrical interference or noise occurring at the
power-line frequency or its harmonics. See high-line.
Humble formula: A special form of Archie’s formula
共q.v.兲.
humbucking: An arrangement to reduce electromagnetic
pickup, especially from power lines. Humbucking geo-
phones involve two coils wound in opposite directions
and so connected that electromagnetic-pickup voltages
have opposite polarity while seismically induced volt-
ages are in-phase.
hundred-percent section: A seismic record section which
provides continuous coverage but does not utilize data
redundancy. Single-fold data.
hung on a formation: A section, 3-D volume, or fence
diagram where all the data have been time-shifted to
make one horizon 共event兲 horizontal.
hunting 181 hydrocarbon saturation

hunting: Following a desired course in an oscillatory

manner, successively correcting the course in opposite
directions. In ‘‘hunting a course’’ one veers slightly to
the right of the desired course, then slightly to the left,
etc., and so is never very far off position. A character-
istic of an underdamped servo-system 共and a human
pilot兲.
hurdle rate: The expected rate of financial return required
to be supported.
Huygens’ principle: 共hı̄ g⳵nz兲 The concept that every
point on a wavefront can be regarded as the source of a
subsequent wave 共a Huygens’ wave兲. Destructive inter-
ference destroys the subsequent waves except along the
common tangent. Thus a later wavefront is the envelope
tangent to all the subsequent waves. See Figure H-9.
Named for Christian Huygens 共1629–1695兲, Dutch
mathematician.
HVA: Horizon-oriented Velocity Analysis 共q.v.兲.
H-wave: Hydrodynamic wave 共q.v.兲.
hybrid migration: Seismic migration that involves flip-
ping back and forth between domains 共time, frequency,
wavenumber domains兲, so as to take advantage of the
strong points of each while minimizing effects of their
limitations.
hybrid scale: A scale used with laterologs that is linear
with resistivity for low resistivities and linear with
conductivity 共the reciprocal of resistivity兲 for high
resistivities. See Figure L-3.
hybrid spread: A geophone spread with unequally spaced
groups.
HydraPulse: An impulsive seismic energy source that
involves a gas-spring-powered mechanism to accelerate
a weight downward against the earth. Tradename of
CMI.
hydrate: See gas hydrate.
hydrate reflection: Bottom-simulating reflection 共q.v.兲.
hydraulic conductivity: Permeability times thickness/
viscosity.
hydraulic fracturing: Fracturing by injecting fluid and a
proppant 共often sand兲 under very high pressure to frac-
ture the rock and keep the fractures open after the
FIG. H-9. Huygens’ principle. XY⫽wavefront at t,
X ⬘ Y ⬘ ⫽wavefront at t⫹⌬t. Radii of small circles⫽V⌬t.
pressure is released. Used to increase the flow of for-
mation fluids into the borehole. Also called hydrofrac-
turing and hydrofracing.
Hydraulic hammer: An impulsive seismic energy source
that involves a hydraulic-powered mass that is acceler-
ated against a weighted baseplate. Trademark of Prakla
Seismos.
hydraulic unit: A reservoir member possessing connected
permeability so that fluids can flow through it but not
out of it except at restricted locations 共wells兲.
hydrocarbon indicator „HCI…: A measurement that sug-
gests the presence of a hydrocarbon accumulation. See
Figure H-10 for a list of indicators and the entries for
the individual indicators. See also AVO. The indicators
can also be caused by things other than hydrocarbons.
Sometimes called DHI for ‘‘direct HCI’’ or direct detec-
tion, although there is nothing direct about them. See
Sheriff 共1980, chap. 9兲, Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
415– 418兲.
hydrocarbon kitchen: The conditions for the generation
of hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbon saturation: Fraction of the pore volume
filled with hydrocarbons.

FIG. H-10. Hydrocarbon indicators. All indicators can have causes other than hydrocarbons; a case for hydrocarbon
accumulation is stronger where several indicators agree.
hydrocarbonÕwater contact 182 hydrophone

hydrocarbonÕwater contact: The elevation of the oil-
water 共O/W兲 or gas-water 共G/W兲 contact. The local
pressure gradient changes at this contact because the
fluid density changes.
Hydrodist: A short-range 共⬇40 km兲 radiopositioning sys-
tem operating in the 3 GHz range. Tellurometer trade-
name.
hydrodynamic wave: 1. An H-wave; a seismic surface
wave similar to a Rayleigh wave except that it moves in
the opposite sense 共that is, forward at its ‘‘up’’ posi-
tion兲. Also called a Sezawa M2 wave. 2. Waves on the
surface of a fluid.
hydrofracingÕhydrofracturing: 共hı̄’ dr⳵ frac, ⳵ng兲
Hydraulic fracturing 共q.v.兲.
hydrogen index: Hydrogen atoms per unit volume com-
pared with that in fresh water. Neutron log response
depends mainly on the hydrogen index.
hydrogen maser: The frequency standard 共q.v.兲 that pro-
vides the most stable of atomic clocks.
hydrologic basement: The deepest point where signifi-
cant porosity exists. See also basement.
hydrology: See geophysics.
hydromagnetics: See magnetohydrodynamics.
hydrophone: A detector that is sensitive to variations in

FIG. H-11. Hydrocarbon pressure-temperature relations for multicomponent hydrocarbons. (a) The line indicates
isothermal changes (as might happen in a reservoir) as pressure falls in the case of retrograde condensation. The
percentages indicate hydrocarbon saturation. For initial condition A, from A to B gas goes into solution as pressure is
lowered and from B to C gas comes out of solution. To the left of the critical point, as pressure is lowered, gas comes
out of solution. Fluid volumes also change as pressure and temperature change. (After Dickey, 1979, 192.) (b) Sche-
matic diagram for natural gas and (c) for oil.
Hydrosein 183 hypercube

FIG. H-12. Piezoelectric hydrophones. (a) A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage across opposite faces when bent.
(b) Acceleration-canceling feature of the disc hydrophone. (c) Bender geophone. (d) Cylindrical hydrophone. (From
Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 224.)

pressure, as opposed to a geophone that is sensitive to hyperbolic line of position: A line of position 共q.v.兲 deter-
particle motion. Used when the detector can be placed mined by measuring the difference in distance to two
below a few feet of water, as in marine or marsh work fixed points.
or as a well seismometer. Some hydrophones operate hyperbolic search: A search for coherency among traces
because of magnetostriction 共q.v.兲 but most are piezo- in a common-midpoint gather along a hyperbolic tra-
electric 共q.v.兲. Piezoelectric hydrophones include bend- jectory such as normal moveout should produce. The
ers, disc hydrophones, and cylindrical hydrophones objective is a measure of the best value of normal
共see Figure H-12兲. The sensing element is usually a moveout. Used in many velocity-analysis methods.
piezoelectric ceramic material such as barium titanate, hypercube: 共hī per kyoob兲 A higher dimensional cube. In
lead zirconate, or lead metaniobate. Piezoelectric parallel computing, refers to a collection of independent
hydrophones are high-impedance devices and signals processors that are connected by a communication net-
may be passed through preamplifiers or impedance-
matching transformers before transmission through the
streamer to the recording instruments. Compare geo-
phone.
Hydrosein: 共hī’ drō sīn兲 A marine seismic source using the
implosion that results as two plates are driven suddenly
apart, creating a void between them into which water
rushes. Western Geophysical Co. tradename.
hydrostatic head: The vertical distance to the water table.
See hydrostatic pressure.
hydrostatic pressure: The pressure caused by a column
of the interstitial fluid 共or water兲 extending to the sur-
face. See normal pressure.
hyperbolic functions: See Figure H-13.

FIG. H-14. Hysteresis loop. As an applied field H is

FIG. H-13. Hyperbolic functions. changed, the magnetization B lags behind.
hyperlink
work. The number of processors n must be an integral
power of 2(n⫽2 d ), and each processor is connected to
d neighbors, forming a cube of dimension d.
hyperlink: 共hı̄ p⳵r link兲 A highlighted word or graphic on
a display that can be clicked on or otherwise activated
to display additional information or to link to other
internet sites.
hypermedia: A collection of documents, sounds, images,
etc. logically connected by software.
hypermeability: Very large permeability such as provided
by fractures, karst, breccias.
hypertext: Text with connections to other documents.
hypocenter: 共hī pō sen, t⳵r兲 An earthquake focus; the
point at which the first motion in an earthquake origi-
nates. The projection on the surface of the Earth is the
epicenter.
184 Hz
hysteresis: 共his, t⳵ rē’ sis兲 1. A phenomenon exhibited by
a system or material in which response depends non-
linearly on past responses. A property that has been
changed will not return to its original state after the
cause of the change has been removed. 2. Especially the
effect where the magnetization produced by an applied
field lags behind the field; see Figure H-14. This
involves energy loss. When the applied field returns to
zero, the residual magnetism that is retained is called
remanent magnetism. The magnetic field intensity
required to reduce the remanent magnetization to zero
is the coercive force 共or coercivity兲. 3. The response of
a spring gravimeter where the spring maintains the
memory of its last position.
Hz: Hertz, the SI unit of frequency; cycles/second.
 I
i: 1. Symbol to indicate 公⫺1; i j is also used. 2. A unit
vector in the x-direction with rectangular coordinates,
as in the operator del 共ⵜ兲. 3. Reflection at the Earth’s
outer/inner core boundary.
I: A seismic wave that has traveled through the Earth’s
inner core as a P-wave.
IC: Integrated Circuit; a solid-state device containing
more than one circuit element. Synonym: chip.
ice-bridge effect: In cold areas an ice plug may form in
the top of a shothole, confining the gases from the
explosion and producing secondary shocks similar to
bubble pulses.
ice-noise: 1. For work on sea ice, seismic noise resulting
from expansion and contraction of ice caused by solar
heating and noise generated by differential movement
of ice floes. 2. The effect of repetitive shots at random
times following a shot, produced by ice fracturing when
shooting in permafrost.
icon: 共ī’ kon兲 A symbol on a computer display screen for a
program that can be activated by clicking on the icon.
ID: Inside Diameter.
ideal body: A simple model such as a point mass, line
mass, cylinder, sphere, vertical step, etc. See Figure
M-15.
ideal polarized electrode: A metal-to-electrolyte contact
at which no charge crosses the interface. As charge
accumulates, the electrode interface behaves like a
capacitor without leakage. No chemical reaction takes
place and there is no exchange current or faradaic
process. This condition is approximated when high-
overvoltage, nonreactive metals are at equilibrium with
an electrolyte.
identifier: That part of an object name that is textual, used
to distinguish one object from another. Identifiers are
typically mnemonic and are dictionary controlled.
identity matrix: See matrix.
IES, IEL: Induction Electrical Survey, a borehole log that
usually includes SP, 16-inch normal, and deep-
investigation induction logs. See induction log.
iff: IF and only iF, a mathematical or computer logical
operation.
IFP: Instantaneous Floating Point; see gain control.
IGRF: International Geomagnetic Reference Field 共q.v.兲.
IGSN71: International Gravity Standardization Net
(1971) 共q.v.兲.
IGY: International Geophysical Year 共q.v.兲.
iid sequence: A sequence of random numbers generated
by Independent Identically Distributed random number
generators.
II„t…: Unit boxcar 共q.v.兲.
III„t…: Comb 共q.v.兲 or shah.
IIP: Inductive-source Induced Polarization. See inductive
source resistivity.
ikon: Icon 共q.v.兲.
ILd, ILD: Deep investigation Induction Log 共q.v.兲.
ill-conditioned: The situation where a small change in the
185
data results in a large change in the solution. See
condition number.
ill-posed problem: A problem that requires additional
information or constraints for an unambiguous solution.
illumination: 1. The intensity of light striking a surface. 2.
Seismic wave energy falling on a reflector and thus
available to be reflected. It depends on source-receiver
configuration and velocity distribution, especially
irregular velocity contrasts that bend raypaths differ-
ently than adjacent raypaths. Important aspect in areas
of complicated velocity variations such as around high-
velocity contrasts or subsalt.
illumination attribute: Showing the illumination of a sur-
face as if a light source at some low elevation angle and
azimuth were casting shadows, thus indicating relief on
the surface being displayed.
ILm, ILM: Medium investigation Induction Log 共q.v.兲.
image log: A well log that gives ‘‘pictures’’ of the bore-
hole wall in various directions, such as the image log,
formation micro imager, or borehole televiewer 共q.v.兲.
See Figure I-1.
image: 1. The optical counterpart of an illuminated object
formed by light rays as they converge after traversing
an optical system. 2. Using a virtual image as a seismic
source in tracing raypaths through a constant velocity
medium, which is often easier than tracing from the
actual source. The virtual image for a reflection is
located as far below a plane reflector as the source is
above it, ‘‘below’’ meaning at right angles to the reflec-
tor. Often called image point. See Figure I-2. 3. A
common-image point 共CIP兲, the point where prestack
migrated data reinforce each other. 4. A method used in
electrical modeling whereby a plane boundary is
replaced by an image whose magnitude is k⫽( ␳ 2
⫺ ␳ 1 )/( ␳ 2 ⫹ ␳ 1 ), where ␳ 1 , ␳ 2 are the resistivities on
opposite sides of the boundary. The result in medium 1
is that the potential and current distribution in the zone
of interest is unchanged. The objective is to facilitate
computation of the potential distribution.
image area: The area of a survey that has nearly full
coverage after migration.
image classification: See classification.
image enhancement: An operation that makes features
more evident.
image gather: A CMP gather that has been depth
migrated. If the velocity model is correct, reflection
events are horizontal. Several image gathers migrated
with different velocities can be used to determine the
correct stacking velocity or to make residual velocity
corrections. See also common-image point gather
(CIP).
image point: The location of a virtual image; see image
and Figure I-2.
image ray: The least-time raypath from a diffracting point
to the Earth’s surface. The raypath is perpendicular to
the surface 共if there is no anisotropy兲 and thereafter the
ray obeys Snell’s law. The terminus of the ray after
image track 186 impedance

tracing through a velocity model locates the diffractor
or reflector in the presence of lateral velocity changes.
Used in depth migration where lateral velocity changes
are present. See Hubral and Krey 共1980, 106 –116兲.
image track: Subsurface trace 共q.v.兲.
imaginary: The part of a complex number that involves
the factor (⫺1) 1/2 ; the out-of-phase component. In
impedance, the reactive component.
imaging: 1. Migration 共q.v.兲. Transforming seismic data
recorded as a function of arrival time into the scaled
features that produced the record. Imaging involves
focusing and positioning. Focusing involves collapse of
diffractions, reproducing the wavelet character and
sharpening the image and event terminations; position-
ing involves event termination relative to other features
共faults, salt flanks, unconformities, etc.兲 and locating
events at the proper depth and location. Imaging with
CMP data implies the exploding reflector concept. In
wave-equation migration, the wavefield P(x,y,z,t) is
first found by downward continuation and then
P(x,y,z,0) yields the image. 2. See remote sensing. 3.
Developing a conductivity/resistivity distribution that
honors measurements and has geological meaning
without the use of a parameterized model.
imaging principle: The conditions applied to a wavefield
to extract that part of the wave that has reflected at the
given depth 共or time兲 point. A common prestack imag-
ing principle is that only the wavefield at zero time
could have reflected from a reflector immediately at a
given point. Claerbout 共1971兲 explained the imaging
principle as, ‘‘reflectors exist at points in the ground
where the first arrival of the downgoing wave is time-
coincident with an upgoing wave.’’
imbedded wavelet: Embedded wavelet 共q.v.兲.
imbibition: The situation when reservoir fluids are moved
into a different section of the reservoir during flooding
of the reservoir.
imbricate: Having the edges overlapping in a regular pat-
tern:
immersive environment: See virtual reality.
immovable water: Irreducible water saturation 共q.v.兲.
impact blaster: A blaster that fires when it senses sudden
motion as from the passage of a seismic wave.
impactor: A device that strikes the ground to compact the
earth, used as a seismic source in the minisosie method;
see sosie.
impedance: 共im pēd’ ⳵ns兲 1. The apparent resistance to
the flow of alternating current, analogous to resistance
in a dc circuit. Impedance is 共in general兲 complex, of
magnitude Z with a phase angle ␥. These can be
expressed in terms of resistance R 共in ohms兲, inductive

FIG. I-1. Image logs involve measurements at various azimuths in a borehole to determine dip and fracturing. The far
left track shows dip tadpoles, the next track the relative azimuths of dipping features, and the following three sets of
images are looking in different directions in the borehole. (Courtesy Kurt Strack). See also Fig. B-6.
impedance matching
reactance X L ⫽2 ␲ f L, and capacitive reactance X C
⫽1/2 ␲ f C:
Z⫽ 关 R 2 ⫹ 共 X L ⫺X C 兲 2 兴 1/2 ,
␥ ⫽tan⫺1 关共 X L ⫺X C 兲 /R 兴 .
Z is in ohms when frequency f is in hertz, L is induc-
tance in henrys, and C is capacitance in farads. 2.
Acoustic impedance, the product of density and veloc-
ity, the ratio of the pressure to the volume displacement
at a given surface in a sound-transmitting medium.
Because reflection coefficients change with angle, elas-
tic impedance is sometimes used for non-normal inci-
dence. 3. In magnetotelluric exploration, if E x is the
electric-field component in an arbitrary horizontal
direction and H y is the associated magnetic-field 共in the
orthogonal horizontal direction兲, the wave impedance
共Cagniard impedance, field impedance, or surface
impedance兲 Z S is:
Z S ⫽E x /H y .
The surface impedance is a complex number because of
phase differences between E x and H y . Measurements
of surface impedance versus frequency can be inter-
preted in terms of the electrical properties of the sub-
surface. The surface impedance is a tensor if the con-
ductivity structure is nonlayered. The reciprocal of
impedance is called admittance.
impedance matching: Making the impedances of two
connecting circuits be complex conjugates of each
other. Impedance matching gives maximum transfer of
power and other benefits.
imploder: A marine seismic energy source that creates a
void into which the surrounding water rushes. See
implosion.
implosion: 共im plō’ zh⳵n兲 Collapse into a region of very
low pressure; cavitation. The creation of such a region
under water 共as with the Hydrosein or Flexichoc兲
causes water to rush in with great force and the colli-
sion of the in-rushing water on itself generates a seis-
mic shock wave. The out-rushing of water propelled by
a bubble of high-pressure gas 共as from an underwater
FIG. I-2. Image point. Reflected rays reaching the
geophone from the source appear the same as direct rays
from the image point. The use of straight raypaths implies
constant velocity.
187 inclination
explosion or from an air gun兲 leaves behind a region at
the very low vapor pressure of water, into which the
water subsequently collapses, resulting in the bubble
effect 共q.v.兲.
improper integrals: An integral is improper if 共a兲 the
integrand goes to a finite-limiting value at the integral
limits but cannot be evaluated at those limits, or 共b兲 its
upper or lower limit is ⫾⬁, or 共c兲 it has an integrable
singularity at either limit or in between.
improved-source parameter imaging „iSPI…: A means of
estimating source locations, depths, and types using the
complex analytic signal. See Smith et al. 共1998兲.
impulse „␦„t兲兲: 共im’ puls兲 1. The limit of a pulse of unit
area as its width approaches zero and its height
approaches infinity. Also called Dirac function and
delta function and symbolized by ␦ (t). It has a value
at only one instant and unit energy content:
␦ 共 t⫺a 兲 ⫽0 if t⫽a, and
冕 ␦ 共 t 兲 dt⫽1.
The impulse is sometimes called the unit impulse
because its energy is unity. The essential characteristic
of an impulse 共which is sometimes used as a definition兲
is expressed by
冕
f 共 t 兲 ␦ 共 t⫺a 兲 dt⫽ f 共 a 兲 .
An impulse contains all frequencies in equal propor-
tions at zero phase. In digital form, an impulse ␦ t is
␦ t⫺a ⫽1 if t⫽a, 0 if t⫽a.
See impulse response. 2. A pulse that is of sufficiently
short time-duration that its waveshape is of no conse-
quence. 3. A complex impulse ␦ *(t) or complex delta
function is
␦ * 共 t 兲 ⫽ ␦ 共 t 兲 ⫹ 共 i/ ␲ 兲 t.
4. See Kroenecker delta.
impulse blaster: A device that fires an electrical blasting
cap when it senses a shock wave. Used to fire a second
charge when the shock from the initial explosion
reaches it so that the downgoing waves add in-phase.
impulse response: The response of a system to input of an
impulse 共q.v.兲. Also called memory function. The
impulse response characterizes a linear filter.
impulsive source: A source that produces a very sharp
minimum-phase wave of very short duration and that
somewhat simulates the generation of an impulse 共q.v.兲.
An explosion is an example of such a source.
incident angle: The angle that a raypath makes with a
perpendicular to an interface, which is the same as that
which a wavefront makes with the interface in isotropic
media.
inclination: 1. The angle between a line’s direction and
the horizontal; e.g., magnetic inclination, the angle at
which magnetic lines of force dip. 2. The dip of a plane
共bed, fault, or other tabular body兲 measured from the
horizontal. The attitude of the plane may be character-
ized by the direction of a line normal to it and the
inclination of the plane by the angle between its normal
and vertical. 3. The angle between the orbital plane of a
inclinometer
satellite and the Earth’s equatorial plane.
inclinometer: 1. A device for measuring hole inclination
and azimuth. See directional survey. 2. A device for
measuring the pitch and roll of a ship. Usually either
pendulous or gyroscopic. 3. A surveying instrument that
measures the angle between the horizontal and the line
of sight.
inclusive OR gate: See OR gate.
incoherent light: Light that is composed of many fre-
quency components that are random in phase.
incompetent: See folding.
incompressibility, fluid: The Lamé elastic constant
共q.v.兲 ␭.
incompressibility modulus „k兲: Modulus of volume elas-
ticity; see elastic constants.
independent: Not expressible in terms of each other. Two
quantities are statistically independent if they possess
a joint distribution such that knowledge of one does not
give information about the distribution of the other.
Equations are independent if their Jacobian 共q.v.兲 does
not vanish.
independent variable: In the equation y⫽ f (x), x 共the
argument of f 兲 is the independent variable.
index: A symbol or number to identify one element in a
set, such as an element in a matrix.
index factor: A constant which, when multiplied by cer-
tain measurements made on potential-field anomalies,
gives an estimate as to the depth of the anomalous mass
共usually the maximum depth at which the anomalous
mass could be located兲. Used in magnetic and gravity
interpretation. See depth rule.
index of refraction: A ratio of two phase velocities. In
electromagnetics 共including light兲, the ratio of velocity
in a medium to that in vacuum. In acoustics 共including
seismics兲, the ratio is usually to that in water.
index word: In computing, the location where the address
portion of an instruction can be modified so that a
number of operations can be performed repeatedly.
indirect address: In computing, an address that refers to a
storage location that contains another address.
individual: One member of a population.
induced-current dipole moment per unit volume: A
vector parameter describing induced-polarization prop-
erties P as a function of chargeability M and current
density J, P and J being vectors:
P⫽⫺M J.
induced gamma-ray spectroscopy log: Bombardment by
high-energy neutrons causes elements to emit gamma
rays of characteristic energy. Borehole logging of the
gamma energy spectrum resulting from a 14 MeV
pulsed neutron source allows identification and analysis
共as ratios兲 of the formation fluid and rock elements. A
log for carbon/oxygen distinguishes hydrocarbon from
water and hence determines saturation independent of
salinity. Silicon/calcium discriminates sandstones from
carbonates. Measurement may include spectra of both
inelastic 共fast-neutron兲 and capture-gamma 共thermal-
neutron兲 reactions. Also called neutron activation log.
See gamma-ray spectroscopy log.
induced hydraulic fracturing: See hydraulic fracturing.
induced polarization „IP…: 1. An exploration method
involving measurement of the slow decay of voltage in
the ground following the cessation of an excitation
188 induction method
current pulse 共time-domain method兲 or low-frequency
共below 100 Hz兲 variations of earth impedance
共frequency-domain or overvoltage method兲. Most of
the stored energy involved with IP is chemical, involv-
ing variations in the mobility of ions 共membrane polar-
ization 共q.v.兲 or the normal IP effect兲 and variations
because of the change from ionic to electronic conduc-
tion where metallic minerals are present 共electrode
polarization, induced potential, or interfacial polar-
ization兲; the latter is usually the larger effect. Various
electrode configurations are used, especially the dipole-
dipole array; see Figures A-18 and A-19. 2. The pro-
duction of a double layer of charge at mineral interfaces
or of changes in such double layers as a result of
applied electric or magnetic fields. Compare SP 共spon-
taneous or self potential兲.
inductance: The capability of an electric circuit to induce
an electromotive force 共emf兲 within the same 共self
inductance, L兲 or a different 共mutual inductance, M兲
circuit. Measured in henrys.
induction: 1. The process by which a magnetizable body
becomes magnetized by merely placing it in a magnetic
field. 2. The process by which a body becomes electri-
fied by merely placing it in an electric field. 3. The
process by which electric currents are initiated in a
conductor by merely placing it in a varying electromag-
netic field. According to Faraday’s Law of Induction, a
voltage is generated by varying the magnetic flux:
⌭⫽⫺d␾ /dt⫽⫺LdI/dt,
where ⌭⫽voltage, d␾ /dt⫽time rate of change of
magnetic flux in webers per second, L⫽inductance in
henrys, and dI/dt⫽time rate of change of current in
amperes per second. The vector directions are shown in
Figure I-3.
induction coil: An electromagnetic sensor that consists of
wires wrapped around a magnetic core. Small induction
coils tuned for specific applications are sensitive
enough to replace large air loops.
induction electrical survey „IES, IEL…: A borehole log
that usually includes SP, 16-inch normal, and deep-
investigation induction logs.
induction log: An electrical conductivity/resistivity well
log based on electromagnetic induction. See Figure I-4.
A high-frequency alternating current of constant inten-
sity induces current flow in a formation 共Foucault
current兲. This current 共also called ground loop兲 pro-
duces an alternating magnetic field that causes a current
in a receiving coil; the current is nearly proportional to
the conductivity of the formation. Induction sondes
may have several transmitting and receiving coils to
produce highly focused logs. While most effective with
fresh mud, an induction log can be recorded in air-filled
boreholes or moderately conductive muds. A dual
induction log measures different depths of penetration;
ILd indicates deep and ILm medium penetration. Gen-
erally superseded by focused array induction tools; see
array induction log.
induction method: An electromagnetic method in which
eddy currents are induced in the earth by a time-varying
magnetic field. The term is usually applied only to
electromagnetic methods for which the receiver is in
the near-field 共or induction zone兲 of the transmitter.
induction number
induction number: A dimensionless parameter used to
characterize electromagnetic induction response such
that ␮ ␻␴ L 2 ⫽constant, where ␴ is the conductivity
contrast, ␮ the magnetic permeability, ␻ the angular
frequency, and L is a characteristic linear dimension. A
full-scale electromagnetic system and a scale-model
analog have the same responses if they have the same
induction number. For a 1D 共layered兲 model, the induc-
tion number is given by the source-receiver separation
R divided by the skin depth: B⫽r/ ␦ ⫽( ␮ ␻␴ ) 1/2 R; an
equivalent quantity in the time domain is ␤
⫽( ␮ ␴ /2t) 1/2 R. For an airborne EM system flown at
height h over a thin sheet of conductivity-thickness
product ␴ d, the induction number is ( ␮ ␻␴ dh) 1/2 .
Frequently several dimensionless parameters of this
type are equally valid. Also called response param-
eter.
inductive coupling: See coupling.
inductive source resistivity „ISR…: Normalized measure-
ments of the electric field using an inductive
共ungrounded loop兲 source carrying a time-varying cur-
rent. Induced polarization measurements made in con-
junction with it are called magnetometric induced
polarization „MIP… measurements.
inductivity: Magnetic permeability; the 3D inductance of
a material. Free space 共and nonmagnetic rock兲 has an
inductivity of 1.257⫻10 ⫺6 henrys/meter.
inertial navigation: 共in ur’ sh⳵l兲 A dead-reckoning
method of determining position in which accelerations
are measured with very sensitive accelerometers
mounted on a gyroscopically stabilized platform and
FIG. I-3. (a) Induction and (b) motor rules. Another
convention uses the second finger to indicate the direction
of positive current flow (which is opposite to the direction
of electron flow), in which case the right hand is used for
generators and the left hand for motors. There are other
variations of these rules. The right hand can also be used
for the vector cross-product convention A⫻B⫽C: the
thumb A crossed with the index finger B gives the
resultant middle-finger direction C.
189 injection
doubly integrated to give position. Inertial systems tend
to accumulate error and hence need to be updated
frequently. Usually used in conjunction with other posi-
tioning systems rather than on a stand-alone basis.
infill survey: A subsequent acquisition program designed
to acquire data in portions of a data volume not
adequately covered in the original acquisition program.
In marine surveys inadequate coverage is usually
caused by streamer feathering and currents.
infinite dike: See tabular body.
infinite electrode: A 共usually兲 fixed, remote electrode that
is very far from roving field surveying electrodes. Ide-
ally, the infinite electrode is located far enough from the
measurement electrodes that repositioning it has negli-
gible effect on the measurements.
infinitely long: So long that end effects are trivial.
infinitesimal strain theory: Strains so small that Hooke’s
law holds.
inflection-tangent-intersection „ITI… method: A mag-
netic interpretation method that involves measuring a
number of shape features on a profile across a magnetic
anomaly and making the best fit of these measurements
to theoretical values for a vertical dike. Both distance
and amplitude measurements may be made, as shown
in Figure I-5. Also called Naudy method. See Naudy
共1971兲.
information retrieval: Searching large quantities of data
for wanted information.
infrared: The part of the electromagnetic spectrum with
wavelengths between those of visible light and
10 ⫺3 m; see Figure E-11. Near infrared is 0.7–1.3
␮m, middle infrared 1.3–3.0 ␮m, and thermal infra-
red 3.0–20.0 ␮m 共but atmospheric absorption limits
the useful range to an 8 –14 ␮m window兲.
in-hole IP method: Technique for measuring near-hole IP
and resistivity properties using at least one potential
and/or one current electrode in a borehole. Compare
downhole method.
inhomogeneity: Lack of spatial uniformity of a physical
property. Also called heterogeneity.
inhomogeneous wave: Evanescent wave 共q.v.兲.
initial blanking: Mute 共q.v.兲.
initial condition: A constraint that describes a system at
time zero.
initialize: To set the initial value. Quantities being altered
in iterative processing 共as might happen in a Fortran
‘‘DO loop’’兲 may require a starting value assigned them
by an ‘‘initializing’’ statement before the loop is
executed 共as in Figure F-14兲. Some systems assume
initial values of zero and so do not require initializing
statements unless this condition is not acceptable.
initial suppression: Attenuation at the beginning of a
seismic recording. Used to subdue the amplitude of
noise prior to the first breaks or to prevent overload
from high-amplitude first-break energy. Also called
presuppression.
initial transient: See secondary voltage.
injection: 1. Insertion of orbit information into a naviga-
tion satellite. Transit satellites are observed by fixed
tracking stations and the orbit data are updated every
12–16 hours. 2. Inserting a fluid 共water, gas, CO2 , etc.兲
into a reservoir formation by means of an injection well
to enhance the energy that supports production, change
the interstitial hydrocarbon’s viscosity, etc.
injection 190 injection

FIG. I-4. Induction log. (a) Schematic two-coil induction logging sonde. (b) Dual-induction log. ILd is a deep induction
log, ILm a medium induction log. The separation of the resistivity curves shows a variation of resistivity with distance from
the borehole, probably because of invasion. Laterolog-8 (LL8) and SP logs were run at the same time. (Courtesy
Schlumberger.)

FIG. I-5. Inflection-tangent-intersection method. The letters indicate the various parameters that are measured.
(From Naudy, 1970.)
inline 191
inline: 1. Along a survey line. An inline geophone array
has all the geophones located along the seismic line. An
inline electromagnetic configuration has the source
and receiver on the traverse line. 共Not to be confused
with ‘‘on-line’’ versus ‘‘off-line’’ in computer applica-
tions.兲 2. For 3D data, the inline direction is „a… that in
which the survey was acquired, where 3D data were
acquired as a series of parallel lines, or „b… the direction
of the line of sources, where acquired by perpendicular
source and receiver lines, or „c… an arbitrary direction
where acquired in other ways.
inline offset: A spread 共q.v.兲 where the source is separated
„offset… from the nearest active receiver on the spread
by an appreciable distance 共more than a few hundred
feet兲 along the line of the spread. See Figure S-18.
inline telluric method: See telluric profiling.
inner product: Dot product 共q.v.兲.
in-phase: 1. The condition in which two waves of the
same frequency have the same phase. 2. Electrical
signal with the same phase angle as that of the exciting
signal or comparison signal.
input: 1. The current, voltage, or driving force applied to
a circuit, system, or device. 2. The terminals where the
input to a system is applied. 3. Data to be processed. 4.
To transfer data into a computer. 5. INPUT system.
共q.v.兲.
input filter: An electrical filter placed between geophone
and amplifier.
input impedance: The impedance across the input termi-
nals of an electrical circuit. Where the input impedance
of a measuring device is much higher 共say, by 100
times兲 than the impedance being measured, the mea-
surement will not be altered greatly by the presence of
the device.
INPUT system: The first functional airborne time-domain
electromagnetic survey system in which measurements
are made during the off-periods between source pulses.
Acronym for INduced PUlse Transient. Barringer trade-
name.
INS: Integrated Navigation System, a system for comput-
ing final source and receiver positions integrating GPS,
laser range, compass, acoustic, etc. data.
in-seam methods: Use of channel waves 共q.v.兲 to investi-
gate changes 共such as interruptions by faults and wash-
outs in coal seams兲 in a layer with lower velocity than
underlying and overlying beds, such as coal measures.
Both source and receivers are located in the layer and
both reflection 共where receivers are near the source in
the same gallery兲 and transmission 共where sources and
receivers are in different galleries兲 techniques are used.
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 483– 486兲.
inside traces: Short-offset traces
inside mute: Tail mute 共q.v.兲.
in situ: 共in sı̄’ too兲 Something in its original position. Used
in connection with measurements of properties of mate-
rial that do not involve moving the material 共and risk
altering it thereby兲. For example, in-situ velocity mea-
surements would be made on rock in place in contrast
to measurements made on a rock sample in a labora-
tory.
in-situ combustion: An enhanced oil recovery 共EOR兲
method that involves burning some of the oil within a
reservoir to change the oil’s viscosity so that it will flow
more easily and drive the oil to production wells. The
intensity
combustion is controlled by varying the amount of air
injected into the reservoir. Also called a fire flood.
Practiced only for shallow accumulations.
in-situ modeling: The interpretation of gravity or mag-
netic data in which the model field points are at the
same locations 共including elevations兲 as those of actual
field stations.
insolation: 共in sō lā’ sh⳵n兲 Incident solar energy.
insonify: 共in son’ ⳵ fī兲 To illuminate with sonic 共seismic兲
energy.
instability: The situation where different solutions are
acceptable because of observational errors. As opposed
to nonuniqueness, the existence of more than one
solution regardless of the precision of observations.
Both result in ambiguity.
instantaneous amplitude: The amplitude of the envelope
of an oscillatory signal. Envelope amplitude is a pre-
ferred term. See complex trace analysis.
instantaneous floating point „IFP…: See gain control.
instantaneous frequency: See complex-trace analysis.
instantaneous phase: See complex-trace analysis.
instantaneous velocity section: See velocity and synthetic
acoustic impedance log.
instruction: The basic part of a computer program that
specifies the operation to be performed and identifies
and locates the data, device, or mechanism needed to
perform the operation.
insulator: A nonconductor of electricity. For electromag-
netic and electrical geophysical techniques, an insulator
has resistivity ⬎10 3 ohm meter.
integrated: Connected together in a seamless way.
integrated circuit „IC…: A single solid-state, electrical-
circuit element; a chip. Complete amplifiers, gates,
oscillators, and other modules may be made as inte-
grated circuits.
integrated geophysics: The combination of seismic, grav-
ity, magnetic, electrical, radioactive, well-log, and/or
other geologic data to effect a more accurate or com-
plete interpretation than any one data set could provide.
integrated navigation system: A combination of posi-
tioning systems in a synergetic manner. Specifically, the
combination of satellite navigation with Doppler sonar
and gyrocompass or of satellite navigation with radio
navigation.
integration: 1. The mathematical operation for finding the
area under a curve. 2. Mixing 共q.v.兲. 3. Reconciling all
available information of whatever kind in formulating
an interpretation.
integration of chargeability: Measurement of the area
under an IP decay curve by integrating the decay volt-
age with time. When normalized by dividing by the
primary voltage, this measurement is one definition of
chargeability. The areas under several successive decay
curves can be averaged to improve the measurement.
integrity: The degree to which data are accurate and cor-
rect.
intelligent interpolation: Automatic determination of
values between control points, usually based on spline,
surface fitting, correlation, or kriging algorithms.
intelligent terminal: A computer terminal that contains
software that allows it to do certain computing.
intensity: 1. The rate of flow of wave energy through a
unit area perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
For a seismic wave, intensity is proportional to the
intensity of magnetization
square of the amplitude of displacement or velocity. 2.
A measurement of the effects of an earthquake at a
particular place; a measurement of the amount of shak-
ing. The intensity depends not only upon the strength of
the earthquake 共earthquake magnitude兲 but also upon
the distance from the epicenter, the local geology at the
point, the nature of the surface materials, the construc-
tion of buildings, etc. See intensity scale and Figure
M-9. 3. Often refers to electric or magnetic field
strength; see electric field and magnetic field.
intensity of magnetization: Magnetic moment per unit
volume 共occasionally, per unit mass兲. Includes both
induced and remanent components.
intensity scale: A standard of measurement of earthquake
intensity 共q.v.兲. Among systems used are the Mercalli
scale, the modified Mercalli scale 共see Figure M-9兲, and
the Rossi-Forel scale. Compare Richter scale, a mea-
surement of earthquake magnitude rather than of inten-
sity.
interactive processing: A process in which a human is
involved. At an interactive workstation a human
inputs instructions and the computer responds with a
display of the results of executing the instructions.
‘‘Interactive’’ implies that the computer is on-line and
that the human waits to get the response, so that he can
modify the instructions if the response is not satisfac-
tory. The computer and human are in a dialog mode.
Implies that the interactive system’s response is suffi-
ciently rapid 共within a few seconds兲 that the interpreter
does not lose his train of thought.
interbed multiple: Pegleg multiple 共q.v.兲.
inter-block gap: Inter-record gap 共q.v.兲.
intercept distortion: Change in waveshape produced by a
system with linear phase response where the intercept
value of the phase-response curve at zero frequency
is other than 2n␲ where n is an integer. Results from
frequency components being shifted with respect to
each other.
intercept-gradient „slope… AVO measures: Measure-
ments of the zero-offset and slope values of the best-fit
line when seismic amplitude is plotted against sin2 ␪ 共or
against sin2 x兲, where ␪ ⫽angle of incidence or x
⫽offset.
intercept method: A method of computing near-surface
corrections from the intercept time at zero distance on a
time-distance plot of first breaks.
intercept time: The time obtained by extrapolating a
refraction alignment on a refraction time-distance
(t⫺x) plot back to zero offset. See Figure C-17.
interface: 1. The common surface separating two different
media in contact. A first-order interface is an interface
where ␭, ␮, or ␳ is discontinuous; a second-order
interface is where d␭, d␮, or d␳ is discontinuous, as
where inhomogeneous media have smooth spatially
varying ␭, ␮, or ␳. 2. The contact or connecting element
between two computing machines or components by
means of which information is passed between the two.
Interface devices are used to reformat data 共such as to
convert serial data bits to parallel bits or from analog to
digital form or vice-versa兲, to hold data until it is
needed 共buffer function兲, and sometimes to do simple
operations like summing or counting. 3. To make the
output of one device acceptable as input of another
device.
192 International Gravity Formula
interface wave: Surface wave 共q.v.兲.
interfacial polarization: A dielectric property caused by
conductivity contrasts in a material. See induced polar-
ization.
interfacial tension: Surface tension 共q.v.兲.
interference: 1. The superposition of two or more wave-
forms. Interference is constructive where the wave-
forms are in-phase 共so peaks add to peaks, etc.兲,
destructive where 180° out-of-phase 共so peaks tend to
cancel troughs兲. 2. The presence of signals from
another source 共e.g., atmospheric static兲 that tend to
obscure a desired signal. 3. Presence of one substance
interfering with assay for another substance.
interference test: A test whereby the pressure in one
borehole is changed according to some program to see
if the changes can be sensed in another borehole. Done
to determine whether the boreholes are connected
hydraulically.
interfingering: Intertonguing 共q.v.兲.
interior angle: See angles (surveying) and Figure A-13.
interlacing: 1. Alternating the elements from two data
sets. 2. In refresh graphics, the use of alternate scan
lines on successive refresh frames. 3. Displaying data
from deep and shallow shots side by side to aid in
identifying reflections and ghost effects.
interlock: A device 共such as a switch兲 that prevents opera-
tion if some condition is not satisfied.
interlocking: 1. Involving energy that has traversed the
same raypath, usually in opposite directions. Two seis-
mic records are interlocking if some geophone group of
the one record occupies the source location of the
interlocking record, and vice-versa. Reflection events
on interlocking traces should have the same arrival
time. 2. Interdependent controlling of several units
whose functions have to be coordinated for proper 共or
safe兲 operation.
intermediate storage device „ISD…: Use of magnetic
tape, disks, or other media for temporary storage of
seismic data during processing.
intermodular distortion: See distortion.
International Active-Sun Years: A program of studying
solar-terrestrial phenomena during a sunspot maxima.
International Geomagnetic Reference Field „IGRF…: A
long wavelength regional magnetic-field model deter-
mined by an international committee about every five
years 共e.g., 1965, 1975, 1980兲; expected secular
changes are included. The model consists of spherical
harmonics. The IGRF is subtracted from observed data
to determine the local field.
International Geophysical Year „IGY…: A program of
geophysical observation from July 1, 1957 to Dec. 31,
1958, near sunspot maximum. The program included
large-scale investigations in Antartica.
International Gravity Formula: Theoretical gravity 共as
of 1987兲 is
978 032.68 共 1⫹0.001 931 851 386 39 sin2 ␾ 兲
共 1⫺0.006 694 379 990 13 sin2 ␾ 兲 mGal,
where ␾ is the latitude. Older versions of the IGF are:
1930: 978 049.0 共 1⫹0.005 288 4 sin2 ␾
⫺0.000 005 9 sin2 2 ␾ ) mGal,
International Gravity Standarization Net „IGSN71… 193
1967: 978 031.8 共 1⫹0.005 302 4 sin2 ␾
⫺0.000 005 8 sin2 2 ␾ ) mGal.
See latitude correction.
International Gravity Standarization Net „IGSN71…:
The accepted reference frame for absolute gravity mea-
surements. Supersedes the Potsdam System that was
defined by pendulum measurements in 1906. See Wool-
lard 共1979兲.
International Programme of Ocean Drilling „IPOD…: A
program that evolved from the Deep Sea Drilling Pro-
gram 共q.v.兲.
International Years of the Quiet Sun: A program during
1964 –1965 of studying solar-terrestrial phenomena
during a sunspot minima.
Internet: A decentralized, interconnected, worldwide net-
work linking many networks. Allows users to send and
receive email, access and view World Wide Web mul-
timedia content, and transfer data.
interpolation: 共in tur, p⳵ lā’ sh⳵n兲 Determining values at
locations where they have not been measured or speci-
fied from nearby values. See also bilinear interpolation,
spline, and Lagrange interpolation formula.
interpretation: Deriving a simple, plausable geologic
model that is compatible with all observed data. The
model is never unique and refining it involves a
sequence of somewhat arbitrary choices. Everything
that is known about the area should be considered in
formulating an interpretation. See also magnetic inter-
pretation methods.
interpretation „electrical…: Determining the location,
geometry, size, and depth 共usually兲 of an anomalous
conductor from spatial measurements. In general,
length is determined from the extent of an anomaly,
depth from the shape, dip from the anomaly asymmetry,
and resistivity as a function of depth from the frequency
or time variations of the response.
interpreter: 1. One who determines the geological sig-
nificance of geophysical data. 2. A machine that reads
coded information 共such as punched cards兲 and prints
out the translation. 3. A computing-machine routine that
translates and executes each source language statement
before translating and executing the next one, as with
programs written in Basic. Compare compiler.
interrogate: 共in ter’ ⳵ gāt,兲 To make an inquiry from
which a quick, short answer is expected.
interrupt: A signal that advises that some operation needs
to be done. Interrupts allow peripheral online equip-
ment to advise a computer’s control that they have data
to be read or require instructions or data. Compare flag.
intersection: An AND gate; see conjunction 共q.v.兲. See
also Figure B-5d.
Interstitial pressure: 共in tur sti’ sh⳵l兲 The pressure of
fluid in a rock’s pores; formation-fluid pressure.
interstitial water: Formation water in the pore spaces.
intertonguing: Interfingering; intergradation of different
rock bodies laterally by splitting into many thin tongues
that individually wedge out.
interval density: The density of an interval of rock inte-
grated from gamma-gamma 共density兲 log data or deter-
mined by a borehole gravity meter; apparent density.
interval time: The time difference between the arrival of
two reflection events. Interval time may vary because of
inverse dispersion
changes in velocity, changes in thickness 共with possible
stratigraphic implications兲, or changes subsequent to
deposition because of erosion, structural deformation,
or differential compaction. See also interval transit
time.
interval transit time: The traveltime of a wave over a
unit distance, hence the reciprocal of wave velocity.
Measured by a sonic log, usually in microseconds per
foot or per meter.
interval velocity: The velocity of an interval in the sub-
surface measured by determining the traveltime over a
depth interval along some raypath. 1. In sonic log
determinations the interval may be 1 to 3 ft; in well
surveys it may be 1000 ft or more. Usually refers to
P-wave velocity. 2. The average velocity of the interval
in the subsurface between two reflections. Often used
for velocity calculated by the Dix Formula 共q.v.兲 from
velocities measured from normal moveout, which
implies horizontal constant-velocity layers.
intrabasement anomaly: A local anomaly caused by
magnetic polarization variation wholly within the base-
ment complex.
intraplate earthquake: An earthquake whose focus is
within one of the plates that compose the Earth’s sur-
face rather than along plate edges.
intrinsic conduction: 共in trin’ sik or in trin’ zik兲 Conduc-
tion resulting from major components of the material,
as opposed to conduction because of impurities or
imperfections. At high temperatures intrinsic conduc-
tion dominates other conduction modes.
intrinsic dispersion: The variation with frequency of seis-
mic velocity in an inelastic material because of inelas-
ticity, as distinguished from the geometric dispersion
associated with the physical configuration of the mate-
rial. Intrinsic dispersion accompanies absorption.
intrinsic energy: See thermodynamic functions.
intrinsic IP: The true induced polarization of a specific
material or geologic unit.
intrinsic thermal-neutron decay time: The true decay
time for a formation as opposed to the measured decay
time, which is subject to hole and diffusion effects. See
neutron-lifetime log.
invaded zone: The portion about a wellbore into which
drilling fluid has penetrated, displacing some of the
formation fluids. Invasion up to about a meter in diam-
eter takes place in porous, permeable zones because the
pressure of the drilling mud is greater than that of the
formation fluids. See Figure I-6. As mud penetrates into
the formation, portions of the mud 共mud cake兲 build on
the formation wall, limiting further flow of mud fluid
共filtrate兲 into the formation. Directly behind the mud
cake is a flushed zone from which almost all of the
formation water and most of the hydrocarbons have
been displaced by filtrate. The invasion alters the dis-
tribution of resistivities and other properties and conse-
quently the values that logs read. The depth of inva-
sion is the equivalent depth in an idealized model rather
than the maximum depth reached by filtrate. In oil-
bearing intervals, the filtrate may push a bank of for-
mation water ahead of it to produce a relatively low-
resistivity annulus, which is especially important with
deep-investigation induction logs.
inverse dispersion: Dispersion in which velocity
increases with frequency, so the frequency of a
inverse filter
wavetrain decreases with time. Antonym: normal dis-
persion.
inverse filter: A filter with characteristics complementary
to another filter so that when used in a series with the
other filter there will be no frequency-selective filtering
共except for overall time delay兲 over some bandpass. See
deconvolution.
inverse Fourier transform: See Fourier transform.
inverse Jacobian: See Jacobian.
inverse magnetostriction: See magnetostriction.
inverse matrix: The inverse of a square matrix A is the
matrix that yields the identity matrix I when multiplied
by A, that is,
A⫺1 A⫽1.
The inverse matrix can be found by dividing the adjoint
共or adjunct兲 of A by the determinant of A. A nonsquare
matrix B can be squared up by multiplying by its
transpose and the inverse of [BTB] can then be found:
关 BTB兴 ⫺1 BTB⫽1.
inverse modeling: Determining a model that could have
given rise to observed effects; solution of the inverse
problem 共q.v.兲. Inverse modeling is not unique. Also
called inversion.
inverse problem: Solving for the spatial distribution that
could produce a given set of measurements. Where a
distribution of ‘‘causes’’ produces a distribution of mea-
surement values that depend on a system of parameters.
The forward 共or direct兲 problem, if linear, is express-
ible as the matrix equation
M⫽P V,
FIG. I-6. Invaded zone. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
194 ionic conductor
where M is a vector of the measurements m i , P is a
matrix of the parameters p i j , and V is a vector of the
values v j . 共The problem may also be nonlinear.兲 This
equation expresses the model. Solving the equation for
v j is the inverse problem and solving for p i j is the
parameter-estimation problem. Usually v j depends
on the measurement system. For gravity, v i might be
the distribution of mass and m j measurements of the
acceleration of gravity, for well logging v j might be the
distribution of lithology and porosity and m i the values
measured by the logs, etc.
inverse-square law: 1. The magnitude of a potential field
surrounding a unit element varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the element m:
Field⫽km/r 2 .
Applies to a gravitational field where the element m is
mass and k is the gravitational constant 共q.v.兲; to a
magnetic field where the element m is a magnetic pole
of strength m in ampere meters and k is
10 ⫺7 webers/ampere meter; and to an electrostatic
field where the element m is an electrical charge of m
coulombs and k is 9⫻10 9 newtons/coulomb. For the
gravity case, the relation is called Newton’s law of
universal gravitation and for the electrostatic case it is
called Coulomb’s law. 2. The energy density of a
seismic body wave from a point source in a homoge-
neous isotropic medium varies inversely as the square
of the distance from the point source. Also called
spherical divergence. 3. The intensity of electromag-
netic energy 共light or radio兲 varies inversely as the
square of the distance from a source.
inversion: 共in vur’ zh⳵n or in vur’ sh⳵n兲 Deriving from
field data a model to describe the subsurface that is
consistent with the data; determining the cause from
observation of effects. 1. Solution of the inverse prob-
lem 共q.v.兲. Inversion means solving for a spatial distri-
bution of parameters which could have produced an
observed set of measurements. 2. Often, specifically,
calculating acoustic impedance 共or velocity兲 from a
seismic trace, taken as representing the earth’s reflec-
tivity. 3. Sometimes, migration 共q.v.兲. 4. Finding the
reciprocal. 5. The ‘‘inverse of A’’ is ‘‘not A⫽Ā ’’; see
gate. 6. The vertical reversal of the sense of movement
of structural features because of a change in the stress
pattern. Involves features such as an anticline becoming
a syncline, a normal fault becoming a reverse fault, etc.
inverted mud: Oil-based muds that contain chiefly gas
oil.
inverted VSP: 1. Inversion of a VSP to achieve a geologi-
cal model. 2. Compare reversed VSP.
investigation depth: See depth of investigation.
IÕO: Input/Output; refers to the input or output functions
of a computer.
IOM: Input/Output Module.
ion exchange: The property of some minerals 共particu-
larly clays兲 that enables them to absorb certain anions
and cations and retain them in a state whereby they can
be exchanged for other anions and cations in solution.
Ion exchange is a diffusion process, and its rate depends
on ion mobility.
ionic conductor: See conductor.
ionization chamber 195
ionization chamber: A radiation detector. Radiation
entering through the thin metal walls of a chamber
ionizes the gas in the chamber. The ions are collected
on the walls and an axial anode rod maintained at a few
hundred volts with respect to the walls. The chamber is
usually filled with a cadmium or boron compound 共or
the walls are coated with such a compound兲 to increase
the ionization efficiency.
ion mobility: Ease of movement of ions in an electric
field, measured by the ratio of ion velocity to electric-
field strength.
ionosphere: ( ı̄ on’ ⳵ sf⳵r,兲 That part of the Earth’s atmo-
sphere that includes several layers of ionized gas at a
height of 50 to 1000 km, which bends certain radio-
waves back toward the Earth because of dispersion. It is
divided into several layers according to the types and
concentrations of ions. See Figure A-22, D-layer,
E-layer, F-layer, and refraction correction.
IP: Induced-Polarization 共q.v.兲.
IPOD: International Programme of Ocean Drilling 共q.v.兲.
IP percent: The ratio of IP to steady-state voltage,
expressed either as a percentage or as millivolts/volt.
ips: Inches Per Second.
IP susceptibility: A term used as a measure of induced
polarization, implying an analogy with other types of
polarization such as induced magnetic effects.
IRIX: See UNIX operating system.
IRM: Isothermal Remanent Magnetization. See remanent
magnetization.
irradiance: 共irı̄’ dē ⳵ns兲 The electromagnetic radiation
power incident on a surface.
irreducible water: Nonmobile water generally because of
capillarity.
irreducible water saturation: The fraction of the pore
volume occupied by water in a reservoir at maximum
hydrocarbon saturation. It represents water that has not
been displaced by hydrocarbons because it is trapped
by adhering to rock surfaces, trapped in small pore
spaces and narrow interstices, etc. Irreducible water
saturation is an equilibrium situation. It differs from
residual water saturation, the value measured by core
analysis, because of filtrate invasion and the gas expan-
sion that occurs when a core is removed from the
bottom of the hole to the surface. Also called immov-
able water.
irrotational: 共ir, ō tā’ sh⳵ n⳵l兲 The property of a vector
function whose curl vanishes. An irrotational vector
field A is conservative and can be expressed as the
gradient of a scalar field ␾, A⫽ⵜ ␾ .
irrotational wave: P-wave 共q.v.兲.
IR survey: A remote-sensing method using either infrared
radiation reflected from the surface after being beamed
downward from an aircraft 共thermal infrared, q.v.兲, or
occasionally natural infrared radiation. Infrared surveys
are usually flown at night to reduce natural radiation
and solar effects.
ISC: International Seismological Centre.
ISD: Intermediate Storage Device 共q.v.兲.
island arc: A chain of volcanic islands parallel to a sub-
duction zone. As the subducting plate reaches about the
base of the lithosphere it becomes hot enough that
molten magma rises from it to form a chain of volca-
noes. Where the overriding plate involves oceanic crust,
these form an island arc.
isostasy
iso-: 共ı̄’ sō-兲 A prefix meaning ‘‘equal’’ 共from the Greek
‘‘equal’’兲. Used in conjunction with other words to
denote contour lines through points on maps at which
the measured value is the same.
isoanomaly: 共ı̄, s⳵ an’ ⳵m al ē兲 A line on a map connecting
points of equal anomaly, used especially for maps
showing magnetic or gravity anomalies; also spelled
isanomaly.
isobar: Line joining places of equal barometric pressure.
isobath: 1. Line of equal water depth. 2. Sometimes, line
of equal present depth.
isochore: 共ī, s⳵ cor’兲 Line of equal interval between two
beds or two seismic events. This may express variations
in many stratigraphic units and the effects of unconfor-
mities, compared with isopach that implies variations
within a single unit. Isochore is now falling into disuse.
isochron: Line of „1… equal reflection time, „2… equal time
difference, or „3… equal delay time.
isochronous surface: Time surface 共q.v.兲.
isocline: Line of equal magnetic inclination.
isogal: Line of equal gravity anomaly.
isogam: Line of equal magnetic intensity.
isogon: Line of equal magnetic declination.
isohyet: Line of equal amounts of rainfall.
iso-J: Line of equal values of the Jacobian or relative
ellipse area; used in telluric surveying.
isomagnetic maps: Maps 共charts兲 showing the elements
of the geomagnetic field.
isometric display: 共ī, s⳵ me trik’兲 A method of displaying
3D structures. Generally it uses two inclined horizontal
axes, often at a 90° angle with each other, and a vertical
axis. Units along all three axes are usually the same.
See Figure H-8.
isopach: 1. A contour which denotes points of equal thick-
ness of a rock type, formation, group of formations, etc.
2. Isotime, a contour which denotes points of equal
difference in seismic arrival times for two reflection
events, thus indicating constant thickness if the velocity
is constant. 3. A contour denoting equal vertical dis-
tance, not necessarily corrected for the dip of the bed-
ding.
isopleth: 共ı̄ s⳵ pleth’兲 Line of equal geochemical measure-
ment 共such as element ratio or isotope ratio兲.
isopor: 共ı̄, s⳵ por’兲 Line of equal secular change, such as
equal annual change of isogonic or isoclinic lines.
isoprobability map: A map showing percentile probabili-
ties 共e.g., 10%, 50%, 90% probabilities兲.
isorad: Line of equal radioactivity or lines of equal
gamma radiation.
isoseismal: 共ı̄, s⳵ sīz’ m⳵l兲 Line between regions of differ-
ent intensity for a given earthquake; such a line might
indicate the boundary between zones IV and V on the
Mercalli scale, for example.
ISO7: International Standards Organization 7-bit code.
isostasy: 共ı̄ sos’ t⳵ sē兲 The gravitational balance of large
blocks of the Earth’s crust as though they were floating
on a denser underlying layer 共the asthenosphere兲. Major
topographic features are in isostatic balance. „a… The
Airy hypothesis varies the thickness of crustal blocks
of constant density so that the thicker parts ride higher.
Thus mountainous areas are compensated by deep
crustal roots extending to 50– 60 km and deep ocean
basins by antiroots at 6 – 8 km. See also Airy-
Heiskanen system. „b… The Pratt hypothesis, assumes
isostatic anomaly
that the blocks vary primarily in density, less-dense
crust rising topographically above areas of denser crust
共see Figure I-7兲. „c… The crustal flexure hypothesis
„Vening Meinesz hypothesis… allows some of the bal-
ance to be accommodated laterally by the surrounding
region rather than only in the vertical direction. The
radius of regionality specifies the size of the region
over which compensation is distributed 共of the order of
FIG. I-7. Isostasy concepts of (a) Pratt, (b) Airy, (c)
Vening Meinesz. (After Heiskanen and Meinesz, 1958,
132, 135, 138.)
196 IZO
200 km兲. The Hayford modification has the pressure
balanced at the ‘‘depth of compensation.’’
isostatic anomaly: The result of applying an isostatic
correction 共q.v.兲 to Bouguer anomaly data.
isostatic correction: A correction to gravity data to com-
pensate for lateral density or thickness variations
between large blocks of the Earth’s crust. The correc-
tion assumes an isostatic model; the correction is made
from elevation and water-depth data often using zone
charts. See Heiskanen and Meinesz 共1958; 159–170兲.
isostatic rebound: Isostatic adjustment after removing or
imposing a stress. The isostatic-rebound relaxation
time is of the order of 4000 years, corresponding to a
viscosity of 4⫻10 22 poise, based on sea-level changes
attributed to the melting of Pleistocene continental gla-
ciers.
isotherm: Line of equal temperature.
isothermal remanent magnetism „IRM…: See remanent
magnetism.
isothermal transformation: 共ı̄, s⳵ thur’ mal兲 A change
during which the temperature remains constant.
isotime: Isochron. 1. Contours of equal reflection time,
time intervals, etc. 2. Often the time interval between
two reflections, which may indicate stratigraphic
changes, reef buildups, variations in thickness of an
underlying diapiric material 共salt or shale兲 at the time of
deposition, etc. Time intervals may vary because of
variations in velocity or thickness, or both.
isotropic: Having the same physical properties regardless
of the directions in which they are measured. Compare
anisotropy.
isovelocity surfaces: Surfaces of constant seismic veloc-
ity. In the absence of structural uplift and lateral varia-
tions of lithology, isovelocity surfaces are apt to be
nearly horizontal planes. However, where structural
uplift occurs, isovelocity surfaces tend to follow struc-
ture but with less relief than the structure. Changes in
velocity bend seismic rays and hence alter apparent
structure.
ISPI: Improved Source Parameter Imaging 共q.v.兲. CGG-
Geoterrex trademark.
ISR: Inductive Source Resistivity 共q.v.兲.
ISS: In-Seam Seismic 共q.v.兲.
iterative: 1. A procedure that is repeated with an improved
model until some condition is satisfied; see loop. 2.
Processing by successive approximations, each based
on changes concluded from the preceding iteration, in
such a way as to converge onto the desired solution.
iterative modeling: An interpretation technique for solv-
ing the inverse problem 共q.v.兲 by successive approxi-
mations; generally performed on a computer.
ITI method: Inflection-Tangent-Intersection method
共q.v.兲.
I-wave: A P-wave in the Earth’s inner core. See wave
notation and compare K-wave.
1WT: One-way time of seismic wave travel.
IZO: Inversion to Zero Offset.
 J
j: 1. Symbol to indicate 公⫺1; i is also used. Multiplica-
tion by j rotates a complex vector by 90°. 2. A unit
vector in the y-direction.
J: 1. Joule, the SI unit of work or energy; one newton
meter. 2. Electric current density. 3. Jn ⫽Bessel func-
tion of order n. 4. Jacobian 共q.v.兲. 5. A seismic wave
that has traveled through the Earth’s inner core as an
S-wave.
jack: The receptacle into which an electrical plug fits.
Jacobian: For a set of transform equations y i ⫽
y i (x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n ), the Jacobian matrix J is:
J⫽ 储 J ik 储 ⫽ 储 ⳵y i /⳵x k 储 .
The Jacobian is a measure of the change in the ith data
point as the kth parameter is changed; it is a measure of
how strongly data depend on a parameter. In iterative
solutions, it can be used to indicate the degree of
convergence. In inverting electromagnetic data, col-
umns are generally ordered 共first兲 resistivities, 共second兲
thicknesses, 共third兲 calibration factors 共in the case of
joint inversions兲; see Raiche et al. 共1985兲. The Jaco-
bian matrix transforms one vector into another, as in a
coordinate transform. The inverse of the Jacobian is
sometimes called the data influence matrix as it shows
how a small change in the data would influence the
inversion result. Vanishing of the determinant of the
Jacobian shows that relations are not independent. For a
2⫻2 matrix, independence is shown by ad⫺bc⫽0.
Named for Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi 共1804 –1851兲,
German mathematician.
Jacobsen filter: A spectral-domain operation based on
upward continuation. Also called a separation filter.
See Cowan and Cowan 共1993兲, Jacobsen 共1987兲.
Jacob’s staff: A pointed stick about 5 ft long used to
support a surveyor’s compass, usually calibrated to
measure the thickness of strata.
Janus configuration: 共ja’ n⳵s兲 An arrangement of trans-
ducers aimed in opposite directions, as a forward-aft 共or
port-starboard兲 pair of Doppler-sonar transducers 共see
Figure D-21兲. Named for Janus, the Roman god of
doorways, who had two faces so he could watch in
opposite directions.
Java: An object-oriented programming language based on
C⫹⫹ but optimized for the distribution of program
objects in a network such as the Internet.
JCL: Job-Control Language 共q.v.兲.
Jeffreys-Bullen curves: 共jef’ rēys bul’ ⳵n兲 Relationships
between the arrival times of various modes of seismic
waves and the distance 共angular distance兲 from the
epicenter of the earthquake that generated them. See
Figure J-1. Named for Sir Harold Jeffreys 共–1989兲,
British geophysicist, and Keith Edward Bullen 共1906 –
1976兲, Australian geophysicist.
jet: To drill a hole by pumping water 共or mud兲 down the
drill stem or drill casing, where the water flow rather
than the grinding action of a bit is the main force for
removal of the material.
197
jitter: Erratic small movements of a display that produces
a somewhat blurred image.
job-control language „JCL…: A method of initiating and
controlling a batch of computer jobs. Instructs the order
in which to do the jobs, the job requirements 共e.g., what
tapes to use兲, and what to do with the results.
Johnson noise: Noise resulting from the random thermal
energy of conduction electrons. Also called thermal
noise. For an electrical element, the mean square volt-
age caused by Johnson noise is proportional to the
absolute temperature K, the bandwidth B 共in hertz兲, and
the resistance R 共in ohms兲:
rms noise voltage⫽7.4⫻10 ⫺12 共 KBR 兲 1/2 .
JOIDES: Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep
Earth Sampling, a program to obtain borehole informa-
tion 共and cores兲 of the sediments in the deep oceans.
Holes drilled from the ship Glomar Challenger did
much to prove plate tectonics and hence had tremen-
dous impact on geology and geophysics.
joint: A physical break in rocks across which there has
been no relative movement.
joint inversion: Simultaneous inversion 共q.v.兲 of two or
more types of independent measurements. The data and
model are linked in one single matrix, compared to
cooperative inversion, where two independent inver-
sion processes are linked via a-priori or a-posteria
information.
joint probability: The probability of simultaneous occur-
rence of values of two or more quantities.
Josephson junction: 共iō’ s⳵f s⳵n兲 A thin insulator separat-
ing two superconducting materials, through which elec-
tron pairs can tunnel. See Josephson 共1962, 419兲.
joule „J…: The SI unit of energy; a newton-meter or a
watt-second. Named for James Prescott Joule 共1818 –
1889兲, English physicist.
joystick: An interactive control for moving a cursor on a
video display so that something can be done to the
video-display’s matrix element corresponding to the
cursor’s location.
jug: Geophone 共q.v.兲. Name derives from an early oil-
damped geophone 共oil jug兲.
jug hustler: One who lays out and picks up the seismic
spread and geophones.
jug line: 1. Cable connecting geophones to instruments. 2.
The spread 共q.v.兲.
jug planter: Geophone planter 共q.v.兲.
Julian day: 共jool’ y⳵n兲 1. The day number since noon,
January 1, 4713 BC, the beginning of the Julian period.
2. The Julian date is a 4-digit way of expressing the
date. Thus, the 33rd day of the year 1999 共Feb. 2兲 is
expressed as 3399.
jump: An instruction that can cause the computer to fetch
the next instruction from a location other than the next
sequential location. Synonym: branch.
jump a leg: To miscorrelate one or more cycles. See also
leg.
jump correlation 198 juvenile water

jump correlation: See correlation. it is otherwise difficult to reach because of access

jumper: 1. A relatively short electrical connection. 2. A
connection different from the ordinary. 3. A temporary
electrical connection used to bypass part of a circuit. 4.
A seismic cable without takeouts for geophone connec-
tions, used to connect with the main spread cable when
problems.
junk: Metal debris contaminating a borehole.
junk basket: A device to remove metal debris from a
borehole.
juvenile water: Water derived from magma thought to
reach the Earth’s surface for the first time.

FIG. J-1. Jeffreys-Bullen traveltime curves for some waves from a shallow earthquake. See Figure E-2 and wave
notation regarding the labeling of the curves. (From Seismological tables, 1940.)
 K
k: 1. Kilo-, the SI prefix for 10 3 . 2. Resistivity-contrast
factor 共q.v.兲. 3. A unit vector in the z-direction. 4. See
k-type section. 5. Wavenumber ␬, 共q.v.兲
K: 1. A seismic wave that has traveled through the Earth’s
outer core as a P-wave. 2. Kelvin 共q.v.兲
␬: 共kap’ ⳵兲 Kappa. 1. The ‘‘angular’’ wavenumber, 2␲
times the wavenumber. Where a distinction is made, the
wavenumber k is the number of waves per unit dis-
tance, the reciprocal of wavelength:
wavenumber⫽1/␭⫽k⫽ ␬ /2 ␲ ⫽ f /V,
where ␭⫽wavelength, f ⫽frequency, and V
⫽velocity. Thus ␬ is to wavenumber in the spatial
sense as angular frequency ␻ is to frequency f in the
time sense. Confusingly, both ␬ and k are often called
wavenumber, i.e., some authors use ␬ ⫽1/␭ instead of
the above. 2. Seismic usage often implies apparent
wavenumber k a ⫽1/␭ a , ␭ a being the apparent wave-
length and V a the apparent velocity. If this definition is
used, k a varies with the angle between the raypath and
the line of measure 共the line of the spread, usually兲.
Kalman filter: 共kal’ man兲 A recursive filtering scheme
applicable to linear systems, including time varying,
nonstationary, and multichannel ones. A system is
described by a model of first-order difference equations
involving orthogonal state variables. The errors in mea-
surements and the exciting disturbances are assumed to
be Gaussian. In the non-Gaussian case, one can use an
extended Kalman filter. The filter estimates the state
variables based on prior measurements and the state-
variable model, and incorporates the most recent mea-
surements. The Kalman filter can be used as a recursive
predictor. Kalman filtering is used in real-time reduc-
tion of integrated satellite-navigation data and in some
seismic-filtering schemes, especially deconvolution.
See Bayless and Brigham 共1970兲 and Mendel and
Kormylo 共1978兲. Named for Rudolph Emil Kalman
共1930-兲, Hungarian-American mathematician.
Kangi characters: 共kan’ jē兲 Japanese word symbols.
kappa „␬…: See ␬.
kappa meter: An instrument for measuring magnetic sus-
ceptibility. Tradename of ABEM Stockholm.
Karhunen-Loeve transform: A method of multichannel
filtering, similar to singular-value decomposition 共q.v.兲.
See Jones and Levy 共1987兲.
karst: Surface limestones that have undergone much dis-
solution by meteoric waters.
kataseism: Earth movement toward the focus of an earth-
quake. Antonym: anaseism.
K.B: Kelly Bushing 共q.v.兲.
K-band: Radar band (10.0⫺36.0 GHz) that is sensi-
tive to vegetation, used in remote sensing and Doppler-
radar. See Figure R-1.
K-capture: A nuclear transmutation wherein an electron
from the inner K orbit is taken into the nucleus to
change a proton into a neutron. The effect is to decrease
the atomic number by one, creating a different element.
199
keel structure: The root 共real or apparent兲 of an alloctho-
nous salt body that extends below the main salt body.
kelly: The unit that transfers rotary motion to drill pipe.
See drill rig.
Kelly bushing „K.B.…: The journal box insert in the rotary
table of a drilling rig through which the kelly passes.
See drill rig. Its upper surface is commonly the refer-
ence datum for well logs and other measurements in a
well bore.
kelvin „K…: 共kel’ vin兲 The SI temperature unit referenced
to absolute zero 共0 K兲 with intervals equal to the degree
celsius 共formerly called centigrade兲; 273.15 K
⫽0 °C. Note ‘‘degree’’ or the degree symbol ‘‘ⴰ’’ is not
used with K and that kelvin is not capitalized; see
Appendix A. Named for Baron William Thomson
Kelvin 共1824 –1907兲, English physicist.
Kelvin material: A material in which the stress depends
both on the strain and the rate-of-change of strain.
Kelvin’s circulation theorem: If the initial motion of a
perfect fluid is irrotational, it will remain so provided
that the only external force acting on it is derivable
from a potential.
Kepler coordinates: 共kep’ l⳵r兲 The quantities that
describe the elliptical orbit of a satellite with respect to
the celestial sphere. Navigation satellites often broad-
cast their Kepler coordinates and ephemeral informa-
tion which allows the calculation of their location at
any given instant 共see Figure K-1兲. Named for Johann
Kepler 共1571–1630兲, German astronomer.
Kepler’s laws: First law: Every planet follows an ellipti-
cal path with the Sun at one focus. Second law: A line
from the center of the Sun to the center of a planet
sweeps the same area in the same time; hence the planet
travels fastest when closest to the Sun. Third law: The
square of the period of revolution of a planet is propor-
tional to the cube of its mean distance from the Sun.
kernel function: 1. For any linear transform,
F共 ␰ 兲⫽ 冕 ⫺⬁
⬁
K 共 x, ␰ 兲 f 共 x 兲 dx,
K(x, ␰ ) is the ‘‘kernel.’’ 2. A mathematical function of
resistivity and depth that can be calculated from appar-
ent resistivity data, from which one tries to derive the
resistivity stratification. Koefoed 共1965, 568 –591兲
derives the kernel function for Schlumberger-
configuration data and Paul 共1968, 159–162兲 for
Wenner-configuration data. The derivation of resistivity
stratification from the kernel is shown by Pekeris
共1940兲 and Vozoff 共1956兲. The electric potential V at
the surface of a horizontally layered earth because of a
dc point-source that is also located at the surface was
expressed by Stefanesco in 1930 as a Hankel integral:
冕
V⫽C/r⫹2C K 共 ␭ 兲 J o 共 ␭r 兲 d␭.
key bed 200 k-factor

where r is the distance from the point source to the
observation point, J o (␭r) is a Bessel function, ␭ is a
phantom variable of integration, C is a constant, and
K(␭) is the kernel function. Also called Stefanesco
function.
key bed: A reflection with sufficient distinguishing char-
acteristics to make it easily identifiable for use in cor-
relations.
key punch: An electromechanical device for encoding
data on punched cards, as for input to a computer.
keyseat: Where a borehole changes direction so that the
drilling pipe rubs the side of the borehole, the effect is
to wear a groove in the borehole wall. The drill pipe
may fit in this groove but the groove may be smaller
than the couplings between units of drill pipe, making it
difficult to pull the drill pipe.
k-factor: 1. A velocity factor used in static corrections;
see Figure S-22. 2. The relationship between instrument

FIG. K-1. Kepler „astronomic… coordinates and satellite ephemeral information. ⌼ is the first line of Aires or the
vernal equinox.
kick
units and relative-gravity units.
kick: 1. Onset of a transient wave, also called break 共q.v.兲.
2. Sudden pressure change 共usually expulsion of drill-
ing fluid from the borehole兲. Can be caused by 共a兲
lowering of fluid in the borehole, 共b兲 too-rapid pulling
of drillstem or large-diameter tools, 共c兲 loss of circula-
tion in vuggy, fractured formations, or 共d兲 insufficient
mud weight because of entering an overpressured zone,
decrease in density, or dilution of drilling fluid. 3.
Sudden change in drilling-fluid pressure caused by gas
entering the drilling-fluid from a porous formation.
kick sorter: Gamma-ray spectrometer 共q.v.兲.
kill: 1. To set a trace 共or portion of a trace兲 equal to zero.
2. To suppress fluid flow from a well.
kill a well: 1. In drilling, to bring under control a well that
is threatening to blow out by taking suitable preventa-
tive measures 共e.g., to shut in the well with the blowout
preventers, increase the weight of the drilling mud,
etc.兲. 2. In production, to stop a well from producing oil
or gas so that reconditioning of the well can proceed.
kilometer „km…: 共kil’ ō mē t⳵r is SI preferred, but kil om’
⳵ t⳵r is more common兲 1000 meters.
kimberlite pipe: A more-or-less vertical ultramafic intru-
sion that originates about 150 km deep and often is only
a few hundred meters in diameter. Sometimes contains
diamonds.
K-index: A measure of the average intensity of magnetic
disturbances in time, such as magnetic storms, but
excluding diurnal and lunar time variations.
kinematic: 共kin, ⳵ mat’ ik兲 Involving motion, sometimes
in contrast to dynamic, which involves force. Kinemat-
ics is the study of motion exclusive of mass and force.
Seismically it implies time and velocity effects.
kinematic inversion: Solution of traveltime observations
for velocity.
kinematic restoration: A balanced section 共q.v.兲 for
which there is a sequence of intermediate stages
between undeformed and deformed states that are kine-
matically reasonable. Ideally the reconstruction should
be three-dimensional.
kinematic similarity: The ratio of times in physical mod-
eling. See modeling theory.
kinetic: Relating to motion. For example, kinetic energy is
energy because of motion.
King Hubbert curves: See Hubbert curves.
Kirchhoff diffraction equation: 共kerkh’ hof兲 A form of
Kirchhoff’s equation 共q.v.兲 expressing the wave ampli-
tude at a point P that is several wavelengths from a
diffracting aperture; see Figure K-2.
Kirchhoff’s equation: 1. An integral form of the wave
equation expressing the wave function ␺ p at the point P
as the sum of wave contributions from the surround-
ings. Wave contributions have to allow for the travel-
time from the sources to P, that is, what the source does
at an earlier time ␶ ⫽(t⫺r/V) affects P at time t,
where r is the distance from the source to P and V is the
velocity. The earlier time ␶ is called retarded time. ␺ p
is expressed as an integral over the volume surrounding
P 共to accommodate sources within the volume兲 plus an
integral over the surface surrounding the volume 共to
accommodate sources from outside兲. In source-free
space in terms of the values of ␺ and its derivative on a
surrounding surface S at the preceding time (t
⫺r/V):
201 kitchen, hydrocarbon
␺ p ⫽ 共 1/4 ␲ 兲 冕冕 兵 关 ␺ 兴 ⳵共 1/r 兲 /⳵n
⫺ 共 1/Vr 兲 ⳵r/⳵n 关 ⳵␺ /⳵t 兴 ⫺ 共 1/r 兲关 ⳵␺ /⳵n 兴 其 ds.
The terms in brackets are evaluated at the retarded time
␶ ⫽(t⫺r/V); r is the distance from P to points on the
surface S, and n is a unit vector normal to S. The
Kirchhoff integral equation used in migration can be
written
冕
␺ 共 x,z,t 兲 ⫽ 共 z/ ␲ 兲 关 1/r 3
⫺ 共 2/Vr 2 兲共 ⳵/⳵t 兲 ␺ 共 x ⬘ ,0,t⫹ ␶ 兲兴 dx ⬘ ,
where x ⬘ is position at z⫽0, ␶ is the two-way time
2r/V, and r is the distance from x ⬘ to x. For r much
longer than a wavelength this simplifies to the
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld approximation,
冕
␺ p 共 x,T,t 兲 ⫽⫺ 共 2T/ ␲ V 2 兲 共 1/T2 兲
⫻ 共 ⳵/⳵t 兲 ␺ 共 x ⬘ ,0,t⫹T 兲 dx ⬘ ,
where T⫽2z/V⫽vertical traveltime. This expresses
migration by integration along a diffraction curve. 2.
The radiation law that the ratio of emissivity to absorp-
tance depends only on the wavelength and temperature,
or that it is the same for all bodies as for an ideal
blackbody for any wavelength at the given temperature.
Kirchhoff’s law: First law: The vector sum of all cur-
rents into any junction point is zero. Second law: The
vector sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero.
Kirchhoff’s laws apply to three-dimensional materials
such as earth as well as to conventional electrical cir-
cuits. Named for Gustav Robert Kirchhoff 共1824 –
1887兲, German physicist.
Kirchhoff migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 by integrating
along diffraction curves, in effect integrating with the
Kirchhoff equation 共q.v.兲 and placing the results at the
crests of the diffraction curves. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 327–329兲.
kiss: Two curves or surfaces touching each other; oscula-
tion. Also called a kiss singularity.
kitchen, hydrocarbon: See hydrocarbon:kitchen.
FIG. K-2. The Kirchhoff diffraction equation expresses
the wave amplitude at a point P that is several wave-
lengths from a diffracting aperture in the plane B. If a
and b are the angles between the normal to B, the ampli-
tude ␾ at P can be expressed as an integral over
the aperture area, ␴ : ␾ P ⫽⫺(1/2␭) 兰兰 (1/rs)(cos ␣
⫺cos ␤)exp[j(r⫹s)/␭]d␴ .
␬-␬ domain
␬-␬ domain: A wavefield in which the independent vari-
ables are wavenumber in the x-direction and wavenum-
ber in the z-direction 共depth兲. Similar to the f, k domain
except with the frequency variable replaced by ␬ V/2 ␲
where V⫽velocity.
Klauder wavelet: 共klau’ d⳵r兲 The autocorrelation of a
vibroseis sweep. The vibroseis 共q.v.兲 process of inject-
ing a sweep of frequencies into the ground and then
correlating with the sweep pattern to yield a seismic
record is equivalent to convolving the reflectivity with
the autocorrelation of the vibroseis sweep, so that the
Klauder wavelet is in effect the seismic source wave-
form for correlated vibroseis records. It is not restricted
to linear sweeps because a nonlinear sweep can be
thought of as the superposition of linear sweeps. Named
for John Rider Klauder 共1932–兲, American mathemati-
cian.
knick point: An abrupt change in the gradient of a gen-
erally smooth stream profile. The stream cuts headward,
moving the knick point upstream.
knot: One nautical mile/hour⫽1.1508 statute mile/
hour⫽1.852 km/hr⫽101.27 ft/min⫽0.5144 m/s.
Knott’s equations: 共notz兲 Equations governing the parti-
tion of energy between reflected and refracted plane P-
and S-waves at a plane interface, as a function of the
velocities, elastic constants, and densities in the two
media and of the incident angle. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 287–288兲 and Zoeppritz’s equations, with which
they are equivalent. Named for Cargill Gilston Knott
共1856 –1922兲, Scottish seismologist.
knowledge-base: 1. The collection of facts, assumptions,
and beliefs that are used in conjunction with a database
to achieve a diagnosis, solution, or interpretation. 2.
Expert system 共q.v.兲.
Koefoed method: A 2D method of estimating the depth of
a magnetic source based on the horizontal distance
between points 1/2 and 3/4 of the maximum anomaly
value.
Koenigsberger ratio „Q…: 共kā’ nigs ber, g⳵r兲 The ratio of
the remanent magnetization to the induced magnetiza-
tion 共product of susceptibility and the Earth’s magnetic
field strength兲. A large Q indicates that the magnetic
material will tend to maintain significant remanent
magnetization and indicates small mineral grain size.
See Hood 共1964兲.
Krey wave: 共krā兲 Channel wave involving a Rayleigh-
wave type of particle motion in a low-velocity layer
between two higher velocity half-spaces, sometimes
called a pseudo-Rayleigh wave. Named for Theodore
202 K-wave
C. Krey 共1910–兲, German geophysicist.
kriging: A geostatistical method of interpolating spatial
data between locations at which values are known,
using a linear combination of weights to the known data
based on a model of spatial correlation. Usually
involves estimating values based on measurements in
boreholes. Kriging tends to produce average values. In
simple kriging, the global mean is constant over the
entire area; it is generally based on all the control
points. In ordinary kriging, the local mean varies and
is re-estimated based on the points in the moving neigh-
borhood. See also cokriging. Named for Daniel. G.
Krige, South African mining engineer. See David
共1987兲.
Kronecker delta ( ␦ i j ) : 共krō’ nek ⳵r del’ t⳵兲 In the math-
ematics of discrete systems,
␦ i j ⫽1, i⫽ j⫽0, i⫽ j;
It has the property ⌺ ␦ i j f j ⫽ f i . Sometimes specified as
the matrix
冏 冏
1 0 0
␦ i jk ⫽ 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
Analogous to the Dirac delta function 共or impulse, q.v.兲
in the mathematics of continuous systems. Named for
Leopold Kronecker 共1823–1891兲, German mathemati-
cian.
KÕT event: The massive extinction of species that
occurred at the end of the Cretaceous, start of the
Tertiary periods, often attributed to a meteor impact at
Chicxulub, Yucatan, Mexico.
K-type section: A three-layer resistivity model 共q.v.兲 in
which the middle layer is more resistive than the layers
above or below it. See Figure T-7.
kurtosis: 共kur tō’ sis兲 A measure of the sharpness of a
population distribution. If x 10 , x 25 , x 75 , and x 90 are the
values for which 10, 25, 75, and 90% of the population
is smaller, respectively, then
kurtosis⫽ 共 x 75 ⫺x 25 兲 /2 共 x 90 ⫺x 10 兲 .
From the Greek word for ‘‘curvature.’’
k-vane: A depressor paravane used to pull down a side-
scan sonar or other underwater towed device. Also
called k-wing. Tradename of Klein Associates.
K-wave: A P-wave in the Earth’s outer core. Compare
I-wave.
 L
L: 1. Liter, a volume of 1000 cm3. 2. A surface wave; L
stands for ‘‘long’’ waves. LQ 共and Q兲 denotes a Love
共Querwellen兲 wave, LR 共and R兲 a Rayleigh wave. See
wave notation. 3. The area above a decay curve from
0.45 to 1.75 s 共induced-polarization usage兲:
冕 1.75
0.45
关 V 0.45 ⫺V 共 t 兲兴 dt.
l: Cosine of the direction of a line with respect to the
x-axis.
ᐉ 1 : A least-absolute-deviation fit 共q.v.兲.
ᐉ 2 : A least-squares fit 共q.v.兲. Implies Gaussian error dis-
tribution.
L1, L2: Carrier frequencies 共1575.42 and 1227.6 MHz兲
used by GPS satellites.
labilized: Astatized, as an astatized gravimeter; see
astatic.
Lg: Rayleigh wave 共q.v.兲.
lacuna: 共l⳵ kyoo’ n⳵兲 A gap in which information is
absent, such as a gap in a seismic time-distance curve
caused by a velocity inversion. From the Latin for
‘‘pool.’’
ladder network: A step-type electrical network composed
of H, L, T, or ␲ sections connected one after the other.
Often used so that one can pick off different voltages at
different levels.
lag: 1. A difference in the arrival time of two events. 2. A
delay in the arrival time. Lagging refraction or reflec-
tion arrivals may indicate subsurface structure or delay
caused by weathering variations, phase shifts in filter-
ing, shothole fatigue, etc. Negative of lead. 3. The
phase angle by which the current is behind the emf in
an inductive circuit. 4. The time delay between the
breaking of the bridgewire in a detonating cap and the
resulting explosion. 5. To be behind. 6. The distance a
sensor is behind the point where location is determined,
as the distance an aerosurvey bird is behind the aircraft
or a fish behind a boat; also called layback. 7. The time
for cuttings to travel from the bottom of a drill hole to
the surface.
lagged product „sum…: The product 共sum兲 of two values
corresponding to different times.
Lagrange interpolation formula: 共l⳵ granj’兲 A method of
calculating a polynomial for interpolating between a set
of values which are not necessarily equally spaced.
y 1 ⫽y 共 x 1 兲 ,y 2 ⫽y 共 x 2 兲 ,...,y n ⫽y 共 x n 兲 ;
y 共 x 兲 ⫽ 关共 x⫺x 2 兲共 x⫺x 3 兲 ... 共 x⫺x n 兲 / 共 x 1 ⫺x 2 兲 ...
⫻ 共 x 1 ⫺x n 兲兴 y 1 ⫹ 关共 x⫺x 1 兲共 x⫺x 3 兲 ... 共 x⫺x n 兲
/ 共 x 2 ⫺x 1 兲 ... 共 x 2 ⫺x n 兲兴 y 2 ⫹...⫹ 关共 x⫺x 1 兲
⫻ 共 x⫺x 2 兲 ... 共 x⫺x n⫺1 兲 / 共 x n ⫺x 2 兲 ...
共 x n ⫺x n⫺1 兲兴 y n ,
203
that is, in the factors multiplying y k the factor (x
⫺x k ) is omitted. Named for Joseph Louis Lagrange
共1736 –1813兲, French mathematician.
Lagrange multipliers: A method whereby extrema of
functions of several variables are obtained. Also known
as undetermined multipliers.
Lagrangian differential operator: See Eulerian differen-
tial operator.
lag test: Determining how far a sensor is behind the
towing aircraft or boat by flying or sailing in opposite
directions over a distinctive feature 共such as a large iron
bridge for a magnetometer bird兲.
lag time: See lag.
lambda „␭…: 1. The Lamé elastic constant 共q.v.兲 some-
times called fluid incompressability. 2. Wavelength
共q.v.兲. 3. A medium-range phase-comparison position-
ing system using two frequencies 共100 to 200 kHz兲 to
remove lane ambiguity.
lambda, mu, rho: Inversion of AVO 共AVA兲 data to obtain
the medium’s elastic properties of ␭ and ␮ and the
density ␳
Lambert conic projection: 共lam bār’兲 A conformal secant
共or tangent兲 conic map in which the Earth’s features are
projected radially from the Earth’s center onto a cone
that intersects the Earth along two 共or one兲 standard
parallels; see Figure M-4. Parallels are thus the arcs of
circles and meridians are straight lines and angles are
preserved, but the scale varies except along parallels.
Lambert projections are used as the standard map ref-
erences in some states. Lambert coordinates on such a
map are rectangular grid coordinates with respect to an
arbitrary reference point; they are not oriented precisely
north-south 共except along the reference meridian兲 nor
east-west. 共The Lambert equal-area map is an azi-
muthal projection.兲 Named for Johann Heinrich Lam-
bert 共1728 –1777兲, German physicist.
Lambert coordinates: See Lambert conic projection.
Lambertian surface: 共lam bār’ sh⳵n兲 An ideal perfectly
diffusing surface, which reflects energy equally in all
directions.
Lamb’s problem: An investigation of the effects of seis-
mic disturbances initiated by a point source on the
surface of a semi-infinite perfectly elastic medium.
Named for Sir Horace Lamb 共1849–1934兲, English
mathematician.
Lamb wave: A type of guided wave in a thin layer
(thickness⬍wavelength兲.
Lamé constants: 共la mā’兲 The elastic constants 共q.v.兲 ␭
and ␮. Named for Gabriel Lamé 共1795–1870兲, French
mathematician.
lampitude: 共lam’ p⳵ tood兲 The cepstrum-domain equiva-
lent of amplitude. See cepstrum. A permutation of the
letters in amplitude.
Lancing: Emplacing small explosive charges 共⬇100 g兲
about 2 m deep with a 1 inch diameter spear. Prakla-
Seismos tradename.
land air gun: An impulsive seismic energy source which
Landsat image 204
involves an injection of highly compressed air into a
water-filled expandable tank that is held against the
surface of the earth. Bolt Technology Corp.
Landsat image: A ‘‘photograph’’ synthesized from mea-
surements made by a Landsat satellite, often shown in
false color. See remote sensing.
lane: A unit of measuring position with standing-wave
radio-positioning systems. In phase-comparison 共CW兲
systems, a lane is one cycle of the standing-wave inter-
ference pattern resulting from two radiated waves and it
depends on the position within the network. Phase-
comparison systems yield location within a lane but do
not necessarily determine in which lane; lane ambiguity
has to be resolved by counting lanes or by some addi-
tional measurement. Lane shape 共circular, hyperbolic,
elliptical, or a combination兲 depends on the system
configuration. See Figure L-6.
langley: 共lang’ lē 兲 A measure of heat flow, one
calorie/cm2. Named for Samuel Pierpont Langley
共1834 –1906兲, American physicist.
language: A method of giving instructions to a computer.
Involves words and associated rules 共grammar兲. Com-
puter languages include Algol 共algorithmic language兲,
Cobol 共common business oriented language兲, Fortran
共formula translation兲 in several versions, Basic, PL/1,
C, C⫹⫹, etc.
Laplace convolution: A smoothing procedure.
Laplace filter: A grid-based way of calculating curvature.
Laplace’s equation: 共la plas’兲 A differential equation that
describes field behavior in free space. The Laplacian
ⵜ 2 U of a potential function U vanishes in space that
contains neither sources nor sinks. 共ⵜ is the operator
‘‘del’’.兲 In rectangular coordinates,
ⵜ 2 U⫽⳵2 U/⳵x 2 ⫹⳵2 U/⳵y 2 ⫹⳵2 U/⳵z 2 ⫽0.
Gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic fields
obey Laplace’s equation in free space 共where there are
no sources兲. See Figure C-14 for the Laplacian in
cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Compare Pois-
son’s equation. Named for Pierre Simon Laplace
共1749–1827兲, French mathematician.
Laplace station: A location where the geodetic azimuth is
derived from an astronomic azimuth measurement.
Laplace transform: The linear transform pair
F共 s 兲冕 f 共 t 兲 e ⫹st dt, and
冕
f 共 t 兲 ⫽ 共 1/2 ␲ i 兲 F 共 s 兲 e⫹st ds;
s is a complex number and t is a real one. When the
limits of integration are ⫾⬁, the transform is two-
sided. The two-sided Laplace transform becomes iden-
tical with the Fourier transform when s is purely imagi-
nary. More often the one-sided transform is used,
especially in the study of transient waveforms. In this
case, where f (t) is causal, the integral is
F 共 s 兲 ⫽lim 冕 f 共 t 兲 e⫺st dt, and
冕
f 共 t 兲 ⫽ F 共 s 兲 e⫹st ds.
laserscan
The one-sided transform is often written with limits 0 to
⬁, the limit being implied. Laplace transforms may not
exist for all values of s and hence many Laplace trans-
forms are limited to strips of convergence, the ranges
of values for the real part of s for which the above
intearals are finite. The Laplace transform domain is
often called the s-plane. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
545–546兲.
Laplacian: 共la pla’ sē ⳵n兲 See Laplace’s equation.
Laplacian distribution: A distribution whose probability
density is given by
1 ⫺ 兩 x⫺ ␮ 兩 / ␴ ,
f 共 x 兲⫽ e
2␴
where ␮ locates the mode of the distribution curve and
␴ is a shape parameter. The maximum likelihood is the
median for independent random variables. Yields a
normal distribution when the median equals the mean.
See Johnson and Kutz 共1969, 22兲.
large aperature seismic array „LASA…: A particular geo-
phone array 共in Montana兲 used to detect nuclear explo-
sions and distinguish them from earthquakes. LASA
consisted of 21 subarrays of 25 detectors each, the
subarrays being about 7 km in diameter and the LASA
itself about 200 km in diameter. Other large-aperature
arrays include NORSAR in Southern Norway and
UKAEA 共United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority兲
in Southern Scotland, Yellowknife in Canada, Australia,
and India. Also called phase array stations.
large-scale integration „LSI…: High-density integrated
circuits used for complex logic functions. Circuits can
include thousands of transistors on a small silicon chip.
Larmor frequency: 共lar’ mor兲 The frequency with which
gyromagnetic moments precess in a magnetic field.
Atoms and nuclei possess magnetic moments because
of their spin and precess like small gyroscopes about
the direction of an externally applied steady magnetic
field 共such as the Earth’s field兲. Radio-frequency energy
at right angles to the steady field will be absorbed
because of resonance when the RF-frequency equals
the precession frequency. This principle is involved in
proton-precession magnetometers and optically
pumped magnetometers and in the nuclear-magnetic
resonance log 共see italicized entries兲. Named for Sir
Joseph Larmor 共1857–1942兲, English mathematician.
LASA: Large-aperture seismic array 共q.v.兲.
laser: 共lā z⳵r兲 Light Amplification by the Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. A laser beam consists of highly
coherent light waves.
laser altimeter: See laser ranging.
laser ranging: Determining distances by measuring the
traveltime of a short pulse of laser light. The accuracy
of Satellite Laser Ranging 共SLR兲 that employs 100 ps
neodymium lasers at 532 nm is about 2 cm.
laserscan: An optical process whereby a seismic record
section undergoes two 2D Fourier transformations to
make another record section. A lens accomplishes the
Fourier transform; see Figure L-1. If a grating is present
in the object plane at the focal point of the lens, parallel
rays will emerge and constructive interference will
occur only at I 0 , I 1 , I 2 , etc., separated by a distance z
which depends on the grating spacing. In optics, one
usually thinks of white light separating into its fre-
laser surveying
Image Terrain coverageÕ Ground
„Type of data… scene resolution
AVHRR 共GAC兲 2700⫻2700 km 1.1⫻1.1 km
Landsat 共TM兲 185⫻185 m 30⫻30 m
SPOT 共XS兲 60⫻60 km 20⫻20 m
FIG. L-1. Surface images from Landsat-type satellites.
quency components as a result of passing through a
uniform grating. In the Laserscan, monochromatic light
passed through a nonuniform ‘‘grating’’ 共e.g., a seismic
record section兲 separates into the spacing components
of the record section 共as in f,k space兲. One lens thus
accomplishes a Fourier transform of the record section
and a second lens synthesizes the components back into
a record section. By blocking certain components in the
transform plane, their effect can be eliminated in the
image plane. A laserscan can accomplish frequency or
velocity filtering. LaserScan is a tradename of Conduc-
tron Corp. See Dobrin et al. 共1965兲.
laser surveying: Use of a transit that transmits a beam of
laser light to a mirror 共or corner reflector兲 on a rod and
then measures the round-trip traveltime to determine
the distance.
latency: 共lāt’ ⳵n sē兲 Access time, the time delay between
successive communications. Latency is caused by
propagation delays and the queuing of disks or tapes.
For a disk, the time to move the disk arm 共seek latency兲
plus the time waiting for the desired data to pass the
head 共rotational latency兲. See also access time.
latent root: Eigenvalue 共q.v.兲.
lateral: 1. Horizontal, e.g., a lateral velocity gradient
means change of velocity in the horizontal direction,
FIG. L-2. Laserscan principle. (a) Each lens in effect Fourier-transforms the data. (b) Baffles accomplish filtering when
inserted in the transform plane.
205 laterolog
lateral resolution means the horizontal 共spatial兲 resolu-
tion. 2. A type of resistivity log, now little used. A
constant current passed between electrode A in the
borehole and a remote electrode while the potential
difference was measured across two electrodes, M and
N, located on the sonde; see Figure E-10. The MN
distance was small compared to the spacing, the dis-
tance between the current electrode and the midpoint
between the potential electrodes, often 18 ft 8 inches
共5.69 m兲. A short lateral sometimes used a spacing of
6 to 9 ft 共1.8 to 2.7 m兲. The potential electrodes were
usually below the current electrode, but on a reciprocal
sonde the functions were interchanged. 3. A horizontal
well; see multilateral.
lateral exploration: Profiling 共q.v.兲, as opposed to sound-
ing 共q.v.兲.
lateral resolution: The ability to tell that more than one
feature is present horizontally. The ability to see small
features 共such as channels or small reefs兲 in map view.
lateral variations: Changes in a horizontal direction.
lateral velocity variations: Velocity changes in the hori-
zontal direction.
laterolog: 共lat, ⳵r ō’ log兲 A resistivity log generally used in
salt muds, made with a sonde that is focused by use of
guard or bucking electrodes which forced the ‘‘survey-
ing current’’ to flow nearly at right angles to the logging
sonde. Also called guard log or focused log. One type
used three electrodes plus guard electrodes. In the
laterolog-7, sufficient current was fed into the bucking
electrodes A 1 and A 2 so that the current from electrode
A flowed nearly at right angles to the sonde 共cross-
hatched area in Figure L-3兲. Sensing electrodes M ⬘1 ,
M 1 , M 2 , and M ⬘2 were used to adjust the bucking-
electrode currents until this flow condition existed. The
dual laterolog measured resistivity at different depths of
laterolog 206 laterolog

FIG. L-3. Laterolog. (a) Schematic of laterolog-7 showing current flow lines. (b) Laterolog plotted on hybrid scale.
(Courtesy Schlumberger.) (c) The array laterolog records the response to an unfocused current at many receivers and
determines resistivities in processing. (Courtesy Kurt Strack.)
latitude 207
penetration. The array laterolog determines resistivities
by processing the data from an array of detectors rather
than by focusing the current. Laterolog is a Schlum-
berger tradename.
latitude: 1. The angle between a tangent to the ellipsoid
and the Earth’s axis; geodetic or geographic latitude.
The angle subtended with the equatorial plane by a
perpendicular from the point on the surface to the
spheroid; positive values indicate north. See Figure
G-1. 2. Distance north 共positive兲 or south 共negative兲 of
a reference point or of an east-west reference line. Used
in the latitude-departure survey method, where dis-
tances are called northing or southing. 3. A smoothed
magnetic inclination; see magnetic latitude.
latitude correction: 1. A correction to gravity data
because of 共a兲 variation in centrifugal force resulting
from the Earth’s rotation, as the distance to the Earth’s
axis varies with latitude ␾, and 共b兲 variation of the
Earth’s radius because of polar flattening. The Geodetic
Reference System 1967 共GRS67兲 gives
g⫽978 031.846 共 1⫹0.005 278 895 sin2 ␾
⫹0.000 023 462 sin4 ␾ 兲 mGal.
The latitude correction amounts to
1.3049 sin 2 ␾ mGal/mile⫽0.8108 sin 2 ␾ mGal/km.
2. A gyrocompass correction for the rotation of the
horizontal north vector as a function of latitude. 共The
horizontal north vector is tangent to the Earth and hence
the rotation is the result of Earth curvature.兲 3. The
north-south correction to magnetic data to remove the
Earth’s normal field.
lava: Magma or molten rock that has reached the surface.
law of reflection: The angle of reflection⫽angle of inci-
dence for the same wave mode in an isotropic medium.
This is a special case of Snell’s law. The more general
form of Snell’s law 共q.v.兲 must be used for the wave
FIG. L-4. Layering beneath the oceans.
layover
generated by mode conversion upon reflection.
law of refraction: See Snell’s law.
law of tangents: Electrical current lines at a boundary are
bent such that
␳ 1 tan ␣ 1 ⫽ ␳ 2 tan ␣ 2
where ␳ 1 , ␳ 2 are the resistivities of the two media and
␣ 1 , ␣ 2 are the angles that the current flow makes with
a normal to the interface.
layback: See lag.
layer: 1. A thickness whose properties differ from those
overlying or underlying, such as a stratigraphic or den-
sity interval. 2. For the terminology of suboceanic
layers, see Figure L-4; for deep Earth layers, see Figure
E-1.
layer-cake: A model of superimposed parallel layers,
often having constant properties in each layer.
layer equivalence: See equivalent electrical response.
layered Earth: 1. An idealized model of the Earth con-
sisting of a number of horizontal homogeneous layers
above a homogeneous half-space. 2. A similar idealized
model but using spherical shells to deal with problems
where Earth curvature is important.
layering anisotropy: Thin-layer anisotropy; see anisot-
ropy (seismic) and polar anisotropy.
layer stripping: An interactive inversion method for a
layered model where observations 共e.g., reflection trav-
eltimes兲 are available for each layer. The effects of each
layer are successively removed and observations for the
underlying layers are updated as if they were made at
the base of each layer. See stripping.
layer tomography: Tomography 共q.v.兲 where the divi-
sions are layers rather than smaller grid cells.
layout chart: Stacking chart 共q.v.兲.
layover: Displacement of the top of an image with respect
to the base for an elevated feature as seen by sideways-
looking radar.
L-Band
L-Band: Radar frequencies between 390 and 1550 MHz;
see Figure R-1.
LCD: A Liquid-Crystal Display of characters.
lead: 1. An indication of interesting structural or other
geological conditions; see resource. 2. The amount of
time by which one event is ahead of another, or by
which an arrival is ahead of its ‘‘normal’’ arrival time.
Negative of lag. 3. The phase angle by which current is
ahead of emf in a capacitive electrical circuit. 4. An
electrical conductor for connecting to electrical devices.
5. To be ahead.
leaf: 1. A node 共q.v.兲 that has no children. 2. A 3D zone
such that travelpaths to anywhere in the leaf satisfy
some condition within measurement errors.
learning, supervisedÕunsupervised: Developing the cri-
teria 共parameter values or weights兲 that identify an
object; classifying. Supervised learning is based on a
training set whose classification is known. Unsuper-
vised learning determines the natural classes without
prior examples. See also artificial intelligence.
lease: The contractural agreement that grants a company
the right to search for oil or gas or minerals and to
remove any that are discovered, in return for payments
and royalties 共portions of the values of the minerals
recovered兲. Often called a concession when granted by
a government. A lease generally specifies the lease
terms, limitations, and restrictions.
leakage: Low electrical resistance to ground where there
should be high resistance, as with a wet seismic cable.
leak-off test: A test performed after setting casing in a
well to determine the maximum pressure/mud-weight
that can be applied before formation fracturing and loss
of borehole fluids.
leaky mode: 1. A seismic wave that is imperfectly trapped
between reflecting strata, where some energy escapes
across a layer boundary by exciting another wave. See
Aki and Richards 共1980, 319–333兲. 2. Head-wave
energy that leaks through a refractor. The amplitude of
head waves within a refractor 共for energy incident at the
critical angle or greater兲 decreases exponentially away
from the interface. If the refractor is thin some of the
energy will ‘‘leak’’ through the refractor and appear as
seismic waves below the refractor. 3. Propagation in
imperfect wave guides. 4. Coherent noise produced by
energy bouncing at incident angles smaller than the
critical angle within beds that act as waveguides for
larger angles.
leap frog: A survey technique in which two units alter-
nately take the lead. E.g., the rodman precedes the
transit instrument man, then the transit instrument man
precedes the rodman, etc.
learning rule: Adjusting weights in neural nets.
least absolute deviation fit: An ᐉ␳ 共q.v.兲 fit with ␳ ⫽1.
The ᐉ1 fit is the least mean deviation solution of a
problem and corresponds to the maximum-likelihood
estimate when the errors have a Laplace 共double expo-
nential兲 distribution. The best ᐉ1 estimate to a set of
numbers is the median.
least-squares filter: Wiener filter 共q.v.兲.
least-squares fit: An analytic function that approximates a
set of data such that the sum of the squares of the
‘‘distances’’ from the observed points to the curve is a
minimum; an ᐉ2 fit. 共Usually implies deviation mea-
surements along paths where x⫽constant; other crite-
208 Leibnitz rule
ria are sometimes used.兲 One must determine the func-
tional form of the fit 共whether linear, quadratic, etc.兲
and what is to be minimized to define the problem. For
example, different velocity functions result depending
on whether seismic time-depth data or velocity-depth
data are fitted, or if the data are weighted or differently
distributed in depth. Least-squares fitting is the same as
the ᐉ ␳ 共q.v.兲 fit with p⫽2. The ᐉ 2 fit is the least-
variance solution and corresponds to the maximum-
likelihood estimate when the errors have a Gaussian
共normal兲 distribution. The best ᐉ 2 estimate to a set of
numbers is the average of the numbers.
least-time path: The path between two points that takes
the least time to traverse, subject to certain constraints;
the path a seismic ray takes according to Fermat’s
principle 共q.v.兲 共although Fermat’s principle dictates an
extremum path, which may not be the least-time path兲.
Also called minimum-time path or brachistochrone.
The raypath will generally be curved or bent because of
velocity variations.
LED: A display employing Light-Emitting Diodes.
Lee partitioning method: A variation of the Wenner elec-
trode array 共q.v.兲. An additional electrode is placed
midway between the potential electrodes and the poten-
tials are measured between it and each of the other
potential electrodes.
leeward: 共lē-w⳵rd兲 The side away from the wind.
left-hand rule: A rule which gives the direction of an
induced emf in a conductor that cuts a magnetic field.
See Figure I-3.
left-lateral fault: A strike-slip fault whose far side has
moved to the left. See Figure F-3.
leg: A cycle of more-or-less periodic motion. When fol-
lowing a seismic event from trace to trace or from
record to record, one usually concentrates on a particu-
lar trough or peak of the energy. If an erroneous corre-
lation is made into an adjacent trough or peak, one has
jumped a leg.
legacy data: Older data generally acquired for other pur-
poses that is used for comparison with newer data, as in
time-lapse studies.
Legendre polynomial: 共lā zhan’ d⳵r兲 Polynomials that are
adapted to spherical symmetry. See Officer 共1974,
21–27兲.
Legendre Theorem: 1. The potential caused by a disk at
points away from its axis can be found in terms of the
potential on the axis. The solution on the axis can be
determined in closed mathematical form, while the
solution away from the axis can be found in terms of a
Legendre Series. 2. For a spherical triangle which is
small compared with the spherical radius, the sides bear
the same length relationship as a plane triangle whose
corresponding angles are smaller by a third of the
spherical excess 共q.v.兲. This theorem is used in correct-
ing plane surveying for Earth curvature. Named for
Adrien Marie Legendre 共1752–1833兲, French math-
ematician.
leg function: A curve composed of a series of segments.
leggy: The character of a wavetrain that includes several
cycles with significant amplitude. ‘‘Legginess’’ is pro-
duced by too narrow a filter bandpass.
Leibnitz rule: 共līb’ nits兲 A formula for the n th derivative
of the product of two functions f and g:
Lenz’s law
d n共 f g 兲 d n⫺k f d k g
dx n
⫽ 兺 关 n:k 兴 dx
k
n⫺k
dx k
, property where the output is directly proportional to the
where [n:K]⫽n!/[(n⫺K)!K!]. Named for Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz 共1646 –1716兲, German mathemati-
cian.
Lenz’s law: 共lenz’ ⳵z兲 An induced emf is in such a direc-
tion as to generate a magnetic field that opposes the
change which induced it. Named for Heinrich Friedrich
Emil Lenz 共1804 –1865兲, Russian physicist.
level: 1. A survey device used to ascertain which point on
a survey rod is at the same elevation as the instrument.
2. Amplitude, as in ‘‘a potentiometer controls the volt-
age level.’’ 3. A track on digital magnetic tape, as in
‘‘7-level recording’’ where seven magnetic heads
spaced across the tape width record seven bits of infor-
mation at one time 共i.e., in one byte兲.
leveling: 1. Determining elevations in land surveying by
determining points that are at equal elevation. 2.
Adjusting a survey so that the values tie at line inter-
sections. Corrects 共usually in a least-squares manner兲
for elevation and location discrepancies at the intersec-
tions, for instrument drift, for diurnal changes, etc. 3.
Adjusting gain to match amplitudes.
Levinson algorithm: 共lev’ in s⳵n兲 A recursive algorithm
used to solve the normal equations for a Wiener opti-
mum filter; see Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 552–553兲.
Lg-wave: A short-period guided surface wave that travels
in the continental crust. The ‘‘g’’ refers to granitic layer.
LHS: Left-Hand Side.
library: A collection of programs and data which a com-
puter system has available to use.
lidar: Measuring the traveltime of reflections of intense
infrared light pulses generated by a laser.
liftering: 共lif’ ter ⳵ng兲 The cepstrum-domain equivalent of
filtering. A permutation of the letters in filtering.
lightingÕshading: See sun angle.
light pen: An input device used with a graphical display
unit. The unit senses the position of the pen and relays
this information to the central processing unit.
lignite: A brownish-black intermediate between peat and
sub-bituminous coal. Calorific value less than 8300
BTU/lb.
likelihood: A function proportional to probability.
Whereas probability is associated with a forward
experiment, likelihood is associated with an inverse
experiment, e.g., likelihood specifies a probability
model for measurements and determines the model
parameters associated with the measurements. See
maximum likelihood.
limit of detectabilityÕvisibility: Detectable limit 共q.v.兲.
limit of resolutionÕseparability: Resolvable limit 共q.v.兲.
line: 1. A linear array of observation points, such as a
seismic line. 2. Equipment that is directly connected to
and controlled by a central controller is on-line while
that not so controlled is off-line. 3. A channel. 4. In a
power spectrum, the contribution of a single frequency.
Physically, the contribution of a very narrow frequency
band.
lineagenic: 共lin’ ē ⳵ gen, ik兲 See tectonic types.
lineaments: A line up of various kinds of features.
linear: Having a straight line relationship; x⫽a⫹by,
where a and b are constants. See also linear system.
linear filter: See convolution.
209 linear ramp
linearity: The property of a filter, amplifier, or intrinsic
input. Linearity is usually limited to a certain range of
amplitudes and frequencies. For example, 共a兲 the pro-
portional relationship between induced polarization and
current density in which chargeability is constant, or 共b兲
the symmetrical identity between voltage versus time of
IP charge and decay curves, or 共c兲 the proportionality
between decay-curve amplitude and polarizing voltage.
linearize: To approximate so that the relationship between
two quantities is directly proportional, i.e., expressable
as a straight line.
linearly independent: The property of not being express-
able as a linear combination of other elements. Thus a
set of equations 共or solutions兲 is independent if none of
them can be expressed as a linear combination of the
others. A set of linear functions,
f i 共 x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 ,...,x n 兲 ⫽⌺a i j x j ,
is linearly independent if the determinant does not
vanish 共i.e., if 兩 a i j 兩 ⫽0 兲; see Jacobian.
linear mapping: Mapping vector space x into vector
space b with the equation A•x⫽b, where A is a
transformation matrix.
linear-phase filter: A mixed-phase filter that time-shifts
frequency components proportional to their frequency,
thus introducing a constant delay but no change of
waveshape. The phase-shift versus frequency graph is
linear over the band-pass and has an intercept that is a
multiple of 2␲. Also called a delay filter. If the inter-
cept is an odd multiple of ␲ it will invert the wavelet.
See Figure P-1 and phase characteristics.
linear-phase wavelet: A wavelet whose phase spectrum is
a straight line. Zero-phase and 90° wavelets are two
specific kinds of linear-phase wavelets.
linear programming: Solution of a problem that involves
constraints expressed as inequalities. For problems that
involve many inequalities, involves searching the ver-
tices of multidimensional polygons whose boundaries
are determined by the constraints. Often solved by the
simplex algorithm 共which does not check every vertex兲.
See Figure L-5.
linear ramp: See ramp.
FIG. L-5. A linear-programming problem usually is one
of determining the set of values x that will maximize some
quantity Q(x) while subject to constraints C j .
linear sweep
linear sweep: Vibroseis signal where the vibrator fre-
quency varies linearly with time, that is, the sweep
amplitude is
A cos 2 ␲ 共 f o t⫹bt 2 兲 for upsweep, or
A cos 2 ␲ 共 f o t⫺bt 2 兲 for downsweep,
where f o is the starting frequency and b is the rate of
change of frequency df /dt. See Figure V-12.
linear system: 1. A system whose output is linearly
related to its input. If a linear system is excited by a sine
wave of frequency f 1 , the output will contain only the
frequency f 1 ; the amplitude and phase may be changed,
however. The rule of scaling 共if A results in B, then kA
results in kB, k being any constant兲 and the rule of
superposition 共if A results in B and C results in D, then
A⫹C results in B⫹D 兲 apply. 2. An electrical circuit
whose impedance is independent of applied voltage 共or
current兲.
line geometry: Acquisition geometry where sources and
receivers are arranged in straight lines.
line-mile: A unit of measure for geophysical work indi-
cating continuous coverage over one mile of seismic
line or one mile of aeromagnetic data.
line of force: A curved line in a 3D potential field such
that a tangent anywhere along the line is in the direction
of the force on a charge 共pole, mass, etc.兲 if placed at
that location. The line is perpendicular to every equi-
potential surface. The density of lines of force is called
the flux density or field strength. A concept used in
connection with electric fields, magnetic fields, gravi-
tational fields, etc. See field intensity.
line of position „LOP…: The locus of equal values mea-
sured with a positioning system, such as a line of equal
phase difference with Raydist or Omega. Lines that
represent constant range from a reference location are
circles 共Figure L-6兲; lines that represent constant differ-
ence in ranges are hyperbolas; lines that represent the
constant sum of ranges are ellipses. The intersection of
two lines of position determines a location fix. Posi-
tions may be determined by the intersection of two
families of circles, by two families of hyperbolas, by a
FIG. L-6. Lines of position (LOP). The solid lines indicate constant range from A (or B) and are circles. The dashed
lines indicate constant difference in range from A and B and are hyperbolas. The short dashed lines indicate that the
sum of the ranges from A and B are constant and are ellipses.
210 line turn
combination of circles and hyperbolas, etc.
line of sight: The straight-line distance from an object to
an observer. High-frequency 共short-wavelength兲 radio
waves travel such raypaths so that the curvature of the
Earth limits the range that can be achieved. Line-of-
sight range R is given in terms of the height of trans-
mitting and receiving antennas h t and h r :
t ⫹h r 兲 .
R⫽k 共 h 1/2
1/2
The constant k is 1.22 nautical miles when h is given in
feet, 4.08 km when in meters. Refraction increases the
effective range of radio waves depending on their
wavelength; the sensitivity of the detecting system also
affects the range; see radio earth.
line printer: A computer output device which prints a line
of characters simultaneously 共usually兲.
liner: A string of casing whose top is below the surface. A
screen liner is perforated with a wire wrapping sieve to
prevent the entry of sand particles.
liner hanger: The device that attaches a liner to the cas-
ing.
line source: A source of energy that can be treated math-
ematically as though it were condensed into an infi-
nitely long line. 共a兲 In the seismic method, events that
appear to emanate from a line, such as a diffraction
from a fault. 共b兲 In the gravity and magnetic methods,
line sources represent a concentration of mass or mag-
netized matter 共such as a horizontal cylinder treated as
having the mass concentrated along the axis of the
cylinder兲. 共c兲 In electrical methods, a long current-
carrying wire can often be regarded as a line source.
Usually the current is taken to be equiphase along the
wire. In the near-field zone the magnetic field varies
inversely with distance for a line source, inversely with
distance squared for an electric dipole, and inversely
with distance cubed for a magnetic dipole.
line spectrum: A frequency-versus-amplitude plot that
indicates that only certain frequencies are present in the
signal rather than that the spectrum is continuous.
line turn: Movement of a marine seismic vessel between
survey lines.
lineup
lineup: In-phase alignment across the traces of a seismo-
gram; showing coherent energy.
linkage: 1. The instructions which connect one program to
another, providing continuity of execution between the
programs. 2. The convention for exchanging control
and data between a subroutine and the module calling
it.
Linux: 共lih-nucks with a short ‘‘i’’兲 A C-compatible ver-
sion of UNIX 共q.v.兲 operating system, devised by Linus
Torvalds, a Finnish student at the University of Hels-
inki. The operating system including source code can
be downloaded from the internet at no cost. Linux
makes use of components developed by Free Software
Foundation for the GNU project and is available on
many non-PC platforms as well.
link: 1. Highlighted or underlined words 共called hot
spots兲 in a document; they may be called up 共linked兲 by
clicking on them. 2. To call up another program, docu-
ment, or vendor.
liquid junction potential: Also called liquid boundary
potential and diffusion potential. See electrochemical
SP.
liquidus: 共lik’ wi d⳵s兲 The line on a state diagram above
which all phases are liquid. In the region between the
liquidus and the solidus both liquid and solid phases are
present. Upon lowering temperatures it is the point
where solids begin to form; freezing point.
liquifaction: Soil and sand behaving as a liquid upon
agitation 共such as by an earthquake兲 that disrupts grain-
to-grain contacts.
liquified natural gas „LNG…: Gas 共mainly methane兲 that
has been liquified by refrigeration and pressure.
liquified petroleum gas „LPG…: Lighter hydrocarbons
共mainly propane and butane兲 that have been liquified.
LIS: Log Information Standard.
LIS format: A standard for the transmission of digital
well data. Originated by Schlumberger.
Lissajous figure: 共le’ s⳵ zhoo, or le, s⳵ zhoo’兲 The steady
pattern on an oscilloscope when periodic waves that are
harmonics of a common frequency are applied to the
horizontal and vertical plates. Such patterns are used to
ascertain that the frequencies are exactly the ratios of
small integers and to determine their relative phase
relationship. Named for Jules Antoine Lissajous 共1822–
1880兲, French physicist.
list: 1. Overall average tilt of a ship to starboard or port
共about an axis in the principal direction of motion兲. As
opposed to roll, which is periodic motion about this
axis. 2. See listing.
listening period, listen time: 1. The time between peri-
odic inputs. In time-domain IP surveying, responses are
measured during ‘‘listening periods’’ between periods
of current application. In Doppler-sonar navigation, the
frequency is measured during the listening periods
between transmissions. 2. The time data are recorded
after the cessation of source energy input. In vibroseis,
the time between the end of the sweep and the end of
the record.
listing: A print-out of program statements or data.
listric surface: 共lis’ trik兲 A curved fault 共fracture兲 surface
that flattens as one goes deeper. Because of fault-plane
curvature, rotation of a downdropped block accompa-
nies fault slippage. Also spelled lystric.
list-server: A computer and program facilitating e-mail
211 lobes
communication for a group of people about a particular
subject.
lithologic log: A log showing lithology as a function of
depth in a borehole. Sometimes a strip log based on
samples, sometimes interpreted from other borehole
logs.
lithology nomenclature: Rocks are generally classified as
sedimentary 共Figure L-7兲, igneous 共Figure L-8兲, or
metamorphic 共Figure L-9兲.
lithosphere: The upper 100 km 共approximately兲 of the
Earth that is relatively rigid, thus including the Earth’s
crust and uppermost mantle. Characterized by relatively
low attenuation of seismic waves 共high Q兲. Underlain
by the asthenosphere and the mesosphere. See Figure
E-1.
lithostatic pressure: Overburden pressure 共q.v.兲. The
pressure caused by overlying rock 共and water in the
case of offshore wells兲.
lithostratigraphy: Differentiation, delineation, and classi-
fication of rock succession on the basis of gross lithol-
ogy. Specification must give a distinctive name and
specify the distinguishing gross lithologic characteris-
tics, the type location, how the boundaries are specified,
how the units are subdivided, their thicknesses and
thickness ranges, how they are geographically distrib-
uted, and their age. See Salvador 共1994兲 and Hedburg
共1976兲.
little endian: See endian.
littoral: 共lit’ ⳵r ⳵l兲 The depth zone between high and low
water; coastal. See Figure B-1.
live, alive: Said of geophone groups that are being
recorded; responsive. A seismic channel is ‘‘live’’ if it is
responsive to input energy. As opposed to dead.
live oil: Oil that is saturated with gas.
LLI: Log-Level Indicator 共q.v.兲.
ln: Natural logarithm; logarithm to the base e. Ln x
⫽2.3026 log10 x.
Lloyd mirror effect: 共loid兲 Interference between a sea-
surface ghost and waves that follows a direct path along
the sea floor. The separation of interference bands
depends on offset. Named for Humphrey Lloyd 共1800–
1881兲, Irish physicist.
LMO: Linear MoveOut, applied in refraction statics
共q.v.兲.
LNAPL: Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid, an environ-
mental polutant that floats on the water table. Often
hydrocarbons, which float on water. Compare DNAPL.
LNC: Local Noise Compensation 共q.v.兲.
LNG: Liquified Natural Gas 共q.v.兲.
load: 1. The power that a device consumes or delivers. 2.
An impedance connected across an output. 3. The
amount of computer resources being used at a given
moment. 4. The weight pressing on a drill bit. 5. To
place explosive in a shothole. 6. To input program
and/or data into a computer.
loading pole: A pole 共usually in 10-ft sections兲 for placing
an explosive charge in a shothole.
load-point marker: A marker 共such as a band of metal
foil affixed on a digital magnetic tape兲 which indicates
to the computer the beginning of information on the
tape. Also called end-of-reel marker.
lobes: Passbands in a directivity graph. See Figure D-15.
The main pass region is the main lobe and smaller pass
regions are called side lobes. Used in connection with
lobes 212 lobes

FIG. L-7. Lithology of sedimentary rocks. The top line indicates three steps to identifying a rock. (From Busch, 2000,
91.)
lobe switching 213 local pressure gradient

source and receiver directivity, radio antenna patterns,
etc.
lobe switching: A change in the location of deposition
resulting from a river changing course.
local gravity: Bouguer value from which the regional has
been subtracted; residual 共q.v.兲.
local hour angle: See hour angle.
local magnetic anomalies: Anomalies of restricted areal
distribution caused by the magnetization of units in the
uppermost parts of the Earth’s crust.
local noise compensation „LNC…: A technique for reduc-
ing time-variant but spatially invariant noise. Data at a
base station are first stacked to remove time-variant
noise. Time-variant noise at the base is then determined
by subtracting the stacked value. The difference at a
given time is subtracted from observations at nearby
stations. See Stephen et al. 共1991兲.
local pressure gradient: The slope 共tangent兲 of a pore

FIG. L-8. Lithology of igneous rocks. Classification is based on texture, color (% mafic), and mineralogy. (From
Busch, 2000, 70.)
lock on 214 log

fluid pressure versus depth curve. The interstitial pres-
sure within connected pore spaces increases with depth
depending on the density of the pore fluid. It is about
0.1–0.2 psi/ft for gas, 0.25–0.4 for oils, 0.433 for pure
water, 0.450–0.465 for brines.
lock on: Establishment of phase agreement between an
oscillator in a receiver and a received radio signal.
Phase-lock loops are used to maintain phase relation-
ships when the received signal temporarily drops out.
locus: The set of all points that satisfy a given require-
ment. Thus a circle or sphere is the locus of points
equidistant from a particular point.
log: 1. A record of measurements or observations, espe-
cially those made in a borehole. Often means driller’s

FIG. L-9. Lithology of metamorphic rocks. The top line indicates the steps to identifying a rock. (From Busch, 2000,
114.)
logarithmic contour interval 215
logs, sample logs, borehole well logs 共see individual
entries兲, etc. 2. An instrument for measuring a vessel’s
speed or distance traveled, or both.
logarithmic contour interval: 共lo, g⳵ rith’ mik兲 Plotting
of data on a logarithmic scale is sometimes used where
properties of materials vary by many orders of magni-
tude. Resistivity and IP data often are contoured in
intervals that are approximately logarithmic 共or geo-
metric兲, such as 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100; or 1, 3, 10, 30,
100, 300.
logarithmic decrement: The natural logarithm of the
ratio of the amplitudes of two successive cycles of a
harmonic event. Where the amplitude decay is because
of absorption, the logarithmic decrement can be related
to Q and to the absorption coefficient.
logarithmic potential: A potential function applicable for
2D structures. See Telford et al. 共1990, 8兲.
logging: Determining some average of the physical prop-
erties of the material around and inside a borehole. See
well log and mud log.
logical path: The precise sequence of instructions
executed by a computer. The logical path may be con-
trolled by a series of conditional tests applied at various
points.
log inÕon „log out…: The method by which a user enters
共leaves兲 a multi-access system.
log-level indicator „LLI…: A trace which indicates the log
of the gain of one amplifier channel under AGC control.
See Figure R-6.
log-normal distribution: A probability distribution in
which the logarithm of a parameter has a normal
共Gaussian兲 distribution.
log-stretch trick: A logarithmic stretching of the time axis
that converts an integral encountered in Fourier-domain
DMO into a form of a Fourier transform. See Bolondi
et al. 共1982兲 or Notfors and Godfrey 共1987兲.
long air-gun array: A marine source array more than 50
m long.
longitude: Angle measured about the spheroid axis from
the prime meridian to the meridian through the point;
positive indicates east.
longitudinal: Along the major axis of a feature; as
opposed to transverse. The longitudinal axis of a struc-
tural feature 共such as an anticline兲 is its b-axis.
longitudinal conductance: The product of average con-
ductivity and thickness of a layer. Measured in siemens
共⫽1/ohm兲.
longitudinal parity check: The bits in each column along
the length of the tape are counted and a parity bit is
recorded at the end of the record block. When the
record is read, the bits are again counted as a check.
The parity track as well as the data tracks are checked
in this manner. Also called longitudinal redundancy
check.
longitudinal resistivity: Resistivity measured in the hori-
zontal direction.
longitudinal unit conductance: For a sequence of isotro-
pic layers with thicknesses z i and resistivities ␳ i , the
quantity ⌺z i / ␳ i . See dar Zarrouk.
longitudinal wave: P-wave 共q.v.兲.
long name: A structural textual description that provides
an understanding of the named item.
long normal: A normal 共q.v.兲 resistivity log made with the
loran
A and M electrodes in the sonde 64 inches 共1.63 m兲
apart.
long-offset: Situation where the source-to-detector dis-
tance exceeds the reflector depth.
long-offset transient electromagnetics: A transient 共or
time domain兲 electromagnetic system for which the
source-receiver separation is comparable with the depth
of investigation. The source is normally a long
grounded wire. See electric sounding and Strack
共1992兲.
long-path multiple: A seismic reflection whose travel
path is appreciably longer than required for a primary
reflection from the deepest interface reached. A long-
path multiple tends to appear as a separate event rather
than blending into the tail of the primary. For example,
the energy might be reflected by a deep reflecting
interface, then at or near the surface, and again by the
same or another deep interface. See Figure M-18.
long shot: 1. A refraction profile where the source is offset
inline from the end of the active line of geophones. 2. A
possibility that has relatively low probability.
long-spaced sonic log: A sonic log 共q.v.兲 run with a tool
having a spacing 共see Figure S-13兲 between source to
receiver array of 8 –12 ft versus 3–5 ft for the normal
sonic tool. Designed to measure formation properties
beyond the portions possibly altered by invasion. Per-
mits a more robust analysis of both P- and S-waves.
Requires mode conversion to generate S-waves and
therefore works best in fast formations.
longwall mining: A long mining machine cuts a coal bed
using a cutter that traverses back and forth along the
length of the machine, the coal being removed by a
conveyor belt and the waste deposited behind the
machine. The roof is allowed to collapse after the
machine passes.
long wave: Surface wave 共q.v.兲.
long-wavelength statics: Statics variations over a dis-
tance that is larger than the spread length. Conventional
first-break statics correction methods 共see static correc-
tions兲 may not yield adequate information to make
long-wavelength corrections.
loop: 1. Field observations which begin and end at the
same point with a number of intervening observations.
Obtaining data in loops 共called looping兲 is useful in
correcting for drift in gravity-meter observations or
diurnal variation in magnetometer surveys, and in
detecting faults or other cause of misclosure in seismic
work. 2. An electrical circuit which provides feedback,
as an AGC loop. 3. A part of a computer program in
which the last instruction is to repeat the preceding
series of operations 共with or without modification兲 until
some particular condition is reached. 4. A transmitting
or receiving coil used in electromagnetic surveying.
LOP: Line Of Position 共q.v.兲.
Lorac: A medium-range surveying system that involved
the phase comparison of CW radio waves transmitted
over different paths.
loran: 共lor’ ⳵n or lōr’ ⳵n兲 Long-Range Navigation. One of
several U.S. government long-range pulse-type elec-
tronic positioning systems phased-out by the Global
Positioning System 共q.v.兲; see Figure L-10. Hyperbolic
lines of position were determined by measuring differ-
ences in the times of reception of synchronized pulse
Lorentz condition
signals from fixed transmitters at known geographic
positions.
Lorentz condition: 共lor’ ⳵nts兲 The condition,
ⵜ•A⫽⫺ 共 ␮ ␧⳵␾ /⳵t⫹ ␮ ␴ ␾ 兲 ,
on the electromagnetic vector potential A and scalar
potential ␾ that forces each to satisfy the wave equa-
tion. Named for Hendrik Antoon Lorentz 共1853–1928兲,
Dutch physicist.
LOS: Line Of Sight 共q.v.兲.
loss factor: The factor ␴ / ␧␻⫽tan ␦, where ␴ ⫽ conduc-
tivity, ␧ ⫽dielectric permittivity, and ␻ ⫽ angular fre-
quency, and ␦ ⫽ dielectric loss factor. The loss fac-
tor ⫽ 1 when conduction and displacement currents are
of equal importance.
losser: 共los’ ⳵r兲 A circuit element that attenuates the gain
upon proper instruction; used in AGC circuits.
loss tangent: See loss factor.
lost circulation: The loss of drilling mud to a cavernous,
fissured, or very permeable formation, or because the
borehole pressure exceeded the fracture strength of the
rock.
Lotem: Long-Offset Transient ElectroMagnetics 共q.v.兲.
Love wave: A surface seismic channel wave associated
with a surface layer that has rigidity, characterized by
horizontal motion perpendicular to the direction of
propagation with no vertical motion. A trapped
SH-mode, designated Q-wave, querwellen wave,
LQ-wave, G-wave, or SH surface wave. Love waves
may also be thought of as channel waves in the upper
layer. Love waves can travel by different modes, des-
ignated by the number of nodal planes within the layer.
However, usually only the zero mode is observed. The
dispersion of Love waves can be used to calculate the
thickness of the surface layer. Earthquake Love waves
have velocities up to 4.5 km/s, faster than Rayleigh
waves. Love waves are possible with a monotonic
velocity gradient without a distinctive surface layer, but
they cannot occur with a high-velocity near-surface
layer. See Figure E-3 and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
52–53兲. Named for A.E.H. Love, English mathemati-
cian.
FIG. L-10. Loran C. (a) Pulse transmission pattern;
slaves do not transmit the ninth pulse. Phase coding of
successive pulses identifies stations and helps in
sky-wave identification. (b) Shape of one of the Loran-C
pulses.
216 艎p fit
low: An area in which beds are structurally lower than in
neighboring areas; a syncline or structural depression.
low-amplitude display: Seismic data displayed at low
gain so that the strongest events are not overdriven and
that their detail is evident.
low-cut filter: A filter that transmits frequencies above a
given cutoff frequency and substantially attenuates
lower frequencies. Same as high-pass filter
low-frequency shadow: A region of lowered instanta-
neous frequency that may lie immediately under a
hydrocarbon accumulation.
lowering of sea level: Generally causes emergence of the
coastline and valley incision, soil formation, karsting,
etc., features that may be subsequently removed by
subareal erosion
low-level language: Machine language 共q.v.兲.
low-level multiplexing: Multiplexing between the pre-
amplifier and first amplifier stage.
low-pass filter: A filter that passes frequencies below
some cutoff frequency while substantially attenuating
higher frequencies. Same as high-cut filter.
lowstand system tract „LST…: The earliest 共lowermost兲
system tract within a sequence, bounded below by a
sequence boundary and above by the first major flood-
ing surface, or transgressive surface 共Van Wagoner,
1995兲. It is deposited during a rapid eustatic fall and
generally can be separated into three units by downlap
surfaces. A lowstand 共or basin-floor兲 fan lies on the
lower slope or basin floor and is associated with can-
yons incised into the slope through which siliciclastic
sediments are fed to the fan, thus bypassing the shelf; it
is deposited during a rapid eustatic fall. A slope fan is
characterized by turbidite and debris flow deposition. A
lowstand wedge „prograding wedge… is characterized
by fill into incised valleys and progradation with
wedge-shaped geometry. See Figure S-32.
low-velocity layer, low-velocity zone „LVL, LVZ…: 1.
Near-surface aerated sediments that have very low
velocity, also called weathering or weathered layer.
The LVL is important in seismic interpretation because
it can have marked effect on reflection arrival times.
The low-velocity zone often varies in thickness, lithol-
ogy, density, velocity, and attenuation effects. The
velocity of the layer is comparatively low, commonly of
the order of 500 m/s. 2. A layer whose velocity is lower
than that of shallower refractors. See blind zone. 3. Any
layer bounded on both sides by layers of higher veloc-
ity. Such a layer can carry channel waves 共q.v.兲. 4. LVZ
often means the B-layer in the upper mantle 共see Figure
E-1兲 from 60 to 250 km deep, where velocities are
about 6% lower than in the uppermost mantle. LVZ
may also mean the region just inside the Earth’s core.
low-velocity layer correction „weathering correction…:
A correction that is added to the arrival time of a
reflection to give the arrival time which would have
been observed if source and receiver had been located
on the datum surface with no near-surface low-velocity
layer present. A major component of static corrections.
共q.v.兲; see also Figure S-22.
loxodrome: 共lok’ s⳵ drom兲 Rhumb line 共q.v.兲.
LPC: Longitudinal Parity Check 共q.v.兲.
艎p fit: The parameters that produce estimations y i to a set
of data points ŷ i such that the differences between the
LPG 217
data and the estimates 共the errors e i ⫽y i ⫺ŷ i 兲 mini-
mizes
⌿⫽ 兺 兩w e 兩 ,
i
i i
p clockwise from 1. The specification 123 would indicate
where w i are weighting factors. If p⫽1, this yields the
least-absolute deviation fit; for p⫽2, least-squares; for
p⫽infinity, the minimax or Chebychev results.
LPG: Liquified Petroleum Gas 共q.v.兲.
LQ-wave: Love wave 共q.v.兲.
LR-wave: Rayleigh wave 共q.v.兲.
LSB: Least Significant Bit.
LSI: Large-Scale Integration 共q.v.兲 or large-scale inte-
grated circuit.
L-spread: 1. A seismic spread in which the source point is
offset by an appreciable distance perpendicularly to the
spread line, the source point being opposite one of the
end geophone groups. See Figure S-18. 2. A spread
共often laid out for noise studies兲 in which about half of
the spread length is in-line with the source and the
remainder perpendicular.
LST: Lowstand System Tract 共q.v.兲.
Lucasian coordinates: A 2D coordinate system consist-
ing of hexagons, used to specify map locations. Seven
lystric
hexagons are grouped as an aggregate for the next
higher specification, the center one being designated 0,
the one north of 0 being 1, with 2 through 6 being
position 3 of hexagon 20, which is position 1 of hexa-
gon 100.
LU decomposition: Replacing a matrix by the product of
a lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular
matrix. The solution can then be found in two steps by
forward and backsubstitution 共q.v.兲.
lumped circuit: An electrical network of concentrated
resistance, capacitance, and other elements, as opposed
to distributed resistance and capacitance as in a trans-
mission line, or as opposed to a solid-state system.
LVL, LV: Low-Velocity Layer, Low-Velocity Zone 共q.v.兲.
Often refers to the weathering layer, occasionally to a
deeper layer.
L-waves: Long waves; seismic surface waves from earth-
quakes that have long wavelength. LQ denotes a Love
wave, LR a Rayleigh wave.
LWD: Logging While Drilling; see measurement while
drilling.
lystric: Listric surface 共q.v.兲.
 M
m: 1. Milli-, the SI prefix for 10 ⫺3 . 2. Meter, the SI unit
of length. The context makes clear which is meant.
M: 1. Mega-, SI prefix for 10 6 . 2. Roman symbol for
10 3 , as in MCF of gas. MM is used for 10 6 in the
petroleum industry. 3. The earthquake phase with the
maximum amplitude on the seismogram, now obsolete.
4. The ratio of porosity determined from a sonic log to
that from a density log.
ma: Subscript used with log terms to indicate the rock
matrix.
Ma: Millions of years.
machine language: An instruction code usually created
by assemblers or compilers directly executable by a
computing machine. Object programs are in machine
language.
Maclaurin series: 共m⳵k lor’ in兲 A special case of a Taylor
series 共q.v.兲 in which expansion is about the origin.
Named for Colin Maclaurin 共1698 –1746兲, Scottish
mathematician.
macro: A single statement that causes the execution of a
series of programs.
macromodel: A velocity model for use in ray tracing
and/or depth migration. Usually made up of a few thick
layers with variable thickness.
macroscopic anisotropy: The situation where measure-
ment of a physical property perpendicular to the bed-
ding differs from measurement parallel to the bedding
because of the inclusion of isotropic interbeds of mark-
edly different properties; see anisotropy.
macroscopic cross-section: See capture cross-section.
macro-velocity model: A macromodel 共q.v.兲.
mafic: 共māf’ ik兲 An igneous rock composed of a ferro-
magnesium mineral. Mnemonic for MAgnesium
⫹FerrIC. Compare felsic.
magma: A hot melt containing dissolved volatiles and
suspended crystals, resulting from partial melting of the
Earth’s crust or mantle. Upon cooling magma becomes
igneous rock. A magma chamber is a region in which
magma is received from a deeper source region and
from which it may move to the surface to form a
volcano.
Magnedisc: An early magnetic tape medium shaped like a
large disc. GSI tradename.
magnetically quiet: Having ambient magnetic variations
less than tens of nanoteslas.
magnetic anomaly: The difference between observed and
theoretical or predicted magnetic values. A residual
magnetic anomaly is what remains after removal of
the longer wavelength regional; the IGRF is used
widely as the regional value. The shape of a magnetic
anomaly depends on 共a兲 the geometry of a body, 共b兲 the
direction of the Earth’s magnetic field, 共c兲 the direction
and intensity of the body’s remanent magnetism, 共c兲 the
direction of the observations with respect to the Earth’s
field.
magnetic artifacts: See cultural magnetic anomalies.
magnetic basement: The upper surface of extensive het-
218
erogeneous crystalline rocks having magnetic suscepti-
bilities that are large compared with those of sediments.
Often but not necessarily coincident with the geologic
basement 共q.v.兲. Generally excludes magnetic sedi-
ments, thin volcanic and other high-susceptibility rocks
intruded into the sedimentary section, but thick volca-
nic rocks in the sedimentary section might be classed as
magnetic basement where the magnetic effects of
deeper bodies would not be resolvable.
magnetic cleaning: Removing the ‘‘soft’’ secondary mag-
netization of a sample so the ‘‘hard’’ primary magneti-
zation can be studied. See demagnetization.
magnetic compensation: Correction for the static and
dynamic effects of the survey aircraft, often performed
by an onboard computer.
magnetic core: A small toroidal ferrite ring used to store
a bit of information in second-generation rapid-access
memory.
magnetic data correction: Corrections include compen-
sation for 共a兲 irregular solar micropulsations and mag-
netic storms, 共b兲 diurnal and secular variations, 共c兲
instrument drift 共d兲 flight elevation, 共e兲 location errors
and misties, 共f兲 the International Geomagnetic Refer-
ence Field (IGRF) 共q.v.兲, 共g兲 inclination and declina-
tion, and 共h兲 cultural effects. Not all of these corrections
are applied to all data nor in this sequence.
magnetic dip: Magnetic inclination; see inclination.
magnetic dipole: 1. The current loop that is the elemen-
tary source of a magnetic field. The current may be free
or bound 共as in electron orbitals in magnetized materi-
als兲. See also magnetic pole and magnetic dipole
moment. 2. A source of electromagnetic energy created
by an alternating current in a single or multiturn loop
carried from an aircraft or laid out on the ground. 3. The
magnetically polarized nature of rocks and ore bodies.
See Figure M-1.
magnetic dipole moment: The strength of a magnetic
dipole 共a vector兲. Amplitude given 共in SI units兲 by m
⫽n/A where n is number of coil turns 共if applicable兲, I
is effective electric current and A is effective loop area.
The direction is normal to the plane of the current loop
with the sense given by a right-handed screw turning
with the current. In magnetized materials the magnetic
dipole moment is produced by the aggregate effect of
unpaired electron orbitals. See magnetic dipole and also
magnetization.
magnetic dip poles: See magnetic field of the Earth.
magnetic disk: A thin metal disk coated with magnetic
recording material used for data storage.
magnetic disturbance: Magnetic storm 共q.v.兲.
magnetic equator: The line on the surface of the Earth
where a magnetic needle that is free to rotate remains
horizontal, that is, where magnetic lines of force are
horizontal. Generally not coincident with the Earth’s
equator. Local field irregularities are often ignored.
Also called the aclinic line.
magnetic field: The space through which influence on, or
magnetic field 219
by, a magnet is exerted. The torque per unit dipole
moment at any point in space that would tend to orient
a current-carrying coil or magnet if located at that
point. A vector quantity also called the magnetic flux
density or the magnetic induction and symbolized by
B. The unit of measure for B in the SI and mks systems
is the tesla and in the cgs system the gauss or gamma
(1 tesla⫽1 weber/m2 ⫽1 newton/amp.m⫽10 4 gauss
⫽10 4 maxwell/cm2 ⫽10 9 gamma). B is defined via
the force F on a charge q moving with velocity v:
F⫽qvÃB
FIG. M-1. Magnetic quantities and units. See also Appendix A, SI units.
magnetic field
This is often written in terms of the force dF produced
on a small element of length d艎 that is carrying a
current I:
dF⫽Id艎ÃB.
B is related to the magnetizing force H by a constant of
the medium called the permeability ␮:
B⫽ ␮␮ o H.
The unit of measure for H in the Sl and mks systems is
ampere turns per meter and in the cgs system, the
oersted 共1 ampere turn per meter⫽4 ␲ 10 ⫺3 gilbert per
magnetic field of the Earth 220
centimeter兲. ␮ o is called the permeability of free
space; ␮ o ⫽4 ␲ 10 ⫺7 henry per meter in Sl units and 1
gauss per oersted in cgs units. B can also be expressed
as
B⫽ ␮ o 共 H⫹M兲 in SI units,
B⫽ ␮ o 共 H⫹4 ␲ I兲 in cgs units,
where M and I are called the magnetization and inten-
sity of magnetization. A magnetic field whose magni-
tude is given by the inverse-square law surrounds a
magnetic pole, and a magnetic field given by Ampere’s
law surrounds an electric current. H is sometimes called
the magnetic field. See Figure M-1.
magnetic field of the Earth: The Earth’s magnetic field is
often represented by a dipole at the Earth’s center. The
intersections of the axis of this dipole with the Earth’s
surface are the geomagnetic poles. A better represen-
tation 共the dipole field兲 is given by a dipole about 400
km from the center. The locations where the magnetic
dip is 90° are called the magnetic dip poles; they do
not coincide with the geomagnetic poles. The portion of
the Earth’s field not representable by a dipole is called
the nondipole field. Time-varying components of the
Earth’s field are shown in Figure M-2. See also normal
magnetic field.
magnetic flux: The magnetic flux through a surface is the
integral over the surface of the normal component of
the magnetic induction 共or magnetic flux density, B兲,
expressed in webers in SI units or in maxwells in cgs
units (1 weber⫽10 8 maxwells). See Gauss’s theo-
rem.
magnetic gradiometry: Measuring gradients of the mag-
netic field in different directions, which has three pos-
sible advantages over measuring the field itself: 共a兲 it
reduces noise because of temporal field changes, 共b兲
enhances shallow anomalies, and 共c兲 improves lateral
resolution. See gradiometer.
magnetic head: An electromagnet used for reading,
recording, or erasing signals on a magnetic medium.
magnetic inclination: See inclination.
magnetic induced polarization „MIP…: A method of IP
surveying involving measurement of the transient mag-
netic 共rather than electric兲 field caused by galvanic
currents. Involves measuring the normalized primary
magnetic field H N ,
FIG. M-2. Time-varying components of the magnetic
field of the Earth.
magnetic permeability
H N ⫽H P /H ⬘P ,
where H P is the steady-state magnetic field amplitude
measured at a single transmitter frequency, H ⬘P is the
value calculated for uniform ground, and the magneto-
metric resistivity 共MMR兲,
M M R⫽ 共 H P ⫺H P0 兲 /H P0 ,
where H P0 is the predicted uniform-ground primary
field at the midpoint between the current electrodes.
The magnetic fields are in the picotesla range and
require a very sensitive low-noise magnetometer for
their measurement. See Seigel and Howland-Rose
共1983兲.
magnetic induction: See magnetic field.
magnetic intensity: Magnetic-field strength; see magnetic
field.
magnetic interpretation methods: The objective of mag-
netic data interpretation usually is to locate anomalous
magnetic material, its depth, dimensions, and magneti-
zation. Most hydrocarbon exploration uses of aeromag-
netics involves determining the depth to the top of
anomalous bodies 共and thereby inferring the depth to
magnetic basement兲 and the preparation of a contour
map of the magnetic basement from the results. Inverse
solutions involve various auxilliary conditions to
achieve a solution. Various shape measurements are
made on magnetic profiles or maps and used in con-
junction with depth rules 共q.v.兲. Two-dimensional con-
volution operations such as calculation of a second-
vertical-derivative map, downward continuation, or
reduction to the pole sometimes are used to help locate
anomalous bodies and determine their shapes. Some-
times interpretation involves comparison with the fields
over known areas or comparison against the fields of
model anomalies shown in a catalog of master curves.
The most common magnetic interpretation models are a
dipping-dike and vertical prism for intrabasement bod-
ies and a thin magnetic layer for structural features.
Iterative methods involve calculating the field that a
model would produce, comparing it with the observed
field, and then iterating until a satisfactory degree of fit
between model field and observed field is achieved.
Sedimentary anomalies are also interpreted, especially
with high-resolution data in areas of deep basement.
See also automated depth estimation.
magnetic latitude: The angle of magnetic inclination
determined on a smoothed regional basis rather than
locally at a point.
magnetic meridian: The direction of the horizontal com-
ponent of the Earth’s magnetic field; the direction of
magnetic north.
magnetic moment: Magnetic dipole moment 共q.v.兲.
magnetic permeability: The ratio of the magnetic induc-
tion B to the inducing field strength H; denoted by the
symbol ␮:
␮ ⫽B/ ␮ o H,
where ␮ o is the permeability of free space⫽4 ␲ 10 ⫺7
weber per ampere meter 共or henries per meter兲 in SI
system, and 1 gauss per oersted in the cgs system with
the permeability ␮ dimensionless. The quantity ␮␮ o is
sometimes considered the permeability 共especially in
the cgs system兲. See Figure M-1.
magnetic polarization 221
magnetic polarization: Magnetization 共q.v.兲.
magnetic pole: 1. One of the two points near opposite
ends of a magnet toward which the magnetic lines of
force are oriented and concentrated. If the magnet is
permitted to rotate about its center, the pole which
points in the direction of the Earth’s north magnetic
pole is the north-seeking or positive pole; the other pole
is the south-seeking or negative pole. It always occurs
as part of a magnetic dipole, which is the elementary
source of a magnetic field. Different from magnetic dip
pole. See magnetic field of the Earth. 2. The pole
strength of a magnetized bar of cross-section A perpen-
dicular to the magnetization M is MA. See Figure M-1.
magnetic potential: The product of the current and the
solid angle subtended by a coil divided by 4␲ 共a sphere
subtends the angle 4␲兲. If there are several coils, their
individual magnetic potentials 共which are scalars兲 are
added. The magnetizing force H is the negative gradi-
ent of the magnetic potential, a scalar representing the
work done against the magnetic field to bring a unit
magnetic pole to the point. A magnetic vector poten-
tial is a vector field whose curl gives the magnetic
induction.
magnetic quiet zone: The Cretaceous period from the
Aptian through the Santonian 共124 to 83 Ma兲 during
which no reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field
occurred, so that ocean-basin magnetic stripes are
absent.
magnetic reciprocity: The anomaly produced by a body
is the same if the induced field and magnetization
directions are interchanged.
magnetic resonance: Interaction between the magnetic
moments 共electron spin and/or nuclear spin兲 of atoms
with an external magnetic field. Magnetic resonance is
basic to the operation of the proton-resonance magne-
tometer and optically pumped magnetometer 共q.v.兲. See
also nuclear-magnetism log and Larmor frequency.
magnetic resonance sounding: An electromagnetic
sounding method used for direct detection of water by
causing proton precession in subsurface aquifers. See
nuclear magnetic resonance log.
magnetic shield: High-permeability container that iso-
lates its interior from external magnetizing forces.
magnetic signature: The shape of a magnetic anomaly.
magnetic storm: A period of rapid, irregular, transient
fluctuations of the magnetic field that are greater in
magnitude, more irregular, and of higher frequency
than diurnal variations. These occur most commonly
Target Amplitude
Regional structure, basement 1.0–5.0 nT
Basement structure, faults, 0.5–2.0
lineations, volcanics, salt
Detail faulting, structures, 0.1–0.5
edges, 2D and 3D modeling
Ore bodies, kimberlite pipes 0.005–0.1
FIG. M-3. Magnetic resolution required for different targets. 共Courtesy Goussev and Peirce, 1999兲
magnetic transformations
during unusual sunspot activity as a result of bombard-
ment of the Earth by high-energy particles from the sun.
Magnetic storms commonly have an amplitude of 50 to
200 nanoteslas, occasionally thousands of nanoteslas,
and their duration is often several days. They are usu-
ally associated with auroral displays. Magnetic pros-
pecting has to be suspended during magnetic storms.
magnetic survey: Measurements of the magnetic field or
its components 共such as the vertical component兲 at a
series of different locations over an area of interest,
usually with the objective of locating concentrations of
magnetic materials, mapping geological structure, or of
determining depth to basement. Differences from the
normal field are attributed to the distribution of mate-
rials having different susceptibility.
magnetic survey resolution: Goussev and Peirce 共1999兲
give Figure M-3 for required resolution:
magnetic susceptibility: A measure of the degree to
which a substance may be magnetized; the ratio k or k⬘
of the magnetization M or I to the magnetizing force H
that is responsible for it:
kH⫽M in the SI system,
k ⬘ H⫽I in the cgs system,
The susceptibility is dimensionless but of different
magnitude in the two systems:
k⫽4 ␲ k ⬘ .
The susceptibility is related to the magnetic permeabil-
ity ␮
k⫽ ␮ ⫺1,
k ⬘ ⫽ 共 ␮ ⫺1 兲 /4 ␲ .
Susceptibility in cgs units is sometimes measured in
units of 10 ⫺6 共‘‘micro-cgs’’兲. Rock susceptibility usu-
ally ranges from 0 to 0.01 cgs units 共0 to 10 000
micro-cgs兲 and it is often proportional to the fraction of
magnetite present. See Figure M-1.
magnetic tape: A thin strip of plastic coated with a mag-
netically sensitive material on which information can
be stored in the form of magnetization patterns.
magnetic tape transport: A device for writing or reading
magnetic tape data.
magnetic transformations: A change to a magnetic map
or profile in which the magnetizing field is effectively
changed. Transformations include reduction to the pole
Wavelength Grid
20 km 5– 8 km
2–5 km 1–2 km
0.1–1.0 km 050–250 m
50–200 m 25–50 m
magnetic vector potential 222
共q.v.兲 or equator, removal of remanence 共if its direction
is known兲, change from total field to a field component
or vice-versa, etc.
magnetic vector potential: See magnetic potential.
magnetite: Strongly magnetic Fe3 O4 , a widely distrib-
uted and very common mineral with susceptibility
1200–19200 henries/meter. The volume count of mag-
netite is the dominant parameter for magnetic proper-
ties.
magnetization: Magnetic moment per unit volume 共occa-
sionally per unit mass兲, a vector quantity. Also called
magnetic polarization or intensity of magnetization.
Designated by symbols M or I. A measure of the effect
of the medium on the magnetic field B when subject to
a magnetizing force H:
B⫽ ␮ o 共 H⫹M兲 in SI system,
B⫽H⫹4 ␲ I in cgs system,
where ␮ o is the permeability of free space. The propor-
tionality between magnetization and H is the magnetic
susceptibility 共q.v.兲, k or k⬘. See Figure M-1.
magnetizing force „H…: A measure of the influence of a
magnet in the surrounding space. Also known as mag-
netic field strength. See magnetic field and Figure M-1.
magnetochronology: Changes in the polarity of the
Earth’s magnetic field from its present polarity have
occurred a number of times in the Earth’s history and
provide a method for rock age dating; see geomagnetic
reversal and Figure G-4.
magnetohydrodynamics: 共mag nē, tō, hī, drō, dī nam’
iks兲 Phenomena associated with the motion of an elec-
trically conducting fluid 共such as a liquid metal or an
ionized gas兲 through a magnetic field. Also called
hydromagnetics.
magnetohydrodynamic theory: The theory that coupling
between the mechanical and electrodynamic forces in
the fluid core gives rise to a self-exciting dynamo and is
responsible for the Earth’s main magnetic field.
magnetometer: An instrument for measuring magnetic-
field strength. Ground magnetometers sometimes mea-
sure the vertical component of the magnetic field,
sometimes a horizontal component, sometimes the total
field. Most airborne magnetometers are of one of three
types: 共a兲 fluxgate, 共b兲 proton-precession, or 共c兲 opti-
cally pumped 共see individual entries兲; all measure the
total-field intensity and cesium magnetometers measure
the absolute field and achieve 0.001 nT accuracy. Vec-
tor and vertical-component airborne magnetometers are
used occasionally. See also variometer and squid mag-
netometer.
magnetometric induced polarization „MIP…: A mag-
netic induced polarization 共q.v.兲 method that uses the
survey procedures of the magnetometric resistivity
共q.v.兲 method.
magnetometric resistivity „MMR…: 共mag nē’ tō met, rik兲
1.
M M R anomaly⫽ 共 H p ⫺H po 兲 /H po ,
where H p ⫽steady-state magnetic field amplitude and
H po ⫽predicted uniform ground primary magnetic
field. Involved in measurements of magnetic induced
polarization 共q.v.兲. 2. An electrical surveying method in
magnitude of earthquake
which the ground is energized with commutated direct
current through a pair of widely spaced electrodes and
the anomalous conductivity distribution is surveyed by
measuring the secondary magnetic field arising from
current flow. The magnetic measurement direction is
perpendicular to the line between electrodes. This tech-
nique is used to explore beneath a conductive surface
layer.
magnetosphere: The space pervaded by the Earth’s mag-
netic field, usually extending to more than 10 Earth
radii on the sunlit side and to 40 Earth radii on the
shadow side. Charged particles particularly concentrate
at elevations around 1600 and 3000 km.
magnetostratigraphy: The use of reversals of the Earth’s
magnetic field to determine stratigraphic age, or the use
of the orientation of remanent magnetism to determine
polar wandering curves and hence paleolatitudes. Occa-
sionally includes identifying stratigraphic units on the
basis of magnetic characteristics such as susceptibility.
See Figures G-4 and S-5.
magnetostriction: 共mag nē, tō strik’ sh⳵n兲 Change in the
strain of a magnetic material as a result of changes in
magnetization. The dependence of magnetization 共sus-
ceptibility or remanence兲 on applied stress is termed
inverse magnetostriction or piezomagnetism. Magne-
tostrictive acoustical sources and hydrophones are
extremely rugged. A magnetostrictive hydrophone
might consist of a coil of wire wrapped around a
cylinder of magnetostrictive material. A pressure wave
acting radially induces hoop-stresses in the core that
changes its permeability and thereby the flux linking
the coil wrapped around it. The change of flux induces
a voltage that is proportional to the derivative of the
pressure-wave signal.
magnetotelluric „MT… method: 共mag nēd’ ō t⳵ loo, rik兲 A
method in which orthogonal components of the hori-
zontal and magnetic fields induced by natural primary
sources are measured simultaneously as functions of
frequency. Apparent resistivity ␳ a as a function of fre-
quency f is calculated:
␳ a ⫽ 共 1/ ␮ ␻ 兲共 E i /H j 兲 2 , ␻ ⫽2 ␲ f .
Also, ␳ a ⫽0.2Z / f , where Z is the Cagniard imped-
2
ance or tensor impedance 共q.v.兲; see Vozoff 共1972兲.
Resistivity as a function of depth can be calculated for
a layered Earth. For a nonlayered Earth, two apparent
resistivity curves result from rotating the MT tensor
impedance and interpretation is more involved 共see
tensor magnetotelluric method兲. The predominant
sources of energy for magnetotelluric measurements are
micropulsations having frequencies of less than 1 Hz.
Sometimes magnetotelluric measurements are made at
audio frequencies using energy from sferics; the
method is then referred to as the audiomagnetotelluric
method „AMT…. See telluric current method.
magnetotelluric noise: Unwanted voltages in the earth
caused by low-frequency earth currents whose sources
are electrical discharges in thunderstorms, power lines,
ionospheric currents, or magnetospheric currents.
magnitude: 1. Amplitude 共q.v.兲. 2. Magnitude of earth-
quake 共q.v.兲.
magnitude of earthquake: A logarithmic measure of the
strength of an earthquake or of the strain energy
released by it, as determined by seismographic obser-
main beam 223
vations. Magnitude is a rating of an earthquake inde-
pendent of the place of observation. The Richter scale
of magnitude indicates the base-10 logarithm of the
maximum amplitude observed 共or which might have
been observed兲 on an instrument of specified type 100
km from the epicenter. Empirical tables correct obser-
vations at other distances. Each step of one in magni-
tude means multiplying the amplitude by 10. The larg-
est earthquakes are of magnitude about 9. Zero
represented the smallest recorded earthquakes when the
scale was devised but microearthquakes can have nega-
tive Richter values. Various relations are used to give
the order of magnitude of the energy released in an
earthquake from the magnitude M. Roughly, the energy
E in ergs is given approximately by log E⫽10⫹2M;
Bath 共1966兲 gives log10 E⫽12.24⫹1.44 M ergs. Dis-
tinction is sometimes made between magnitude based
on body-wave (M b ) versus surface-wave (M s ) mea-
surements. See also seismic moment.
main beam: Main lobe 共q.v.兲.
main frame: 1. The main part of a computer system,
typically, the central processor unit and main memory.
2. A large computer, typically requiring special power
installation and controlled environment.
main lobe, main beam: The portion of a directivity graph
that indicates the continuous band of directions 共or
apparent wavelengths兲 in which the greatest energy is
radiated 共for a source兲 or which undergoes least attenu-
ation 共for a receiver array兲. See Figure D-15.
majority vote: Determination of the most probable value
of a series of measurements as the value that occurs
most frequently rather than by averaging. Used in sat-
ellite navigation where the message is assumed to be
that which was observed most often, each bit position
being majority-voted separately.
make up: 1. To assemble parts together. 2. A seismic
source that has been moved to a station other than its
normal location, usually for safety reasons. 3. To
assemble explosive components so as to make the
assembly explosive 共for example, putting cap in primer
or booster and attaching to the main charge兲.
making a trip: Hoisting the drill string out of the borehole
and returning it after changing the bit, preparing to take
a core, or other operation.
making hole: Progress in drilling a borehole.
MALM: Mise-À-La-Masse method 共q.v.兲.
man: A UNIX MANual command that accesses informa-
tion about a command, e.g., to find out more about the
‘‘telnet’’ command, type ‘‘man telnet.’’
mandrel: 1. A cylinder around which rope can be wound.
2. The body of a logging tool that contains the sensor
electronics.
mantissa stack: Where a series of measurements are
expressed as logarithms, the sum of their decimal parts
without including the whole numbers that precede the
decimal place. If the series is semiperiodic but with
variable amplitude, such a sum deemphasizes
amplitude-variation effects.
mantle: The part of the Earth’s interior between the core
and the crust composed of dense silicate rocks. The
upper surface of the mantle is the Moho discontinuity
characterized by a sharp increase in P-wave velocity to
8.1⫾0.2 km/s. The density of the mantle is about
3.3–3.4 g/cm3 and the mantle is essentially non-
map projection
magnetic. The mantle includes the lower lithosphere
and the asthenosphere. Below the mantle is the core
separated from the mantle by the Gutenberg-Weichert
discontinuity. See Figure E-1.
map: 1. To transform information from one form to
another. The distribution may be with respect to vari-
ables other than geographic, as ‘‘to map from the time
to the frequency domain.’’ Transformations may
involve a one point to one point correspondence or one
to several 共involving multibranched surfaces兲.
Examples of multibranched maps might be the map of
a geological formation in the vicinity of a reverse fault
where the same formation contact lies at two depths, or
a seismic reflection time map in a buried-focus situation
where the same reflector can be seen in several direc-
tions from the same observation point. 2. The product
of such a transformation. The transformation may
involve the geographical distribution of observations or
of calculations based on observations, as a Bouguer
anomaly map or a seismic reflection map. 3. To plot.
map convolution: A 2D convolution often applied to
potential-field maps, whereby each point on the map
grid is replaced by a weighted sum of the values at
other grid points.
⌿ x,y ⫽ 兺兺f
␣ ␤
␣ , ␤ ␾ x⫺ ␣ ,y⫺ ␤ ,
where ␺ x,y are the output values, ␾ x,y the input values,
and f ␣ , ␤ is the weighting scheme called the template.
Simple residual maps are made by subtracting an
average of values around the point from the value at the
point. The values for different distances may be
weighted and sometimes a bias is included 共i.e.,
⌺⌺ f ␣ , ␤ ⫽0 兲, so that the residual does not change sign
locally. By weighting the points to give horizontal
derivatives and using Laplace’s equation, second-
vertical-derivative maps may be made. Other weighting
schemes can be used for field continuation, wavelength
filtering, etc. See grid residual.
map migration: The procedure of going from an unmi-
grated seismic map 共where data are plotted at mid-
points兲 to a migrated map intended to indicate the
correct subsurface location of mapped features.
map projection: A scheme for displaying the Earth’s
curved surface on a plane surface. Some of the more
common projections are shown in Figure M-4. Distor-
tions of one sort or another are inevitable. Equivalence
is the projection property wherein the product of
orthogonal scale factors is maintained constant so that
areas are preserved. Conformality is the property
wherein angles are preserved. Standard lines are great
or small circles along which the scale is uniform and
constant. 共a兲 Tangent projections are projections onto
a surface 共plane, cylinder, or cone兲 that is tangent to the
Earth; 共b兲 secant projections are those made onto a
surface that intersects the Earth. 共c兲 A transverse pro-
jection has its axis perpendicular to the Earth’s axis
共sometimes merely at any angle to the Earth’s axis兲. 共d兲
An azimuthal projection is onto a tangent plane; dis-
tortions increase as the distance from the point of
tangency. 共e兲 A stereographic projection is both azi-
muthal and conformal. 共f兲 A polyconic has a straight
central meridian and each parallel is the arc of a circle
mare 224
and is standard; the scale along meridians is therefore
variable and the map is neither equivalent nor confor-
mal. „g… Transverse Mercator projections 共onto a
cylinder at right angles to the Earth’s axis兲 and Lambert
conic projections 共q.v.兲 form many official coordinate
systems; the Universal Transverse Mercator 共q.v.兲 is
one standard system in widespread use. „h… A Robin-
son projection permits some distortion in size at high
latitudes to maintain shapes at middle and low latitudes.
mare: A dark low-lying plain filled with volcanic rocks.
marine flooding surface: A surface above which rocks
were deposited in appreciably greater water depth than
those below the surface. See parasequence.
marker bed: 1. A bed or sequence of beds that yields a
characteristic reflection event over a more-or-less
extensive area. 2. A bed for a characteristic segment of
a refraction time-distance curve that can be followed
over a reasonably extensive area. 3. A bed with distinc-
tive magnetic or electrical effects.
marker velocity: The velocity with which head
共refracted兲 waves are transmitted along a marker bed.
Markovian variable: 共mar kōv’ ē ⳵n兲 A random variable
that has a distribution of values that depend only on the
preceding sample. Compare stochastic. Named for
Andrei Andreevich Markov 共1856 –1922兲, Russian
mathematician.
Marmousi model: 共mar moo’ sē兲 A complex 2D structural
model and its seismic response devised by the Institut
Français du Petrole, used to compare depth-migration
FIG. M-4. Map projections.
massive parallel processor „MPP…
and velocity determination models. It involves strong
horizontal and vertical velocity changes. See Versteeg
共1994兲 and Figure M-5.
Marquardt inversion: 共mar kwart’兲 An inversion tech-
nique for nonlinear problems. See Lines and Treitel
共1984兲 or Marquardt 共1963兲. Named for David Wesley
Marquardt 共1929-兲, American mathematician.
marsh buggy: A self-propelled vehicle designed to oper-
ate over marsh or extremely soft ground, characterized
by very low ground pressure. Some have large wheels
with very wide treads, tracks, or buoyant wheels or
tanks so that they will float in water.
Marsh funnel: A calibrated funnel used to measure the
viscosity of a fluid flowing through it.
marsh phone: A geophone or hydrophone designed to be
planted in waterlogged conditions.
Marthor: A hammer source for generating S-waves. CGG
tradename.
mask: To eliminate contributions coming from certain
locations.
masked layer: Hidden layer 共q.v.兲.
masking effect: The effect whereby a highly conductive
layer near the surface dominates resistivity 共or other兲
measurements so as to make undetectable the effects of
deeper resistivity 共or other兲 variations.
mass: With respect to a vibrator, the reaction mass 共q.v.兲.
mass balance: See material balance.
massive parallel processor „MPP…: A processor with
massive parallel processor „MPP… 225 massive parallel processor „MPP…

FIG. M-5. Marmousi model. A 2D seismic model devised by the Institut Français du Petrole to test 2D migration
algorithms. There is a hydrocarbon accumulation (and flat spot) in the anticline under the decollement. (a) The model
at 1:1 scale ratio (from Versteeg, 1994); (b) model with different grey density indicating different velocities: (c) CMP stack
of the seismic data. (d) Time migration of the CMP stack; (e) Prestack depth-migration of 1% of the data. (From Youn
and Zhou, 2001).
massive sulfides 226 massive sulfides

more than 32 or 64 nodes that can process a number of by volume, as opposed to disseminated sulfides that
tasks simultaneously. involve electrical phenomena that behave like massive
massive sulfides: Rocks that are more than 20% sulfides metallic substances.

FIG. M-6. Matrix terminology. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, called elements (which may be complex),
that obeys certain rules.
mass spectrometer 227
mass spectrometer: An analytic instrument used to iden-
tify isotopes and molecular species according to mass/
charge ratio by separating their ions in a magnetic field.
mast: See drill rig.
master curve: See type curve.
master station: 1. A radio transmitting station of a posi-
tioning system net that controls synchronization of
other transmitters in the net 共slave stations兲. 2. The
control station of a network even where synchroniza-
tion is not maintained.
MASW: Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves 共q.v.兲.
matched filter: 1. A filter that maximizes the output in
response to a signal of particular shape. The elements of
a matched filter are the elements of the signal in reverse
order; hence filtering with a matched filter is equivalent
to crosscorrelating with the signal. Used where the
waveform of the signal is known, as in deconvolving
vibroseis data. Also called crosscorrelation filter and
correlator. The matched filter has the same amplitude-
frequency response and the negative phase-frequency
response 共reversed in sign兲 as the waveform to which it
is matched. A matched filter is the most powerful filter
for identifying the presence of a given waveform in the
presence of additive noise. See Anstey 共1964兲 and Trei-
tel and Robinson 共1969兲. 2. Matched filters are used to
separate data from more than one vibroseis source
operating simultaneously.
matched filter method: A method to separate the effects
of sources at different depths where a log-power spec-
trum shows distinctive linear slopes. Also known as
depth slicing 共q.v.兲 or pseudodepth slicing. See Cowan
and Cowan 共1993兲.
material balance: A calculation of inputs and outputs
where no material is lost or gained; mass balance.
math libraries: Optimized on-line library implementing
common mathematical operations efficiently and accu-
rately.
matrix: A rectangular array of numbers, called elements
共which may be complex兲, that obeys certain rules.
Matrices are often indicated by bold face type. Matrices
are used in electromagnetic work, in wave propagation
studies, in multichannel processing, and elsewhere. See
Figure M-6 and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 519–22兲.
maxibin: A collection of adjacent bins.
maximum: An anomalous area in which measurements
show larger values than in neighboring areas, as a
gravity maximum.
maximum convexity: The curvature on a seismic record
section of a diffraction from a point in the plane of the
section. This is the greatest convexity a primary coher-
ent wavetrain can have except for reverse branches 共in
buried-focus situations兲, diffracted reflections, and cer-
tain other events involving complex raypaths. See dif-
fraction curve.
maximum-delay: Maximum-phase 共q.v.兲.
maximum depth: In gravity and magnetic interpretation,
the limiting depth below which the bodies causing an
observed anomaly cannot lie.
maximum entropy filtering: Filtering that attempts to
produce an output that is as unpredictable as possible
but which has the same autocorrelation as the input. See
entropy and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 561–2兲.
maximum entropy spectral estimate: A method to deter-
mine a finite number of Fourier-series coefficients of a
Maxwell’s equations
nonnegative periodic function under the assumption
that the function is rational in e ⫺i ␻ T 共where T
⫽period, ␻ ⫽angular frequency兲 with a constant
numerator.
maximum-energy-sum filter: Output-energy filter 共q.v.兲.
maximum flooding surface „MFS…: The surface that
marks the time in a eustatic cycle when the maximum
amount of land is flooded. Generally indicated by the
highest gamma, lowest resistivity readings.
maximum likelihood: The most probable 共value兲. The
concept that different probability models generate dif-
ferent samples and that any given sample is more likely
to have come from some models than from others. The
method requires specification of a probability model,
determination of a formula for the likelihood function,
and maximization of the likelihood function.
maximum likelihood deconvolution: A nonlinear decon-
volution scheme in which the wavelet is modeled as a
linear system and the reflectivity sequence as Bernouli-
Gaussian plus backscatter. Involves 共a兲 wavelet estima-
tion, 共b兲 statistical parameter estimation, 共c兲 reflectivity
detection, and 共d兲 reflectivity amplitude restoration
using minimum-variance deconvolution. See Komylo
and Mendel 共1983兲.
maximum likelihood filtering: Filtering that attempts to
determine the most probable value共s兲.
maximum minimum offset: The largest short offset trace
in the nominal survey geometry.
maximum-phase: A two-term wavelet [a,b] is
maximum-phase if 兩 a 兩 ⬍ 兩 b 兩 . Any wavelet is maximum
phase if the two-term wavelets, into which its
z-transform can be factored, are each maximum-phase.
Same as maximum-delay. See phase characteristics
and Figure P-1, and compare minimum phase.
Maxipulse: A marine seismic source involving detonation
of small explosive charges at 7 to 15 m depth; they
generate a sequence of bubble pulses that have to be
removed subsequently in processing. Western Geophys-
ical Co. tradename.
Maxwell „Mx…: 共maks’ w⳵l兲 Unit of magnetic flux in the
cgs-emu system. 1 maxwell⫽10 ⫺8 weber 共the SI
unit兲.
Maxwell’s equations: The fundamental differential equa-
tions governing the behavior of electrical and magnetic
fields. The four differential equations to which electric
and magnetic fields are subject at every ordinary point.
In SI units,
ⵜ⫻E⫽⫺ 共 ⳵B/⳵t 兲 , ⵜ•D⫽ ␳ ,
ⵜ⫻H⫽J⫹ 共 ⳵D/⳵t 兲 , ⵜ•B⫽0,
where E is the electric field intensity, H is the magne-
tizing force, B is the magnetic field strength, D is the
electric displacement, J is the current density, and ␳ the
charge density. In the cgs system, 1/c 共where c
⫽velocity of light in a vacuum兲 precedes the time
derivatives and 4␲ precedes the J and ␳. These relations
can also be expressed by an equivalent system of inte-
gral equations. In geophysical applications, it is normal
to assume these fields are related by linear constituent
equations:
J⫽ ␴ E 共 Ohm’s law兲 ,
D⫽␧E,
Maxwell’s relation
B⫽ ␮ H 共 sometimes B⫽ ␮␮ o H兲 ,
where ␴ is the conductivity, ␧ the dielectric permittiv-
ity, ␮ the magnetic permeability, and ␮ o the permeabil-
ity of free space. Developed by James Clerk Maxwell
共1834 –1879兲, English physicist.
Maxwell’s relation: See thermodynamic functions.
Maxwell solid: A solid that is elastic over short time
periods but viscous over long time periods.
Mb, MB: Mb⫽megabits, MB⫽megabytes.
MCF, Mcf: Thousand cubic feet; used to designate gas
volumes. MMCF is millions of cubic feet.
MCL: Maximum Containment Level, an Environmental
Protection Agency designation as the maximum amount
of a substance permitted in ground water.
MCU: Mid-Cretaceous Unconformity.
md: Millidarcy or 1/1000 darcy.
MD: Measured depth below Kelly bushing, the usual drill-
ing reference.
M discontinuity: Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho
共q.v.兲.
MDS: Minimum Data Set, a class of single-fold seismic
data suitable for migration.
MDT: Modular Dynamic Tester 共q.v.兲
Meades Ranch: The location in Kansas regarded as the
center of the United States and the basis for the North
American Datum of 1927.
mean: Average. Various ways of averaging are indicated
in Figure M-7. Mean values for seismic measurements,
such as the mean values of velocity, depend on the
traverse 共raypath兲; paths perpendicular to the bedding
共where bedding is parallel兲 are often implied, some-
times vertical paths.
Meander: Crooked-line 共q.v.兲. Prakla-Seismos tradename.
mean deviation: See statistical measures.
measurement-while-drilling „MWD…: Bottomhole data
are acquired incrementally from sensors located in the
drill string near the bit in a drilling well. Measurements
may include directional information 共hole inclination,
azimuth, tool facing兲, drilling parameters 共bottomhole
temperature, pressure, torque, weight-on-bit, RPM兲, rig
safety data, formation evaluation and correlation data
共formation resistivity, gamma-ray, and sonic logs兲. Data
can be transmitted to the surface in real time by pres-
sure pulses through the mud inside the drill pipe 共timed
amplitude and phase encoding兲. Telemetry by conduc-
tor cable integrated with the drill pipe or temporary
digital recording at the sensor for later wire-line
retrieval are alternative data recovery methods. Com-
pare Tomex.
mechanical sources: Seismic sources such as vibrators
and weight droppers.
FIG. M-7. Types of means or averages.
228 Mercalli scale
mechanical seismograph: A seismic detector in which
共except for use of an optical lever arm兲 amplification of
the ground motion is accomplished by mechanical
means. Extensively used in early seismic prospecting.
median: The value that half of the members of a set
exceed and half are smaller than. Values equal to the
median may be placed in either subset to achieve this.
median filter: A nonlinear filter where the output is the
median value within a running window.
megabin: A bin made by combining several bins, often 4
or 9.
Megger: A hand-cranked, magneto-driven instrument for
measuring resistance.
Meissner technique: 共mīs’ n⳵r兲 Determining wavefronts
from shots at various depths into a spread of geo-
phones. Used to study near-surface anisotropy and
S-waves. See Figure M-8 and Meissner 共1965兲.
Meissner wave: Head wave 共q.v.兲.
meizoseismal region: The area of strong shaking and
significant damage in an earthquake.
M-electrode: Potential drop is measured between the M-
and N-electrodes in electrical-resistivity measurements.
See Figure E-10.
Member: A lithostratigraphic subdivision; see strati-
graphic classification.
membrane polarization: The induced-polarization effect
primarily caused by the restrictions of ion mobility as
opposed to electrode polarization. See also normal
effect. Also called electrolytic polarization. Compare
electrode polarization and overvoltage.
membrane potential: See electrochemical.
memorizer: A device used in recording well logs to shift
the reading of the sensors located at different places on
a sonde so that all are in register at the proper depth.
memory: A part of a computing machine in which data
can be stored and from which it can later be retrieved.
Primary or main memory is usually a solid-state type
共MOS or bipolar兲, secondary memory is usually mag-
netic disk or magnetic tape.
memory function: Impulse response 共q.v.兲 or memory
response of a filter or system.
MEMS: Micro-Electro-Mechanical System, a solid state
geophone. Input-Output term.
menu: A list of program options available.
menuBar: Graphic user interface component providing
pull-down lists of options for program configuration
and operation.
Mercalli scale: 共mer kāl’ ē兲 A descriptive scale that indi-
cates the degree of shaking at a specific location as a
result of an earthquake. The original scale was devised
in 1902. An abridged version of the modified Mercalli
Mercator projection 229
scale 共devised in 1931兲 is given in Figure M-9. Com-
pare magnitude of earthquake. Named for Giuseppi
Mercalli 共1850–1914兲, Italian geologist.
Mercator projection: 共m⳵r kā’ t⳵r兲 A conformal cylindri-
cal map projection 共q.v.兲 developed on a cylinder tan-
gent along the equator with the expansion of the merid-
ians equal to that of the parallels. See Figure M-4. The
transverse Mercator is a projection onto a cylinder at
right angles to the Earth’s axis. Named for Gerhardus
Mercator 共1512–1594兲, Flemish mathematician.
merge zone: A region where two sets of parameters are
used, their relative weighting depending on the location
within the zone.
mesh: A 2D or 3D grid used to approximate a continuous
or semicontinuous surface or volume for computer
modeling.
mesosphere: 共mez’ ⳵ sfēr,兲 The lowest of three zones into
which the outer part of the Earth is divided, overlain by
the asthenosphere and the lithosphere. The core is
below the mesosphere. See Figure E-1.
message: The desired information being sought. For
example a ‘‘satellite message.’’
metal factor „MF…: A measure of the total frequency-
dependent change in conductivity or capacitivity of a
FIG. M-8. Meissner technique for empirical construction of wavefront chart. (a) Traveltime from source B in the
borehole into geophone 6 is posted at (6,B), etc.; contouring the results gives the wavefronts that would have resulted
from a source at the top of the borehole (for uniform horizontal layering). (b) Example of a chart showing the effect of
a leached salt bed. (After Meissner, 1965.)
metal factor „MF…
rock, used in the interpretatation of IP data. Metal factor
is the percent-frequency-effect 共q.v.兲 normalized by
dividing by the measured resistivity 共␳ ␣ in ohm-feet兲
and multiplied by a constant:
M F⫽2 ␲ 10 3 共 PFE 兲 / ␳ ␣ .
1. Originally metal factor was defined as
M F⫽2 ␲ 10 5 共 ␳ dc ⫺ ␳ ac 兲 / 共 ␳ ac ⫺ ␳ dc 兲 ,
where ␳ dc is the low-frequency resistivity and ␳ ac is the
high-frequency resistivity in ohm-feet. 2. In the fre-
quency domain the definition used is
M F⫽2 ␲ 10 5 共共 ␳ dc ⫺ ␳ ac 兲 / 共 ␳ dc ␳ ac 兲 .
3. In the time domain, the metal factor is
M F⫽2000M / ␳ dc ,
where M is chargeability in millivolt-seconds per volt
and ␳ dc is in ohm-meters. This unit is similar to
Keller’s parameter, specific capacity 共q.v.兲 or static
capacity. 4. A constant times the ratio 共sometimes called
electric susceptibility or capacitivity兲 between
metallic-conduction factor 230 microlog

induced-current dipole moment per unit volume 共P兲 and

electric field 共E兲:
M F⫽2⫻10 6 P/E.
The metal factor has units of conductivity. It is also
called metallic-conduction factor.
metallic-conduction factor: Metal factor 共q.v.兲
metal-oxide semiconductor „MOS…: A field-effect tran-
sistor or integrated circuit characterized by extremely
high input resistance.
meteorology: See geophysics.
methane hydrate: See gas hydrate.
method of intersection: See triangulation.
method of least squares: See least squares fit.
metric: 1. A measurement; what is being measured. 2. The
SI system of units. See Appendix A.
Mev: Million Electron Volts. See electron volt.
mf: Subscript used with log terms to indicate values for
the Mud Filtrate.
MF: Metal Factor 共q.v.兲.
MFS: Maximum Flooding Surface 共q.v.兲.
mGal: Milligal; 10 ⫺3 Gal or 10 ⫺5 m/s2 . A unit of accel-
eration used with gravity measurements. Sometimes
written mG.
mho: 共mō兲 A unit of conductance or admittance, the recip-
rocal of ohm. The SI equivalent is called siemens.
mho per meterÄsiemens per meter: A unit of conduc-
tivity; the conductivity for which a meter cube offers a
resistance of one ohm between opposite faces. Recip-
rocal of ohm-meter.
mickey-mouse: Improvised; a short-cut method which
may sacrifice rigor.
micro „␮…: A prefix meaning 10 ⫺6 .
microcode: A set of primitive control functions perform-
able by a computer. Microcode is not generally acces-
sible to the programmer. See microprogram.
microcomputer: A class of computer having all major
central processor functions contained on a single
printed-circuit board. Microcomputers are typically
implemented by a small number of LSI circuits.
microcracks: A theory to explain the effect of pressure on
the velocity of non-porous rocks. Minute cracks
develop upon cooling because of differences between
thermal expansion characteristics among the minerals
of which the rock is composed. See Gardner et al.
共1974兲.
microearthquake: A discrete earthquake event of low
magnitude 共Richter magnitude ⬍3兲.
microgal: ⫽10 ⫺6 Gal⫽10 ⫺8 m/s2 .
microgravimetry: Measuring gravity to tens of micro-
gals, usually for environmental or engineering pur-
poses.
microinverse: See microlog 共q.v.兲.
microlaterolog: A microresistivity log 共q.v.兲 of the later-
olog 共q.v.兲 type. Similar to minifocused log, FoRxo log,
or trumpet log. See Figure M-10. Microlaterolog is a
Schlumberger tradename.
microlog: A type of microresistivity log using three button
electrodes spaced in a vertical line one inch apart
located on a pad which is pressed against the borehole
wall. The lower electrode is the ‘‘A’’ current electrode.
FIG. M-9. Modified Mercalli scale (abridged) of the inten- The potential of the upper electrode with respect to a
sity of earthquake effects. G⫽9.8 m/s2 ⫽nominal accel- reference electrode on the surface gives a 2-in. micro-
eration of gravity. normal and the difference between the two upper elec-
micronormal 231
trodes gives a 1 1/2-in. microinverse 共lateral-type mea-
surement兲. Because the mud cake usually has
appreciably smaller resistivity than the formation, the
microinverse reads less than the micronormal when
mud cake is present; this difference 共called separation兲
indicates a permeable formation. Similar to the contact
log or Minilog. Microlog is a Schlumberger tradename.
See Figure M-10.
micronormal: See microlog.
microphone detector: A seismic detector utilizing contact
resistance as part of the vibration-detecting element.
microphonics: 共mı̄, kr⳵ fon’ iks兲 Electrical noise gener-
ated by mechanical vibration.
microprobe: An analytic instrument that focuses a beam
of electrons on a mineral to excite x-rays that are then
used to identify the minerals.
microprogram: 1. A hardware program that controls how
a computer functions. It determines how a computer
interprets an instruction in machine language. 2. A
software program constructed from the basic subcom-
mands of a computer which the system hardware trans-
lates into machine subcommands. A microprogram pro-
vides a means of building various instruction
combinations out of the subcommand structure of the
computer.
micropulsations: Small amplitude fluctuations in the
FIG. M-10. Microlog (micronormal and microinverse) and
microcaliper log (on left) and microlaterolog (on right).
(Courtesy Schlumberger.)
migration „seismic…
Earth’s magnetic field, usually in the frequency range
from 0.01 to 3 Hz and usually with amplitudes less than
10 nanotesla. Micropulsations having amplitudes up to
tens of nanotesla result from interactions between
plasma emitted from the Sun 共solar wind兲 and the
Earth’s field. Micropulsations also result from lightning
strikes. Micropulsations are classified as continuous
(p c ), irregular (p i ), pearl (p p ), etc. Also called pulsa-
tions. See also bay, magnetic storm, and Figure M-2.
microresistivity log: A well log designed to measure the
resistivity of the flushed zone about a borehole,
recorded with electrodes on a pad pressed against the
borehole wall. See microlog and microlaterolog.
microscopic anisotropy: See anisotropy.
microseism: 共mı̄’ kr⳵ sı̄, z⳵m兲 Feeble earth tremors due to
natural causes such as wind, water waves, etc.
microseismogram log: Similar to the variable-density log
or three-D log 共q.v.兲; see Figure C-1.
microspread: A spread with very short geophone group
intervals 共1 to 15 ft兲, used in noise analysis 共q.v.兲.
mid-ocean ridge: A belt of elevated sea floor where plates
are separating.
midpoint: The point midway between a source and a
geophone.
Mie scattering: 共mē兲 Multiple reflection of light waves by
atmospheric particles that have approximately the same
dimensions as the light wavelengths. Named for Gustav
Mie 共1868 –1957兲, German physicist.
migration: 1. See migration (seismic). 2. Movement of
ions in a solution because of an electric-field gradient;
called mobility. 3. Movement of hydrocarbons between
the locales of their generation and accumulation. 4.
Movement of fluids 共e.g., of a oil and water兲 in a
reservoir.
migration „seismic…: An inversion operation involving
rearrangement of seismic information elements so that
reflections and diffractions are plotted at their true
locations. The need for this arises since variable veloci-
ties and dipping horizons cause elements to be recorded
at surface positions different from the subsurface posi-
tions. Time migration assumes that velocity varies
only in the vertical direction whereas depth migration
allows for horizontal variation of velocity also; both
time and depth migration results can be displayed in
either time or depth. Originally done by hand on inter-
preted seismic data, migration is now a computer opera-
tion on uninterpreted data using some form of, or
approximation to, the wave equation. Also called imag-
ing, the transformation of seismic data recorded as a
function of arrival time into a scaled version of the true
geometry of subsurface geologic features that produced
the recorded seismic energy. Imaging involves focusing
and positioning and depends on a specific earth model.
Focusing involves collapse of diffractors, maximizing
amplitude, reproducing wavelet character, etc; position-
ing involves locating events correctly, sharpening event
terminations relative to faults, salt flanks, unconformi-
ties, etc. A type of inversion 共q.v.兲.
Hand migration was based on measurements of the
arrival time and direction of the apparent dip 共which
defined the direction of the raypath兲. Because a
common-midpoint stack does not correctly stack dip-
ping events, poststack migration is cheaper than, but
inferior to, prestack migration. DMO 共q.v.兲 operation
migration distance
prior to stacking sometimes produces results equivalent
to prestack migration 共see Figure D-20e兲. Migration is
often 2D where only the apparent dip component in the
line direction is known. Conceptually, 3D migration is
simply an extension of 2D methods but often 3D migra-
tion is done by first migrating in one direction and then
migrating this intermediate result in the cross direction
共double 2D migration兲. Migration can be accom-
plished by integration along diffraction surfaces/curves
共Kirchhoff migration兲, by numerical finite-difference
or phase-shift, downward-continuation of the wave-
field, and by equivalent operations in frequency-
wavenumber or other domains 共frequency-domain
migration兲. See Figures M-11 and 12 and also map
migration 共from unmigrated time maps兲, Kirchhoff 共dif-
fraction collapse兲 migration, downward continuation,
Stolt 共f-k兲 migration, ␶ -p migration, Gadzag 共phase-
shift兲 migration, imaging principle, pseudospectral
migration, DMO poststack versus prestack migration,
time versus depth migration, Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
326 –33兲.
migration distance: The horizontal distance between
migrated and unmigrated positions.
migration equation: In a constant-velocity isotropic
medium, the reflection from a reflector dipping at the
angle ␣ has apparent dip ␤ 共Figure M-11a兲 given by the
migration equation,
sin ␣ ⫽tan ␤ .
migration fringe: See fringe.
migration velocity analysis „MVA…: Determining veloc-
ity distribution by iterative migration of profiles while
perturbing velocities, in an effort to maximize the stack
power and optimally focus events. Used to determine
lateral velocity variations.
FIG. M-11. Migration „a… in two and (b) three dimensions. (From Hagedoorn, 1954.) A point in unmigrated space
migrates to a wavefront surface and a point in migrated space specifies a diffraction surface. The shape of the wavefront
and diffraction surfaces depends on the velocity distribution above the reflecting point. Lateral velocity variations distort
the shape of these surfaces and shift the intersection of the surfaces away from the diffraction crest.
232 Milne’s method
mil: 0.001 inch.
Milankovitch cycles: 共mil ank’ ō vich兲 Climate cycles
produced by variations in the Earth’s orbit and conse-
quent variations in the amount of solar radiation the
Earth receives. Cycles resulting from variations in the
Earth’s orientation, precession, and orbit eccentricity
that presumably affect insolation and hence climate,
and thus produce periodicity in climate, sedimentation,
and eustasy. Orbital perturbations 共precession and
eccentricity variations兲 have periods of about 413, 123,
95, 41, and 21 ka. The periods 100, 41, 23, and 19 ka
can also be seen in oxygen isotope and other data. Van
Houten cycles of about 400, 100, 21 ka determined
from sediment repetitions in the Newark Basin roughly
correlate with Milankovitch cycles. Named for Milutin
Milankovitch, a Serbian mathematician. See Figures
M-13 and S-5, Arthur and Garrison 共1986兲, or Berger et
al. 共1984兲.
milli- „m-…: A prefix meaning 10 ⫺3 . Seismic events are
often timed in milliseconds 共ms兲.
milliard: A thousand million; 10 9 .
milligal „mGal…: A unit of acceleration used with gravity
measurements; 10 ⫺5 m/s2 . Sometimes abbreviated
mG.
milliradian „mrad…: A unit of angle 共or phase兲 measure-
ment equal to 0.0573 degrees of arc. One degree equals
17.45 milliradians.
millisecond „ms…: 1. A thousandth of a second. 2. A unit
of chargeability, the area under the decay curve of a
pulsed 共⫹, 0, ⫺, 0兲 square wave. See Figure S-19 and
chargeability.
Milne’s method: 共milnz兲 A technique for the numerical
solution of differential equations. See Sheriff and Gel-
dart 共1995, 529兲.
mineralization potential
mineralization potential: Natural voltages associated
with mineral deposits. Includes electrochemical SP and
electrolytic contact potentials 共q.v.兲 and probably other
causes.
minimax, min-max: See ᐉ p .
minimum-delay: Situation where causal energy arrives as
early as possible. See minimum phase.
minimum maximum offset: The smallest long-offset
trace in the nominal survey geometry.
minimum-phase: A two-term wavelet [a,b] is minimum-
phase if 兩 a 兩 ⬎ 兩 b 兩 . Any wavelet is minimum phase if the
two-term wavelets, into which its z-transform can be
factored, are each maximum-phase. Same as
minimum-delay. Much seismic processing assumes
minimum-phase properties. See phase characteristics
and Figure P-1. Opposite of maximum phase.
minimum-phase vibroseis correlation: Correlation with
a pilot sweep whose phase spectrum has been modified
to yield minimum-phase wavelets that have the same
FIG. M-12. Migration types. DMO (q.v.) is also thought of as a migration process. (After Yilmaz, 1987, 246.)
233 Mintrop wave
amplitude spectrum as the original pilot sweep’s auto-
correlation function.
minimum-time path: Least-time path 共q.v.兲.
minimum-variance deconvolution: A recursive decon-
volution scheme in which the wavelet is known and the
reflectivity sequence is assumed to be white. The error
variance between the output and the true reflectivity is
minimized.
Miniranger: A high-frequency radiopositioning system
that operates in rho-rho mode, used for short 共line of
sight兲 ranges. Motorola tradename.
Mini-Sosie: A shallow seismic method 共see Sosie兲
employing pseudorandom impacts from soil-
compaction tampers 共‘‘whackers’’兲 as the energy
source. Tradename of SNPA.
min-max: Minimax; see, ᐉ p .
minor: See matrix and Figure M-6.
Mintrop wave: 共min’ trup兲 Head wave 共q.v.兲. Named for
Ludwig Mintrop 共1880–1956兲, German geophysicist
minus values
who developed the refraction seismic method.
minus values: See plus-minus method.
MIP: Magnetometric Induced Polarization 共q.v.兲 method.
MIPS: Millions of instructions per second.
mirror: Reflector 共q.v.兲.
mirror-image display: Display of two sections joined at a
common point with the direction of one reversed so that
the match at the junction point can be more clearly
seen.
miscible: 共mis’ ⳵ b⳵l兲 The ability of fluids to mix together
to form one phase. Fluids that are not miscible tend to
separate and flow through porous rock differently. Oil
and water are immiscible, oil and gas are miscible at
high pressure and/or temperature.
miscible recovery methods: Enhanced oil recovery 共q.v.兲
methods that involve injecting a fluid that is miscible
with oil to increase the effectiveness of the oil’s flow
through the reservoir. The three fluids most used are
light hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Light
hydrocarbons that have been used include natural gas
and liquified petroleum gases 共LPG兲 such as propane,
FIG. M-13. Orbital periodicities affect the Earth. The
Milankovitch cycles presumably relate to eustasy. (From
Doyle and Bennett, 1998, 197.)
234 mob
butane, and ethane. Carbon dioxide flooding has been
the most promising. Nitrogen flooding has been effec-
tive in some circumstances.
misclosure: Mis-tie 共q.v.兲.
mise-à-la-masse method „MALM…: 共mēs’ a l⳵ mas,兲 An
electrical exploration method in which one current elec-
trode is positioned in a conducting mineral or coal
either in outcrop or in a borehole. The other current
electrode is a great distance away and the potential
electrodes are moved about with the objective of map-
ping the mineral or coal deposit. Also called excitation-
at-the-mass method.
misfit function: A function describing the misfit between
observed and modeled data; an error function.
mis-tie: 1. The difference between a predicted value and a
measured value. 2. The difference of values at identical
points on intersecting seismic lines, or of values deter-
mined by independent methods. The difference from
zero of the algebraic sum of measured differences
around a loop. 3. The difference obtained on carrying a
reflection, phantom, or some other measured quantity
around a loop. 4. The difference between the depths
predicted from seismic data and measured in a bore-
hole.
mixed-delay: Mixed-phase 共q.v.兲.
mixed-phase: A wavelet for which one or more of the
component two-element wavelets into which it can be
factored are minimum-phase and one or more is
maximum-phase. Same as mixed-delay. See phase
characteristics.
mixing: Combining the energy of different channels, gen-
erally to cancel noise. Mixing usually implies that no
time shifting is involved before the data are combined.
Also called compositing. 1. Modern processing com-
bines data by various stacking 共q.v.兲 operations, which
usually are not called mixing. See Figure S-20. Coher-
ency filtering and other processing techniques also
involve mixing. 2. Mixed records often preserved two
or more traces unmixed so that they would not be
distorted by the mixing. Mixing was usually not done
between channels on opposite sides of the source or
from one record to another.
mksa: The Meter-Kilogram-Second-Ampere system of
units, now replaced by SI, Système International, which
is identical in many regards. See Appendix A and
Figure M-1.
MMCF, MMcf: Millions of cubic feet equivalent. About
6000 ft3 of natural gas are equivalent to one barrel of
crude oil, condensate, or natural gas liquids. Cf. Mcf,
thousands of cubic feet equivalent.
MMR: MagnetoMetric Resistivity 共q.v.兲 method.
MMS: Minerals Management Service, the U. S. govern-
ment agency that controls leasing of minerals 共oil, gas,
sand, gravel, etc.兲 in federal U.S.waters.
MM scale: Modified Mercalli scale; see Mercalli scale.
M-N crossplot: A graph of the ratio of porosity deter-
mined from a sonic log to that from a density log (M)
against the ratio of porosity determined from a neutron
log to that from a density log (N).
mnemonic: 共nē mon’ ik or ni mon’ ik兲 An easily remem-
bered code word such as symbolic designations of
instructions to a computer.
mob: MOBilization, preparing a seismic crew to begin
work in a new survey area. Antonym: demob.
mobility
FIG. M-14. A model and its effects.
mobility: 1. The velocity of charge carriers per unit elec-
tric field. Usually refers to movement of ions in a
solution. Also called migration. 2. Permeability
divided by viscosity.
mobility ratio: Ratio of the mobility of the driving fluid to
that of the driven fluid.
mode: Manner of behaving. 1. A form of behavior, as in a
‘‘Love wave of the first mode.’’ 2. A method of opera-
tion, as in ‘‘Ioran C in the rho-rho mode’’ or ‘‘doppler-
sonar in the water-bottom mode.’’ 3. See statistical
measures.
mode conversion: Conversion of P-wave energy into
S-wave energy or vice-versa by oblique incidence on an
interface. See Zoeppritz’s equations.
model: 1. A concept from which one can deduce effects
for comparison to observations; used to develop a better
understanding of the observations. The ‘‘model’’ may
be conceptual, physical, or mathematical; see Figure
M-14. Models are essential in any interpretation or
inversion. For example, one might calculate gravity,
magnetic, or seismic effects for an assumed geological
structure and compare these with actual data. Agree-
FIG. M-15. Models of simple types often used in potential-field interpretation.
235 modular dynamic tester „MDT…
ment between observations and effects derived from the
model does not ‘‘prove’’ that the model represents the
actual situation; geophysical interpretation problems
almost always lack uniqueness. 2. Some simple math-
ematical models are shown in Figure M-15. The effects
of more complicated models may be collected into a
catalog of master curves or type curves for use in
comparison with observed effects. See synthetic seis-
mogram, numerical modeling, physical modeling, and
also Fagan 共1991兲.
model-based processing: All processing requires models.
modeling theory: Significant physical properties must
have certain ratios of dimensions for physical models to
be realistic representations. Three ratios may be
selected independently: geometric similarity, a ratio of
lengths; dynamic similarity, a ratio of masses; kine-
matic similarity, a ratio of times. Values of these fix
other model ratios. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995;
390-2兲.
modem: A device that converts a digitized code into ana-
log digital impulses 共or an audio signal兲 that are more
suitable for transmission over voice-grade telephone
lines, or for converting the audio signal back into
digitized code suitable for computer operations. Con-
traction of modulator-demodulator. Compare acoustic
coupler.
mode splitting: Birefringence 共q.v.兲.
modified Mercalli scale: See Mercalli scale and Figure
M-9.
modified Schmidt diagram: See Schmidt diagram.
modular dynamic tester „MDT…: Combination packer
and fluid sampler. Used to determine fluid properties,
modulation
pressures, samples, and to determine in-situ stresses
through mini-fracturing.
modulation: 1. The process by which some characteristic
of one signal is varied in accordance with another
signal. Examples are shown in Figure M-16. 2. A mea-
sure of the intensity of magnetization impressed on a
direct recording magnetic tape, often expressed as a
percentage of the amount which will produce a certain
amount of harmonic distortion. 3. Sometimes used to
imply the number of bits used to represent a maximum
voltage in digital recording. See also doublet modula-
tion.
modulus: 1. The absolute magnitude of a complex num-
ber. If the complex number is x⫹iy 共i being 公⫺1 兲, the
modulus is (x 2 ⫹y 2 ) 1/2 . 2. A number that measures a
force or coefficient pertaining to a physical property, as
in bulk modulus and Young’s modulus; see elastic
constants.
FIG. M-16. Modulation types. (a) The message directly.
(b) Amplitude modulation (AM); the amplitude of the
carrier wave varies as the message. The amplitude of the
carrier and its mirror image is the signal. (c) AC-bias
modulation; the bias varies as the message. (d)
Frequency modulation (FM); the frequency of the carrier
wave varies. (e) Pulse-width modulation (PWM); the
width of pulses varies. (f) Pulse-spacing modulation; the
timing of pulses varies. See also Figure D-23.
236 Monte Carlo method
modulus of compression: Bulk modulus; see elastic con-
stants.
modulus of elasticity: See elastic constants.
modulus of rigidity: Shear modulus; see elastic con-
stants.
modulus of volume elasticity: See elastic constants.
Moho: Mohorovičić discontinuity, the seismic discontinu-
ity that separates the Earth’s crust and mantle. Situated
25 to 40 km below the continents, 5 to 8 km below the
ocean floor, and 50 to 60 km below certain mountain
ranges. Characterized by a fairly abrupt increase of
P-wave velocity from 6.5–7.2 to 7.8 – 8.5 km/s, an
increase of S-wave velocity from 3.7–3.8 to 4.8 km/s,
and an increase in density from approximately 2.9– 3.3
g/cm3. Continental Moho is probably different from
oceanic Moho. The Moho is not the asthenosphere
boundary. The Moho head wave is designated P n . See
Figure E-1. Named for Andrija Mohorovičić 共1847–
1936兲, Croatian seismologist.
Mohorovičić discontinuity: 共mō, hō rō’ v⳵ chich兲 Moho
共q.v.兲.
Mohs hardness scale: See Figure H-2.
moment: See statistical measures.
moment of earthquake: A measure of the size of an
earthquake relating to the force couples across the area
of fault slip. The rigidity of the rock times the area of
faulting times the amount of slip, measured in Nm.
moment of inertia: A measure of the rotational inertia of
a body:
ᐉ⫽ 冕 0
r
m 共 r 兲 r 2 dr.
The moment of inertia can be determined from rota-
tional perturbations. It constrains models of the mass
distribution within the Earth.
monitor: 1. To inspect to verify that an operation is cor-
rect. 2. Hard copy or a record which permits verifying
correctness. 3. A sensor at a constant location that can
be used to determine changes that do not depend on the
location of mobile sensors.
monitor record: A record made as a check. 1. A record
made at the time a source is activated or immediately
afterward. 2. A record of shipboard gravity and mag-
netic measurements made while the measurements are
being obtained.
monitor survey: A follow-up survey designed to ascertain
changes that have occurred since an earlier base survey
of the same area. See time lapse.
monochromatic: Containing only one frequency.
monocline: 1. A gentle structural flexure over which dip is
everywhere in the same direction, though not of the
same magnitude. 2. A region of uniform dip, for which
homocline is the preferred term.
monoclinic asymmetry: See asymmetry (seismic).
Mono-pulser: A source for high-resolution seismic profil-
ing that contains frequencies from 100 Hz to 6 kHz.
Tradename of Van Reenan International.
montage display: 共mōn tazh’兲 The side-by-side display of
data from different sources, such as
log data⫹synthetic⫹seismic data, or of part of a seis-
mic line and a map.
Monte Carlo method: A mathematical method whereby a
calculation is repeated many times using a random
montmorillonite to illite 237 MSÕDOS

selection of possible values. The result gives a statisti- which are then stacked; used to determine the optimum
cal estimate for a solution. normal moveout for emphasizing certain events; see
montmorillonite to illite: A transition in clay that velocity analysis. 2. Different amounts of dip moveout
involves releasing bound water. Occurs at about 8000– are introduced successively in making an f-k analysis
11 500 ft at about 93–121 °C. 共q.v.兲.
monument: An identifiable point on the ground to which move-up: 1. Advancing from one source point to the next.
surveys can be tied. Intended to be permanent. May be 2. The distance that vibroseis sources must move
an inscribed tablet on concrete, a steel fence picket with between the last point of one source array to the first
identification attached, etc. A benchmark. point of the next.
Moon-position camera: A device for photographing the moving-coil geophone: An electrodynamic detector of
Moon against a background of stars; used for determin- seismic waves. See geophone.
ing geodetic location. moving neighborhood: A search neighborhood that uses
MOP: Moveable Oil Plot 共q.v.兲. only a portion of the control data during kriging or
MOS: Metal-Oxide Semiconductor. conditional simulation operations. Usually elliptical in
mosaic: An assemblage of images whose edges have been shape.
matched to form a continuous representation. moving source method: A profiling method in which a
Mosaic: A graphical interface program developed by Uni- fixed source-receiver configuration is moved about to
versity of Illinois National Center for SuperComputing explore an area. Usually applied to electromagnetic
Applications 共NCSA兲 for accessing documents on the methods for which the free-space coupling between the
World Wide Web through addresses called Uniform transmitter and receiver is fixed. Compare fixed-source
resource locators 共URL兲. method 共q.v.兲.
Moses: Magnetometric Offshore Electrical Sounding, a MPERM: Permeability estimated from NMR measure-
magnetometric resistivity 共q.v.兲 method comprising a ments by correlation with porosity and values of bound-
long vertical bipole transmitter that extends from the to-free water.
sea surface to the sea floor and a magnetometer receiver MPP: Massively Parallel Processor.
located on the sea floor. See Edwards et al. 共1985兲. MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging; see nuclear mag-
motherboard: Printed circuitboard in a computer that netic resonance.
houses the central CPU and primary control functions. MRIL log: Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log. See
motor rule: A rule for finding the direction in which a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) log. Numar trade-
current will be deflected in a magnetic field. See Figure mark.
I-3. ms: Millisecond or 10 ⫺3 second.
Mounce potential: 共mauns兲 See electrochemical SP. Also MSB: Most Significant Bit.
called shale potential. MSÕDOS: MicroSoft Disk Operating System; see DOS.
mouse: A pointing device that can be moved by hand
motion on a table to move a cursor on a computer
display; used as an interface for a microcomputer or
workstation.
mouse hole: A cased hole in which a length of drill pipe is
temporarily stored while waiting to be connected to the
drill string.
movable-oil plot „MOP…: A well log calculated from
other logs on which three porosity curves are plotted:
‘‘total’’ porosity ␾ t , such as is derived from the sonic
log; ‘‘apparent water-filled’’ porosity ␾ w , derived from
a deep-investigation resistivity device such as the later-
olog; and ‘‘apparent water-filled porosity of the flushed
zone’’ ␾ xo , derived from a shallow investigation resis-
tivity device such as the microlaterolog. The separation
between the first two curves indicates the volume frac-
tion of hydrocarbons in the noninvaded zone and the
separation between the last two curves indicates the
volume fraction of movable oil. The remainder repre-
sents residual hydrocarbons left in the invaded zone.
See Figure M-17.
moveout: Stepout, the difference in arrival time at differ-
ent geophone positions. 1. Arrival times differ because
of source-to-geophone distance differences 共normal
moveout, q.v.兲, because of reflector dip 共dip moveout兲,
and because of elevation and weathering variations
共static corrections, q.v.兲. See also delta-t. 2. Dip move-
ment alone; see Figure R-9.
moveout filtering: Apparent velocity filtering 共q.v.兲.
moveout scan: 1. Different amounts of normal moveout
are successively applied to common-midpoint gathers FIG. M-17. Moveable-oil plot. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
MSI
MSI: Medium-Scale Integration; a type of integrated cir-
cuit.
MSL: Mean Sea Level.
MS pickup: MagnetoStrictive geophone or other trans-
ducer.
MSS: MultiSpectral Scanner 共q.v.兲.
MT: MagnetoTelluric 共q.v.兲.
MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures.
MTTR: Mean Time To Recovery.
mud: An aqueous suspension used in rotary drilling. Mud
is pumped down through the drill pipe and up through
the annular space between it and the walls of the hole.
The most common bases of drilling muds are bentonite,
lime, and barite in a finely divided state. The mud helps
remove cuttings, prevent caving, seal off porous zones,
and hold back formation fluids. Oil-based muds
共inverted muds兲 are sometimes used; they generally are
nonconductors of electricity.
mud cake: Filter cake, the residue deposited on the bore-
hole wall as the mud loses filtrate 共the liquid portion of
mud兲 into porous, permeable formations. The mud cake
共average thickness of from a half to a few centimeters兲
generally has very low permeability and hence retards
further loss of fluid to the formation. See invaded zone.
mud cup: A container used to measure mud resistivity.
mud filtrate: Fluid that enters permeable formations from
the mud, leaving a mud cake on the borehole wall. See
invaded zone.
mud gun: An air gun 共q.v.兲 that can be operated in an
open borehole or in soft mud. Often about 150 in3
capacity.
mudline: The sea floor; the transition from a suspension
to grain-grain contact that begins to develop shear
strength 共and support S-waves兲 is sometimes very
gradual.
mud log: 1. As a rotary well is drilled, samples of the
circulating mud and its suspended drill cuttings are
examined for lithology and hydrocarbons by visual
observation 共including ultra-violet fluoroscopy兲 and for
gas-phase constituents by a Wheatstone bridge ‘‘hot-
wire’’ partition gas chromatograph or hydrogen-flame
ionization analyzer. A mud log is a plot of such mea-
surements, together with a lithologic log and a drilling-
time log 共showing rate of penetration兲. Used to detect
fluids that have entered the mud from the formations.
Hydrocarbons may be evidenced by fluorescence, by
chromatographic analysis, gas, and other ways. The
mud is also monitored for salinity and viscosity to
indicate water loss. Plots of such data are usually
included with a sample log and drill-time log. 2. A log
made with a microlog sonde with the arms collapsed so
that the measuring pad is not pressed against the bore-
hole wall. Measures resistivity of the mud at in-hole
conditions.
mudrock equation: An empirical equation relating the
velocities of P- (V P ) and S- (V S ) waves in water-
saturated clastic rocks:
V P ⫽1360⫹1.16 V S m/s.
Preferably the equation constants should be varied
empirically to fit local conditions. See Castagna and
Backus 共1993兲.
mudrock line: The line given by the mudrock equation
共q.v.兲.
238 multiple
mud roll: The equivalent of ground roll in a shallow
marine environment.
mudstone: Indurated mud without the laminations of
shale. Compare wackestone, packstone, grainstone.
mud weight: The density of drilling fluid 共see mud兲, usu-
ally expressed in pounds per gallon. 9.0 lb/gallon mud
produces hydrostatic or normal pressure 共0.465 psi/ft or
1.05⫻10 4 Pa/m兲; exact values depend on the fluid
density. Equivalent mud weight „EMW… is the mud
weight needed to balance formation-fluid pressure, i.e.,
it is the formation pressure divided by the depth below
the Kelly bushing converted to pounds per gallon 共the
conversion factor is 0.0519 psi/ft⫽1 lb/gal兲. Gener-
ally mud weight must be kept between normal 共hydro-
static兲 and fracture pressures to avoid risking a blow-
out; if it is smaller than the normal pressure, formation
fluids are apt to flow into the borehole, if it is too large,
the formation is apt to fracture 共at some pressure lower
than lithostatic pressure兲.
multichannel analysis of surface waves „MASW…:
Mathematical inversion of surface-wave dispersion to
estimate shear-wave velocity.
multichannel filtering: 1. Filtering wherein the filter
characteristics are based partially on the characteristics
of other channels. 2. A multichannel filter is often
expressed as a matrix of output responses on various
channels to impulsive inputs on various channels:
multichannel processing: Processing in which data from
different input channels 共different geophone groups, for
example兲 are combined in some manner.
multicomponent: 1. Three-component recording involves
the use of three orthogonal geophones, usually vertical
and two horizontal. Four-component recording adds a
hydrophone. Nine-component recording involves the
use of three orthogonal sources into three orthogonal
spreads of geophones. Occasionally, only two compo-
nents are recorded, sometimes in the two horizontal
directions, sometimes vertical and inline. See Tatham
and McCormack 共1991兲. 2. Recording multiple modes
of particle motion such as pressure, velocity, accelera-
tion.
multidimensional convolution: See convolution.
multidimensional Fourier transform: See Fourier
transform.
multidrop: A telecommunication system in which mul-
tiple devices are served by a single physical line.
multilateral: One of several horizontal wells drilled from
the same vertical borehole.
multipath error: An error because of the interference of
radio waves that have traveled by different paths.
multiple: Seismic energy that has been reflected more
than once. While virtually all seismic energy involves
some multiples, the important distinction is between
long-path and short-path multiples: a long-path mul-
tiple arrives as a distinct event whereas a short-path
multiple arrives so soon after the primary that it merely
adds tail to the primary 共i.e., changes the waveshape兲.
multiple branches 239
Short path multiples may obscure stratigraphic detail
even where structural aspects are not affected signifi-
cantly. The attitude of long-path multiples does not
represent the portion of the section associated with their
arrival time. Usually long-path multiples have traveled
more in the slower 共shallower兲 part of the section than
primaries with the same arrival time, so that they ordi-
narily show more normal moveout and can be attenu-
ated by common-midpoint stacking. See Figure M-18
and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 161-9, 292-3兲.
multiple branches: The situation where f ( ␣ ) has more
than one possible value for the same value of ␣. For
example, more than one reflection is obtained from a
reflector in a buried focus situation 共see Figure B-11兲.
multiple completion: Preparing a well for production
from more than one formation.
multiple coverage: Seismic arrangement whereby the
same portion of the subsurface is involved in several
records, as with CMP shooting. The redundancy of
measurements permits the attenuation of noise in pro-
cessing.
multiple geophones: A number of geophones 共a group兲
feeding a single channel; see array (seismic). Used 共a兲
to attenuate ground roll and other undesirable energy
that approaches the spread more or less horizontally
共see Figure D-15兲, 共b兲 to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio by increasing the sampling and thereby random-
izing planting factors, noncoherent energy, etc., and 共c兲
to increase sensitivity.
multiple reflections: See multiple.
multiple regression: A mathematical procedure for find-
ing the empirical equations that best fit a set of data in
the least-squares sense. See factor analysis.
multiple sources: Two or more sources at nearby loca-
tions that are activated simultaneously. Used to
decrease ground roll, to produce a directional wave, to
build up the strength of the downgoing wave, etc. The
objectives are thus similar to the use of multiple geo-
phones 共q.v.兲. Also includes the situation where sources
are activated sequentially and the results vertically
stacked.
FIG. M-18. Multiple types.
multiplicity
multiplex: 1. A process that permits transmitting several
channels of information over a single channel without
crossfeed. Usually different input channels are sampled
in sequence at regular intervals and the samples are fed
into a single output channel; digital seismic tapes are
multiplexed in this way. Multiplexing can also be done
by using different carrier frequencies for different infor-
mation channels and in other ways. 2. A stereoscopic
plotting instrument used in preparing topographic maps
by stereophotogrammetry.
multiplexed format: Time-sequential format, a data
sequence in which the first sample of channel 1 is
followed by the first sample of channel 2, then the first
sample of channel 3, etc., until the first sample of all
channels is given; then follows the second sample of
channel 1, the second sample of channel 2, etc. As
opposed to trace-sequential format in which the first
sample of channel 1 is followed by the second sample
of channel 1, etc., until all of channel 1 is given,
followed by channel 2, etc. If an array of data is thought
of as a matrix:
the multiplexed format may be thought of as reading by
columns and trace-sequential format as reading by
rows. The data output of digital recording equipment is
usually in multiplexed format whereas most data pro-
cessing is done in trace-sequential format. Converting
from the one format to the other 共demultiplexing兲 is
one of the first steps in data processing and usually part
of the edit routine. Such a format conversion is called
matrix transposition.
multiplier tube: Photomultiplier 共q.v.兲.
multiplicity: 1. The number of common-midpoint traces
that sample essentially the same portion of a reflector
but with different offsets. For example, ‘‘12-fold’’
multiprocessing
common-midpoint recording involves recording each
subsurface point 12 times, once with each of 12 differ-
ent offset distances. 2. The number of traces acquired
with independent raypaths which add together to pro-
vide a single output trace, also called effort 共q.v.兲.
Recording by reciprocal raypaths usually does not
count toward increased multiplicity.
multiprocessing: 1. A processing method in which pro-
gram tasks are divided among a number of independent
CPU’s with the tasks being executed simultaneously.
See parallel processing. 2. Processing where the com-
puter is working on several independent jobs simulta-
neously.
multiprogramming: A programming technique in which
two or more programs are operated on a time-sharing
basis, usually under the control of a monitor that deter-
mines when execution of one program stops and
another begins. Also called multitasking.
multispectral scanner „MSS…: A device that determines
the amplitude in each of several frequency windows of
a series of samples from successive locations. Early
Landsat images 共q.v.兲 included such a device and
looked at areas in four bands: green 共band 4兲, red 共band
5兲, a narrow near-infrared band 共band 6兲, and a broader
infrared band 共band 7兲. See Figure I-1.
multitasking: Working on several projects simulta-
neously; see multiprogramming.
multitemporal analysis: Comparison of images taken at
different times to observe changes. Often involves
forming difference images. As applied to remote sens-
ing images, often involves seasonal changes. See also
time-lapse seismology.
multithreaded: A program operated under multiple lines
of control, sharing common memory.
multivariant analysis: Factor analysis 共q.v.兲.
mute: To change the relative contribution of components
240 Myriaseis
of a stack with record time. 1. In the early part of the
record, long-offset traces may be muted 共excluded from
the stack兲 because they are dominated by refraction
arrivals or because their frequency content after NMO
correction is appreciably lower than other traces. Mut-
ing may be either abrupt or gradual, and may distort the
design for deconvolution or other operators. Muting is
shown in Figure V-7. 2. Muting may be done over
certain time intervals to keep ground roll, air waves, or
noise bursts out of the stack. See also tail mute 共inside
mute兲 and surgical mute, and compare diversity stack.
Also called fade.
mutual: Relations between circuits, such as the mutual
inductance, capacitance, or resistance 共impedance兲
between the transmitter and receiver circuits of an IP
survey system. See coupling.
mutual inversion: The simultaneous inversion 共q.v.兲 of
two independent data sets, as 共for example兲 gravity and
seismic data, to achieve a compatible model; joint
inversion.
mutual resistance: See electrode resistance.
MVA: Migration Velocity Analysis 共q.v.兲.
MWD: Measurement While Drilling 共q.v.兲.
My, MYBP: Millions of Years Before the Present. The
proper SI symbol is Ma.
Mylar: A polyester film of high strength and dimensional
stability, used as a base stock for drafting, light-
sensitive film, and magnetic tape. Tradename of
DuPont Co.
mylonite zone: A fine-grained, narrow, foliated zone
resulting from mechanical shearing stresses, often from
faulting.
myriameter waves: Electromagnetic waves in the VLF
range, 10 4 ⫺10 5 m 共3 to 30 kHz兲.
Myriaseis: A telemetry seismic system. IFP tradename.
 N
n: Nano-, the SI prefix for 10 ⫺9 .
N: 1. Newton 共q.v.兲, the SI unit for force. 2. The ratio of
porosity determined from a neutron log to that from a
density log. 3. The dimensionality 共degree of homoge-
neity兲 in Euler’s homogeneity equation 共q.v.兲.
␯: Nu共q.v.兲
nabla „ⵜ…: 共nab’ l⳵兲 Del 共q.v.兲.
NAD83: North American Datum 1983 共q.v.兲.
nadir: The point on the celestial sphere 180° from zenith
共q.v.兲.
Nafe-Drake relation: 共naf’ ē drāk兲 A postulated relation
between density and P-wave velocity; see Figure N-1.
Named for John Elliott Nafe 共1941–兲 and Charles Lum
Drake 共1924 –兲, American geophysicists.
name: A character string that is characteristic of a set,
object, or attribute.
namelist: A keyword format for giving parameter values
to a computer. An item in a namelist might look some-
thing like this:
&List TIME⫽3, NTRACE⫽6, V⫽5000, &END.
FIG. N-1. Nafe-Drake density-depth curve.
241
NAND gate: The negative of an AND gate. A circuit with
multiple inputs that functions unless signal is present at
all inputs. See gate and Figure B-5.
nano- „n-…: A prefix meaning 10 ⫺9 .
nanosecond „ns…: 10 ⫺9 second.
nanotesla „nT…: A unit of magnetic flux density. A
nanotesla⫽10 ⫺9 tesla⫽1 gamma.
National Center for SuperComputing Applications
„NCSA…: A University of Illinois center for Mosaic
共q.v.兲.
natural bin: A bin whose dimensions are related to source
and receiver-group spacings.
natural coordinate system: The coordinate system in
which expressions are simplest, minimizing cross
terms. See also principal direction.
natural frequency: The oscillation or vibration frequency
of a system in the absence of an oscillatory disturbing
force; eigenfrequency.
natural gamma-ray spectroscopy log: See gamma-ray
spectroscopy log.
natural gas: A highly compressible mixture of hydrocar-
bons occurring naturally in a gaseous form. The prin-
cipal component gases are approximately 80% meth-
ane, 7.0% ethane, 6.0% propane, 1.5% isobutane, 2.5%
butane, 3.0% pentane plus higher hydrocarbons.
natural gasoline: Light liquid hydrocarbons liquified
from natural gas or present as a condensate at the
wellhead.
natural polarization direction: A direction along which
wave displacement of a given body wave 共P, S1 , or S2 兲
lies for propagation in an anisotropic rock. Polarization
can also relate to the orientation of the source or
receiver.
natural remanent magnetism „NRM…: See remanent
magnetism.
Naudy filter: A space-domain filter that replaces very
small anomalies 共such as spikes兲 by interpolated values.
Naudy’s method: An automated profile-based depth-
estimation method 共see also inflection-tangent-
intersection method兲 involving cross-correlation of a
magnetic profile with theoretical anomalies, usually
dikes or plates. See Figure I-5 and Shi 共1991兲. Named
for Henri Naudy 共1928 –兲, French geophysicist.
navigation: Directing a craft from one point to another;
determining 共a兲 the location at a given moment and/or
共b兲 the direction and distance to a desired location. See
positioning.
Navstar satellite system: Global Positioning System
共q.v.兲.
NCN: A NitroCarboNitrate shothole explosive. Requires a
primer to detonate.
NCSA: National Center for Supercomputing Applications
共q.v.兲.
near-dc: The commutated dc or low-frequency ac used in
resistivity and IP surveying.
near-field: The field near a source. Relationships near a
source involve effects that attenuate rapidly with dis-
near-offset stack 242
tance as well as those that attenuate more slowly 共such
as spherical divergence兲. At large distances many near-
field phenomena are relatively unimportant. If the dis-
tance from the source is R and the wavelength is ␭,
near-field implies R⬍␭. In the near-field zone of an
antenna, fields vary predominantly as the inverse cube
of the distance. With EM methods, near-field implies
receiver-transmitter separation less than three skin
depths 共q.v.兲. Compare far field. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 48兲.
near-offset stack: A stack of only traces with small off-
sets so that reflection angles are small 共near normal兲;
used In AVO studies to compare with a far-offset stack.
Usually includes no more than the nearest third of the
traces. Also near-range stack.
near-surface geophysics: Generally means investigating
the uppermost 50–100 m. The objectives of near-
surface geophysics are often noninvasive investigations
of pollution problems, obtaining engineering informa-
tion, locating and defining archaeological sites, near-
surface structural features such as paleochannels and
faults, cavities and tunnels, minerals, groundwater,
pipelines, etc. Methods include surveys using gravity
and magnetics, electrical resistivity, self potential 共SP兲,
electromagnetics, ground-penetrating radar 共GPR兲,
seismic reflection, seismic refraction, and other meth-
ods.
near-surface corrections: Corrections applied to seismic
reflection times to accomodate changes in elevation and
velocity within the first hundred feet or so. Static cor-
rections 共q.v.兲.
near-trace cube: A 3D volume composed of short-offset
data only. Used for quality control during acquisition.
near-trace section: A seismic section that comprises only
the data from the geophone group 共or few groups兲
nearest the source. Also called short offset section.
near-zone sounding: An electromagnetic sounding 共q.v.兲
in which the source-receiver spacing is less than the
depth of investigation 共q.v.兲.
Neel point: See Curie point.
negative area: An area subject to more-or-less continual
subsidence.
negative frequency: The frequency of a sinusoidal
wavetrain traveling in the negative direction.
negative IP effect: An IP decay voltage opposite in sign to
that of the charging current, because of the geometric
relationship of a shallow polarizable body and the
measuring-electrode array.
negative pole: A south-seeking magnetic pole 共q.v.兲.
negative screening: An electromagnetic phenomenon in
which the presence of a conducting host enhances the
anomaly produced by a buried conductor. The effect
involves current flow between the host and the conduc-
tor. See current channeling.
negative standard polarity: See polarity standard and
Figure P-6.
neper: 共nē’ p⳵r or nā’ p⳵r兲 A unit for measuring ratios such
as voltage ratios. N is the number of nepers if N
⫽ln(V1/V2). It is thus similar to the decibel 共q.v.兲. One
neper⫽8.686 dB. See Figure D-3. Named for John
Napier 共1550–1617兲, Scottish mathematician, inventor
of logarithms.
neritic: 共n⳵ rit’ ik兲 Relating to water depths between low
tide and 200 m.
neutron-lifetime log
Nernst potential: 共nernst兲 See electrochemical SP.
Named for Hermann Walther Nernst 共1864 –1941兲,
German physicist.
nest: 1. An array of geophones, especially one containing
many geophones close together; a patch. 2. To embed a
subroutine or block of data in a larger routine or set of
data.
nested-variogram model: A linear combination of two or
more variogram models; e.g., a short-range experimen-
tal model combined with a longer-range spherical
model.
nesting: A programming technique in which one or more
iterative loops are included in a larger iterative loop.
net: 1. Internet 共q.v.兲. 2. The network of sensors that
positions the elements in a streamer system. 3. A neural
net 共q.v.兲.
net to gross thickness: The net thickness of a unit is the
thickness of reservoir-quality lithology 共usually sand兲
in the unit. This sometimes tends to be proportional to
the seismic amplitude, if the bed’s gross thickness is
less than a quarter of the dominant wavelength. The
gross thickness is the entire thickness of the unit 共often
given by the time interval between reflections from the
top and base of the unit 共where the thickness
⬎wavelength/4 兲, sometimes given by peak-to-trough
measurement.
network: 1. A set of points connected by communication
channels. 2. A system that converts an input function
into an output function. 3. Many small connected pro-
cessors that share computer power, storage, and periph-
erals. 4. Neural net 共q.v.兲.
Neumann problem: 共nū’ man兲 An initial-value problem
where the normal gradients at the boundaries of a
spatial region of interest are specified.
neural net, neural network: Artificial neural net. A
pattern recognition network that is used to divide data
into classes 共see classification兲. The network consists of
three layers of nodes 共input, hidden, and output layers兲
that are interconnected by artificial neurons that
develop weights that increase or decrease the signals
that come over them. Each node fires an impulse when
the sum of its inputs exceeds a threshold. Supervised
classification involves using a training set 共learning
set兲 consisting of examples of inputs and corresponding
desired outputs to ‘‘train’’ the network. Training
involves adjusting the weights of the artificial neurons
so that the desired outputs are achieved. Unsupervised
classification seeks to find the natural classes into
which the data may be subdivided. Useful for classifi-
cation of nonlinear, statistical, large, poorly understood
data sets.
neutral surface: The surface that separates compression
and tension regions. When a layer is folded, the inside
of the fold undergoes compression and the outside
tension.
neutron activation log: See gamma ray spectroscopy log.
neutron-lifetime log: A well log of the capture cross-
section of thermal neutrons; similar to the thermal-
decay-time log. A Van de Graaf neutron generator in the
sonde periodically releases a burst of neutrons that
enter the formation and begin to lose energy in colli-
sions. The neutron-lifetime log measures the thermal
neutrons at two discrete time intervals after a neutron
burst. Measurements are made of the gamma rays that
neutron log 243
result from the capture of neutrons by nuclei in the
thermal-decay-time log. The quantity plotted is some-
times 共a兲 the reciprocal of the percentage that decay per
unit of time, called the thermal decay time ␶ ; 共b兲 the
time for the thermal neutron population to fall to half
value, called the neutron lifetime L; or 共c兲 the macro-
scopic capture cross-section ⌺ that is derivable from
the foregoing (⌺⫽4.55/ ␶ ⫽3.15/L). Thermal neu-
trons are captured mainly by the chlorine present and
hence this log responds to the amount of salt in forma-
tion waters. Hydrocarbons result in longer decay times
than salt water. Log readings are porosity-dependent
and sensitive to clay content and permeability changes.
This log is used in cased holes where resistivity logs
cannot be run or to monitor reservoir changes to opti-
mize production. It resembles a resistivity log with
which it is generally correlatable. Dresser Atlas trade-
name. See Figure N-2c and pulsed neutron capture log.
neutron log: A porosity well log that measures hydrogen
density; a low hydrogen density indicates low liquid-
filled porosity. Porosity calculated from the neutron log
is affected somewhat by the formation matrix and by
the presence of gas. Neutron log values are used in
crossplots with other porosity log values to detect gas
and determine lithology. Neutron logs are sometimes
scaled in API units, sometimes in porosity units assum-
ing a limestone or sandstone matrix. The neutron log
can be recorded in cased holes. See Figure N-2a. Fast
neutrons emitted by a source in the tool are slowed to
thermal speed by collisions with 共mainly兲 hydrogen
atoms. The thermal neutrons are then captured by
atomic nuclei of the surrounding material 共mainly chlo-
rine atoms兲 at which time a characteristic gamma ray of
capture is given off. 共a兲 The epithermal neutron tool
detects neutrons at high energy level after they have
been slowed down by atoms in the formation; 共b兲 the
thermal neutron tool detects neutrons with energy of
about 0.025 eV. 共c兲 The neutron-gamma tool detects
gamma rays that originate from the absorption of ther-
mal neutrons by atoms with high absorption power,
such as chlorine. See also sidewall neutron log.
Newmont EMP: A transient electromagnetic method
共q.v.兲 that employs a large fixed transmitter loop. Acro-
nym for ElectroMagnetic Pulse method.
newton „N…: 共noot’ ⳵n兲 The SI unit of force; the net force
on a kilogram that will produce an acceleration of one
meter per second per second. 10 7 dynes.
Newtonian liquid: A substance in which the rate of shear
strain is proportional to the shear stress:
␶ ⫹ ␲ ␦ ⫽2 ␯ d␧/dt,
where the proportionality constant ␯ is the viscosity.
The deviatoric stress is proportional to the shear strain
rate.
Newtonian interpolation: For a function known at regu-
larly spaced points, y n ⫽ f (x o ⫹nh), the value at y u
⫽ f (x o ⫹uh) can be approximated by a series for
which the k th term is u(u⫺1)...(u⫺k)⌬ k y o /k!,
where ⌬ is the forward difference operator. A similar
relationship can be used for backward prediction, its k th
term being u(u⫹1)...(u⫹k)⌬ k y o /k!.
Newtonian potential: A potential associated with the
inverse-square law, e.g., gravitational potential 共q.v.兲.
NN
Newton-Raphson technique: An iterative method of
finding a numerical solution of an equation, f (z)⫽0. A
first value of z i is tried, and then the next trial value is
z i⫹1 ⫽z i ⫺ f (z i )/ f ⬘ (z i ), where f ⬘ is the first derivative
with respect to z. Where the process converges, trials
are repeated until successive values come sufficiently
close together.
Newton’s laws: 1. First law of motion: A body does not
change its state of motion unless acted on by an exter-
nal force. Second law: Acceleration equals the unbal-
anced force divided by the mass. Third law: If two
bodies interact, the force exerted by the first on the
second equals the force exerted by the second on the
first. 2. Newton’s law of universal gravitation: See
gravitational constant Named for Sir Isaac Newton
共1642–1727兲, English physicist.
n-factor: The exponent that expresses the change in
amplitude of a field with distance. For an actual
anomaly, n may be determined by a gradiometer
arrangement or calculated from field measurements.
NFS: Network File System.
NG: No Good.
NGL: Natural Gas Liquids, a mixture of ethane, propane,
butane, and pentanes.
NI: Normal Incidence reflection coefficient, R⬜ :
V 2 ␳ 2 ⫺V 1 ␳ 1
NI⫽ ⫽R⬜ ,
V 2 ␳ 2 ⫹V 1 ␳ 1
where V is velocity and ␳ is density, and the subscripts
refer to values on opposite sides of an interface. The
abbreviation is used in connection with Poisson’s
reflectivity in studies of amplitude variation with offset.
nine-component „9-C… recording: Recording of three
components of motion from each of three sources that
generate orthogonal motions.
nine-component three-dimensional survey: A 3D sur-
vey employing nine-component (9-C) recording 共q.v.兲.
See Tatham and McCormack 共1991兲.
ninety-degree wavelet: A linear-phase wavelet 共q.v.兲
whose phase is 90° everywhere.
nitrocarbonitrate: A class of mostly non-cap-sensitive
explosives based on ammonium nitrate mixed with
organic material; used as a seismic source.
Nitramon: An ammonia-gelatin explosive, not cap sensi-
tive, which requires a primer to detonate it. Tradename
of E.I. DuPont.
N-layered earth: A layered earth 共q.v.兲 consisting of N
⫺1 layers overlying a half-space 共the N th layer兲.
NML: Nuclear Magnetism Log 共q.v.兲.
NMO: Normal MoveOout 共q.v.兲.
NMO stretch: The shift toward lower frequencies that
results from applying the normal-moveout correction
共q.v.兲 to offset seismic traces. Measured by the change
in a period as a result of applying NMO. A shift to
lower frequencies generally means poorer resolution.
Muting is often done at 50–100% NMO stretch.
NMO velocity: Stacking velocity; see velocity.
NMR: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. See nuclear mag-
netic resonance log 共NMRIL兲.
NMR core analysis: In addition to NMR log data, NMR
laboratory measurements can deal with nuclei of carbon
to give oil saturation, sodium to give salinity, and
fluorine for tracer tests.
NN: Normal Null, a mark for sea level.
 NN
244

FIG. N-2. (a) Neutron log; (b) sidewall neutron log; (c) neutron lifetime log. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
NN
NOAA
NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion, a part of the United States Department of Com-
merce.
nodal plane: 1. A surface within a steady-state wavefield
that does not involve motion. 2. The first motion from
an earthquake may be either a push or pull, depending
on the orientation of the station with respect to the
epicenter and the direction of motion along the earth-
quake fault. A nodal plane separates the region where
the first motion is a push from the region where it is a
pull. There are two such planes for first-energy
P-waves, one of which is the fault plane.
node: 1. An end point of a branch in a network, or a
junction common to two or more branches in a network
or mesh. 2. One data item in a linked list. 3. A point of
rest in a vibrating system, a result of the interference of
oppositely directed wavetrains 共standing waves兲; e.g.,
one of the stationary points on a vibrating string. 4. The
intersection of the Earth’s orbit with the ecliptic plane.
5. A single seismometer 共often multicomponent兲 as
opposed to a receiver group. 6. A node system for
3-component recording uses single seismometers with-
out a cable connecting them to avoid biasing the hori-
zontal component recordings. Data are sometimes
transmitted by radio, or sometimes stored for future
harvesting.
noise: 1. Any unwanted signal. 2. A disturbance that does
not represent part of a message from a specified source.
3. Sometimes restricted to random energy. To the extent
the noise is random 共but most noise is not兲, its ampli-
tude can be attenuated by a factor of 公n by composit-
ing n signals from independent measurements. 4. Geo-
logic noise is interference from unwanted geologic
conditions. See also noise (electrical); noise (gravity
and magnetic); noise (seismic).
noise „electrical…: 1. Noise in electrical or IP surveying
can be a result of interference from power lines, motor-
generator or electronic components, atmospheric elec-
trical discharges 共sferics兲, or low-frequency magneto-
telluric phenomena. 2. Electrical circuit noise is caused
by the randomization of conduction electrons 共Johnson
noise兲, the discreteness of magnetic transitions
共Barkhausen noise兲, the discreteness of charge carriers
in semiconductors 共shot noise兲, modulation noise, and
other causes.
noise „gravity and magnetic…: Disturbances in observed
data caused by more-or-less random inhomogeneities in
surface and near-surface material and errors in obser-
vation and reduction of data.
noise „seismic…: Seismic energy other than primary reflec-
tions; includes microseisms, source-generated noise,
multiples, tape-modulation noise, harmonic distortion,
etc. Sometimes divided into coherent noise 共including
nonreflection coherent events兲 and random noise 共wind
noise, instrument noise, and other noncoherent energy兲.
Ambient seismic noise refers to the background of
random earth movements. Sometimes restricted to seis-
mic energy not derived from the source.
noise analysis „seismic…: A profile or set of profiles
designed to gather data for an analysis of coherent noise
trains, usually made with closely spaced geophones
microspreads 共q.v.兲 without any ground mixing so that
low-velocity noise trains will be evident. See Figure
N-3a. Results are often illustrated on a frequency-
245 nonsingular
versus-wavenumber graph 共see Figure N-3b兲.
noise level: Noise level is sometimes indicated by the
ratio of the autocorrelation of the signal plus noise to a
crosscorrelation taken to represent the signal.
noise survey: Ground noise survey, mapping ambient
seismic noise levels within a given frequency band. A
technique for detecting geothermal reservoirs that are
often a source of short-period seismic energy.
nominal time: The record of the time sequence of events,
e.g., the time scale on a seismogram, as contrasted with
real time, the time when the events actually occurred.
nomogram: A set of scales arranged on a sheet of paper
such that straight lines drawn through points on two
scales intersect another scale to yield a solution to a
mathematical expression. See Figures A-7 and F-26.
nonconditional simulation: A method that does not use
control data during the simulation. Used to observe the
behavior of a spatial model and neighborhood design.
nondipole field: See magnetic field of the Earth.
nonexclusive data: Data available to be used for a fee and
subject to restrictions that protect the interests of the
owner of the data.
nonfaradaic path: The virtual passage of current near an
electrode as a result of reorientation of the ionic layers
of the double layer. The process is analogous to charg-
ing a capacitor in that charge carriers are not trans-
ported across the interface.
nonhyperbolic normal-moveout „velocity… analysis:
Analysis that allows for typical vertical changes in
velocity and anisotropy when using long offsets, that is,
where the offset exceeds the reflector depth. In this case
the hyperbolic equation for a reflection can often be
expressed as
t x 2 t 0 2 关 1⫹ 共 x/t 0 V 兲 2 ⫺2 ␩ 共 x/t 0 V 兲 4 /
兵 1⫹ 共 1⫹2 ␩ 兲共 x/t 0 V 兲 2 其 兴 ,
where t 0 is the zero-offset traveltime, x is offset, V is
P-wave velocity, and ␩⫽共␧⫺␦兲/共1⫹2␦兲 where ␧ and ␦
are Thomsen anisotropic parameters 共q.v.兲. Use of the
4th-order term given by a Taylor expansion corrects for
the undesirable ‘‘hockey-stick effect.’’
nonimaging: See remote sensing.
nonlinear sweep: A vibroseis sweep where more time is
spent sweeping high frequencies than low frequencies,
to compensate for high-frequency attenuation in the
signal’s travel through the earth, or to shape to a Ricker
wavelet.
nonnormal: 1. Not Gaussian; see Gaussian distribution.
2. Not perpendicular. 3. Different from the ordinary.
nonpolarizable electrode: An electrode whose potential
is not affected by the passage of current through it. An
electrode that is free of potentials caused by electro-
chemical action between the electrode and the ground.
See porous pot.
nonreciprocity for C-waves: The travelpaths of con-
verted waves are asymmetric and hence the conversion
point is different if source and geophone are inter-
changed.
nonseismic geophysics: Geophysical techniques other
than seismic reflection. Seismic refraction and passive
seismic is sometimes included, sometimes not.
nonsingular: Having an inverse. The determinant of a
nonsingular matrix does not vanish so the matrix has
an inverse. There is an inverse transformation for a
nonuniqueness 246 normal

nonsingular transformation. no-permit area: An exclusion zone because of permit

nonuniqueness: The existence of more than one solution
regardless of the precision of observations. As opposed
to instability, the situation where different solutions are
acceptable because of observational errors. Both result
in ambiguity.
nonvolatile memory: A type of computer memory that
preserves data during power loss or system shutdown.
Magnetic core read/write systems are typically non-
volatile.
restrictions.
NOR gate: The negative of an OR gate 共‘‘inclusive OR’’兲.
A circuit with multiple inputs that functions unless
signal is present on any input. For inputs A and B, NOR
is designated A⫹B; see gate and Figure B-5.
normal: 1. Orthogonal; perpendicular to a surface or to
another line. 2. In the absence of an anomaly, as in a
‘‘normal time-distance curve.’’ 3. Gaussian distribution

FIG. N-3. Noise analysis or walkaway. (a) Source was vibroseis, geophones were spaced 1.5 m apart, offset to first
phone was 425 m. The 1890 m/s arrival is a refraction from the base of the weathering, the 530 and 620 m/s arrivals
are ground-roll modes; the 330 m/s event is an air wave. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.) (b) Frequency-wavenumber sketch
for the data; see also Figure F-11.
normal compaction trend
共q.v.兲. 4. A now-obsolete resistivity well log in which a
constant current is passed between a current electrode
in the sonde and a remote electrode 共electrodes A and
B兲 while the potential difference is measured between
another electrode in the sonde and a reference electrode
at the surface 共electrodes M and N兲. The spacing is the
distance between the A- and M-electrodes for the nor-
mal. A spacing of about 16 inches was used for the
short-normal and 64 inches for the long-normal. See
Figures E-10 and S-17.
normal compaction trend: The change with depth of
physical properties, especially seismic velocity, that are
compatible with normal pressure 共q.v.兲.
normal correction: 1. Subtracting the normal magnetic
field from magnetic data. 2. Normalizing the ratio of
successive Turam readings by dividing by the ratio of
the primary fields. Differs from the free-air Turam
correction where the ground is conductive.
normal dispersion: A decrease of velocity with frequency
that leads to the higher frequencies in a wavelet arriving
later as wave-propagation time increases. Decrease of
velocity with frequency is the usual situation for a
seismic surface wave. See dispersion. Antonym:
inverse dispersion.
normal distribution: See Gaussian distribution.
normal effect: An unwanted background IP effect caused
in part by membrane polarization, found to some extent
in most rocks. See also background polarization.
normal equations: The set of linear simultaneous equa-
tions whose solution gives a least-squares fit 共in par-
ticular, a Wiener filter, q.v.兲:
␾ zx 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽⌺ f t ␾ xx 共 ␶ ⫺t 兲 .
A digitized input x t passed through the filter f t yields
the actual output y t which in a least-squares sense is
closest to a desired output z t ; ␾ xx ( ␶ ) is the autocorre-
lation of x t and ␾ zx ( ␶ ) is the cross-correlation of z t
with x t as a function of a time shift ␶. See Levinson
algorithm.
normal fault: See fault and Figure F-3.
normal gravity: The value of gravity at sea level accord-
ing to a formula that assumes the Earth to have a
simple, regular ellipsoidal shape. See latitude correc-
tion.
normal incidence: A raypath impinging on an interface at
right angles. In isotropic media, equivalent to a wave-
front striking an interface broadside, i.e., so that the
angle between the wavefront and the interface 共angle of
incidence兲 is zero.
normalize: 1. Forming a ratio with respect to a standard
共the normal兲. A normalized value usually is dimension-
less. Normalizing often consists of scaling such that
‘‘something equals one,’’ the ‘‘something’’ being the
rms value, the maximum value, etc. For example,
an array response may be normalized by dividing
each value by the rms value; hence for the array
X⫽(x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n ), the rms value is Y ⫽[(x 21
⫹x 22 ⫹...⫹x 2n )/n] 1/2 and the normalized array is
(x 1 /Y ,x 2 /Y ,...,x n /Y ). Autocorrelations are normal-
ized by dividing by the value at zero time lag so that the
maximum value of ‘‘one’’ indicates perfect correlation.
Type curves 共calculated effects for a model body兲 often
are normalized so that the maximum effect is one. 2. To
adjust a floating point number so that the most signifi-
247 normal pressure
cant bit 共or digit兲 is held in the highest position of the
mantissa, thereby permitting maximum precision to be
represented. 3. Scaling so that the rms amplitudes of all
traces are equal. 4. To adjust measurements so that they
fall within a prescribed range.
normalized apparent resistivity: Apparent resistivity
divided by the resistivity of the upper layer. In con-
structing type curves, normalized apparent resistivity is
plotted against normalized electrode interval 共electrode
interval divided by depth to the second layer兲. See
apparent resistivity curve.
normalize VSP on first breaks: Adding 共or subtracting兲
first-break times or changing trace spacing to align
upgoing 共or downgoing兲 events prior to interpretation.
normal log: See normal.
normal magnetic field: 1. A smooth component of the
Earth’s magnetic field that is free of anomalies of
exploration interest. Ordinarily computed from a low-
order spherical harmonic expansion constrained by sat-
ellite measurements. The normal field of the Earth
varies slowly with time. Often identified with the Inter-
national geomagnetic reference field 共q.v.兲. 2. The mag-
netic field of the Earth 共q.v.兲 during an epoch when it is
roughly aligned with the present-day field. Antonym:
reversed magnetic field.
normal mode: Free vibrations of a system; the character-
istic frequency of each mode is its eigenfrequency. The
number of independent normal modes equals the
degrees of freedom. See also normal-mode propaga-
tion.
normal-mode propagation: Waves trapped in a wave-
guide 共channel waves, q.v.兲.
normal moveout „NMO…: The difference in reflection
arrival time because the geophone is not located at the
source point, i.e., because of source-to-geophone dis-
tance 共offset兲. Usually applied to common-midpoint
gathers, it is the additional traveltime required because
of offset, assuming that the reflecting bed is not dipping
and that raypaths are straight lines. this leads to a
hyperbolic shape for a reflection. Because the raypath
actually curves as the velocity changes, fitting a hyper-
bola assumes that the actual velocity distribution is
equivalent to a constant NMO velocity, but the NMO
velocity changes with the offset. However, the assump-
tion often provides an adequate solution for offsets less
than the reflector depth. The NMO correction applied to
long-offset data generally creates a ‘‘hockey-stick’’
effect giving long-offset traveltimes that are too small
and causing waveshape broadening and loss of resolu-
tion. For long-offsets the reflection curvature becomes
nonhyperbolic because of vertical changes in velocity
and anisotropy and a nonhyperbolic normal-moveout
analysis 共q.v.兲 has to be used. Reflector dip also has
effects that often require a DMO correction. The func-
tions of the NMO and DMO operations are illustrated
graphically in Figure D-20e.
normal-moveout correction: The time correction applied
to reflection times because of normal moveout.
normal moveout spectrum: The energy of a stacked trace
as a function of arrival time and normal moveout.
normal moveout velocity: Stacking velocity 共q.v.兲.
normal pressure: Formation fluid pressure equal to
hydrostatic pressure, the pressure produced by a col-
umn of formation fluid extending to the surface. Hydro-
normal problem
static pressure is about 0.465 psi/ft 共1.05
⫻10 4 Pa/m, equivalent to 9.2 lb/gallon mud兲; it would
be 0.433 psi/ft for pure water. Fluid pressure greater
than normal is called overpressure, that lower than
normal, underpressure. See Figure P-12.
normal problem: A direct problem 共q.v.兲.
normal ratio: Ratio between the readings of two coils in
electromagnetic surveying, in the absence of conduc-
tive material. See primary ratio.
normal ray: A reflection raypath that is perpendicular to
the reflector. Compare image ray that is perpendicular
to the earth’s surface.
normal strains: See strains.
normal traveltime curve: A time-distance curve for a
geologic section that does not contain anomalies of the
type sought. Departures from the normal may indicate
structures. Used in fan shooting 共q.v.兲.
NORSAR: A very large seismic array located in Norway;
see Large-aperture seismic array.
North American Datum 1983 „NOAD83…: The geocen-
tric ellipsoid that is the official frame of reference for
locations in North America. Supercedes the North
American 共Meades Ranch兲 Datum of 1927.
northing: 共nor’ thing兲 1. Distance north of an east-west
reference line. See latitude. 2. The latitude difference
between a point and the previous point. 3. In the Uni-
versal Transverse Mercator system 共q.v.兲, northing indi-
cates distance in meters north of the equator. In the
Southern hemisphere, the equator is assigned the value
of 10 000 000 m so that false northing values will be
positive.
north-seeking pole: See magnetic pole.
FIG. N-4. Number systems.
248 NSF
nose: 1. A plunging anticline with structural closure in
three out of four directions. 2. An anomaly for which
the contours do not close, as a ‘‘gravity nose’’ or
‘‘magnetics nose.’’
nose stinger: A mounting for an instrument 共often a mag-
netometer兲 that protrudes from the nose of a survey
aircraft.
notch filter: A filter that is designed to remove a narrow
band of frequencies. Often used to remove high-line
effects; see high line.
not drillable: See undrillable.
NR: No Reflection events. 1. Denotes an event believed to
not be a reflection. 2. Denotes absence of reflections. 3.
No record.
NRM: Natural Remanent Magnetization; see remanent
magnetization.
NRZ: NonReturn to Zero. A method of digital recording
on magnetic tape in which magnetization in one direc-
tion indicates a ‘‘0’’ and in the opposite direction indi-
cates a ‘‘1.’’ Compare NRZI.
NRZI: Non-Return to Zero Invert, a system of encoding
bits of information on magnetic tape, wherein a reversal
of the magnetization polarity indicates a ‘‘1’’ and no
change of polarity indicates a ‘‘0.’’ Compare NRZ.
NS: No Source; designates a scheduled source-point loca-
tion 共on a map兲 that has not been used.
NSC: Necessary and sufficient conditions; a minimum
complete set of conditions which are needed for a
problem’s solution to exist or for a situation to be true.
NSF: National Science Fountation, an organization
funded by the United States government to support
fundamental research.
NT 249
NT: Windows NT 共q.v兲.
NTP: Normal Temperature 共0 °C兲 and Pressure 共one
atmosphere兲.
n-type semiconductor: A doped semiconductor with
more electrons than holes available for carrying
charges. Also called a donor.
nu „␯…: The Greek letter nu.
nuclear cement log: A well log of scattered gamma rays,
differing from a density log in that the gamma-ray
source and detector are so spaced as to be sensitive to
the density of material in the annulus. Used for distin-
guishing between cement and fluids behind casing. Can
be run in an empty hole.
nuclear magnetic resonance „NMR…: Nuclei with odd
numbers of electrons behave as magnets because of
their spin. Their magnetic moments tend to orient when
located in a static magnetic field. An orthogonal oscil-
lating magnetic field excites them 共polarizes them兲
when it is at the Larmor frequency 共their natural fre-
quency兲 and causes them to precess about the static
field; the polarized precessing signal can be measured
in a coil orthogonal to the exciting field. Polarization
does not occur instantaneously but grows with time.
When the exciting field is removed, the spins gradually
return to their original state. The rate of return 共relax-
ation time兲 depends on interactions with neighboring
atoms and hence on the molecule of which the nucleus
is a part. Relaxation time is the time for the magneti-
zation to reach 63% of its final value. T 1 is the longi-
tudinal or spin-lattice relaxation time and T 2 is the
transverse or spin-spin relaxation time.
nuclear-magnetic resonance „NMR… log: The NMR tool
measures the spin 共gyromagnetic ratio兲 of hydrogen
nuclei and thus the properties of pore fluids. The
response is essentially only that of the protons in fluids
as the nuclei in solids have little direct effect on the
measurements. Hydrogen nuclei are aligned with a
static magnetic field and then disturbed by a radio-
frequency pulse that involves transverse magnetization.
Changing their alignment involves a time delay 共relax-
ation time兲 that depends on their immediate surround-
ings in the molecule and thus on the molecule’s envi-
ronment. Bound water results in a shorter relaxation
time and relaxation-time analysis can give the distribu-
tion of the pore-sized in which the water molecules
reside as well as the kind of molecule 共water of oil兲.
The nuclear magnetic resonance imaging log
共NMRIL兲 permits determining the fluid-filled porosity
independently of the lithology, water saturation without
knowing the salinity, and estimates of the permeability,
fluid type, percentage of moveable fluid 共free-fluid
index, q.v.兲, and other factors under certain circum-
stances. It measures the decay rate of the nuclear spin
of hydrogen in water and oil within a thin annulus
several inches into the formation 共Chandler et al.,
1994兲. The output is water-filled porosity units. The rate
of alignment gives T 1 relaxation time, decay gives T 2
relaxation time. The data can be transformed to the
proton population in various relaxation time gates
共Prammer, 1994兲. Bound-water volume and free-fluid
index calculated from these data correspond to the
small and large pores to distinguish between immobile
and mobile fluids. Permeability can be calculated from
porosity and relaxation-time calculations 共Coates et al.,
Nyquist wavenumber
1994兲 based on locally-established relationships. Also
called nuclear magnetism log, free-fluid log, and
NMRIL log. 共a Haliburton tradename兲. See Coates et
al. 共1999兲 and Western Atlas 共undated兲. See also proton-
resonance magnetometer.
nuclear-precession magnetometer: A magnetometer
using nuclear resonance; the resonance frequency is
proportional to the absolute magnetic-field strength.
See also proton-resonance magnetometer and optically
pumped magnetometer.
nugget: The value of a variogram at zero range 共zero
distance兲, a measure of short-range variability. For
physical parameters the nugget is nearly zero, that is,
measurements at the same point determine the same
value. Model veriograms usually assume zero nugget.
See Figure V-1.
null: Zero. A null measurement is one in which a balance
is indicated by some quantity becoming zero, such as
the current in one arm of a bridge circuit. The magni-
tude of the balancing ‘‘force’’ is then proportional to the
quantity to be measured. For example, spring tension
balances out the gravitational force in a gravimeter, the
balance condition being indicated by null deflection.
null space: Space containing nothing.
null zone „gravity…: Depth range where the density of
sediments is nearly the same as that of salt and hence
not sensitive to the presence/absence of salt.
number crunching: Involving a large amount of compu-
tation, particularly a repetitive operation on a large
amount of data.
number system: A method of writing 共coding兲 numbers.
Systems include decimal 共base 10兲, binary 共base 2兲,
quinary 共base 5兲, octal 共base 8兲, biquinary, binary-
coded decimal 共BCD兲, excess three code 共BCDXS3兲,
gray code, duodecimal 共base 12兲, hexadecimal 共base
16兲, one’s complement, two’s complement, etc. See itali-
cized entries and Figure N-4.
numerical modeling: 1. Use of numerical techniques to
calculate the theoretical response caused by an assumed
set of subsurface parameters 共forward modeling兲. 2.
Use of direct or iterative methods for deducing subsur-
face parameters from geophysical data 共inverse mod-
eling兲.
Nusselt’s number: 共nus’ ⳵ltz兲 Ratio of convective to con-
ductive heat transfer. Named for Ernst Kraft Wilhelm
Nusselt 共1882–1957兲, German physicist. See Fowler
共1990, 251兲.
nutation: Motion of the axis of rotation of a body about
its mean position.
Nyquist frequency: 共nı̄’ kwist兲 A frequency associated
with regular sampling that is equal to half the sampling
frequency. Also called folding frequency. Frequencies
greater than the Nyquist frequency alias as lower fre-
quencies from which they are indistinguishable. See
alias. Named for Harry Nyquist 共1889 – 1976兲,
Swedish-American engineer.
Nyquist theorem: Sampling theorem 共q.v.兲.
Nyquist wavenumber: Half the spatial sampling distance.
Larger wavenumbers will alias. See also Nyquist fre-
quency.
 O
OBC: See Ocean-Bottom Cable.
obducted: 共ab’ duk t⳵d兲 The overriding of oceanic crust
onto the leading edge of continental plates.
object: A data item having a name and attributes, such as
a row in a table of information.
objective function: A function of parameters and possibly
data that is maximized or minimized by choices of
parameters.
object-oriented: Software development strategy that
organizes software as a collection of objects that com-
bine related data and operations on that data.
object program: A computer program in machine lan-
guage. Compare source program.
oblique configuration: 共⳵ blēk’ or ⳵ blik’兲 A type of offlap
reflection configuration associated with high deposi-
tional energy. The top of the pattern indicates the wave
base See Figure R-8.
oblique fault: A fault that has both dip and strike slip.
obliquity factor: 共⳵ blik’ wi tē兲 A factor derived by Stokes
for use with Huygens’ principle to show that the major
energy in a wave moves forward and to prevent back-
ward propagation:
cos共 ␾ /2 兲 ⬇ 共 1⫹cos ␾ 兲 /2,
where ␾ is the angle between the directions of reradia-
tion and of approach.
OBM: Oil-Based drilling Mud 共q.v.兲.
OBS: Ocean-Bottom Seismometer 共q.v.兲.
obscurationÕtransparency: See opacity.
observed gravity: May refer to Bouguer, free-air,
regional, or residual gravity fields, sometimes raw
gravity 共q.v.兲.
observer: 1. The person in charge of the recording on a
seismic crew. Sometimes the observer is also the field
manager and sometimes principally an electronic tech-
nician. 2. The one who reads the gravimeter on a
gravity crew.
Occam’s Razor: A dictum of scientific reasoning that the
simplest explanation of observations is the most prob-
able: ‘‘It is vain to do with more what can be done with
fewer.’’ Named for William of Occam 共1300–1349兲,
English philosopher.
occultation: 共ok, ul tā’ sh⳵n兲 An eclipse of a body by
another body, as of a star by the moon. The observation
of an occultation sometimes helps determine geodetic
location.
ocean-bottom cable „OBC…: A cable designed to be laid
or dragged on the sea floor that contains receivers for
several stations. Four-component 共4-C兲 receivers con-
stitute three orthogonal geophones and a hydrophone.
OBC are sometimes dragged into position, sometimes
dropped so that they drape over any ocean-floor topog-
raphy.
ocean-bottom seismometer „OBS…: A seismometer
designed for planting on the sea floor, usually 3- or
4-component 共three mutually orthogonal geophones
plus a hydrophone兲. See also ocean-bottom cable.
250
Ocean Drilling Program „ODP…: An international pro-
gram from 1985 to the present to drill boreholes in the
deep ocean floor for geologic knowledge. As of March
1990, 180 holes had been drilled. The Deep Sea Drill-
ing Program (DSDP) 共q.v.兲 preceeded it.
oceanic layering: See Figure L-4.
oceanic trench: A long narrow depression of the ocean
floor, commonly associated with subduction of an oce-
anic plate. See plate tectonics and Figure P-5.
oceanography: See geophysics.
OCR: Optical Character Reader, a device that recognizes
text from a bit-map image.
OCS: Outer Continental Shelf
octal: A number system with a base of 8. See Figure N-4.
octave: The interval between two frequencies having a
ratio of 2 共or 1/2兲. Filter rolloff is often given in
decibels per octave.
odd function: A function that changes sign when its argu-
ment changes sign:
F 共 x 兲 ⫽⫺F 共 ⫺x 兲 .
Also called antisymmetric function. An odd function
may be synthesized from zero-phase sine waves of
different frequencies.
odograph: 共ō’ d⳵ graf,兲 A time-distance graph.
odometer: 共ō dom’ i t⳵r兲 An instrument that measures
distance traveled.
ODP: Ocean Drilling Program.
oersted: 共ur’ sted兲 A unit of magnetic-field intensity 共in
the cgs-emu system兲 in free space; the field that would
exert a force of 1 dyne on a unit magnetic pole. Equal
to 1 ampere turn/共4␲103 m兲. See Figure M-1. Named
for Hans Christian Oersted 共1777–1851兲, Danish physi-
cist.
off-end shooting: Having the seismic source located
inline and beyond the end of the geophone spread.
offlap: 1. Successive termination of strata farther seaward.
When at the top of a depositional unit, also called
toplap. When at the base, called downlap. See Figures
R-9 and S-32a. 2. Without overlap.
offlap break: The usually rather abrupt change in slope
from the continental shelf to the continental slope,
which often shows in progradational seismic patterns.
off-level error: Gravity measurement errors because of
the effect of high-amplitude horizontal accelerations on
a gyrostabilized platform.
off-line: 1. An operation that is not continuous with that of
the main system, or an instrumental element that is not
in the mainstream of data flow through a processing
system. For example, an off-line plotter in a playback
system is not directly connected to the main processing
system. 2. Referring to geophones or other instruments
placed away from the profile line; opposite of inline.
off-line processing: Processing performed on equipment
not under the control of the central processor.
offset: See Figure O-1. 1. The distance from the source-
point to the center of a geophone group. Unless a
offset frequency 251
particular geophone group is specified, the distance to
the nearest geophone group center is implied; some-
times the distance is to an individual geophone. Often
resolved into perpendicular offset, the distance at right
angles to the spread line, and inline offset, the distance
from the projection of the source onto the line of the
spread. 2. The distance between transmitter and
receiver in electromagnetic surveys. 3. In vertical seis-
mic profiling, the horizontal distance between source
and receiver. The distance from source to wellhead may
be different if the well is not vertical. 4. Sometimes 共in
refraction work兲 the displacement 共q.v.兲. 5. In plotting
marine data, the stepback 共q.v.兲. 6. The horizontal com-
ponent of migration 共q.v.兲. 7. The horizontal component
of fault displacement, measured parallel to the strike of
the fault.
offset frequency: The difference between an observed
frequency and a reference frequency. See Figure D-21.
offset distribution: 1. The distribution of offsets within a
CMP gather. 2. The change of offset mix between CMP
gathers.
offset section: A display of traces having constant source-
to-geophone distance 共offset兲.
offset space: A way of thinking of a line of seismic
reflection data in which the independent variables are
arrival time, location along the seismic line, and source-
to-geophone distance 共offset兲. Events curve in the offset
FIG. O-1. Offset definitions.
oil well
direction because of normal moveout. See Figure O-2
and DMO.
offset studies: Studies of seismic amplitude variation with
offset 共q.v.兲.
offshore shooting: Marine seismic surveying.
off time: The time an IP pulse-type or an electromagnetic
time-domain transmitter is off, during which the decay
voltage is measured at the receiver.
OH data: Open Hole data.
ohm „⍀…: 共ōm兲 A unit of electrical resistance or imped-
ance. The potential drop across one ohm is one volt per
ampere of current. Named for Georg Simon Ohm
共1787–1854兲, the German physicist.
ohmic: 1. A system that is electrically linear, i.e., obeys
Ohm’s law. 2. The resistive component of an imped-
ance as opposed to the reactive component.
ohmic contact: See galvanic contact.
ohm-meter: A unit of resistivity, also written
ohm-meter2/meter; the resistance of a meter cube to the
flow of current between opposite faces. Reciprocal of
mho/m.
Ohm’s law: The voltage drop across a linear element
equals the current through it times its resistance. Earth
materials are not necessarily linear and therefore do not
always obey Ohm’s law, especially at high current
densities.
oil well: See GOR.
Omega 252
Omega: A long-range very-low-frequency U.S. Navy
positioning system to provide world-wide all-weather
positioning with an accuracy of about one mile 共com-
parable with celestial navigation兲, now phased out by
the Global Positioning System 共q.v.兲.
omega-x domain: ␻ ,x⫽2 ␲ f , x. see f x domain.
Omnipulse: An impulsive seismic energy source that can
operate in both P-wave and S-wave modes. Tradename
of Bolt Technology Corp.
one’s complement: The radix-minus-one complement
form for representing negative binary numbers. It can
be found by replacing all the ones by zeros and all the
zeros by ones. For example, the decimal number 27
might be represented as 0011 011, and ⫺27 as 1100
100. When a number is added to its negative all bit
registers are full; e.g., 0011 011⫹1100 100
⫽1111 111. This system contains two representa-
tions of zero; all ones or all zeros. Compare two’s
complement.
one-dimensional inversion: 1. Interpretation of geophys-
ical data in terms of a 1D or layered-earth model. 2. The
manufacture of a synthetic acoustic impedance log
共q.v.兲.
one-and-a-half dimensional „1.5D… model: A model that
allows for velocity variation in the vertical direction
only but involves source-receiver offsets.
one-sided function: 1. A function whose value is zero for
all negative values of the argument, i.e., F(x)⫽0 if
x⬍0 共or alternatively, zeros for all positive arguments兲.
2. A function that is not defined for negative 共or posi-
tive兲 values of the argument, or for other defined
regions.
one-sigma: See standard deviation.
one-way time: Half the corrected traveltime for a reflec-
tion arrival. One-way time multiplied by average veloc-
FIG. O-2. Offset space. (Courtesy CGG.)
operator
ity gives reflector depth for a flat reflection and flat
velocity layering. One-way time is what VSP measures.
onlap: 1. Successive landward termination of strata at the
base of a depositional unit. 2. A reflection termination at
the base of a unit where the reflection is flat or dips
away from the termination. Onlap is evidence of rise of
relative sea level. See Figures R-8 and S-32a.
on-line: 1. A linear set of observation points, especially a
seismic line. 2. Equipment under the control of a central
processing unit. 3. A process 共usually data output兲 that
is concurrent with other operations. 4. To be connected
to the internet or another computer network.
onset: The beginning of a wavetrain; see break. In electric
sounding, the start of a transient.
on time: 1. The time during which an IP transmitter is
supplying current. 2. The time during which the charg-
ing current or field from a pulse-type transmitter is
observed at the receiver.
opacity: The lack of ability to transmit light. When visu-
alizing data in 3D, some events need to be made trans-
parent to clearly see other events; this involves reduc-
ing their opacity.
opal transition: A change in the mineral form of opal to a
higher pressure/temperature form 共opal CT兲, sometimes
produces a seismic reflection.
open chamber exploder: A marine seismic source that
involves the detonation of an explosive mixture of
gases in a chamber open to the water on the bottom side
so the waste gasses are vented directly into the water.
open data: Data that are unrestricted in use or range. No
license is required for their use.
open ended: 1. The situation where the addition of new
elements does not disturb the prearranged system. 2.
Able to accommodate additional data.
open hole: A wellbore that has not been cased where
measurements are made.
open question: A question for which the answer is not
known.
operand: 1. A quantity participating in the execution of a
computer instruction. An operand can be an argument, a
result of computation, a parameter, an address, or the
location of the next instruction to be executed.
operating system: An integrated system of routines for
supervising the operation of a computer. Also called
executive.
operation: A mathematical 共or sometimes physical兲 pro-
cess to be performed on data, usually indicated by a
symbol. For example, a plus sign means the operation
‘‘add the number ahead of it to the number behind it.’’
Differentiation, integration, convolution, Fourier trans-
formation, cross-correlation, etc., are ‘‘operations.’’ See
also operator.
operational amplifier: A high-gain, high-input-
impedance amplifier requiring minimal current for
operation. Ideally a voltage-controlled voltage source.
External feedback components are used to obtain
desired operations such as summing, integrating, differ-
entiating, etc.
operator: 1. The specific thing involved in a particular
operation. Thus, a filter operator is a specific filter
algorithm involved in filtering 共convolution兲. See also
operator length. 2. A symbol indicating an operation to
be performed, and itself the subject of operations. 3.
That part of an instruction that tells the machine which
operator length 253 Ormsby filter

function to perform: read, write, add, subtract, etc. 4.
An observer.
operator length: The time-domain or distance-domain
length of the impulse response of a convolution opera-
tor. Often specified as a certain number of points; for
example, for a 56-point operator at 2-ms sample rate it
is 110 ms from the first point to the last.
ophiolites: An assemblage of ultramafic and mafic intru-
sive and extrusive rocks that were oceanic crust
obducted in a plate collision.
optical disk: A rapid, random-access memory device that
can store an enormous amount of data by using lasers to
burn tiny pits into an optical substrate.
optical holography: See holography and Figure H-6.
optically pumped magnetometer: A magnetometer such
as the cesium or rubidium-vapor magnetometer that
involves nuclear magnetic resonance as a transfer
mechanism between light and an RF field at the Larmor
frequency. See Figure O-3. Such magnetometers can be
made extremely sensitive 共⬇0.001 nT兲. They measure
absolutely the total magnetic field.
optical pumping: Accumulating atomic electrons in cer-
tain energy levels by irradiation with light or radiofre-
quency waves at the transition frequency. Assume two
fine-structure energy states A 1 and A 2 共⬇10 ⫺8 eV
apart兲 separated because of electron spin alignments;
these states are apt to be equally populated. If we
irradiate a sample with light from which the line A 2 B
has been filtered out, we can raise the A 1 population to
an elevated state B; then in falling back to the A states,
an equal number will fall to A 1 as to A 2 . As the cycle
is repeated, A 2 will become overpopulated at the
expense of A 1 . This principle is involved in masers,
lasers, and optically pumped magnetometers. See Fig-
ure O-4.
optimum: Best, according to some criteria. A meaningless
term unless the criteria are specified. Optimum in a
least-squares sense means that the sum of the squares of
all errors is minimized.
optimum damping: See damping.
optimum filter: A filter designed to maximize or mini-
mize a certain performance measure. See ᐉ p fit. Often
means a Wiener filter in which the mean-square dif-
ference between actual and desired outputs is mini-
mized.
optimum wideband: A filtering/stacking process that
maximizes cancellation 共according to certain math-
ematical criteria兲 of one type of event 共a multiple in the
case of horizontal stacking, a ghost in the case of
uphole stacking兲, regardless of frequency content and at
the same time reinforces another type of event 共the
primary兲. Application requires precise knowledge as to
the time differences between the events on the records
to be stacked 共i.e., precise differential normal-moveout
information for multiple cancellation, precise uphole
data for ghost cancellation兲. For optimum wideband
horizontal stacking, see Schneider et al. 共1965兲.
For optimum wideband uphole stacking, see Schneider
et al. 共1964兲.
orbit: The path of a satellite around a body under the
influence of gravity.
order: See pole.
order of magnitude: The nearest integer to 兩 log10 X/S兩,
where X and S are two quantities being compared. One
order of magnitude indicates that one quantity is of the
order of ten 共or a tenth兲 times the other value, two
orders of magnitude 100 共or 1/100兲 times, etc. Used to
make crude comparisons or to give the error or uncer-
tainty of measurement.
order of a matrix: See matrix.
orders of cyclicity: Sequence stratigraphic cycles are
given order numbers and names as shown in Figure
E-13a.
ore: A mineral or rock that can be extracted economically.
OR gate: A circuit with multiple inputs that functions
when a signal is present at any input. Also called
inclusive OR gate. For inputs A and B, signified by
(A艛B) or (A⫹B). An EXCEPT gate is called exclu-
sive OR but inclusive OR is intended unless ‘‘exclu-
sive’’ is specifically stated. See Figure B-5.
O-ring: A rubber, Neoprene, Teflon, or other elastic, cir-
cular gasket with circular cross-section, used to effect a
seal between parts of an apparatus.
Ormsby filter: A filter of trapezoidal shape specified by

FIG. O-3. Optically pumped magnetometer. Atoms in a vapor cell precess about the steady magnetic field that is to
be measured, which is at an angle of 20–70° to the instrument axis. Monochromatic light, which is circularly polarized
in the plane perpendicular to the instrument axis, has a component that can be absorbed by the precessing atoms. Once
this absorption is complete, no further absorption can occur and then the cell becomes transparent, a condition that
causes an increase in the light to a photocell. The polarized precessing atoms have a component along the axis of a
transverse RF field that permits the atoms to undergo transitions and hence become available to absorb more light. The
precessing atoms thus become a transfer mechanism between the light and the transverse RF field when the field is at
the Larmor frequency. The light intensity is used to monitor the precession and automatically adjust the RF frequency,
which can be measured to give the intensity of the steady magnetic field.
orogenic 254 overburden pressure

four corner frequencies, f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 . The filter rejects
below f 2 and above f 3 , is linear from f 1 to f 2 and from
f 3 to f 4 , and flat from f 2 to f 3 .
orogenic: 共ō roj’ . nik兲 Involving mountain-building by
large-scale lateral forces. Often involves thrust faulting
and folding. See tectonic types. From the Greek for
birth of mountains 共oros genesis兲.
orthogonal: 共or thog’ . n.l兲 Normal or at right angles.
Linear combinations of functions are orthogonal if they
are linearly independent, i.e., if they cannot be
expressed as combinations of each other. The non-
vanishing of the determinant of coefficients is a test for
the orthogonality of a set of equations. Orthogonality of
vectors xi, xj can be expressed by stating the vanishing
of their scalar product, xi•xj⫽0. See also Jacobian and
matrix.
orthogonal acquisition: 3D acquisition where source and
receiver lines are at right angles to each other.
orthometric correction: A correction to very precise land
survey data because gravitational equipotential surfaces
for different elevations are not parallel.
orthonormal vectors: 共or, th. nor’ m.l兲 Mutually
orthogonal vectors, each with unit magnitude.
orthorhombic asymmetry: See azimuthal asymmetry and
asymmetry 共seismic兲.
orthorhombic symmetry: 共or’ th. rom’ bik兲 A system
that has three mutually perpendicular axes of symmetry
of unequal length; a rhombic system. See anisotropy
(seismic).
OS: Operating System 共q.v.兲.
oscillograph: 1. An instrument that renders visible a curve
representing the time variations of electric phenomena.
The recorded trace is an oscillogram. An example is
the cathode-ray oscillograph. 2. Camera 共q.v.兲.
osculation: 共os, ky. lā’ sh.n兲 Two curves or surfaces
touching each other; kiss.
OSF: Open Software Foundation.
outcrop: Formations or structures that appear at the
earth’s surface.
outer Helmholz double layer: See diffuse layer.
outer product: Cross product 共q.v.兲.
outliers: 1. A data point that lies far from other members
of its set. Usually data points that lie more than 2.5
times the standard deviation from a curve. Outliers are
often considered to be bad data and are ignored. 2.
Rocks that are well removed geographically from simi-
lar rocks.
out-of-phase: 1. Phase that is different than that of a
reference signal. 2. The component of an electrical
signal that has a 90° phase difference from the exciting
or reference signal. Also called quadrature.
output: 1. The power, current, or voltage delivered by a
circuit, system, or device. 2. The terminals where the
power, current, or voltage may be delivered. 3. Data
that have been processed.
output-energy filter: A filter that maximizes the energy of
a signal while minimizing the energy of the filtered
noise. See Treitel and Robinson 共1969兲.
overbalanced drilling: Drilling with mud that is heavier
than that required to match formation fluid pressure.
overbank deposits: Sediments deposited outside of a
river channel by flooding; flood-plain deposits.
overburden: 1. The section above a bed, refractor, or
reflector. 2. Material lying above an ore or valuable
deposit and pressing down on it. 3. Loose, unconsoli-
dated material above bedrock.
overburden pressure: The stress that results from the
weight of overlying materials 共overburden兲. Also called

FIG. O-4. Optical pumping. (a) Assume three possible energy levels A 1 , A 2 , and B where under normal conditions
atoms occupy the ground states A 1 and A 2 , which differ in energy by only a very small amount (1). If we irradiate a
sample with light from which the line A 1 B has been removed (2), atoms in A 1 can rise to B but not those in A 2 . When
the atoms fall back to the ground state, they are as likely to fall to A 2 as to A 1 (3); the result will be depletion of A 1 and
overpopulation of A 2 . (7) shows the completion of pumping and (8) the nullifying effect of an RF signal. (b) Schematic
of measurements without pumping (above), with complete pumping (center), and when pumping effect is nullified
(below). (From Telford et al., 1990.)
overdamped
overburden stress and lithostatic pressure. Rock fail-
ure prevents formation pressure from exceeding this
value; see Figure P-12. Often specified by a pressure
gradient, about 1 psi/ft 共2.26⫻10 4 Pa/m or 20 lb/
gallon mud兲; the value depends on rock density and
tends to increase with depth. Overburden pressure gra-
dient is often expressed as EMW, equivalent mud
weight 共q.v.兲.
overdamped: See damping.
overdetermined: A system with more equations to be
satisfied than independent variables.
overflow: A condition occurring when a computer opera-
tion produces a result that has a magnitude exceeding
the capacity of the computer’s data-word size.
Overhauser-effect magnetometer: 共ō’ v.r how, z.r兲
Instead of using an impressed polarizing field to align
proton nuclei with the external magnetic field, as in the
conventional proton magnetometer, the proton nuclear
spins are polarized by interaction with free electrons.
Resonance of paramagnetic free electrons results from
excitation by a VHF field.
overlapping: Combining pairs of adjacent signals 共mix-
ing兲 and recording their sum as a single signal. The
consequent section has one fewer trace than the input.
overlay: 1. Superimposing two or more images. 2. The
technique of repeatedly using the same blocks of
memory during different processing stages. A technique
for managing memory where data or code share the
same memory location; used with systems that do not
support virtual memory 共q.v.兲.
overload point: The input-signal amplitude for which the
ratio of output to input first differs by 3 dB from the
255 OWC
ratio within the linear operating range.
overpressure: The amount by which the formation-fluid
pressure exceeds hydrostatic or normal pressure 共q.v.兲.
Overpressure, which can have several causes, generally
indicates that fluid pathways to the surface were cut off
at some time so that the interstitial fluid could not
escape to restore equilibrium. The top of overpressure
is sometimes abrupt, sometime gradational. Normal
pressure may exist below overpressured formations.
override: A fractional interest in royalty payments often
granted as part of the terms in a farm-out, farm-in 共q.v.兲
agreement.
overshoot: 1. Momentarily assuming too large 共or too
small兲 a value before settling down to the correct value
after a step change. 2. An amplitude that exceeds the
gain permitted before clipping.
overvoltage: The potential in induced polarization 共IP兲 is
proportional to impressed current density. Overvoltage
is the extra potential caused by an electrochemical and
electrokinetic barrier set up at an electrode-to-electrode
interface. Activation overvoltage is caused by current
passage stimulating an electron-transfer reaction such
that the electrode potential deviates from its reversible
potential without appreciably changing the ion concen-
trations at the electrode surface. Concentration over-
voltage is brought about by a depletion or accumulation
of oxidized and reduced ion species at the electrode
surface, causing a change in the reversible potential of
the electrode. See induced polarization.
overvoltage method: Induced-polarization method; see
induced polarization.
OWC: Oil/Water Contact.
 P
p: 1. Pico-, the SI prefix meaning 10 ⫺12 . 2. The raypath
parameter 共q.v.兲.
␾: 共fı̄ or fē兲 Greek phi; capital, ⌽. 1. Symbol for porosity,
also for a function. 2. Particle size; see Figure W-11.
P1 90 „P2 91…: Standard format for final 共raw兲 positioning
data for marine surveys.
P&A: Plugged and Abandoned. See dry hole.
Pacific margin: See active margin.
package program: A standard set of computer programs,
as opposed to tailoring the processing to the specific
needs of the data. Often implies back-to-back process-
ing without intermediate decisions between stages in
the processing.
packer: An expandable plug to isolate part a of borehole
to test or to complete a reservoir formation. A straddle
packer isolates a reservoir from both above and below
it.
packet: Piece of information.
packet switching: A method of automatic communication
between computers in a network where each packet
carries a code to indicate its destination.
packing: 1. The number of bytes of information per unit
length of magnetic tape, often measured in bytes per
inch 共bpi兲. 2. Increasing the density of stored data so
that more data can be stored in the same space, as in
placing more bits in a given length of magnetic tape. 3.
Arrangement of particles in a matrix, as of grains in
sandstone.
packstone: A granular carbonate rock containing a matrix
of calcareous mud. Compare mudstone 共indurated mud
but without the laminations of shale兲, wackestone
共mud-supported carbonate containing more than 10%
grains ⬎20 ␮m兲, grainstone 共grain-supported with
⬍1% mud兲.
pad: Sidewall pad; a footing on the end of an arm that
presses against the borehole wall.
padding with zeros: Adding extra zeros before executing
a Fourier transform to make the fundamental period
larger. Adding extra zero traces before an F,k or p,␶
transform to prevent wraparound 共q.v.兲 aliasing.
pad time: For each vibrator source point, the number of
sweeps times the sweep length.
page back: To add a constant to values being plotted so
that a wider range of values can be plotted on the same
piece of paper. See paging and Figure P-15.
page through: To look through successive pages of a
document.
pagination: 1. The function in a printer routine that sepa-
rates tabulations into separate pages. 2. The function in
a plotter routine that adds a fixed amount to a coordi-
nate so that a graph being plotted will not run off the
paper. Magnetometer and seismic-profiler records often
are ‘‘paged’’ so that a large plotting scale can be used
without requiring excessively large paper. 3. Division
of data or program instructions into blocks called
pages. Some of the pages may be stored elsewhere than
in the computer’s rapid-access memory and brought
256
into the rapid-access memory only as needed. In this
way the effective memory can be larger than the rapid-
access memory. Such storage is called virtual
memory.
paint: To color portions of a display on a computer screen.
pair production: Annihilation of a gamma ray having
energy greater than 1.02 MeV, resulting in production
of an electron-positron pair.
paleodatum: See datum.
paleomagnetism: Study of natural remanent magnetiza-
tion of rocks and other materials to determine the
intensity and direction of the Earth’s field at the time
the materials were magnetized. It has as adjuncts
archeomagnetism 共study of the Earth’s magnetism
during historical times兲 and rock magnetism 共basic
study of the magnetic properties of rocks and minerals兲.
See remanent magnetism.
paleosection: A cross-section showing bedding and struc-
ture as it is assumed to have been at some past time.
May refer to a seismic section on which one horizon
has been flattened, assuming that this horizon was laid
down horizontally and therefore that the resulting sec-
tion shows deeper structure at the time of deposition of
the flattened horizon. Compaction because of overbur-
den and other changes subsequent to deposition are
often ignored. Also called a palinspastic or restored
section.
paleosols: Ancient soils used for age dating.
palette: 共pal’ it兲 The table of colors or patterns from which
one can select those to be used to represent particular
features 共such as reflection events or attributes兲 or par-
ticular ranges of the data. Used in interactive interpre-
tation and in computer drawing.
palinspastic restoration: 共pal ⳵n spas’ tik兲 See paleosec-
tion.
pallet: 共pal’ it兲 The moveable portion of a platform that
can hold a sensor.
palynology: Study of spores and pollen, used to age-date
rocks.
pan: To cause the view on a workstation screen to move
so that off-screen data become visible. To move
through a large volume of data so that different portions
become visible.
panel: 1. An area of a coal seam that can be mined by one
longwall setup. 2. One of several displays involving
changes of a parameter, such as a filter panel or a
velocity panel.
pantograph: 共pan’ t⳵ graf兲 1. A device for copying a
drawing at a different scale. 2. A device for mapping
from one domain to another where there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the domains. 3. A device for
plotting seismic events in their migrated position.
parabolic Radon transform: A type of ␶-p transform
involving summation along parabolic trajectories rather
than linear dipping lines.
paradigm: 1. A model. 2. A display of a set in a fixed
arrangement.
paradox of anisotropy
paradox of anisotropy: Relations between the apparent
resistivity and true resistivity in a homogeneous
transversely-isotropic medium. If resistivities perpen-
dicular and parallel to the bedding are ␳⬜ and ␳ 储 ,
respectively, the apparent resistivities in the transverse
and longitudinal directions ␳ aT and ␳ aL are:
␳ aT ⫽ ␳ 储 ,
␳ aL ⫽ 共 ␳⬜ ␳ 储 兲 1/2 .
Resistivity anisotropy coefficient is discussed under
anisotropy (electrical).
parallax: 共pair’ ⳵ laks兲 A change in the apparent position
of an object 共such as a meter needle兲 with respect to a
reference 共such as the meter scale兲 that is determined
from a different direction. Parallax error results when
the observer is not positioned correctly for the reading.
parallel field: A uniform field in which current flow lines
or equipotential surfaces are parallel.
parallel geometry: Acquisition geometry where source
and receiver lines are parallel.
parallel processing: Using several computers to work on
the different portions of a calculation at the same time
after dividing the problem into portions, and then put-
ting all the work back together to obtain the solution.
parallel record: A test record made with amplifiers con-
nected in parallel and activated by a single geophone.
Also called a bridle. Used to check that all amplifier
circuits perform similarly with respect to lead or lag,
polarity, and phasing.
paramagnetic: 共pair, ⳵ mag net’ ik兲 Weakly magnetic with
small positive susceptibility. The magnetic moments of
unpaired electron orbitals within individual atoms are
uncoupled so that each atom behaves independently.
Paramagnetism usually contributes only a few nan-
oteslas to the magnetic field at the Earth’s surface.
Compare diamagnetic and ferromagnetic.
parameter: 共p⳵ ram’ ⳵t ⳵r兲 1. A variable that can be
changed independently and often arbitrarily between
calculations but which remains constant during any
calculation. Different parameter values give different
cases. 2. Quantities 共each of which may represent a
combination of quantities兲 that are sufficient to deter-
mine the response characteristic of a system.
parametric inversion: Determining the parameters of a
set of prespecified geometrically simple bodies, an
overdetermined problem.
parametric sounding: An electromagnetic depth sound-
ing in which the frequency or time are varied while
holding the geometry constant, as opposed to geomet-
ric sounding where the frequency is held constant and
the geometry is varied. Observations can be made at
different times after the primary field is extinguished.
Used to resolve resistivity layering assuming that the
layering is horizontal. See polarization ellipse.
parasection: A plot of electrical measurements as a func-
tion of position and depth where the depth parameter is
computed by means of a 1D 共layered earth兲 algorithm.
Most commonly used on profiles of frequency- or time-
domain electromagnetic data. It appproximates a 2D
inverted section where electrical properties vary slowly
with lateral distance.
parasequence: 共pair, ⳵ sē’ kw⳵ns兲 A relatively conform-
able succession of genetically related beds bounded by
257 partition gas chromatograph
flooding surfaces 共Van Wagoner, 1995兲. One results
from a small-scale relative sea-level rise and stillstand
with little intervening fall, often with cyclicity of 100-
150, 40, or 20 ka. A parasequence is terminated by
another rise of sea level.
parasitic ferromagnetism: A weak ferromagnetism asso-
ciated with imperfect antiferromagnetism in such sub-
stances as hematite.
paravane: 共pair’ ⳵ vān,兲 A device that is towed through
the water to maintain equipment in a certain position
relative to the towing vessel. The force of the flowing
water on the paravane causes the device to dive or rise
or move to the side, or to maintain a particular orien-
tation. Used, e.g., to tow a seismic streamer or sources
at depth or to the side of the towing ship. See also
barovane.
paraxial ray: Rays near the central ray. A ray surrounded
by a narrow beam in which the wavefield is calculated.
parent: The source from which an object 共called the
child兲 originates. The radioactive isotope whose disin-
tegration gave rise to another isotope, or the astronomic
body from which a meteorite or other body was
derived.
parity bit: 共pair’ i tē兲 One of the bits in a defined set
which is dependent upon the other bits in such a way as
to detect dropout. See check.
parity check: See check.
Parseval’s theorem: 共par’ s⳵ v⳵lz兲 For two aperiodic
functions h 1 (t) and h 2 (t) with respective Fourier
transforms H 1 ( f ) and H 2 ( f ),
冕 冕
␾ 12 共 0 兲 ⫽ h 1 共 t 兲 h 2 共 t 兲 dt⫽ H 1 共 f 兲 H 2 共 f 兲 d f ⫽⌽ 12 共 0 兲 .
Thus the zero-lag value of the crosscorrelation ␾ 12 (0),
the two values on the left, equals the integral of the
cross-product spectrum and the cross-power-spectral
amplitude at zero frequency ⌽ 12 (0), the two terms on
the right. Both equal the cross-energy in the time
domain. See Figure F-22. Named for Marc-Antoinne
Parseval des Chenes 共1755–1836兲, French mathemati-
cian.
parsimonious: Requiring few variables.
parsimonious deconvolution: 共par, s⳵ mō’ nē ⳵s兲 A
deconvolution technique that minimizes
共 ⌺␧ p 兲 1/p / 共 ⌺␧ q 兲 1/q ,
where ␧ is the prediction error and p is slightly larger
than q. See Postic et al. 共1980兲.
parsing: 共pars’ ⳵ng兲 Breaking a unit into component parts,
as is done in some computer operations.
partial fraction: One of a series of terms expressed as
fractions involving roots of an expression; the sum of
the series equals the expression. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995; 530–531兲.
particle displacement, velocity, acceleration: The move-
ment of a particle from its equilibrium position because
of the passage of a wave, or the particle’s velocity or
acceleration. A vector quantity. Conventional geo-
phones generally detect only the vertical component.
partition gas chromatograph: A device for quantitative
analysis of hydrocarbon constituents. A fixed quantity
of sample is carried with a stream of sweep gas through
a partition column packed with an inert solid coated
party
with a nonvolatile organic liquid. The lighter fractions
traverse the column faster than the heavier fractions so
that the components appear separately at the column
exit, where their amounts can be measured.
party: The group working together to carry out a geo-
physical field project. Also called crew or troop.
party chief: The head of a geophysical party.
party manager: The person working under the party chief
共or supervisor, if no party chief兲, who is responsible for
the field work.
Parzen window: See Figure W-12.
pascal „Pa…: 共pa’ skal兲 A unit of pressure, a newton per
square meter. 1 MPa⬇145 psi. Named for Blaise
Pascal 共1623–1662兲, French mathematician.
Pascal: A high-level computer language that enforces
structural techniques.
pass: 1. A complete cycle through a computer involving
input, processing, and output; a machine run. 2. The
passage of a satellite from rise to set over the horizon.
passband: The range of frequencies that can pass through
a band-pass filter without significant attenuation.
passive: 1. Having no source of energy. A passive filter
involves no amplification and merely attenuates certain
frequencies more than others. A passive beacon is a
radar reflector that merely reflects radar energy, as
opposed to an active beacon that transmits in response
to a signal. 2. Applied to a system that does not gener-
ate an output if there is no input. 3. A positioning
system that does not involve transmitting a signal from
the measuring craft but only observing and measuring
angles, amplitudes, phases, times, etc., in a system that
exists independently of the craft being positioned.
passive margin: Continental margin formed during the
original rifting apart of continents to form an ocean.
passive seismic methods: Seismic investigations using
listening capabilities only, that is, no seismic energy is
added by the investigator. Earthquake seismology and
natural noise studies are examples. Such techniques are
used for thermal exploration, studies of micro-
earthquakes, amplitude spectra of ground noise, frac-
ture detection, P- and S-wave delay studies, etc.
pass region: Passband 共q.v.兲.
patch: 1. A jumper or a temporary connection, especially
one that can be changed easily, as a connection on a
‘‘patch panel.’’ 2. A section of coding 共or a subroutine兲
used to correct a mistake or alter a routine. 3. More-or-
less uniform distribution of geophones over an area
共template兲, that gives single-fold subsurface coverage
for a single source over an area of one-half the dimen-
sions. The sources 共or patch兲 then can move in a sys-
tematic way to provide multiple coverage. Also called
template. 4. A large geophone group feeding a single
channel, occasionally several hundred feet across con-
taining several hundred geophones. Used in transposed
recording 共q.v.兲 with surface sources in poor record
areas. 5. See patch shooting.
patch shooting: 1. A geometry especially used with
ocean-bottom cables 共OBC兲 and vertical cables, in
which sources are fired into a static receiver patch, after
which the patch is picked up and moved without having
common receiver locations. 2. See shooting through the
patch.
patchy gas: Small accumulations of gas that present
potential hazards but of no commercial value.
258 pearls
patchy saturation: Nonuniform distribution of different
fluids in pore spaces.
pattern: 1. A regular repetition of values or tones in an
image. 2. An array 共q.v.兲, especially a source array.
pattern recognition: Analyzing data to discover the com-
binations of different kinds of measurements 共features兲
that are distinctive of specific patterns 共classes兲. Some-
times thought of as the automatic identification of
shapes and forms. The basic problem is to determine
combinations of the features 共discriminants兲 that sepa-
rate the different classes. The members of the classes
generally involve distributions 共often Gaussian兲 that
overlap so that the individual features do not permit
effective separation. Each feature can be thought of as
a dimension and the problem thought of as mapping
from a multidimensional space to a simpler space
where the classes are well separated 共feature selec-
tion兲. Techniques include discriminant, factor, cannoni-
cal, principal-component, cluster, regression analyses
共see individual methods兲. This is a generalized eigen-
value problem. Often done by first eliminating those
kinds of measurements that are not very helpful in
distinguishing the classes and then in finding combina-
tions of the remaining measurements that permit opti-
mal separation of the classes. The first part of this
process involves reducing the number of dimensions
共eliminating the very small eigenvalues兲 and the latter
as coordinate rotation into orthogonal eigenvector
space to construct surfaces that separate the classes.
pattern shooting: The firing of charges arranged in a
definite array (seismic) 共q.v.兲.
pay zone: The interval of rock in which an accumulation
of oil or gas or other mineral is present in commercial
quantities.
P-band: Radar frequencies between 225 and 390 MHz;
see Figure R-1. Used in remote sensing because it
penetrates vegetation and shows a combination of veg-
etation and surface-soil effects.
PBR: Primary-Bubble Ratio 共q.v.兲.
PC: Personal Computer, a low-cost computer intended for
use by a single person. 2. Continuous-type micropulsa-
tions 共q.v.兲; also written Pc. See Figure M-2.
PC board: Printed Circuit board.
PCM: Pulse-Code Modulation, See modulation.
P-code: Protected 10.23 MHz code used with the GPS
system which can be reserved for military use.
PDE: Partial Differential Equation.
PDMI: Percent Decrease in Mutual Impedance 共q.v.兲.
PDR: Potential-Drop Ratio 共q.v.兲.
peak: The maximum upward 共positive兲 excursion of a
seismic wavelet; crest. Opposite of trough.
peak force: The maximum force that a vibrator can apply
to the ground.
peak-to-bubble ratio: A measure of an air-gun signature
relating the peak amplitude of the initial pulse to the
amplitude of bubble oscillation.
peak-to-peak ratio: 1. A measure of the amplitude ratio
of successive peaks. 2. For gun signatures, the ratio of
the maximum positive and negative 共ghost兲 signals.
pearls: Continuous-type micropulsations ‘‘of the first
kind’’ with periods from 0.2 to 5 s and amplitudes from
0.05 to 0.1 nanotesla. Strip-chart records of pearls look
like amplitude-modulated sinusoidal waves 共resembling
a pearl necklace兲. See micropulsations and Figure M-2.
peel-off time
peel-off time: 1. A static correction 共q.v.兲. 2. The time
above which data are to be removed. Used in making
restored 共palinspastic兲 sections.
PEF: General POSC exchange format, a format that
defines data in an architecture-neutral manner.
peg-leg multiple: A multiple reflection involving succes-
sive reflection at different interfaces so that its travel
path is not symmetric. Usually refers to short-path
multiples 共type 1 in Figure M-18兲 within thin beds,
which result in transferring energy from the front of a
wavetrain and adding it back later, and thus is a mecha-
nism for changing waveshape. See Figure M-18 and
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 163, 508兲.
pelagic deposits: 共p⳵ laj’ ik兲 Deep-sea sediments with
little terrigenous material.
PEM: Pulse ElectroMagnetic method, a transient electro-
magnetic method 共q.v.兲. Tradename of Crone Geophys-
ics.
penalty constraints: 1. A constraint that reduces undes-
ired effects. 2. A constraint that eliminates mathemati-
cal solutions that do not make physical sense.
penetration: 1. The greatest depth at which material prop-
erties significantly affect measurements. 2. The greatest
depth from which seismic reflections can be picked
with reasonable certainty. Depends on the energy of the
reflected wave, the presence of noise, and the process-
ing to which the data are subjected as well as the data
acquisition system. 3. See skin effect.
Pennebaker plot: 共pen’ ē bā, k⳵r兲 A plot of log ⌬t versus
log z, where ⌬t is interval transit time and z is depth.
Normal compaction is indicated by a straight line with
a slope ⫺1/4; deflection of the graph to greater ⌬t
indicate overpressure 共q.v.兲. See Pennebaker 共1968兲.
pentium: A generation of Intel high-capacity, high-speed
computer processors. A pentium cluster is a Beowulf
共q.v.兲 made of Pentium processors.
percent decrease in mutual impedance: The percent
voltage change in a coupled circuit with respect to the
low-frequency impedance. Used with reference to the
amount of in-phase electromagnetic coupling.
percent distortion: See distortion.
percent frequency effect „PFE兲: 1. The basic polariza-
tion parameter measured in frequency-domain resistiv-
ity surveys, being the percent difference in apparent
resistivity measured at two frequencies:
PFE⫽100 共 ␳ dc ⫺ ␳ ac 兲 / ␳ ac ,
where ␳ dc and ␳ ac are the low- and high-frequency
apparent resistivities. 2. Decade-normalized PFE is
multiplied by the log of the frequency ratio:
PFE⫽ 关 100 共 ␳ dc ⫺ ␳ ac 兲 / ␳ ac 兴 log10 共 f ac / f dc 兲 .
3. Keller suggests that PFE be defined as:
PFE⫽100 共 ␳ 2 ⫺ ␳ 1 兲 / 共 ␳ 2 ␳ 1 兲 1/2 ,
where ␳ 1 and ␳ 2 are apparent resistivities measured at
two frequencies that are a factor of 10 apart.
percent mineralization: In IP surveying, the volume-
percentage of metallic-luster minerals in a rock. This
value is usually about half the metallic-luster mineral
content by weight.
perfect elasticity: Elasticity that obeys Hooke’s law.
259 Peters’ length
perfect fluid: A fluid that cannot support a tangential
stress.
perforating: Opening holes through casing and into a
formation so that fluids can flow from the formation
into the borehole or vice-versa.
peridotite: A coarse-grained mafic igneous rock to be
found in the Earth’s mantle.
perigee: 共per’ i gē兲 Shortest distance from a satellite orbit
to the Earth’s center; see Figure E-12. The greatest
distance is apogee.
period „T兲: 1. The time T for one cycle. The time for a
wavecrest to transverse a distance equal to one wave-
length, or the time for two successive wavecrests to
pass a fixed point. For a monochromatic wavetrain,
T⫽1/ f ⫽␭/V⫽2 ␲ / ␻ ,
where f ⫽frequency, ␭⫽wavelength, and V⫽phase
velocity. See Figure W-2. 2. A major standard geochro-
nologic time unit; see stratigraphic classification and
Appendix I.
periodic function: A function that repeats after successive
equal intervals of time; a harmonic function.
periodic noise: High-line 共q.v.兲.
peripheral device: A general term designating machines
that operate in conjunction with a computer or system
but are not part of the system. Peripheral devices typi-
cally display, store, and return data to the computer on
demand, prepare data for human use, or acquire and
convert data to a form usable by the computer. Periph-
eral devices include printers, keyboards, graphic dis-
play terminals, analog-to-digital converters, disks, tape
drives, etc.
permafrost: Permanently frozen soil or rock. It usually
has high seismic velocity and high electrical resistivity.
Its effects on seismic wave travel are discussed in
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 126兲.
permeability: 共pur mē ⳵ bil’ i tē兲 1. The ratio of the
magnetic field B to the magnetizing force H. 2. A
measure of the ease with which a fluid can pass through
the pore spaces of a formation. Measured in millidarcy
共1/1000 darcy兲 units. The permeability constant k is
expressed by Darcy’s law as ␮ q/(dp/dx), where ␮ is
fluid viscosity, q is linear rate of flow, and dp/dx is the
hydraulic pressure gradient. The presence of one fluid
can change the effective permeability to another fluid,
so that in multiphase flow the effective permeabilities
of the component fluids may not add to the total per-
meability. See Figure P-1.
permeability of free space: See magnetic field.
permeance: The reciprocal of reluctance 共q.v.兲.
permit: Permission from a landowner for a geophysical
field party to work on his land.
permittivity: 共p⳵r m⳵ tiv’ ⳵d ē兲 Capacitivity 共q.v.兲 of a 3D
material, such as a dielectric. Relative permittivity is
the dimensionless ratio of the permittivity of a material
to that of free space; it is also called the dielectric
constant. See dielectric permittivity.
perpendicular offset: See offset.
perspective: Representing depth by the use of vanishing
points so that objects become smaller as they are farther
away. Compare isometric display.
Peters’ length: A measurement made on profiles across
potential-field 共especially magnetic兲 anomalies, with
the objective of determining the depth of an anomalous
petroleum 260 phase characteristics

mass 共magnetized body兲. Peters’ rule gives the depth as such as a time slice or picked horizon.
the Peter’s length 共horizontal distance between the phase characteristics: 1. Of the set of all those wavelets,
points on the side of an anomaly where the slope is half filters, or systems that have the same amplitude spec-
of the maximum slope兲 divided by the Peters’ index trum or autocorrelation, particular members can be
共0.8 –1.0 for vertical thin sheet, 1.0 for horizontal thin characterized by their phase spectra 共phase as a func-
sheet, 1.6 for thick sheet, 1.8 –2.0 for wide body or tion of frequency兲. 共They can also be characterized in
contact, default often 1.6兲. See Peters 共1949兲 and Figure other ways, for example by the location of their roots in
D-10. the z-domain; see Figure P-2.兲 The principal feature of
petroleum: Generic name for hydrocarbons, including minimum phase is that the energy arrives as early as
crude oil, natural gas, natural gas liquids, and refined possible. The phase of a minimum-phase wavelet is
products. smaller and its energy builds up faster 共i.e., it is mini-
petrophysics: Study of relationships among the physical mum delay兲 than for any other causal wavelet with the
properties of rocks. Specifically, studies of how poros- same amplitude spectrum 共or same autocorrelation兲. A
ity, permeability, etc. measurements made with well two-term wavelet 共or doublet兲 关a,b兴 is minimum phase
logs relate to seismic velocity, electrical resistivity, 共minimum delay兲 if 兩 a 兩 ⬎ 兩 b 兩 . Any wavelet may be
temperature, etc. Also called rock physics. represented as the convolution of doublets and a wave-
PFE: Percent Frequency Effect 共q.v.兲. let is minimum phase if all of its doublet factors are
PFN: Prompt Fission Neutron log. minimum phase. For example, the z-transform of a
PGC: Preset or Programmed Gain Control 共q.v.兲. wavelet might be (6⫹z⫺z 2 ), which can be expressed
pH: A measure of acidity or alkalinity. A value of 7 as (3⫺z)(2⫹z), each of which is minimum phase;
indicates neutral, ⬍7 acidic, ⬎7 alkaline. hence the wavelet is minimum phase. Minimum phase
phantom: 1. A line on a seismic section drawn parallel to is sometimes expressed as having all roots outside the
the dip of nearby reflection events. Phantoms are unit circle in the z-plane, or as having no zeros in the
mapped where one cannot follow an individual event right half of the Laplace transform S-plane. A
far enough to map that event. 2. To pick the onset of a maximum-phase or maximum-delay doublet 关a,b兴 has
head wave where the onsets do not have enough ampli- 兩 a 兩 ⬍ 兩 b 兩 . Maximum-phase wavelets have all their roots
tude to be seen, based on later cycles of their inside the unit circle in the z-plane. For a linear-phase
wavetrains. Involved in picking first breaks to deter- wavelet, the phase-frequency plot is linear. If its inter-
mine near-surface corrections. cept is n ␲ 共where n is any integer兲, such a wavelet is
phantom diffraction: A diffracted reflection or a reflected
diffraction.
phase: 1. The argument of a wave. If the representation of
a wave is a function of ( ␬ x⫺ ␻ t), the argument ( ␬ x
⫺ ␻ t) is the phase; ␻ t⫽temporal phase, ␬ x
⫽spatial phase. 2. The angle of lag or lead of a sine
wave with respect to a reference; how far rotation,
oscillation, or variation has advanced, considered in
relation to a reference or instant of starting. Commonly
expressed in angular measure. Phase information, being
the measure with respect to the instant of starting,
carries the timing information of a seismogram and
hence proper phase preservation is of utmost impor-
tance. See also phase characteristics, phase response,
and compare phasing. 3. In earthquake seismology, an
event on a seismogram marking the arrival of a new
group of waves, indicated by a change of period or
amplitude, or both. 4. A portion of a nonhomogeneous
system that is bounded by a surface and may be
mechanically separated from the other phases. The
three phases of H2 O, for example, are ice, water, and
steam. 5. A short period of time, as a ‘‘phase of igneous
activity.’’
phase angle:
tan⫺1 关 quadrature component/in-phase component兴 .
The phase angle is in quadrants 1 or 2 if the numerator
is positive, in quadrants 1 or 4 if the denominator is
positive. In induced polarization, phase angle is usually
measured in milliradians.
phase array station: See large aperture seismic array.
phase attribute: Display of phase angle, sometimes the
cosine of the phase, of a volume of data. Sometimes
only peaks, troughs, or zero-crossings are considered. FIG. P-1. Permeabilities from laboratory measurements.
Often a display of only data along a particular surface (From Best and Katsube, 1995.)
phase characteristics „multichannel… 261
symmetrical. A zero-phase wavelet has phase identi-
cally zero; it is symmetrical about zero but is not
causal.
phase characteristics „multichannel…: A multichannel
filter can be expressed as a matrix. It is minimum phase
if its determinant 共which can also be expressed as the
product of doublets兲 is minimum phase. For example, a
multichannel response produced by impulsive inputs
might be:
input channel 1 input channel 2
output channel 1 (2⫹z) 共z兲
output channel 2 共1兲 (6⫹z),
with the determinant 12⫹7z⫹z 2 ⫽(3⫹z)(4⫹z),
which is minimum phase; hence the multichannel
response is minimum phase. Statements similar to those
for single-channel phase characteristics can be made for
maximum phase, linear phase, or zero phase. See also
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995: 290-1, 550-2兲.
phase coherence: The same phase relationship on adja-
cent traces, evidence for an event 共a distinguishable
wave兲.
phase comparison: A matching of the radio signals from
two continuous-wave 共CW兲 transmitters. Used to deter-
mine a line of position.
phase control: The process of rapid on-off switching that
connects an ac-supply to a load for a controlled fraction
of each cycle.
phase-correction filtering: A filter that compensates for
the nonlinear phase response of other components in a
system.
phase curve: A phase curve of a seismic trace is a plot of
the phase relationship of the component sinusoids
determined by harmonic analysis graphed versus fre-
quency.
phase distortion: Change in waveshape caused by a
phase shift that is not proportional to frequency. See
distortion.
phase encoding: A method of recording on magnetic tape
in which bits are indicated by changes in flux direction.
Flux changes denoting a ‘‘1’’ bit are all in one direction
while changes denoting a ‘‘0’’ bit are all the opposite
direction. See NRZ and NRZI.
phase inversion: A change of 180° in phase angle, mirror-
imaging a trace about the zero-deflection position.
phase-lock: 1. A technique in which a signal of almost
constant frequency is generated within an instrument
and brought to the same average phase as an external
signal. Used as the reference signal in synchronous
detectors to suppress noise. Implies a smoothing time
constant that is approximately the inverse of the band-
width. 2. A narrow-band method of detecting a signal
that is coherent with a reference signal.
phase response: A graph of phase-shift versus frequency,
which illustrates the phase characteristics of a system or
of a wavetrain. Filters with the same amplitude-
frequency response but different phase characteristics
affect the shape of pulses put through them differently.
See phase characteristics.
phase reversal: A phase shift of 180°, so that a peak
becomes a trough and vice-versa.
phase shift: The result of adding to or subtracting from a
phase measurement. In the time domain, a phase shift
photomultiplier
of ␾ is equivalent to a time shift of ␾ /2 ␲ f , where f
⫽frequency of the respective component being shifted.
Phase shifts result in change of waveshape unless all
components are shifted proportional to their frequen-
cies.
phase-shift migration: A method of migration in the
frequency-domain by phase-shifting at each step in
downward continuation. The process can be used to
discriminate against dipping coherent noise. Also called
Gazdag migration. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
330兲.
phase spectrum: Phase response 共q.v.兲.
phase splitting: Separation of a trough 共or peak兲 into
more than one trough 共or peak兲. Refers to the appear-
ance of an event on successive traces. Usually a conse-
quence of interference between two or more events
whose attitudes or strengths are changing laterally.
phase velocity: 1. The velocity of any given phase 共such
as a trough兲 or a wave of single frequency; it may differ
from group velocity because of dispersion. Sometimes
called ‘‘trough’’ velocity or ‘‘peak’’ velocity. See Figure
D-16. 2. The velocity perpendicular to a surface of
constant phase in anisotropic media. See Figure A-14.
3. Sometimes means apparent velocity 共q.v.兲.
phasing: A change in waveshape as a result of interfer-
ence.
phasor: A rotating line used to represent a sinusoidally
varying quantity. The length of the line represents the
magnitude and the angle with the x-axis at any instant
represents the phase. Used for quantities that are com-
plex numbers. Master curves for the electromagnetic
method are often presented as phasor diagrams.
phasor induction log: A type of induction log 共q.v.兲 that
involves measurement at several frequencies of both
quadrature and in-phase signals. Allows better correc-
tion for skin effects and improved thin-bed response.
Schlumberger tradename.
Phillips method: An automated depth-estimation method
that compares a running autocorrelation of a magnetic
anomaly profile with the model autocorrelation of a thin
dike or magnetic contact. See Phillips 共1979兲.
phi „␾… units: 共f ē or f ī 兲 A scale of particle size; ␾ ⫽
⫺log2 S, where S is diameter in mm. See Figure W-11.
phone: A geophone 共q.v.兲.
phoneme: A single sound unit in speech.
photocenter: The center of an aerial photograph; the
principal point.
photoelectric absorption log: Measurement of induced
gamma radiation 共gamma-gamma兲 in two energy win-
dows allows discrimination of the radiation resulting
from Compton scattering 共above 0.6 MeV兲 from that of
photoelectric absorption 共below 0.6 MeV兲. The photo-
electric effect is strongly dependent on atomic number
and hence lithology.
photoelectric effect: The liberation of electrons because
of the absorption of electromagnetic radiation 共such as,
but not restricted to, visible light兲 by a substance.
Several phenomena may be involved.
photographic infrared: The infrared portion of the elec-
tromagnetic spectrum to which photographic film is
sensitive, usually between 0.7 and 1.0 ␮m.
photomultiplier: An arrangement of a sequence of elec-
trodes in which each electrode emits several electrons
when bombarded by one electron. The electrons fall
photomultiplier 262 photomultiplier

FIG. P-2. (a) Phase characterization of wavelets having the same amplitude spectrum. (b) Minimum-phase wavelet
and its phase spectrum: (1⫺0.8z) 2 (1⫹0.5z) 2 ⫽1⫺0.6z⫺0.71z 2 ⫹0.24z 3 ⫹0.16z 4 . (c) Linear phase: (1⫺0.8z)
⫻(0.8⫺z)((1⫹0.5z)(0.5⫹z)⫽0.4⫹0.18z⫺1.25z 2 ⫹0.18z 3 ⫹0.4z 4 . (d) Maximum phase: (0.8⫺z) 2 (0.5⫹z) 2
⫽0.16⫹0.24z⫺0.71z 2 ⫺0.6z 3 ⫹z 4 . (e) Zero phase: 0.4z ⫺2 ⫹0.18z ⫺1 ⫺1.25⫹0.18z⫹0.4z 2 . The zero-phase
wavelet is anticipatory, that is, it begins before time zero. Phase curves depend on the time reference. Other mixed-
phase wavelets can also be made from these component doublets. (f) Z-plane plot of the roots of the autocorrelation
function for the foregoing, all of which have the same autocorrelation: ␾ xy (z)⫽(1⫺0.8z) 2 (0.8⫺z) 2 (1⫹0.5z) 2 (0.5
⫹z) 2 . In a more general case roots may be complex.
photon log
successively on other electrodes before finally reaching
the anode, resulting in a multiplication of the electron
current. The intermediate electrodes are called dyn-
odes. See Figure S-2.
photon log: A well log of scattered gamma rays, differing
from a density log in that the sonde is not pressed
against the borehole wall and hence the log is sensitive
to changes in hole diameter and the density of the fluid
in the borehole.
physically realizable: Satisfying two conditions: 共a兲 Not
existing 共having values of zero兲 before some initial time
and 共b兲 containing finite energy 共hence dying out
toward infinity兲.
physical modeling: Subjecting a physical model to cer-
tain tests. In contrast to conceptual modeling, where
processes are imagined in a thought sequence, or com-
puter or numerical modeling, where processes are simu-
lated by mathematical algorithms. Analog modeling or
scale modeling.
Pi: Irregular-type micropulsations 共q.v.兲.
pick: 1. To select an event on a seismic record, as to
‘‘pick’’ reflection events. 2. An event or time on an
event that has been selected. The arrival of an event
signifying new energy should cause an increase in
amplitude and should affect different channels in a
systematic coherent way. Various statistical tests are
used to make picking decisions, ranging from simple
summing along possible coherent patterns to schemes
like semblance criteria. Some criteria search only for
phase coherence, others look at the amplitude buildup,
integrate over several half cycles, equalize spectral
variations, etc. Grading is intimately related to picking.
See also tracking.
pickup: 1. Geophone 共q.v.兲. 2. Reception of a disturbance
such as inductive or other input from an electric power
line 共high-line兲.
pico- „p-…: A prefix meaning 10 ⫺12 .
picture files: A file that stores pixel data. Also called an
image file.
pi diagram: Pole diagram 共q.v.兲.
piecewise inversion: Nonlinear operations 共such as inver-
sion兲 can be handled in pieces that individually are
nearly linear.
pie slice: A fan-filter or velocity-filter 共q.v.兲 process aimed
at emphasizing a band of moveouts independent of
frequency. Compare butterfly filter. Texas Instruments
tradename.
piezoelectric: 共pē, ⳵ zō i lek’ trik or pı̄ e, zō e lek’ trik兲 1.
The property of a dielectric that generates a voltage
across it in response to a stress, and vice-versa. In a
hydrophone the stress is produced by the pressure, and
in an accelerometer the stress is produced by the inertia
of the reaction mass. Piezoelectric transducers are com-
monly made of barium titanate or zirconate. Also called
electrostrictive. From the Greek ‘‘to press.’’ 2. An
impulsive seismic energy source that is comprised of a
high-voltage powered transducer held against the sur-
face of the earth.
piezomagnetic: See magnetostriction.
piezoremanent magnetism „PRM…: 共pē, ⳵ zō rem’ ⳵ n⳵nt兲
See remanent magnetism.
piggy-back thrusts: A series of imbricate thrusts resulting
in the piling up of sheets or slivers of rock somewhat
like overlapping roof tiles.
263 plane polarized
pigtail: The wire that connects a geophone to the seismic
cable. A corkscrew shape results from twisting the
wires together.
pigtail chart: See dipmeter.
pillow: A small nonpiercement uplift caused by mobile
salt concentration.
pilot: An estimate for use as a basis of some analysis or
process.
piloting: Determining location with respect to known geo-
graphical points. See positioning.
pilot trace: The seismic trace toward which other traces
are adjusted. Used in time shifting for static corrections
or in cross-equalization processes. The pilot trace may
be composited from the traces being adjusted.
pinch out: The termination of a bed that thins gradually.
See Figure T-17.
pinger: 1. A transponder or device that emits an acoustic
signal upon being activated by sensing a coded electri-
cal signal, or vice versa. Pingers placed on the sea
bottom or in anchored buoys can be interrogated by a
ship transmitting a coded acoustic 共sonar兲 signal and
the distance to the pinger determined by traveltime
measurements. 2. A shallow-penetration, high-power
transducer used in marine engineering studies in soft-
bottom areas.
pingo: A conical mound of soil-covered ice up to 50 m
high and 400 m diameter formed because of high for-
mation pressure below permafrost.
pipe: 1. Production casing. 2. Drill pipe. 3. A narrow
cylindrical intrusion such as a kimberlite pipe.
pipelining: Hardware and software where the output of
one process feeds directly into another process without
the need for buffers.
piston corer: See corer.
pitch: 1. Angle between the major axis of polarization and
the horizontal. Also called dip or tilt. See polarization
ellipse. 2. Rotational motion of a ship or aircraft about
a horizontal axis perpendicular to the ship’s course.
Compare roll, yaw, and trim. 3. The frequency of sound
that is used in conjunction with other senses in virtual
reality studies. In addition to frequency, information
may be conveyed by volume, duration of a signal,
stereo effects, etc.
pivot: The element in a matrix by which one divides to
make the element unity. The best pivot for improving
numerical stability is often the largest available element
共in magnitude兲.
pivoting: Interchanging matrix rows and columns so as to
put a desirable element in the diagonal position from
which the pivot 共q.v.兲 is about to be selected. In partial
pivoting only rows are interchanged.
pixel: 共pik’ s⳵l兲 A picture element, a discrete element of a
digital image. An addressable point in a raster image,
such as a point on the screen at a work-station terminal.
A Landsat pixel represents an area of 1.2 acres 共57 m
E-W, 79 m N-S兲.
plane surveying: Surveying in which Earth curvature is
ignored.
Planck’s law: 共plonks兲 An expression for blackbody
radiation flux per unit area solely as a function of
wavelength and temperature. Named for Max Karl
Ernst Ludwig Planck 共1858 –1947兲, German physicist.
plane polarized: Having all oscillation within one plane
plane table 264 PLÕ1

for a type of oscillation with more than one degree of
freedom.
plane table: A survey instrument consisting of a drawing
board that can be leveled on a tripod. An object is
sighted through an alidade 共Figure A-9兲 that rests on the
table, allowing one to plot the line of survey directly
from the observation by drawing a line along a ruler
attached to the sighting telescope. Figure P-3 shows
uses of the plane table.
plane wave: Having wavefronts that are planar 共with no
curvature兲, as might originate from a very distant
source. A common assumption in seismic and electro-
magnetic wave analyses that is only rarely true in actual
situations. A plane wave can be expressed as
f 共 ᐉx⫹my⫹nz⫾Vt 兲 ,
where ᐉ , m, n are the direction cosines giving the wave
direction, V is the velocity of the wave, and t is time.
plane-wave decomposition: Finding the amplitudes,
phases, and directions of plane waves which, when
added together, approximate an arbitrary wavefront.
Accomplished by the Radon transform; see tau-p map-
ping.
plane-wave simulation: Simulation of plane or cylindri-
cal waves by summing observations with spherical
waves; Simplan. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 322–
324兲.
plant: 1. The manner in which a geophone is placed on or
in the earth. 2. The coupling to the ground. The nature
and quality of the plant affect the overall system
response. 3. To place a geophone in its proper place on
the ground.
planter: A device that pushes geophones 共or hydro-
phones兲 into soil or soft marsh, perhaps as much as
8 –10 ft deep.
plasticity: The material property that allows a body to
undergo permanent deformation without appreciable
volume change, elastic rebound, or rupture.
plate: 1. A large rigid lithosphere unit in plate tectonics
共q.v.兲 2. A sheet-like magnetic body with a vertical
thickness of 0.1 to 1.0 times the depth to its top.
plateau 共production兲: The time during the production his-
tory of an oil well or oil field where production is
limited by surface conditions rather than the production
ability of the well or field.
plate wave: Vibrations in a thin solid less than a wave-
length thick.
plate tectonics: A concept that envisions the Earth’s crust
divided into various more-or-less rigid plates 共Figure
P-4兲 that move slowly with respect to each other, being
carried along by slow convection currents in the
asthenosphere. Along major rifts 共such as midocean
ridges兲 the plates are separating and new crust is being
created. Elsewhere plates are overriding one another 共at
subduction zones兲 or sliding by one another along
transform faults 共q.v., as along the San Andreas fault兲.
See also Benioff-Wadati zone, and Figure P-5.
platform „computer…: The hardware and software envi-
ronment providing support functions for computer
tasks.
platform independent: A program or device that will
function regardless of the platform.
play: See resource.
playback: 1. To produce a new form of record from
magnetic tapes 共or other reproducible recording兲. Seis-
mic playback may include filtering, gain adjustment,
time shifting, mixing, stacking, migrating, etc. A pos-
sible program is shown in Figure P-14. 2. The result of
such processing, as opposed to the original recording.
PLÕ1: 共pē el’ wun兲 Programming Language one, an early
high-level computer language designed for both com-

FIG. P-3. Plane-table methods. (a) Plane-table traversing. The plane table is set at A and oriented north, the rod at
B is sighted with alidade and the line ab is drawn along the alidade edge, the line length depending on the stadia
reading. The table is then set up at B, oriented by back-sighting on A, then the alidade is sighted on C and bc is drawn,
and so on until the loop is closed at E by sighting on A. (b) Plane-table intersection method. The plane table is set at
A and oriented north, the rod at B is sighted with the alidade and ab is drawn depending on the stadia reading. Rod
readings at points C, D, E, F, and G are sighted on and their directions plotted. The same points are then sighted on with
the plane table set up at B. (c) Plane-table resection. The plane table is set at an unknown location H and the table
is sighted on known points A, B, and D. Point H is determined by the line intersections.
plot
mercial and scientific applications. PL/C was a simpli-
fied version.
plot: 1. A graph or plotted section. 2. To draw points and
lines representing events on a cross-section or map.
plot point: The location where a datum value is plotted.
For symmetrical electrode arrays, the midpoint of the
array; with asymmetric arrays, the convention may
vary.
plotted section: Section on which seismic events are indi-
cated by lines or sequences of points. The horizontal
scale is usually distance along the seismic line and the
vertical scale is usually either depth or reflection time.
Data may or may not be migrated. Often called simply
a cross-section or seismic cross-section.
plotter: 1. A device that makes a graphic display. 2. A
device for graphing data, as an X-Y plotter. 3. A person
or device for drawing graphs, maps, or sections.
plough: 共plow兲 A device for burying detonating cord 共for
use as a seismic source兲.
plug back: To seal off a zone that is dry 共not productive兲
or depleted.
plugged and abandoned „P&A…: See dry hole.
plumbing: 1. Determining the point vertically over a sur-
vey point by dropping a weighted string 共plumb line兲
to it. 2. The connectivity for the flow of fluids in a
reservoir.
plunge: 1. The direction of the axis of a fold with a
downward component. 2. To set the horizontal cross-
wire of a theodolite in the direction of a grade.
plus-minus method: A refraction interpretation method
using reversed refraction profiles, also called Hage-
doorn method. Let t AB be the surface-to-surface time
between A and B and let t A and t B be arrival times at
various intermediate locations from sources A and B,
respectively. ‘‘Minus’’ values, t A ⫺t B ⫺t AB , are calcu-
FIG. P-4. Map showing plate boundaries. (From Garland, 1979.)
265 point sort
lated for each location and plotted to give the velocity
of the refractor. ‘‘Plus’’ values, t A ⫹t B ⫺t AB , are cal-
culated for each location and plotted to give a picture of
the refractor’s depth. See Hagedoorn 共1959兲 or Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 442– 443兲.
plutonic: Igneous activity at depth.
Pn: Symbol for a headwave from the Mohorovicic discon-
tinuity.
pockmarks: Cone-shaped depressions in the seafloor,
sometimes 5–10 m deep and 15– 45 m in diameter,
perhaps formed by the leakage of ascending gas and
fluids.
podded geophones: Having all phones in a group planted
very close together.
point: One of a sequence of values, as in a ‘‘56-point
filter.’’ See convolution.
point bar: A low crescentic sand deposit that forms on the
inside of river meanders.
point detectorsÕsources: Use of single detectors/sources
avoids the averaging that detector/source arrays
involve.
pointer: 1. A data element that contains the address of
data, as opposed to a data value. 2. The links between
nodes 共q.v.兲 in a tree structure. 3. A cursor.
pointing error: Systematic error in a ship’s sense of
direction such as might be caused by misalignment of
sensors with the ship. Doppler-sonar pointing error
shows as fictitious cross-course velocity.
point mass: A mass theoretically concentrated at a point
whose geophysical response is equivalent to some other
mass distribution. In gravity, a uniform sphere can be
treated as if its mass were concentrated at its center.
Nonspherical masses at large distances can be approxi-
mated by point masses.
point sort: Gather 共q.v.兲.
point source 266 polar anisotropy

point source: 1. A source whose actual size is unimportant
as far as the effects being observed are concerned. 2. A
single-current electrode whose companion is a great
distance away, such as the current pole of pole-pole or
pole-dipole arrays.
point tracking mode: A mode of tracking 共picking兲 at an
interactive terminal that connects points that have been
selected with a cursor by straight lines.
poise: 100 centipoise 共q.v.兲.
Poisson’s equation: 共pwa sonz’兲 In a space where the
source density is ␳, the Laplacian of a potential U is
ⵜ 2 U⫽4 ␲␳ K,
where ⵜ is the operator del and K is a constant 共the
gravitational constant in the case of mass and gravita-
tional potential兲. The constant 4␲ is deleted in some
systems. In empty space where ␳ ⫽0, this becomes
Laplace’s equation. Named for Simeon Denis Poisson
共1781–1840兲, French mathematician.
Poisson’s ratio „␴…: The ratio of the fractional transverse
contraction to the fractional longitudinal extension
when a rod is stretched; see elastic constants and Figure
E-6. If density is known, specifying Poisson’s ratio is
equivalent to specifying the ratio of V S /V P , where
V S , and V P are S- and P-wave velocities. Values ordi-
narily range from 0.5 共no shear strength, e.g., fluid兲 to 0
共but theoretically from 0.5 to ⫺1.0; see Debski and
Tarantola, 1995兲.
Poisson’s Relation: For bodies having both uniform sus-
ceptibility and density contrast, the magnetic potential
is directly proportional to the derivative of the gravity
potential in the direction of magnetization.
Poisson reflectivity „PR…: The coefficient of the sin2 ␪
term in the Verm and Hilterman approximation to the
Zoeppritz’ equations that is used in studies of amplitude
variation with offset:
␴ 2⫺ ␴ 1
PR⫽ , where ␴ is Poisson’s ratio.
共 1⫺ ␴ av兲 2
Poisson solid: An isotropic elastic material for which the
Lamé elastic constants ␭ and ␮ are equal. A Poisson
solid has Poisson’s ratio ␴ ⫽1/4.
polar anisotropy: Transverse isotropy. It involves elas-
tic properties that are the same in any direction perpen-
dicular to a symmetry axis but different parallel to the
axis, and it has five independent elastic constants; see
Thomsen anisotropic parameters and see Figure T-13.
This symmetry is like a crystal having hexagonal sym-
metry; see Figure S-29.

FIG. P-5. (a) Plate-tectonic model. A⫽rift zone where plates P 1 and P 4 are moving apart (such as the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge) where new crust is being created. C⫽ocean trench resulting from overriding of plate P 3 over P 1 (or P 2 over P 4 );
B⫽Benioff-Wadati zone of earthquakes dipping along the contact of plates P 1 and P 2 which are colliding. T
⫽transform faults where plates are sliding by each other. (After Isaacs et al., 1968.) (b) There are three kinds of plate
boundaries. The junction of three plates constitutes a triple junction (q.v.); See also Fig. T-16.
polar form of complex number
A sequence of generally horizontal, isotropic layers
共such as sedimentary bedding兲 tends to produce layer-
ing anisotropy 共sometimes called periodic thin-layer
anisotropy, although the layering need not be periodic兲
for wavelengths that are appreciably larger than the
layer thickness. The axis of symmetry is generally
perpendicular to the bedding, more-or-less vertical,
with the velocities of P-waves parallel to the bedding
and S-waves that are polarized parallel to the bedding
being larger than for those perpendicular to the bed-
ding. Parallel isotropic layering, where there are more
than eight or so layers per wavelength, behaves as a
polar anisotropic medium. Roughly horizontal layering
is also called transverse isotropy because properties
are the same in any transverse direction with a vertical
axis of symmetry 共TIV兲. See also azimuthal asymmetry.
With a vertical symmetry axis, pure P- and S-waves
may exist only in certain directions. SH-wavefronts are
ellipsoidal in shape 共see Figure A-14c兲 and SV- and
P-modes of propagation are coupled with nonelliptical
wavefronts that in general are not othogonal to the
directions of wave propagation. Phase velocity 共wave-
front velocity兲 perpendicular to the wavefront surface
of constant phase and ray velocity in the direction of
energy transport 共also called group velocity兲 are gen-
erally not in the same direction 共see Figure A-14a兲. The
reciprocal of phase velocity 共also a vector quantity兲 is
called slowness. SV-wavefronts may have cusps. See
Thomsen, 2002.
polar form of complex number: Expressing a complex
number z⫽x⫹ jy in the form z⫽Ae j ␪ ; A⫽modulus
⫽(x 2 ⫹y 2 ) 1/2 , and ␪ ⫽phase⫽tan⫺1(y/x).
polarity: 1. The condition of being positive or negative. 2.
Power-supply terminals being electrically positive or
negative. If opposite terminals are connected, electrons
flow from the negative to the positive in the external
connector. 3. The ‘‘north’’ or ‘‘south’’ character of a
magnetic pole. 4. For a seismic display, see polarity
standard.
polarity reversal on horizontal-component section: The
horizontal component of SV-motion reverses polarity at
the source.
polarity standard: 1. The SEG standard for causal seis-
mic data specifies that the onset of a compression from
an explosive source is represented by a negative num-
FIG. P-6. SEG polarity standard. For a positive reflec-
tion, a minimum-phase wavelet (top) begins with a down
kick; the center of a positive symmetrical (zero-phase)
wavelet (bottom) is a peak. In the North Sea and some
other areas the opposite convention is used for zero-
phase wavelets.
267 polarization filtering
ber, that is, by a downward deflection when displayed
graphically; see Figure P-6. This standard is historically
based; early refraction first arrivals broke downward. A
reflection indicating an increase in acoustic impedance
or a positive reflection coefficient also begins with a
downward deflection. 2. For a zero-phase wavelet, a
positive reflection coefficient is represented by a central
peak, normally plotted black on a variable area or
variable density display; see Figure P-6. This conven-
tion is called positive standard polarity and the
reverse convention is negative standard polarity or
reverse polarity. In the North Sea and some other areas
the convention for zero-phase wavelet is reversed.
Polarity standards are not specified for wavelets other
than minimum-phase or zero-phase ones. See also dual
polarity displays.
polarization: 共pō, l⳵r i zā’ sh⳵n兲 1. Dipole moment per
unit volume. In induced polarization, current dipole
moment per unit volume. Also called magnetization
共q.v.兲. 2. The polarity or potential near an electrode. 3.
A preferential direction of wave motion, as the compo-
nent of S-waves whose motion is confined to a horizon-
tal plane 共SH兲. 4. Preferential direction of motion
involved in seismic wave passage, as determined with a
three-component geophone or triphone. See polariza-
tion filtering. 5. Magnetic orientation concerning only
the vector direction and not the magnitude.
polarization diagram: Hodogram 共q.v.兲.
polarization ellipse: The locus of points in space
described by the superposition of two fields having
different directions and whose variations in time are of
the form A cos(␻t) and B cos(␻t⫹␪). In electromag-
netic prospecting, neither the direction nor the phase of
the primary and secondary fields are the same so that
the superposition of the two fields results in elliptical
polarization. For the ellipse shown in Figure P-7, the
modulus of the magnetic wavetilt is given by
兩 H z 兩 / 兩 H x 兩 , the tilt angle or pitch by ␣, and the ellip-
ticity by 兩 H 2 兩 / 兩 H 1 兩 . Ellipticity is positive or negative
as the vector rotates clockwise or counterclockwise.
See Smith and Ward 共1974兲.
polarization filtering: 1. A technique for enhancing one
mode of propagation with respect to another, or of
determining the direction of approach of a seismic
wave by combining the outputs of three-component
recordings. The different phase relationships for P-, S-,
FIG. P-7. Polarization-ellipse relations.
polarization flip 268
and surface waves can be used to distinguish between
them. See White 共1964兲 and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
480, 483兲. 2. See linear-phase filtering.
polarization flip: Reversal of polarization of SV-wave
recording on opposite sides of the zero-offset location.
polarization potentials: Induced polarization 共q.v.兲
potentials.
polarization resistance: The factor (RT/nFJ o )
employed in overvoltage theory, relating overvoltage ␩
to current density J:
␩ ⫽⫺ 共 RT/nFJ o 兲 J;
R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature, n the
number of molar equivalents, F the Faraday, and J o the
exchange current density, all in cgs units. The units of
polarization resistance are ohm-cm2.
polarized: A connector is said to be polarized if the con-
nector and its mate are so designed that they fit together
in only one way. This prevents getting the wires con-
nected incorrectly.
polarized electrode: See ideal polarized electrode.
polar projection: See stereographic projection.
polar wandering: Rocks become magnetized according
to the direction of the Earth’s field at the time of their
formation. As the Earth’s plates drift with time, the
direction of the remanent magnetism 共q.v.兲 changes and
consequently the apparent location of the magnetic
pole. The polar wandering curves for different plates
differ; see Figure P-8a. The magnetic poles also move
with time in addition to plate movement effects, pro-
ducing secular changes, including the westward drift
of the magnetic pole; see Figure P-8b.
pole: 1. A singular point, where the value of a function
becomes infinite. If a function has the factor (x
⫺a) m . a is a pole of order m. If m⫽1. a is a simple
pole. 2. A magnetic pole 共q.v.兲. 3. One electrode of a
pair whose companion electrode 共infinite electrode兲 is
so far away that its location does not affect the mea-
surements.
pole diagram: A stereographic projection 共q.v.兲 on which
the direction of lines is plotted. Also called a ␲ dia-
gram. A plane is represented by the direction of the line
perpendicular to it. Compare cyclographic diagram.
pole-dipole array: See array (electrical) and Figure
A-18.
pole-pole array: See array (electrical) and Figure A-18.
pole of spreading: Plate movement associated with sea-
floor spreading can be described as rotation of one plate
with respect to the other about an axis through the
Earth’s center, the axis intersecting the Earth’s surface
at the pole of spreading. Also called an Euler pole.
Transform faults are latitude circles about the pole of
spreading. Convergence is not necessarily ⬜ subduc-
tion. The rate of spreading is given as that at 90° even
though the plates may not extend to 90°.
pole strength: See magnetic pole.
polling: Calling a terminal in a multi-access system to
establish whether it has data for transmission to the
computer.
polyline: The sequence of straight lines between specified
points that outline a polygon.
polyconic projection: See map projection.
polygon: 1. A polygonal-shaped portion of a surface
selected for special treatment, such as a portion of a
positioning
gather to be muted or a portion of an f ⫺k section to be
muted. 2. Representation of a fault surface by a network
of planar polygons; fault polygons.
polymer: 共pol’ ⳵ m.r兲 A substance with extremely high
molecular weight that forms long chains resulting in
high viscosity. Used to improve mobility in enhanced
oil recovery.
polymer flooding: See chemically enhanced recovery.
pool: A connected hydrocarbon reservoir; see resource.
poop shot: Weathering shot 共q.v.兲.
population: The aggregate of a set of observations whose
subaggregates have the same statistical properties.
Where subaggregates have different statistical proper-
ties, they may be said to be ‘‘of different populations.’’
See statistical measures.
pop-up menu, pull-down menu: A list of choices that
appears when one keys on a symbol.
pore pressure: Interstitial pressure 共q.v.兲, the pressure of
the fluids in the interstices in a rock.
pore-pressure gradient: 1. Changes in formation-fluid
pressure divided by the depths over which they are
measured; the slope of the interstitial-fluid pressure
versus depth curve, the local pressure gradient 共q.v.兲. 2.
The average pore-pressure gradient 共formation-fluid
pressure divided by the depth兲 is what determines mud
weight 共q.v.兲; usually measured in equivalent mud
weight 共EMW兲, psi/ft, or Pa/m. See also normal pres-
sure.
porosity „␾…: Pore volume per unit gross volume. Poros-
ity is determined from cores, sonic logs 共see Wyllie
relationship兲, density logs 共q.v.兲, neutron logs, or resis-
tivity logs 共see Archie’s formula兲. See also movable oil
plot. Primary porosity refers to the porosity remaining
after the sediments have been compacted but without
considering changes because of subsequent chemical
action or flow of water through the sediments. Second-
ary porosity is additional porosity created by subse-
quent changes, especially fissures, fractures, solution
vugs, and porosity created by dolomitization. Effective
porosity is the porosity available to free 共moveable兲
fluids, excluding unconnected porosity and space occu-
pied by bound water and disseminated shale.
porosity logs: Density, neutron, and sonic logs, each of
which is sensitive to porosity 共q.v.兲 but also other
factors.
porosity overlay: A plot of porosity values calculated
from different logs, plotted on top of each other. Com-
pare crossplot.
porous pot: A nonpolarizable electrode that allows free
ionic flow into the earth. A copper rod in a saturated
copper-sulfate solution contained in a porous pot is
such an electrode. Used in making voltage measure-
ments where negligible current flows through it. A
nonpolarizing potential electrode used in electrical and
electromagnetic surveying. See Figure P-9.
port: 1. Connection point for an input or output device. 2.
The connection to a computer where data can be input
or output.
portable: A computer program that can function on
another computer.
portable software: Software that can be used with differ-
ent hardware.
positioning: 1. Determining the location of a survey ship
or aircraft, usually with respect to geodetic coordinates
positioning 269 positioning

FIG. P-8. (a) Polar wandering curve showing location of the magnetic pole based on paleomagnetic data from different
plates. The divergence of the curves backward in time indicates different movements for the different plates. P⑀
⫽Precambrian, ⑀ ⫽Cambrian, O⫽Ordovician, S⫽Silurian, D⫽Devonian, C⫽Carboniferous, P⫽Permian, Tr
⫽Triassic, J⫽Jurassic, LT, MT, UT⫽Lower, Middle, Upper Tertiary. (From Garland, 1979.) (b) Time variation in incli-
nation and declination of the paramagnetic field at London, showing westward drift. (After Parasnis, 1961.)
positive 270
but sometimes with respect to reference beacons whose
geodetic locations may not be known. Positioning is
sometimes divided into „a… celestial navigation, locat-
ing oneself by observing celestial bodies, which some-
times includes satellite navigation such as the global
positioning system 共GPS兲; „b… piloting, determining
position with respect to geographical points, including
many radio-navigation methods; and „c… dead reckon-
ing, positioning by the extrapolation of track and direc-
tion from a previously known point of departure,
including inertial positioning, Doppler-sonar, and
Doppler-radar methods. Some modern positioning sys-
tems measure traveltime or differences in traveltime
from reference stations, some measure the phase in
standing-wave patterns set up by pairs of transmitter
stations, some measure Doppler frequency shifts, some
measure the direction of strongest signal. See Figure
L-6. Features of some systems are listed in Figure P-10.
2. Locating reflecting points; see migration.
positive: 1. An anomalous area in which values are larger
than expected or larger than in neighboring areas, as a
‘‘gravity positive.’’ 2. An area characterized by uplift.
Positive often is used in a relative sense and might refer
to an area that is subsiding less rapidly than surround-
ing areas.
positive polarity: See polarity standard and Figure P-6.
positive pole: A north-seeking magnetic pole 共q.v.兲.
positive separation: See separation.
posting: Marking data on a map or section at the appro-
priate location, often as a step prior to contouring.
FIG. P-9. A porous pot nonpolarizing electrode
consisting of a metal electrode in a solution of its own salt
(such as Cu and CuSO4 .); the porous pot allows the solu-
tion to leak slowly and make good contact with the ground
without setting up a contact potential. (From Telford et al.,
1990.)
powderman
postplot: Computation of locations that have been previ-
ously occupied, based on the best reconciling of all
available data.
poststack migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 of stacked data, as
opposed to migration before stacking.
pot: 1. To fire a small charge in a hole to create space for
loading a charge. 2. A potentiometer 共q.v.兲. 3. A porous
pot 共q.v.兲.
potential: 1. The amount of work required to position a
unit charge, unit pole, or unit mass at a given position,
usually with respect to infinity. Electric, magnetic, and
gravitational fields are scalar potential fields. The gra-
dient of a potential field is called the field strength,
field intensity, or flux density; see Gauss theorem. 2. A
function from which a quantity can be determined by
specified mathematical operations, as a potential field
from which seismic displacement, velocity, etc. can be
ascertained by differentiation.
potential-drop ratio: An electrical-survey method that
compares ratios of voltages between two adjacent,
aligned pairs of potential electrodes.
potential electrode: The contact of an IP and/or resistivity
receiver circuit with the ground, usually a porous-pot
electrode.
potential „electrical…: Electrical voltage with respect to a
reference point. See also electric potentials.
potential field: A field that obeys Laplace’s equation, such
as gravity, magnetic, or electrical fields. For such fields,
the vector field may be expressed as the gradient of
some scalar potential or the curl of a vector potential.
See potential 共q.v.兲.
potential field tilt: tan⫺1 共vertical derivative/horizontal
derivative兲.
potential function: Mathematical relation from which
other relations can be derived by simple mathematical
operations 共such as differentiation兲. For example, the
gradient of a magnetic or gravity potential function
might give the magnetic or gravity field, or the diver-
gence and curl of a seismic potential function might
give the displacements involved in P- and S-waves.
Potentials are used because they are often easier to
describe than the relations that can be derived from
them.
potentiometer: An electrical instrument for measuring
low-level dc voltages without drawing current from the
measured circuit, by using the unknown voltage as an
arm in a direct-current bridge circuit.
pot resistance: The electrical resistance from a potential
electrode to ground; the effective electrical resistance of
a porous-pot potential electrode and adjacent region.
Too high a pot resistance reduces sensitivity and
increases susceptibility to noise.
Potsdam ellipsoid: The now-obsolete international geo-
detic reference ellipsoid; see Figure G-2 and Geodetic
Reference System.
Potsdam gravity: A former gravity standard 共q.v.兲, the
gravity at the Pendelsaal of the Geodetic Institute in
Potsdam, East Germany.
Poulter method: 共pōl’ t⳵r兲 See air shooting. Named for
Thomas C. Poulter, American geophysicist.
powder: Explosive.
powder factor: Pounds of explosives required to break a
ton of rock to the required size.
powderman: An individual licensed to handle explosives.
powderman 271 powderman

FIG. P-10. Positioning and navigation systems (Continued on next page).

power series 272 precise leveling

FIG. P-10. Positioning and navigation systems.

power series: An expression of the form y⫽a⫹bx
⫹cx 2 ⫹... . See Taylor series.
power spectrum: 1. A power-density versus frequency
relationship. The power spectrum P( f ) is the square of
the amplitude-frequency response or the Fourier
共cosine兲 transform of the autocorrelation function. 2.
Occasionally implies cumulative power P ⬘ ( f ), where
P( f ) is the power density at the frequency f:
precession: 共prē sesh’ ⳵n兲 The tendency of a gyroscope to
turn when under the influence of a torque that tries to
change the direction of its axis of spin. See Figure P-11.
precision: The repeatability of an instrument measured by
the mean deviation of a set of measurements from the
average value. Different from accuracy 共q.v.兲.
precision index: See error function.
precise leveling: Determining relative levels to very high
precision, usually to detect changes in levels with time

冕
P ⬘共 f ⬘ 兲 ⫽
f⬘

0
P共 f 兲d f .

power-transfer function: The function of frequency that

represents the ratio of output-power density to input-
power density.
Poynting vector: A vector whose outward normal compo-
nent integrated over a closed surface gives the outward
flow of energy through the surface. The vector is the
cross-product of the electric field strength and the mag-
netic field strength.
ppm: Parts per million.
Pratt hypothesis: 共prat兲 A model of compensation for
isostasy 共q.v.兲. See also Figure I-7. Named for John
Henry Pratt 共1809–1871兲, British mathematician and
geodesist.
PR: Poisson’s Reflectivity 共q.v.兲.
preamplifier: An amplifier that precedes the main ampli-
fier. Usually located near the signal source to improve
signal-to-noise ratio. Often has a high input impedance FIG. P-11. Precession rule. The spin axis precesses
to prevent loading and to give maximum signal transfer. toward the torque axis.
preconditioning
as a result of subsidence, fault movement, etc.
preconditioning: Processing to make the input to another
process more suitable, usually to remove noise or zero
values that otherwise might interfere with the process-
ing.
precursor: A change in geologic conditions that is a fore-
runner of an earthquake, especially a small earthquake
preceding a large earthquake.
prediction error: 1. The difference between a value pre-
dicted from observation of earlier measurements and
the value actually observed.
prediction-error filtering: 1. Filtering to minimize some
function of the errors. See ᐉ p fits, optimum filtering, and
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 298, 560兲. 2. For a wave-
form expressed as a z-transform, x(z), the value pre-
dicted after a delay of ␣ sample intervals is z ␣ A(z)
x(z). The prediction error is [x(z)⫺z ␣ x(z)] and the
prediction error operator is [1⫺z ␣ A(z)].
prediction lag: The time difference 共often described by
the number of data samples兲 between an input value
and the prediction based on it. For example, reverbera-
tion multiples in a surface water layer are delayed by
the two-way traveltime in the water layer, so the decon-
volution operator has this prediction lag and the opera-
tor does not begin functioning until after this lag time
共also called a gap, as in gapped deconvolution兲.
predictive deconvolution: Use of information from the
earlier part of a seismic trace to predict and deconvolve
the latter part of that trace. Some types of systematic
noise, such as reverberations and multiples can be pre-
dicted. The difference between the predicted value and
the actual value is called the prediction error; it is
sensitive to new information such as primary reflec-
tions. Predictive deconvolution may also be used in a
multitrace sense, where one tries to predict a trace from
neighboring traces. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 166,
168, 298兲.
preemphasis: 共prē em’ fa sis兲 1. Frequency filtering
before processing 共as in field recording兲 so as to empha-
size certain frequencies compared to others. 2. Record-
ing to emphasize higher frequencies with the objective
of improving resolution.
preliminary section: A seismic section made in an early
stage of processing before much of the processing has
been carried out. As opposed to the final section.
premultiply: The matrix operation where we wish to mul-
tiply matrix B by matrix A to get AB. Also called
multiplication on the left 共matrix multiplication not
being commutative兲. For example, if we wish to solve
AB⫽C for B, we can premultiply by A⫺1 giving
A⫺1 AB⫽B⫽A⫺1 C.
preliminary waves: 1. The body waves of an earthquake
that arrive before the stronger surface waves. Usually
includes both P-waves and S-waves. 2. P-wave 共q.v.兲.
preplot: 1. The locations planned to be occupied before
the survey actually begins. 2. A list of programmed
points in navigation-system coordinates. 3. To calculate
the navigation-system coordinates for programmed
points.
preprocessor: A computer or program that operates on
data prior to the main processing. Seismic preprocess-
ing sometimes includes vertical stacking, reformating,
adding headers, editing, resampling, demultiplexing,
etc.
273 primary ratio
preset gain control: Programmed gain control 共q.v.兲.
pressure: Force per unit area. Usually the difference in
pressure relative to some other situation is meant,
sometimes the pressure gradient or the pressure of
fluids in pores 共pore or interstitial pressure兲.
pressure buildup test: See pressure testing.
pressure detector: Hydrophone 共q.v.兲.
pressure-displacement relation:
P(x,t)⫽⫺kⵜ•u(x,t), where k⫽bulk modulus and u
is a vector displacement.
pressure maintenance: Injection of gas, water, or other
fluids into a reservoir before the reservoir pressure has
dropped appreciably, often early in the life of a field, to
reduce pressure decline and increase ultimate oil recov-
ery.
pressure regression: A lowering of fluid pressure because
a formation has been in communication with a shal-
lower zone of lower pressure.
pressure remanent magnetism „PRM…: See remanent
magnetism.
pressure testing: Measurements of the changes in forma-
tion pressure at a borehole as production conditions are
changed. For example, the pressure changes following
shut-in of the borehole being tested 共pressure buildup
test兲 or the changes in one well as conditions in another
well are changed 共interference test兲.
pressure transient testing: Observing changes in the
pressure of surrounding boreholes with time following
change in the pressure of one borehole; done to deter-
mine the connectivity of formations.
pressure wave: P-wave 共q.v.兲.
prestack image gather: See common-image-point gather.
prestack migration: Migration before stack is done to
avoid the reflection-point smearing of dipping reflec-
tions and to accommodate strong lateral velocity gradi-
ents. It can also be used when the hyperbolic moveout
assumption breaks down.
presuppression: Initial suppression 共q.v.兲.
prewhitening: 1. Preemphasis 共q.v.兲 designed to make the
spectral density more nearly constant. 2. Adding white
noise prior to deconvolution. See white noise level.
prills: Pellets of ammonium nitrate used as a shothole
explosive.
primacord: Detonating cord 共q.v.兲. Ensign Bickford Co.
tradename.
primary-bubble ratio: For marine seismic sources that
create bubble pulses, the ratio of the initial peak pres-
sure to the peak pressure in the first bubble pulse.
Air-gun arrays are often designed to have large
primary-bubble ratio⫽peak-to-bubble ratio.
primary colors: The three colors that in combinations
give any other color. The additive primary colors of
light are red, green, and blue; their sum in equal
amounts gives white. The subtractive colors of
magenta, yellow, and cyan apply to pigments; their sum
in equal amounts gives black. See Figure C-7.
primary field: The electromagnetic field that would be
generated if the source were in free space.
primary porosity: See porosity.
primary radar: Radar that relies on reflected energy to
indicate targets, as opposed to using active transponders
as targets.
primary ratio: The ratio of electromagnetic field readings
at two locations in the absence of conducting material.
primary recovery 274
Also called normal ratio. See Turam.
primary recovery: Oil production that relies on the natu-
ral energy sources in the reservoir to move fluids to the
wellbore.
primary reflection: Energy that has been reflected only
once and hence is not a multiple. Usually includes the
contribution of short-path multiples.
primary voltage: In IP surveying, the peak asymptotic
charging voltage observed at a time-domain receiver.
primary wave: P-wave 共q.v.兲.
prime: To prepare an explosive for firing, as to insert a
blasting cap in a stick of dynamite.
prime mover: A steam engine, electric motor, or internal-
combustion engine that is an independent source of
power.
primer: 共prı̄’ m⳵r兲 An intermediate explosive that is set off
by a cap and whose function is to detonate another
explosive which is not cap-sensitive.
principal alias: A frequency between the Nyquist fre-
quency and twice the Nyquist frequency.
principal alias lobe: See directivity graph.
principal axis: 1. One of the axes that permit a quadratic
function to be written in terms of only the coordinates,
that is, involving no cross terms. One of the eigenvector
directions obtained from diagonalizing a rank-two ten-
sor. See natural polarization direction. 2. A special or
preferred symmetry axis.
principal component analysis „PCA…: 1. A procedure
that transforms a number of possibly correlated vari-
ables into a smaller number of uncorrelated variables
共the principal components兲. It ranks the principal
components according to the amount of the data vari-
ability for which each accounts, so that components
whose effects are only minor can be ignored. Principal
component analysis is generally used to identify the
meaningful variables and reduce the dimensionality of
the data set. In an eigenanalysis, the first principal
component is in the same direction as the eigenvector
associated with the largest eigenvalue, and so on to
other components in descending order of importance.
PCA is often done by singular-value decomposition
共q.v.兲. 2. Where images correlate because they contain
portions of the same information, the separation of the
information into orthogonal images. For example,
much of the information on different Landsat bands
correlate and PCA separates the information into uncor-
related images.
principal diagonal: The matrix elements a ii , that is, those
elements lying along the diagonal line from a 11 to a nn ,
where n is the number of rows or columns 共whichever
is smaller兲 in the matrix.
principal direction: One of the natural directions of a
system. When oriented in the principal directions,
cross-coupling terms disappear, tensor impedances
decouple, nondiagonal terms of matrices vanish, or
other simplifications occur. The normal curvature has
its maximum and minimum values in the principal
directions.
principal maximum: The largest of several local
maxima.
principal point: The center of an aerial photograph; the
photocenter.
principal profile: A profile oriented perpendicular to the
strike of a 2D feature.
probing
principal value: If x S is a singular point of f (x) and a
⬍x S ⬍b, then the principal value is
冕 再冕 冕
b x S ⫺␧ b
PV f 共 x 兲 dx⫽ lim f 共 x 兲 dx⫹ f 共 x 兲 dx.
a ␧→x S a x S ⫹␧
principle of equivalence: Two conductive layers can
carry nearly the same electrical current if their ratios of
thickness to resistivity are the same 共conductance
equivalence兲. Two resistive layers can carry nearly the
same electrical current if their resistivity-thickness
products are the same 共transverse resistance equiva-
lence兲.
principle of least time: See Fermat’s principle.
principle of reciprocity: The seismic concept that the
same trace would result if source elements were
replaced with receiver elements and vice-versa. Similar
concepts are involved with other methods, for example,
interchanging current and potential electrodes in elec-
trical exploration. A consequence of linearity. Reciproc-
ity is not valid with converted waves unless the direc-
tional senses of the source and receiver are also
interchanged.
principle of superposition: The concept that the result
from two or more simultaneous causes can be obtained
by summing the results of individual causes. Implies
linearity.
principle of suppression: Resistant layers sandwiched
between conducting beds are electrically equivalent if
the products of their thicknesses and resistivities are the
same.
printed circuit: A thin laminated board 共circuit board兲
on which electrical circuits are drawn and components
mounted. Usually easily removed for testing and
replacement.
prism: A semi-infinite, vertical parallelepiped source
body.
prism waves: Body waves that are reflected twice from
the same reflector because of large structural relief. The
reflector has to have a high-impedance contrast 共such as
a chalk or salt兲 to yield a significant reflection.
private line: A communications channel dedicated to
some exclusive use.
privileged: 1. A computer function whose use is
restricted. For example, the ability to read a file of
authorized passwords is a privileged function usually
restricted to the system manager. In a computer system,
privileged instructions may be executed only by the
operating system when in the proper mode 共e.g., super-
visor state, kernal mode, etc.兲. 2. A computer operation
that has priority over other operations. 3. Data whose
input has priority over other computer operations.
PRM: Pressure- 共or Piezo-兲 Remanent Magnetism. See
remanent magnetism.
probabilistic: See deterministic.
probability functions, F(x) : See Figure P-13.
probable error: The range within which half of a series of
measurement of a quantity probably lie. For a Gaussian
distribution, the probable error is 0.674 times the stan-
dard deviation. 共Note: probable error is not an error
which is more probable than others.兲 See statistical
measures.
probing: Sounding 共q.v.兲.
processing 275
FIG. P-12. Pressure versus borehole depth. The over-
burden pressure varies somewhat depending on the
densities of overlying rocks, normal formation pore pres-
sure varies slightly depending on salinity, fracture pres-
sure varies depending on rock strength.
processing: Changing data, usually to improve the signal-
to-noise ratio to facilitate interpretation. Processing
operations include applying corrections for known per-
turbing causes, rearranging the data, filtering it accord-
ing to some criteria, combining data elements, trans-
forming, migrating, measuring attributes, display, etc. A
possible sequence of seismic processing operations is
shown in Figure P-14. See Yilmaz 共2000兲.
processor: 1. A program to translate programmer’s
instructions 共source program兲 into machine language
共object program兲. 2. A device that does processing. 3.
A person who does geophysical data processing.
producibility-index log: A calculated well log showing
effective porosity and the percent 共q兲 of the total poros-
ity occupied by clay. Low clay content and high fluid-
filled porosity suggest good permeability.
production log: A well log run inside tubing. Small-
diameter sondes are used so that they can be lowered
through 2-inch ID tubing. Devices include continuous
flowmeter, packer flowmeter, gradiomanometer,
FIG. P-13. Probability functions, F(x).
program
manometer, densimeter, water-cut-meter, thermometer,
radioactive tracer tools, through-tubing caliper, casing-
collar locator, fluid sampler, and tools that measure
fluid flow.
production testing: See pressure transient testing.
profile: 1. A graph of a measured quantity against hori-
zontal distance, as in a ‘‘gravity profile.’’ 2. A drawing
showing a vertical section of the ground along a line. 3.
The series of measurements made from a single source-
point location into a recording spread. 4. A refraction
profile denotes the ensemble of individual profiles 共as
defined above兲 obtained from the same source point.
Use of ‘‘profile’’ for both the component records and
for the ensemble sometimes produces confusion.
profile line: The line along which measurements are
made.
profiler: A high-frequency marine seismic reflection sys-
tem usually involving a low-energy source, used espe-
cially in oceanographic studies, as a reconnaissance
tool in conjunction with gravity and other types of
surveys, in engineering studies, etc. Originally ‘‘pro-
filer’’ meant use of a compact but weak source 共often
sparker兲 with only one or two hydrophone groups
recorded by a single-channel plotter on electrosensitive
paper. Profiler is now used for larger systems with
stronger sources, multichannel streamers, and with data
recorded on magnetic tape, so that the distinction versus
conventional marine seismic work is often lost. See
Figure P-15 and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 235, 260,
506 –508兲.
profiling: A geophysical survey in which the measuring
system is moved about an area 共usually along lines兲
with the objective of characterizing lateral variations in
the subsurface; mapping. Specifically, a resistivity, IP,
or electromagnetic field method wherein a fixed elec-
trode or antenna array is moved progressively along a
traverse to create a horizontal profile of the apparent
resistivity. Occasionally refers to vertical profiling or
sounding 共q.v.兲. See also profiler.
progradation: Outbuilding or basinward building of the
shoreline occuring when the sediment supply over-
whelms the effects of a relative rise of sea level. A
prograding pattern is shown in Figures D-6 and R-8.
program: 1. The work schedule for a geophysical party;
e.g., the lines to be recorded on a seismic prospect. 2.
The instructions for processing data, as through a com-
puter. 3. The plan for gain control variations, as in
program flowchart 276 PROM

programmed gain control. 4. To plan a program.
program flowchart: A display showing the sequence in
which operations and decisions are done. Program
flowcharts are used as aids in program development, as
guides to coding, and as documentation of a program.
See Figure P-14.
programmed gain control „PGC…: Predetermined gain
for a seismic amplifier. The function describing ampli-
fier gain with respect to time after the source. See gain
control.
programmer: One who develops the series of instructions
required for a computer. Programming involves know-
ing the available operations and the procedure that must
be translated. Considerations include 共a兲 allocation of
storage locations to data, instructions, and related infor-
mation, 共b兲 conversion of input data, 共c兲 availability of
reference data such as tables and files, 共d兲 requirements
for accuracy and methods of checking, 共e兲 ability to
restart in case of interruptions and error conditions, 共f兲
automatic monitoring to ascertain that devices and the
computing are operating properly, 共g兲 housekeeping or
procedures to preset switches and registers, type opera-
tor messages, check file labels, etc., 共h兲 format of output
data, 共i兲 availability of preexisting programs that may
be used in this program, 共j兲 editing of data, and 共k兲
provision for exceptions that are not processable.
projection: A system for displaying 3D data on a planar
surface. See map projection, isometric, perspective, and
Figures H-8 and T-6.
PROM: Programmable Read-Only Memory.

FIG. P-14. A processing flow chart for seismic data. (After Sheriff, 1980, 405.)
prompt 277 proton-precession magnetometer

prompt: A symbol displayed by a computer indicating
that it is waiting for input.
proof mass: The suspended weight in a gravimeter.
propagation constant: In electromagnetic theory, the
propagation constant k is given by
k 2 ⫽ ␮ ␧ ␻ 2 ⫹i ␮ ␴␻ ,
where ␮ is magnetic permeability, ␧ is dielectric per-
mittivity, ␻ is angular frequency, and ␴ is electrical
conductivity. Sometimes ␥ ⫽ik is called the propaga-
tion constant. Also sometimes called wavenumber.
propagation error: An error caused by an unallowed-for
change in velocity.
proper crossover: 1. A change in inclination of the elec-
tromagnetic polarization ellipse as a traverse is made
across a tabular conductor. The minor axis of the ellipse
points to the upper edge of the target. 2. If the trans-
mitter is west of the receiver and if a counterclockwise
rotation is recorded as a south dip angle, a proper
crossover occurs where electromagnetic dip angles
change from south on the south side of a point to north
on the north side. The axis of current concentration lies
underneath the crossover point. Opposite of backward
crossover or reverse crossover.
proportionality limit: The point marking the end of a
linear relation between stress and strain.
proppant: The structurally strong materials injected into
fractures opened during hydraulic fracturing to prevent
collapse of the fractures upon release of the fracturing
pressure.
prospect: 1. An area characterized by a geological or
geophysical anomaly, especially one that is recom-
mended for additional exploration; see resource. 2. An
area that is being investigated.
prospecting: Exploration of an area with the objective of
locating oil, minerals, etc.
prospecting seismology: Seismic exploration 共q.v.兲.
protection ratio: The ratio of transmission at a desired
frequency to that at an undesired alias.
protocol: 1. A set of rules and priorities under which
systems communicate with one another. Involves pri-
orities to determine the sequence of competing commu-
nications. 2. A definition of the interface between sys-
tems or a system and its devices. Most frequently used
in connection with telecommunication links.
proton-precession magnetometer: The proton 共hydrogen
nucleus兲 has a magnetic moment because of its spin.
The nuclei precess about the Earth’s magnetic field H at
a frequency f L 共Larmor frequency兲,
f L ⫽ ␥ H/2 ␲ ,
where ␥ ⫽gyromagnetic ratio 共⫽2␲/23.4868 Hz/nano-

FIG. P-15. Profiler record. The ship traveled 8.5 km between the 30 minute marks at the top of the record. The
sea-floor multiple B obscures primary reflections after its arrival. Events D result from multiples of C that have been
paged back. G indicates an unconformity truncating reflections below it and onlapped by reflections above it. F indicates
diffractions, H a second-order sea-floor multiple. (Courtesy Teledyne Exploration.)
provenance 278 pseudosection

tesla for protons兲. Precession of polarized nuclear-spins R a ⫽R xo J⫹R t 共 1⫺J 兲 ,

induces a voltage at the precession frequency in a
measuring coil. The induced frequency is measured by
a counting arrangement 共Figure P-16兲 to determine the
value of the Earth’s magnetic field. For the normal
Earth field of about 50 000 nanotesla, f L ⫽2100 Hz.
As the protons gradually relax into random orientation,
the induced-field strength drops to zero. The rate of
drop depends on interatomic forces and hence on
molecular structure. Achievable accuracy: 0.1 nT. Also
called proton-resonance magnetometer. Compare
optically pumped magnetometer.
provenance: The source area for sediments or sedimen-
tary rock.
proximity survey: A survey to determine how far a well
is from some feature. For example, shooting from the
surface into a geophone in a deep well with the objec-
tive of determining the position of the flank of a salt
dome. See also offset vertical seismic profile, salt prox-
imity survey, and ultra-long-spaced electric log.
prune effect: When a surface has many local highs, meth-
ods of finding the maximum may find local maxima
instead of the largest maximum if they begin with a bad
initial guess.
PS: 1. P- to S-wave conversion, C-waves. 2. PreStack. 3.
Phase-Shift.
PSDM: PreStack Depth Migration. Sometimes PrSDM to
distinguish it from poststack depth migration, PoSDM.
pseudoanisotropy: 共soo, dō an ı̄ so’ tr⳵p ē兲 See anisotropy
(electrical).
pseudocolor: Color arbitrarily assigned to values. Also
false color.
pseudodepth section: Pseudosection 共q.v.兲.
pseudodepth slice: The result of spectral-domain filtering
that emphasizes possible sources around a specified
depth determined from power spectrum slopes. Also
known as depth slicing 共q.v.兲.
pseudogeometric factor: A coefficient used for estimat-
ing the response of a resistivity measurement R a at
different invasion depths:
where R xo ⫽flushed-zone resistivity, R t ⫽uncontam-
inated-zone resistivity, and J⫽pseudogeometric factor,
a function of invasion depth.
pseudogravity: The gravity field calculated from
magnetic-field measurements by means of Poisson’s
relation 共q.v.兲. Calculation involves conversion of sus-
ceptibility to density and vertical integration of
reduced-to-the-pole magnetic data. The original defini-
tion of this term 共Baranov, 1957兲 referred purely to pole
reduction.
pseudolayer half-space: A high-resistivity layer of vari-
able depth overlying a half-space. A pseudo-two-layer
model consists of two layers over the half-space, where
the top layer simulates the air for airborne methods.
pseudorandom: A nonrandom sequence whose autocorre-
lation has negligible values except at zero; a character-
istic of a random-noise sequence is that its autocorre-
lation values are zero except at zero shift.
pseudorange: The distance to a satellite before correcting
for the time differences between the receiver’s and
satellite’s clocks.
pseudo-Rayleigh wave: See Rayleigh wave.
pseudosection: 共soo, dō sek’ sh⳵n兲 1. A plot of electrical
measurements or calculations, often of apparent resis-
tivity or induced polarization as a function of position
and electrode separation 共which is nonlinearly related
to the depth of investigation, q.v.兲. A pseudosection
indicates how the parameter varies with location and
depth, but it can only be converted into a 2D model by
inversion. Also called a quasi-section or pseudodepth
section. For the dipole-dipole electrode configuration,
the data are plotted 共Figure P-17兲 beneath the midpoint
between the dipoles at a depth of half the distance
between the dipole centers. For the Schlumberger array,
the data are plotted beneath the potential electrodes at a
depth of half the separation of the current electrodes
共AB/2兲. 2. For frequency-domain measurements, the
vertical scale is sometimes increasing period 共or

FIG. P-16. Proton-resonance magnetometer. Proton spin axes precess about a magnetic field. A polarizing field
normal to the Earth’s field is impressed for a short time to polarize the nuclei and is then removed. The nuclei, now
oriented together, precess about the Earth’s magnetic field at the Larmor frequency, inducing this frequency in a
measuring coil. The induced frequency controls the length of time that a gate is open, the time being measured by
counting cycles of a standard frequency, and the time duration is a measure of the Earth’s field.
pseudospectral method
decreasing frequency兲. 3. Also used for plotting mag-
netotelluric apparent resistivity as a function of fre-
quency 共z -axis兲 and traverse distance 共x-axis兲.
pseudospectral method: Spatial derivatives calculated by
Fourier methods.
pseudostatic SP „PSP…: The ‘‘static SP’’ of a shaly sand.
Strictly, static SP refers to a clean sand. See SSP. The
ratio PSP/SSP is the SP reduction factor, ␣.
pseudovelocity log: A synthetic sonic log 共q.v.兲.
pseudowalkaway: A ‘‘walkaway’’ composite of records
into a single spread of geophones from sources succes-
sively farther away.
pseudowell: A location where no well has been drilled but
where synthetic logs have been calculated from other
data.
psi: Pounds per Square Inch, a unit of pressure. See
Appendix K.
PSI: PreStack Imaging; migrating before stacking.
PSIG: Gauge pressure 共pressure in excess of one atmo-
sphere兲 measured in pounds per square inch.
p-slowness graph: A graph of the raypath parameter p
共q.v.兲 against the reciprocal of velocity 共slowness兲.
PSP: Pseudostatic SP 共q.v.兲.
PSPC: Phase-Shift Plus Correction, a migration method.
PSPI: Phase-Shift Plus Interpolation, a migration method.
PSPM: PreStack Partial Migration.
PS recording: The recording of S-waves generated by a
P-wave source or converted from P to S at some sub-
surface interface. See converted wave.
PSTM: PreStack Time Migration.
PTA data: Pressure-Transient data.
p-tau mapping „p-␶…: See tau-p mapping.
PTL: Periodic Thin-Layer anisotropy, see transverse isot-
ropy.
p-type semiconductor: A doped semiconductor with
more holes 共q.v.兲 than electrons available for carrying
charge; an acceptor.
pu: Porosity Unit or 1 percent porosity.
FIG. P-17. Pseudosection. The apparent resistivity ␳ 1,4
(when the current electrodes A and B are centered at 1
and the potential electrodes M and N are centered at 4) is
plotted 45° below 1 and 4. Data for other pairs of
measurements are plotted similarly. Apparent resistivities
are then contoured to suggest variations with depth and
location (but the pseudosection cannot be directly inter-
preted as showing resistivity variations with depth).
Similar methods are used for plotting induced polarization
and other data.
279 pulse-width modulation
pull-apart zone: A region subjected to extension, which
often is accommodated by normal faulting. Implies a
rift zone.
pull boat: A boat or raft on pontoons that moves by
reeling in a line previously anchored ahead, using a
power winch. Used in travel through swamps contain-
ing heavy timber.
pull-up: An apparent uplift produced by a local, shallower
high-velocity region. Opposite of push-down which
results from a local, shallower low-velocity region.
pulse: A waveform whose duration is short compared to
the time scale of interest and whose initial and final
values are the same 共usually zero兲. A seismic distur-
bance that travels like a wave but does not have the
cyclic characteristics of a wavetrain.
pulse curve: Beta curve 共q.v.兲.
pulsed neutron-capture log: A neutron generator or
accelerator produces short bursts of high-energy 共about
14 MeV兲 fast neutrons that are slowed to thermal
energy level 共about 0.025 ev兲, where capture by nuclei
共chlorine having the greatest capture cross-section of
common elements兲 results in gamma-ray emissions.
Two time-lapse measurements 共minus a ‘‘background’’
count兲 of capture-gamma intensity from each neutron
burst define the time-rate of thermal-neutron decrease
共decay lifetime, die-away time兲. Logs may depict
count-rate curves, a curve 共sigma兲 of macroscopic cap-
ture cross-section at a fixed time, or a curve 共tau兲 of
time to reach a ‘‘background’’ count rate. Such logs are
used in cased oil wells, where rock characteristics are
known from previous logging, to determine oil satura-
tion or changes in fluid saturation during oil production
共as shown by successive logs兲. Shallow penetration
produces large uncertainty because of mud invasion.
Dresser-Atlas tradename. See neutron lifetime log.
pulse-echo NMR: With a magnetic gradient during T 2
measurement, some nuclei diffuse into a different fre-
quency region. The resulting diffusion log gives perme-
ability and oil viscosity information.
pulse electromagnetic method: Transient electromag-
netic method 共q.v.兲.
pulse-height analyzer: Gamma-ray spectrometer 共q.v.兲.
pulse method, pulse transient method: Observation of
the voltage decay after cessation of a transmitted cur-
rent pulse. Also called the time-domain IP method, the
pulse-potential method, and dc-pulse method. See
induced polarization.
pulse-position modulation: Similar to frequency modula-
tion but uses pulses instead of full wave. See Figure
M-16.
pulse shaping: To change the shape of a pulse into a more
desired shape. Used to make square waves, to shape the
time-break pulse so as to make the time break more
definite, or to sharpen-up the effective onset of energy.
See also wavelet processing.
pulse stabilization: Processing to ensure the same effec-
tive wavelet shape.
pulse stretching: The changing of a waveform because of
applying normal moveout to different parts of it.
pulse test: A seismic recording system test involving the
application of a very short pulse to the system input.
pulse transient method: An induced polarization 共q.v.兲
method.
pulse-width modulation: A type of information encoding
punch card
using a square carrier wave, the width of whose pulses
are proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
wave. See Figure M-16. Also called ratio modulation.
punch card: A card formerly used for communication
with computers. A standard card provides 80 vertical
columns with 12 punching positions in each column,
where one or more punches in a single column repre-
sents a character.
punched paper tape: A medium for recording data in
computer-readable form by means of punched holes
precisely arranged along the length of a paper tape.
push-down: 1. See pull-up. 2. To enter an object onto a
last-in first-out stack.
push-pull wave: P wave 共q.v.兲.
PVC pipe: PolyVinylChloride plastic, used for shothole
casing, etc.
PVM: Parallel Virtual Machine.
PVT data: Relationship among Pressure, Volume, and
Temperature for a material. See Figure H-11.
P-wave: An elastic body wave in which particle motion is
in the direction of propagation. The type of seismic
wave assumed in conventional seismic exploration.
Also called primary wave 共undae primae兲, compres-
280 pyrolysis
sional wave, longitudinal wave, push-pull wave,
pressure wave, dilatational wave, rarefaction wave,
and irrotational wave. In an isotropic homogeneous
solid, the P-wave velocity V P can be expressed in terms
of the elastic constants and the density 共␳兲:
V P ⫽ 关共 ␭⫹2 ␮ 兲 / ␳ 兴 1/2 ⫽ 冋 E 共 1⫺ ␴ 兲
␳ 共 1⫺2 ␴ 兲共 1⫹ ␴ 兲 册 1/2
where ␭ and ␮ are Lamé’s constants, E is Young’s
modulus, and ␴ is Poisson’s ratio. See also wave nota-
tion and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 44 – 45兲.
P-wave delay: The variation in P-wave traveltime from a
reference traveltime value. Plotted to determine anoma-
lously high or low velocity regions.
pyritization: 共pı̄, rid ⳵’ zā sh⳵n兲 Replacement of original
material by pyrite in a common hydrothermal process.
pyrometric: 共pī’ r⳵ met’ rik兲 Measuring temperature in
heating or cooling.
pyrolysis: 共p⳵ ral’ ⳵ s⳵s兲 Geochemical analysis in which
heat is used to separate the chemical compounds in a
sample.
 Q
q: 1. The fraction of total porosity occupied by dispersed
shale. See producibility-index log. 2. Quasi- 共q.v.兲.
Q: 1. Quality factor, the ratio of 2␲ times the peak energy
to the energy dissipated in a cycle; the ratio of 2␲ times
the power stored to the power dissipated. The seismic Q
of rocks is of the order of 50 to 300. Q is related to
other measures of absorption 共see below兲:
1/Q⫽ ␣ V/ ␲ f ⫽ ␣ ␭/ ␲ ⫽hT/ ␲ ⫽ ␦ / ␲ ⫽2⌬ f / f r ,
where V, f, ␭, and T are, respectively, velocity, fre-
quency, wavelength, and period 共see Sheriff and Gel-
dart, 1995: 60, 177兲. The absorption coefficient ␣ is
the term for the exponential decrease of amplitude with
distance because of absorption; the amplitude of plane
harmonic waves is often written as
Ae ⫺ ␣ x sin 2 ␲ f 共 t⫺x/V 兲 ,
where x is the distance traveled. The logarithmic dec-
rement ␦ is the natural log of the ratio of the ampli-
tudes of two successive cycles. The last equation above
relates Q to the sharpness of a resonance condition; f r is
the resonance frequency and ⌬ f is the change in fre-
quency that reduces the amplitude by 1/&. The damp-
ing factor h relates to the decrease in amplitude with
time,
A 共 t 兲 ⫽A o e ⫺ht cos ␻ t.
See also Figure A-2. 2. The ratio of the reactance of a
circuit to the resistance. 3. A term to describe the
sharpness of a filter; the ratio of the midpoint frequency
to the bandpass width 共often at 3 dB兲. 4. A designation
for Love waves 共q.v.兲. 5. Symbol for the Koenigsberger
ratio 共q.v.兲. 6. See Q-type section.
Q-band: Radar frequencies between 36 and 46 GHz; see
Figure R-1.
QC: Quality Control.
Q-compensation: Q processing 共q.v.兲.
Q-factor: Koenigsberger ratio 共q.v.兲.
Q processing: Deconvolution to compensate for the loss
of high frequencies with distance, to make the wave-
form less time-dependent. Since Q is usually not
known, it is often estimated as being 1% of the velocity
expressed in ft/s or 3% in m/s.
Q-system: An acquisition system where signals are
recorded from individual sensors rather than from an
array. Signals are summed only after subsequent pro-
cessing. Geco Schlumberger trademark.
Q-type section: A three-layer resistivity model in which
the resistivities of the three layers decrease with depth.
quad: 10 15 BTU, approximately equal to 10 9 ft3 natural
gas or approximately equal to 300⫻10 9 kW.hr.
quadrangle: The surface area bounded by latitude and
longitude lines; e.g., a 15-minute quadrangle is 15
minutes on a side.
quadrant: Surveying angles are often measured in
degrees clockwise from north; the northeastern quad-
rant is the first quadrant, the south eastern the second,
281
the southwestern the third, and the northwestern the
fourth. This is a different notation from that usually
employed in mathematics. See Figure Q-1.
quadratic equation: The quadratic equation, ax 2 ⫹bx
⫹c⫽0, has the solution
x⫽ 共 1/za 兲关 ⫺b⫾ 共 b 2 ⫺4ac 兲 1/2 兴 .
quadratic spline: An interpolating operator whose slope
␾ at (x 1 ⫹⌬x) is a linear combination of the slope at
nearby points x 1 and x 2 : ␾ ⫽ ␾ 1 ⫹( ␾ 2 ⫺ ␾ 1 ) ⌬x/(x 2
⫺x 1 ).
quadrature: 90° out of phase. The quadrature compo-
nent of a signal is the out-of-phase component; the part
of an induced signal which is out-of-phase with the
generating signal. See also complex-trace analysis.
quadrature filtering: Polarization filtering 共q.v.兲.
quadrature spectrum: See cross-spectrum.
quadrature trace: See complex-trace analysis.
quadric: A second-degree 共quadratic兲 expression.
quantile: p-quantile⫽q p ⫽value that the population p
does not exceed.
quantizing: Determining to which of a number of discrete
amplitude levels an analog measurement belongs.
quarterboat: A boat or barge used by a geophysical crew
as living quarters and/or base of operations.
quarterline: A line parallel to the boundary that bisects a
section of land 共640 acres or one square mile兲. The
cross of quarterlines divides the section into quarter
sections of 160 acres.
quartic: A fourth-degree expression.
quartile: The first quartile is 0–25% of a distribution, the
second is 25–50%, etc. Compare decile.
quasi-: A prefix meaning somewhat, approximately,
‘‘similar to but not exactly the same as.’’
quasi-polynomials: Whereas polynomials are one-sided
共i.e., involve increasing powers兲, quasi-polynomials are
two-sided 共i.e., involve both positive and negative pow-
ers兲. Thus (a 0 ⫹a 1 x⫹a 2 x 2 ⫹...) is a polynomial and
(...⫹a ⫺2 x ⫺2 ⫹a ⫺1 x ⫺1 ⫹a 0 ⫹a 1 x⫹a ⫺2 x ⫺2 ⫹...) is
a quasi-polynomial.
FIG. Q-1. Quadrant-numbering conventions. (a) As
used in surveying; (b) as used in mathematics.
quasi-P-, quasi-S-waves
quasi-P-, quasi-S-waves: Waves in anisotropic media that
involve particle motion in directions simiular to 共but
not exactly the same as兲 those of P-, S-waves.
quasi-section: Pseudosection 共q.v.兲.
quasi-static: Varying very slowly, so that a solution that
assumes constant values is an adequate approximation.
In quasi-static electromagnetic problems, displacement
currents are neglected. A quasi-static electromagnetic
solution becomes poor where the loss tangent becomes
less than 1, such as very resistive situations 共on glaciers
or deserts in the absence of groundwater兲 where dis-
placement currents dominate over conduction currents.
quasi-transient method: See transient electromagnetic
method.
quaternary gain: A gain control system in which ampli-
fication is changed only in discrete steps by factors of 4.
Compared with binary gain, fewer gain jumps are
required.
quefrency domain: 共kwē’ fren sē兲 Fourier transform of
282 Q-wave
the log of a function in the frequency domain. See
cepstrum. A permutation of the letters in ‘‘frequency.’’
quelling: Suppressing.
quenching: Blanking of sound reception in water caused
by air bubbles; arises when a ship is undergoing exces-
sive pitch and roll in bad weather.
quenching agent: A vapor such as alcohol, methane, or
water, to suppress secondary electron emission from a
cathode.
querwellen wave „Q wave…: 共kwur vel’ ⳵n兲 Love wave
共q.v.兲. From the German for ‘‘transverse wave.’’
queue: 共kū兲 A backlog of jobs awaiting action.
queuing: A system for handling random arrivals with
minimum interference and delay. Rules for selection of
items in the queue involve priorities and the demands of
the arrivals on the capabilities of the system.
quiet: See magnetically quiet.
Q-wave: Love wave 共q.v.兲.
 R
R: 1. Roentgen 共q.v.兲. 2. Earthquake designation of a Ray-
leigh wave 共q.v.兲. See also wave notation.
␳: Greek letter rho; often used as a symbol for density or
resistivity.
RA: Radiometric Assay log.
racon: 共rā’ con兲 RAdar beaCON.
radar: 共rā’ dar兲 A system in which short electromagnetic
waves are transmitted and the energy scattered back by
reflecting objects is detected. Acronym for ‘‘radio
detection and ranging.’’ Ships use radar to help ‘‘see’’
other ships, buoys, shorelines, etc. Beacons sometimes
provide distinctive targets. Radar is used in aircraft
navigation 共see Doppler-radar兲, in positioning, and in
remote sensing. The radar spectrum is sometimes sub-
divided: P-band, 225–390 MHz; L-band, 390–1550
MHz; S-band, 1550 to 5200 MHz; X-band, 5200–11
000 MHz; K-band, 11–36 GHz; Q-band, 36 – 46 GHz;
V-band, 46 –56 GHz. Other systems of radar designa-
tion are shown in Figure R-1.
radar altimeter: An instrument for measuring elevation
above the ground by reflected radar waves. Accuracy
about 15 cm. See also satellite altimetry.
radar imagery: Mapping from an aircraft using short
electromagnetic waves. A narrow radar beam that is
transmitted perpendicular to the aircraft flight line; it
reflects from the ground to a receiver on the aircraft and
the data display gives the appearance of an aerial photo.
radial array: See azimuthal survey and Figure A-19.
radial component: The horizontal component of a
3-component survey in the direction of the source.
radial power spectrum: An average of power spectra
共amplitude squared兲 calculated in different azimuth
directions. Usually plotted as the log of the radial
FIG. R-1. Three radar terminology systems.
283
power versus wavenumber. Values generally decline
steeply for increasing wavenumber 共representing deep
and/or broad sources兲 and then decline more gently for
larger wavenumbers 共representing shallow localized
sources兲. Source depth is given by the slope of the log
power spectrum divided by 4␲ if wavenumber is
expressed in cycles/unit distance.
radial processing: Multichannel processing to remove
sea-floor multiples; the operator designed on a trace
with offset x 1 is used to deconvolve the first multiple on
the trace with offset 2x 1 , the second multiple on the
trace with offset 3x 1 , etc. These all involve the same
angle of incidence 共see Figure R-2兲 and hence the same
reflectivity.
radial refraction: 1. A pattern of surveying somewhat
comparable with fan shooting 共q.v.兲. 2. Use of a detec-
tor deep in a borehole to receive and record seismic
waves from sources located near the ground surface at
different distances and azimuths. Used in determining
salt-dome boundaries. Travel paths that are partly in
salt show a lead that depends on the amount of salt
travel. See Figure A-15.
radial survey: 1. Seismic acquisition involving receiver
lines laid out like the spokes of a wheel, perhaps with
sources on circles with different radii. Sometimes used
to acquire data about a salt dome. 2. See azimuthal
survey.
radian „rad…: A unit of angular measure such that the
subtended arc equals the radius. One radian⫽180/ ␲
⫽57.2958 degrees; one degree⫽0.017 453 radian.
radian frequency: ␻␬, compared to angular frequency,
␻ ⫽2 ␲ f ⫽2 ␲ /T.
radian wavenumber: ␬, angular wavenumber; ␬
⫽2 ␲ k⫽2 ␲ /␭.
radiance: The total energy radiated by a unit area per
solid angle of measurement.
radiation field: The far-field term in electromagnetic
radiation, whose amplitude falls off with distance r as
1/r.
radiation pattern: A diagram showing how the energy
spreads out from a source.
radioactive: The spontaneous transformation of a nucleus
FIG. R-2. Radial processing. For horizontal reflectors,
primary and surface multiples involve the same reflection
angle on traces selected such that the offset is propor-
tional to the order of the multiples.
radioactivity age dating
into another species by emitting an electron or helium
atom, usually accompanied by gamma radiation.
radioactivity age dating: See Figure A-5 and also fission-
track dating.
radioactive-tracer log: A log involving the detection of
radioactive materials dissolved in water or oil to deter-
mine the movement of the fluids. A quantity of radio-
active material 共a slug兲 might be injected into the fluid
and movement of the slug monitored to detect casing
leaks or points of fluid entry or exit; or points where
fluid enters formations might be shown by residual
radioactivity at those levels.
radioactivity log: A well log of natural or induced radia-
tion. Usually refers to a gamma-ray log 共q.v.兲, but
sometimes also to a density log, neutron log, neutron-
lifetime log, or other type of logs.
radioactivity survey: Measurements of variations in natu-
ral gamma radiation with the objective of mapping the
distribution of radioactive elements 共usually K, U, and
Th兲. Observations are also affected by radionuclides,
nuclear fallout, radon in the air, and cosmic radiation.
See gamma-ray surveying.
radio-altimeter: Radar altimeter 共q.v.兲.
radio Earth: A model of the Earth whose radius is 4/3
that of the Earth. The index of refraction for radio
waves in the atmosphere decreases with altitude in a
nearly linear manner, resulting in bending of radio
waves toward the earth. By assuming that the Earth’s
radius is 4/3 its actual radius, this refraction is roughly
compensated and radio raypaths can be drawn as
straight lines.
radio frequency „RF…: A frequency above 3 kHz. Radio
frequencies are subdivided into bands; see Figures E-11
and R-1.
radiometer: 共rā d⳵ om’ ⳵t ⳵r兲 A device that measures
radiation, such as the infrared radiation used in thermal
imaging.
radiometric survey: A survey of the amount of electro-
magnetic radiation emitted, usually involving gamma-
ray spectrometry. See gamma-ray surveys and compare
radioactivity survey.
radio positioning: Determining position by electromag-
netic 共radio兲 wave measurement involving transmitters
at fixed locations. Measurements are sometimes made
of traveltimes, of the difference in arrival times of two
radio signals, of the phase or phase difference in a
standing-wave pattern resulting from the interference of
two CW broadcasts, occasionally of a Doppler fre-
quency shift. See Figure P-10.
radius of curvature method: A method of computing
borehole deviation from a series of inclination readings
taken at intervals in a well. Radius of curvature is
related to curvature in Figure C-21.
radius of investigation: 1. The radius of a circle contain-
ing the source of most measurements 共often 80%兲. 2.
The distance from a station beyond which contributions
are relatively unimportant. For example, with borehole
gravity measurements at intervals of ⌬z, 80% of the
contributions come from within a radius of 2.45 ⌬z.
radius of regionality: A specification of the size of the
region over which isostatic compensation is distributed
based on the concept that some isostatic balance is
accommodated laterally by flexure of the surrounding
region rather than only vertically, as proposed by Ven-
284 random error
ing Meinesz. It is related to the flexural rigidity of the
crust 共often of the order of 200 km兲. See also isostasy.
radix: Number system base; the number whose power
indicates the significance of different digit locations
used to express a number. For example, 2 in the binary
system, 10 in decimal.
Radon filtering: Filtering in the tau-p domain; see tau-p
mapping and Figure T-1.
radon method: Exploration for uranium by mapping
radon.
radon sniffer: 共rā’ don兲 An instrument that measures the
radon content of water, oil, or soil.
Radon transform: 1. Slant stack 共q.v.兲. 2. The line inte-
gral of some physical property 共e.g., velocity, attenua-
tion, density, usually amplitude兲 of an object along a
given line or energy transit path. Used in tomography.
ragolith: Fragmented, loose, unconsolidated rock and soil
on the surface.
RAID: A computer storage-disk system with built-in
redundancy.
railroading of log: The situation when multiple measure-
ments produce generally parallel curves 共as where they
have a constant difference between them because of
invasion effects兲. Common for laterologs.
raised kernel function: The kernel function 共q.v.兲 plus
1/2. Used in electrical exploration. See Koefoed 共1968兲.
RAM: Random Access Memory 共q.v.兲.
ramform: A seismic ship design with a very large beam-
to-length ratio 共⬇0.5兲 and an especially stable rear
deck, used to tow multiple streamers.
rammed: To implant a geophone or charge in soft marsh.
ram pole: A pole for pushing detectors or charges into
marsh.
ramp: 1. To change in a continuous manner from one set
of parameters to another, as opposed to an abrupt step.
Usually implies in a linear manner; e.g., the change
between filter parameters for the early portion of a
seismic record and those for the later portion may be
‘‘ramped’’ or distributed uniformly over an intervening
transition portion. The amplitude of a vibroseis sweep
may increase gradually from zero to an amplitude that
is then held constant during most of the sweep. 2. A
method of tapering a data window; see Figure W-12. 3.
Tilting the instrument platform between horizontal and
vertical to measure the cross-coupling in testing ship-
board gravimeters. 4. The running integral of a unit
step; a triangular function. 5. Ramp time is the time
required for an electromagnetic transmitter to go from
one constant-current state to another.
ramp up: To increase the magnitude from zero to some
other value.
random: A relationship between two or more quantities
where knowledge of one quantity does not help deter-
mine the other; unpredictable. A random process is
called stochastic.
random access: Equal facility of access to any of the
locations in a computer’s memory.
random-access memory „RAM…: A computer memory
structured so that the time required to access any data
item stored in the memory is independent of location.
Information stored in dynamic RAM is lost when the
power is turned off, but that in static RAM is retained.
random error: An error that can be predicted only on a
statistical basis.
random geometry
random geometry: Acquisition geometry designed to
minimize the characteristic footprints caused by regular
source and receiver geometries.
random line: Arbitrary line 共q.v.兲.
random noise: Energy that does not correlate between
distinct receiving channels; energy which is random
with respect to the source parameters. By adding
together n elements, random noise can be attenuated
with respect to coherent signal by the factor n 1/2 .
Random seismic noise is attenuated by the use of many
geophones per group or by stacking traces. In contrast
to coherent noise such as unwanted modes of wave
travel like ground roll, air wave, etc. The distinction
between random and coherent is often a matter of scale.
random track: Arbitrary line 共q.v.兲.
random variable: A variable created by a random process
whose values follow a probability distribution such as a
normal distribution.
range: 1. Source-to-detector distance in refraction work;
offset. 2. The distance to a positioning station, espe-
cially when measured directly. 3. The extreme distance
at which useful signals can be detected. 4. The row of
townships between successive meridian lines six miles
apart; R2W indicates a township in the second column
west of a reference meridian. See Figure T-11. 5. One of
two measurements necessary to determine a location by
radar; see drift. 6. In geostatistics, the distance at which
a variogram 共q.v.兲 reaches a sill, beyond which there is
no correlation. See Figure V-1.
range line: The north-south boundary between townships.
range pole: A long pole that is sighted on when making
long shots with a transit. Range poles are temporary
survey markers and often have some distinguishing
arrangement 共perhaps survey flagging兲 on top of them
to aid in locating and identifying them.
range-range determination: Rho-rho determination
共q.v.兲.
ranging: Making a distance measurement as by sighting
on a survey rod or with an electronic instrument. See
also positioning.
rank: See matrix.
Rankine temperature: 共rang’ kin兲 A temperature scale
that has its zero at absolute zero and the same size
degrees as the Fahrenheit scale; Rankine⫽9/5 kelvin.
Water freezes at 491.67 °R and boils at 671.67 °R.
rank order: The rules defining a sequence and arranging
the items according to some value.
RAP: Relative Amplitude Preservation; processing and
display designed to preserve relative amplitudes of seis-
mic reflections. Western Geophysical tradename.
rarefaction: Separation of molecules temporarily as a
result of passage of a P-wave 共q.v.兲.
rarefaction wave: P-wave 共q.v.兲.
raster: 1. A method of displaying data by a 2D rectangular
array of cells. 2. A pattern of scanning an area like the
sweep of the beam of a television tube.
rate: One of two radiopositioning range measurements
necessary to determine a position. The other measure-
ment is sometimes called drift. The distinction between
rate and drift is often arbitrary.
rathole: 1. A hole in the rig floor 30 to 35 ft deep into
which the kelly and swivel are placed when hoisting
operations are in progress. 2. A hole of smaller diameter
that is drilled in the bottom of the main hole. 3. To
285 Rayleigh wave
reduce the size of the wellbore and drill ahead.
ratiometer: An instrument for determining the ratio of
two quantities. Ratiometers or compensators were used
extensively in electromagnetic exploration equipment
for measuring the ratio of two phasor voltages or cur-
rents. Bridge circuits are often used in ratiometers.
ratio modulation: Pulse-width modulation 共q.v.兲.
rational number: A number that can be expressed as a
quotient of integers.
ravinement surface: A surface that is marked by erosion
such as the cutting of a ravine.
raw gravity: Gravity measurements before applying lati-
tude, terrain, and elevation corrections.
ray: See raypath.
ray angle: The angle that a seismic raypath makes with
the surface or an interface.
Rayleigh channel wave: Krey wave 共q.v.兲.
Rayleigh distribution: 共rā’ lē兲 A 2D probability distribu-
tion that has the same variance in both directions.
2x ⫺x 2 / ␣
f 共 x 兲⫽ e , x⭓0, ␣ ⬎0,
␣
where ␣ is the shape parameter. It is the 2D equivalent
of a Gaussian distribution. Compare rms positional
error. See Miller et al. 共1958兲.
Rayleigh number: A dimensionless value that indicates
when convection commences in a fluid. The Rayleigh
number depends on density and viscosity of the fluid,
its coefficient of thermal expansion, the temperature
gradient, the thermal diffusivity, and the depth 共pres-
sure兲. See Fowler 共1990, 251兲.
Rayleigh resolution limit: The minimum distance
between successive reflections such that their indi-
vidual entities can be recognized is ␭/4 where ␭
⫽wavelength. Usually ␭ is taken as that of the domi-
nant frequency component.
Rayleigh scattering: The wavelength-dependent scatter-
ing of radiation by particles that are much smaller than
the wavelengths scattered.
Rayleigh wave: 1. A type of seismic surface wave propa-
gated along the free surface of a semi-infinite medium.
Particle motion near the surface is elliptical and retro-
grade 共i.e., the particle moves opposite to the direction
of propagation at the top of its elliptical path兲 in the
vertical plane containing the direction of propagation;
see Figure R-3. Its amplitude decreases exponentially
with depth, and the elastic properties to a depth of about
one wavelength determine its velocity. For a Poisson
ratio of ␴ ⫽1/4, the Rayleigh-wave velocity is 0.9194
times the S-wave velocity; see Figure R-4. A Rayleigh
wave along a free surface can be thought of as a special
case of a Stoneley wave 共wave travel along an inter-
face兲. Symbolized R-wave or LR-wave. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 49–50兲. 2. A similar type of wave where
the medium is not homogeneous; ground roll, such as
encountered in seismic exploration, may involve modes
other than a pure Rayleigh wave and is sometimes
called a pseudo-Rayleigh wave, although it is usually
simply called a Rayleigh wave. Because the elastic
constants change with depth in the real Earth, long
wavelengths depend on the elastic properties at greater
depths than short wavelengths and hence different
wavelengths travel at different velocities. This disper-
Rayleigh wavelet 286 raypath curvature

sion can be used to calculate the thickness of surface
layers. 3. A surface wave in a borehole is sometimes
called a Rayleigh wave; see tube wave. Named for John
William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh 共1842–1919兲, English
physicist.
Rayleigh wavelet:
f 共 t 兲 ⫽ 共 1/ ␲ 兲共 ␧/ 共 t 2 ⫹␧ 2 兲 ,
where ␧ is an arbitrary parameter that controls the width
and height. This wavelet possesses a simple exact
expression for its Hilbert transform. See Hubral and
Tygel 共1989兲.
Rayleigh-Willis relation: The oscillation period T 共in sec-
onds兲 for the bubble effect varies as the cube root of the
energy E and inversely as the 5/6th power of the
pressure. The relation is
T⫽0.450 E 1/3 / 共 D⫹33 兲 5/6 or
T⫽0.108 E 1/3 / 共 D ⬘ ⫹10 兲 5/6 ,
where E is the energy in joules, D is the depth in feet,
and D⬘ is the depth in meters. See Figure R-5.
ray parameter: Raypath parameter 共q.v.兲.
raypath: A line everywhere perpendicular to wavefronts
共in isotropic media兲. A raypath is characterized by its
direction at the surface, often expressed as stepout:
␣ 0 ⫽sin⫺1 共 Vp 兲 ,
where ␣ 0 ⫽angle with vertical, V⫽instantaneous
velocity, and p⫽raypath parameter 共q.v.兲. While seis-
mic energy does not travel only along raypaths 共i.e.,
seismic energy would reach points by diffraction even
if the raypath were blocked兲, raypaths constitute a use-
ful method of determining arrival time by ray tracing.
Note that raypath bending depends on changes in veloc-
ity, not changes in acoustic impedance. Raypaths are
usually shown on wavefront charts; see Figure W-3.
raypath curvature: Raypaths curve because of velocity
changes, according to Snell’s law 共q.v.兲.

FIG. R-3. Rayleigh-wave motion. (a) Theoretical Rayleigh wave has retrograde elliptical motion at the surface. (b)
Hodograph of particle velocity involved in ground roll. (From Howell, 1959, 80.) (c) Experimental measurements from a
small explosion measured with buried geophones, showing the change from retrograde to prograde motion with depth.
(After Dobrin, 1951).
raypath parameter
raypath parameter: 1. For horizontal velocity layering,
the quantity p⫽dt/dx⫽(1/V)sin ␣, where dt/dx is
the reciprocal of apparent velocity, V is instantaneous
velocity, and ␣ is the angle a raypath makes with the
vertical. Used to specify a raypath. See tau-p mapping.
2. For a spherical velocity layering model 共as used
when considering long earthquake paths兲, the raypath
parameter is p⫽(r/V)sin ␣, where r is the Earth’s
radius.
ray theory: Use of ray tracing 共q.v.兲 to track wave energy.
Appropriate where the wavelength is small compared
with spatial dimensions 共e.g., reflector radius of curva-
ture兲. Implies that changes of ␭, ␮, or ␳ are small over
a wavelength.
ray tracing: Determining raypaths through a model where
the velocity changes. Usually does not allow for mode
conversion.
FIG. R-4. The dependence of Rayleigh-wave velocity
V R on Poisson’s ratio ␴. The P-wave velocity is ␣ and the
S-wave velocity ␤.
FIG. R-5. Rayleigh-Willis relation for representative energy sources. Source depth⫽9 m. (Courtesy Bendix United
Geophysical.)
287 real
ray velocity: Velocity in the direction of energy transport.
In anisotropic media ray velocity „group velocity… is
usually not in the same direction as wavefront velocity
or phase velocity. See Figure A-14a.
RBV: Return-Beam Vidicon 共q.v.兲.
RDAU, RDU: Remote Data 共Acquisition兲 Unit 共q.v.兲.
RDI: Resistivity-Depth Image. See conductivity-depth
image.
reach „of a well…: The horizontal distance that a deviated
or lateral well reaches 共or can reach兲.
reactance: The opposition to alternating current flow
offered by inductance or capacitance; the quadrature
component of impedance.
read: To input data into a computer.
reaction mass: The heavy mass that is vibrated in a
vibroseis source. Its phase is opposite to that of the base
plate that creates the seismic wave in the Earth.
Required according to Newton’s third law of motion,
that for every action there is an equal opposite reaction.
readability: The least discernible change in a readout
device that can be readily estimated. Compare sensitiv-
ity and resolution.
read-after-write: Monitoring the recording of data by
reading a tape with a second magnetic head immedi-
ately after recording.
read-only memory „ROM…: Memory that permanently
holds information that is not destroyed when power
failure occurs. One cannot write into ROM.
reagent: 共rē ā g⳵nt兲 A substance, chemical, or solution
used to detect, measure, or otherwise examine other
substances.
real: 1. The component of a complex number 共vector兲 in
the direction of the real axis, as opposed to the imagi-
realizable 288
nary component. 2. A component that is in-phase, as the
component of an electromagnetic field that is in-phase
with some reference signal 共such as the input voltage兲.
Compare quadrature component; see quadrature.
realizable: See physically realizable.
realizable filter: An electronic or digital filter that works
in real time.
realization: A possible outcome.
real memory: The main memory of a computer. Compare
virtual memory.
real time: 1. Processing data at the time of detecting and
recording them. 2. Having the same time scale as actual
time. 3. Processing of data at the same rate as that at
which they were recorded.
receiver: 1. A sensor, the part of an acquisition system
which senses the information signal, such as a geo-
phone or hydrophone 共q.v.兲. 2. As used in IP surveys,
often a sensitive, filterable ac or dc voltmeter with SP
buckout controls. Generally a frequency-domain
receiver is ac coupled and a time-domain voltmeter is
dc coupled.
receiver interval: Either the separation between 共1兲 the
elements within a receiver array or 共2兲 between the
centers of adjacent arrays.
receiver-line interval: The perpendicular distance
between lines of receivers.
receiver station: The location of the center of a receiver
array.
reciprocal method: A refraction interpretation method
such as the generalized reciprocal method 共q.v.兲.
reciprocal sonde: A sonde with the current and measuring
electrodes interchanged. See lateral.
reciprocal time: The traveltime between common points
on reversed refraction profiles. Surface-to-surface time
from a source point at A to a geophone at B must equal
that from a source point at B to a geophone at A.
reciprocity principle: 1. The potential at a point M with
respect to a current source at A is the same as if the
points of measurement and source were reversed.
Applied in electrical exploration. 2. The seismic trace
from a source at A to a geophone at B is the same as
from a source at B to a geophone at A if sources and
receivers are similarly coupled to the Earth. For con-
verted waves, reciprocity requires interchanging the
motion senses of the sources/receivers as well as their
locations. See Dellinger and Nolte 共1997兲.
reconnaissance: 1. A general examination of a region to
determine its main features, usually preliminary to a
more detailed survey. 2. A survey whose objective is 共a兲
to ascertain regional geological structures, 共b兲 to deter-
mine whether economically prospective features exist,
or 共c兲 to locate prospective features. As opposed to
detail surveys that have the objective of mapping indi-
vidual features.
reconstitute: 1. To convert sampled data to a finer sample
interval, e.g., to input 4 ms samples and output 2 ms
samples. Opposite of subsample or decimate. 2. To
convert sampled data to continuous data, as with a
digital-to-analog 共D/A兲 converter.
record: 1. A recording of the energy picked up by a
detector. 2. A recording of the seismic data from one
source picked up by a spread of geophones. See Figure
R-6. 3. A group of data handled by a computer as a
reduced traveltime
single block of data. A number of records compose a
file. 4. To make a record.
recording truck: A vehicle that contains the amplifiers
and recording gear for making a record in the field. The
cab where the record is made is often called the dog-
house. A doghouse may be mounted on small boats,
pontoons, etc. for work where a truck cannot go.
record section: Display of seismic traces side-by-side.
Originally made by splicing together individual seismic
records but the entity of individual records has been
largely lost.
record time: 1. Time after the instant of energy release. 2.
Time after a certain reference.
recover: To relocate a preestablished survey location, as
for use in tying a new survey to an older survey.
recovery: 1. The amount of core recovered compared to
the amount cut. 2. The amount of fluid in the drillpipe
on a drill-stem test that did not produce enough fluid to
fill the pipe and flow to the surface. 3. To return to the
same relative amplitude level as existed at the time of
original recording, as in gain recovery.
rectify: 1. To allow current to pass in one direction only.
2. To adjust a borehole log for true vertical depth. Logs
in slant holes are usually recorded in distance measured
along the hole, which makes them difficult to correlate
with other logs. Also sometimes used for adjusting a
log to what would be seen without formation dip. 3. To
replace an inverted image with an erect one. 4. To
eliminate time differences caused by weathering, eleva-
tion, or normal-moveout differences.
rectilinear: Orthogonal; a system of straight lines at right
angles to each other, as with ordinary x-y coordinate
paper.
recurrence interval: The average time interval between
earthquakes in a seismic region.
recursion: 共ri kur’ zh⳵n兲 The process of a subprogram
calling itself. A defined stopping state must exist. See
also recursive filter 共q.v.兲.
recursive filter: A filter for which the output depends on
previous outputs as well as the input and the filter
response. Part of the output is delayed and added to the
next input. Some types of filtering that require a long
operator can be accomplished with a short operator in
this way. Also called feedback filter. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 293, 556兲 and Shanks 共1967兲.
redox: A coupled pair of REDuction-OXygenation reac-
tions in which one compound becomes reduced and
takes up the electrons released as another compound is
oxidized.
redox potential „EH…: A voltage scale indicating the abil-
ity to cause reduction-oxidation reactions. The same as
the oxidation potential if under standard conditions.
reduced latitude: See geodetic latitude.
reduced ratio: The ratio of electromagnetic field strength
at two locations after being corrected for the normal
ratio or free air correction 共the electromagnetic-field
gradient in the absence of perturbing conductive bod-
ies兲. Used with the Turam method.
reduced traveltime: Displaying refraction traces where
x/V has been subtracted from the arrival times 共x
⫽offset distances兲 so that arrivals with the apparent
velocity V are horizontal. If V is the refractor velocity,
then the arrivals show the relief on the refractor.
Reduced sections facilitate picking weak arrivals 共espe-
reduced traveltime 289 reduced traveltime

FIG. R-6. 24-trace split-spread seismic record in wiggle-trace form. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
reduced vertical profile
cially secondary arrivals兲 and other refraction arrivals
even where V is not precisely correct. A velocity of 6
km/s is often assumed as the reduction velocity in
crustal studies.
reduced vertical profile: A vertical seismic profile sec-
tion display where arrival times are shifted down or up
by the one-way first-arrival time. The result is to align
horizontally either downward- or upward-traveling
wavetrains, which facilitates their study/correlation.
reduction: 1. Correcting observed values for known
sources of error. 2. A process in which a substance
accepts electrons.
reduction to the equator: Converting magnetic data
recorded at various magnetic field inclinations to what
they would be with zero inducing-field inclination.
Compare reduction to the pole.
reduction to the pole „RTP…: Removing the dependence
of magnetic data on the magnetic inclination, i.e., con-
verting data that have been recorded in the inclined
Earth’s magnetic field to what they would have looked
like if the magnetic field had been vertical. Reduction
to the pole removes anomaly asymmetry caused by
inclination and locates anomalies above the causative
bodies, assuming that the remanent magnetism is small
compared to the induced magnetism. It is difficult to do
at low magnetic inclinations, in which case reduction to
the equator is preferred.
reduction velocity: The head-wave velocity used to plot
reduced traveltimes 共q.v.兲.
redundancy: 共ri dun’ d⳵n sē兲 A repetition of information,
such as the same measurements made several times
共usually in several ways兲. Redundancy permits the
attenuation of some distorting effects. Successive mea-
surements may differ from each other because compo-
nents other than the objective components differ; thus
the objective data will be recorded the same each time
and may be distinguished from the varying compo-
nents. For example, twelve-fold common-midpoint
recording involves measuring the reflected energy from
a given portion of the subsurface twelve times and
hence has a redundancy 共or fold兲 of 12.
reef: 1. A local carbonate buildup. 2. Sometimes restricted
to a buildup produced by organisms such as coral.
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 351, 382–385兲 discuss evi-
FIG. R-7. Reflected refractions. (a) Refraction reflected at a fault and (b) by a salt dome. (c) The travel paths involved
are not always coplanar. (d) Multiply reflected refractions. (e) Reflected refractions do not always involve head waves.
290 reflection coefficient
dences of reefs in seismic data. 3. A local objective
formation, such as a ‘‘gold reef.’’
reel: An apparatus for winding cable for storage, such as
is used to hold a streamer on a seismic ship.
reel truck: A vehicle used for transporting cables and
geophones.
reference plane: Datum 共q.v.兲.
reference seismometer: A geophone that records succes-
sive sources to verify that the waveforms are similar.
Used in checkshot surveys to eliminate the possibility
that source variability may produce error.
reflectance: Reflectivity 共q.v.兲 or reflection coefficient.
reflected refraction: 1. Head-wave energy that has been
reflected or diffracted back from a discontinuity in a
refractor, such as a fault. See Figures R-7a, b, c. 2. A
refraction multiple, involving head-wave energy that
has been multiply reflected between reflectors. The
extra travel may occur at any time during the travel
along the refractor. The effect is to add cycles to the
refraction arrival; see Figure R-7d. 3. Any of a number
of travel paths that involve reflection at an interface as
well as travel through a high-velocity refractor; see
Figure R-7e.
reflection: The energy or wave from a seismic source that
has been reflected 共returned兲 from an acoustic-
impedance contrast 共reflector兲 or series of contrasts
within the earth. The objective of most reflection-
seismic work is to determine the location and attitude of
reflectors from measurements of the traveltime of pri-
mary reflections and to infer the geologic structure and
stratigraphy. The basic reflection equations are shown
in Figure R-8. See also reflectivity.
reflection character analysis: Examination of waveshape
variations to identify places where changes in stratig-
raphy or hydrocarbon content may occur and suggest
the nature of the changes. See Sheriff 共1980, Chapts.
7– 8兲.
reflection coefficient: 1. The ratio of the amplitude of the
displacement of a reflected wave to that of the incident
wave; reflectivity. The relationship is obtained by solv-
ing boundary condition equations which express the
continuity of displacement and stress at the boundary.
The normal-incidence reflection coefficient at an
interface that separates media of densities ␳ 1 and ␳ 2
reflection coefficient 291 reflection coefficient

FIG. R-8. Reflection and refraction equations for constant velocity overburden.
reflection configuration
and velocities V 1 and V 2 for a plane wave incident
from medium 1 is
R⬜ ⫽ 共 ␳ 2 V 2 ⫺ ␳ 1 V 1 兲 / 共 ␳ 2 V 2 ⫹ ␳ 1 V 1 兲 NI ⫽NI.
共NI is the symbolism often used in AVA-AVO analysis兲.
A negative reflection coefficient implies phase inver-
sion, that a compression is reflected as a rarefaction.
Where displacement is measured with respect to a
space-fixed coordinate system 共e.g., if positive means
downward displacement兲, the signs differ from this. In
the more general case of a plane-wave incident at an
angle, both reflected P- and S-waves and transmitted P-
and S-waves may be generated. The amplitude of each
of these waves may be found from Zoeppritz’s equa-
tions 共q.v.兲 共or Knott’s equations兲. 2. The ratio of the
reflected energy density to the incident energy density
is the energy reflectivity; this value is the square of the
value given by the above definition. 3. Reflectivity
function 共q.v.兲. 4. Albedo 共q.v.兲. 5. A ratio of resistivities
␳ as derived from the method of images.
k⫽ 共 ␳ 2 ⫺ ␳ 1 兲 / 共 ␳ 2 ⫹ ␳ 1 兲 .
Used in describing type curves. Also called resistivity-
contrast factor or reflection factor.
reflection configuration: A pattern of reflections; see Fig-
ure R-9.
reflection peak: 1. A local maximum positive excursion
produced by a reflection. 2. In electrical logging, an
increase in resistivity reading as the upper 共A兲 electrode
of a lateral sonde 共see Figure E-10兲 passes a thin
high-resistivity formation.
reflection point: The point on a reflector where the angle
of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Reflection
actually involves a region surrounding the reflecting
point; see Fresnel zone.
reflection point dispersal: The distance over which the
reflection points associated with common-midpoint
traces are spread for a dipping reflector; see Figure
C-9b. Simply stacking traces 共erroneously assuming
they involve a common reflecting point兲 produces
reflection point smear. Remedied by DMO 共q.v.兲 pro-
cessing.
reflection-point gathers „RPG…: Usually, a common-
midpoint gather 共q.v.兲 although the reflection point and
midpoint differ when there is dip or when converted
waves are being considered.
reflection polarity: The display to indicate a positive
reflection. See polarity standard.
reflection shooting: Reflection survey 共q.v.兲.
reflection strength: Amplitude of the envelope of a seis-
mic wave; see complex-trace analysis.
reflection survey: A program to map geologic structure
and/or stratigraphic features employing the seismic-
reflection method. Measurements are made of the
arrival time of events attributed to seismic waves that
have been reflected from interfaces where changes in
acoustic impedance occur. Usually the objective is to
map the depth, dip, and strike of the bedding, and
lateral changes in the reflectors. A second objective is to
define stratigraphic variations. Conclusions are usually
on changes in normal-moveout, amplitude, and/or
waveshape of reflection events.
292 refraction survey
reflection time: The traveltime from a source to a receiver
via a path that involves a reflection, usually a single
reflection.
reflection tomography: A method for finding the velocity
and/or reflectivity distribution from observations of
reflection events at various locations and source-
receiver offsets. The sources are assumed to be at the
source image locations, and reflection times 共and some-
times amplitudes兲 are calculated by tracing rays
through a model consisting of a multitude of cells, each
having constant velocity 共and constant attenuation兲, and
the results are compared with observed times 共and
amplitudes兲. The model is then perturbed and the pro-
cess repeated iteratively to minimize the errors. See
tomography and Dyer and Worthington 共1988兲.
reflectivity: Reflection coefficient 共q.v.兲.
reflectivity function: A time function or time series
intended to represent reflecting interfaces and their
reflectivities 共reflection coefficients兲, usually at normal
incidence. A display of the reflectivity as a function of
location along a seismic line, determined from seismic
reflection data, is a reflectivity section.
reflector: 1. A contrast in physical properties 共elasticity
and/or density兲 that gives rise to a seismic reflection
共q.v.兲. 2. A contrast in electrical properties that gives
rise to an electromagnetic reflection.
reflector curvature effects: See Figure W-4, buried-focus
effect, and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 156 –157, 392兲.
reformat: To change the ordering of data within a record
from one format 共q.v.兲 to another.
refraction, refracted wave: 1. The change in direction of
a seismic ray upon passing into a medium with a
different velocity. See Snell’s law. 2. Involving head
waves 共q.v.兲, i.e., involving a travel path in a high-
velocity medium parallel to the bedding. The basic
equations involving head waves are shown in Figure
R-8. See also Figure H-3.
refraction count: The difference between Doppler fre-
quency count from a navigation satellite for radio
waves of different frequencies. Ionospheric refraction
共which is inversely proportional to frequency兲 can be
determined from the differences, allowing one to cor-
rect for the refraction when elevation angles are above
7.5 degrees.
refraction marker: Refractor 共q.v.兲.
refraction method: See refraction survey.
refraction profile: See profile.
refraction shooting: Refraction survey 共q.v.兲.
refraction statics: Corrections to reflection traveltimes
based on first arrivals attributed to refraction travel
paths that involve the base of the near-surface low-
velocity layer. Usually based on CMP data but some-
times using specially acquired shallow refraction data.
refraction survey: 1. A program to map geologic struc-
ture by using head waves. Head waves involve energy
that enters a high-velocity medium 共refractor兲 near the
critical angle and travels in the high-velocity medium
nearly parallel to the refractor surface. The objective is
to determine the arrival times of the head waves to map
the depth to the refractors in which they travel. For a
summary of refraction interpretation methods, see Sher-
iff and Geldart 共1995, 95–98, 425– 446兲. 2. Refraction
surveying also includes the detection and mapping of
high-velocity masses such as salt domes 共see fan shoot-
refraction survey 293 refraction survey

FIG. R-9. Reflection configurations. (a) Reflection patterns on seismic sections. (b) Three-dimensional shapes of
seismic facies units. (After Sangree and Widmier, 1979.)
refraction test 294 reject region

ing兲 and the delineation of masses by shooting into
seismometers located in deep wells 共see Figures A-15
and T-8兲.
refraction test: Depth probe 共q.v.兲.
refraction wave: A head wave 共q.v.兲.
refractive index: The ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to that in a given medium.
refractor: A layer of higher velocity than overlying layers
through which a head wave 共q.v.兲 can travel. To be
useful for mapping, refractors must be 共a兲 sufficiently
thick 共greater than 1/10 of a wavelength兲 for a head
wave to carry energy over an applicable distance, 共b兲
sufficiently extensive that the same refractor is map-
pable over an appreciable area, 共c兲 sufficiently distinc-
tive in velocity that the head wave can be distinguished
from the waves carried in other layers, and 共d兲 not be
‘‘hidden’’ by a shallower refractor of higher velocity.
regional: The general attitude or configuration disregard-
ing features smaller than a given size. Regional dip is
the general dip attitude ignoring local structure.
Regional gravity is the gravity field produced by large-
scale variations 共long wavelength components兲 ignor-
ing anomalies of smaller size. Often it is the field
produced by density variations within or below base-
ment. See residualize.
regional-residual separation: See residualize.
register: A temporary storage for data being processed.
Typically, a register stores a single computer word.
registration: The process of aligning two or more sets of
data.
regression: 1. Estimating one variable based on other
variables. 2. Statistically analyzing spatially organized
data; utilizing the spatial continuity of natural phenom-
ena to predict interpolated values. Among the methods
are regression techniques, kriging, and cokriging 共q.v.兲.
3. A seaward movement of the shoreline with time.
Opposite of transgression.
regression analysis: Finding the statistical dependence of
one quantity on other quantities. Often implies the same
as factor analysis 共q.v.兲 or multivariate analysis.
regularize: 1. To interpolate to a regular grid. 2. Trading
off minimizing the data residual with finding a smooth
solution; see Phillips and Fehler 共1991兲.
regular noise: Coherent noise.
reject region: The range over which a filter exercises
considerable attenuation. May refer to those frequen-

FIG. R-10. Residualizing methods. (a) Graphical smoothing of map contours. The difference between smoothed and
actual contours localizes an anomaly. (b) Graphical smoothing of a profile. The profile should be drawn where the
contours are controlled by the data and different profiles must be consistent with the smoothed regional. (c) Reading
values on a regular grid and convolving with a template. Margins are lost in the process so the residual covers a smaller
area than the data. Template and weighting can be varied to yield second derivative and other types of maps. (d)
Template used to make the map shown in (c) above.
relational database
cies, dips, or apparent velocities that filters attenuate.
relational database: A database where data are set out in
tabular form.
relative amplitude display: A display where amplitudes
on successive traces have been treated in the same way
to preserve trace-to-trace amplitude differences for
individual events. Comparisons of the amplitudes of
events occurring at different times is, however not
generally meaningful.
relative apparent resistivity: The ratio of apparent resis-
tivity to the true resistivity of a portion of a model; for
example, apparent resistivity divided by the resistivity
of the upper layer in a simple two-layer case. Such
dimensionless ratios are used in resistivity type curves
共q.v.兲.
relative bearing: Azimuth of hole deviation with respect
to the reference on a dipmeter sonde 共such as the No. 1
electrode兲.
relative change of sea level: A change in sea level rela-
tive to a datum on or below the sea floor, caused by
subsidence, uplift, or eustasy. Deposition on the sea
floor does not change the datum. See Figure C-4.
relative ellipse area: In telluric surveying, electric-field
vectors are observed at a field station 共E u and E v 兲 and
also simultaneously at a base 共E x and E y 兲. The vectors
are related to each other in linear combinations:
E u ⫽aE x ⫹bE y
E v ⫽cE x ⫹dE y .
The determinant of this transform, J⫽ad⫺bc, called
the ‘‘relative ellipse area,’’ is a measure of the electrical
properties at the station relative to that at the base.
relative permeability: 1. The effective permeability
divided by the absolute permeability. When a rock
contains more than one fluid, relative permeability is
FIG. R-11. Typical ranges of resistivities of earth materials. (From Palacky, 1988.)
295 relay ramp
used to express the permeability of the rock to each
fluid. Since various phases inhibit the flow of each
other, the sum of the relative permeabilities of all
phases present is less than unity. 2. Relative magnetic
permeability 共q.v.兲.
relative permittivity: Dielectric constant 共q.v.兲 normal-
ized by dividing by the permittivity of free space
(8.85⫻10 ⫺12 farad per meter兲 so as to give a dimen-
sionless quantity.
relative positioning: Translocation 共q.v.兲, improving a
position fix by use of data from a stationary receiver.
relative thickness: The ratio of thickness of a layer to the
electrode interval. A dimensionless ratio used in draw-
ing apparent-resistivity curves.
relaxation: The decrease of elastic restoring force under
an applied stress in an elastic medium by creep pro-
cesses, resulting in permanent deformation.
relaxation method: A successive approximation method
for solving a set of equations where the errors from a
previous approximation are regarded as constraints to
be minimized.
relaxation rate: T1 is the longitudinal or spin-lattice
relaxation time, T2 the transverse or spin-spin relax-
ation time, the rate of nuclei magnetization after being
disturbed by a radio-frequency pulse. See nuclear mag-
netic resonance log.
relaxation time: See time constant and nuclear magnetic
resonance log.
relay: A switching device, usually controlled by a separate
electrical circuit. Mercury relays are sometimes used to
switch current in IP transmitters.
relay ramp: The sloping portion between en-echelon
faults or other structural features that accommodates
the transfer of throw or other deformation from one to
the other.
release time 296
release time: See AGC time constant.
reliability: The quality of a position fix, driven largely by
redundancy.
relief: 1. The difference between the highest and lowest
elevations in an area. 2. The range of values over an
anomaly or within an area. While elevation differences
are usually meant, one also speaks of ‘‘gravity relief’’
for the magnitude of a gravity anomaly, etc.
reluctance: Magnetic flux per unit magnetomotive force.
remanence: See remanent magnetism.
remanent magnetism: Remanence; the magnetization
remaining in the absence of an induced magnetic field.
共a兲 Normal remanent magnetization „NRM… is the
residual magnetization possessed by rocks and other
materials in situ; unless otherwise qualified, this is the
meaning implied. 共b兲 Thermoremanent magnetiza-
tion „TRM… remains after a sample has been cooled to
a temperature below the Curie point in a magnetic field.
共c兲 Chemical remanent magnetization „CRM… is
acquired when a magnetic substance is chemically
formed or crystallized in a magnetic field at tempera-
ture below the Curie point. 共d兲 Depositional 共or detri-
tal兲 remanent magnetization 共DRM兲 is acquired in
sediments when magnetic mineral particles are prefer-
entially aligned by the ambient magnetic field during
deposition 共usually by settling through water兲. 共e兲 Iso-
thermal remanent magnetization 共IRM兲 is remanent
magnetization in the ordinary sense, i.e., the magneti-
zation after application and subsequent removal of a
magnetic field; it is not involved in paleomagnetism,
except for the effect of lightning currents in exposed
surface rocks. 共f兲 Pressure 共or piezo兲 remanent mag-
netization 共PRM兲 is remanence acquired as a result of
the application of stress; the effects generally become
more pronounced as the strain proceeds from elastic to
plastic deformation. See also viscous magnetization.
remote data unit „RDU…: A portable unit that receives
signals from several 共often 4兲 geophone groups, digi-
tizes them, stores the data temporarily, and transmits
the data to the recording system upon command. Also
RDAU, remote data acquisition unit.
remote electrode: Infinite electrode 共q.v.兲.
remote job entry „RJE…: Input of data-processing jobs
from a terminal connected to the computer by a com-
munication line.
remote „reference… magnetotelluric method: Magneto-
telluric survey conducted with either an electric field or
magnetic field reference located a few kilometers from
the point of measurement. The reference is used to
obtain a better estimate of the true impedance tensor Z
by using the average crosspower between the reference
fields and the electric and magnetic fields at the sound-
ing location. In contrast to conventional magnetotellu-
rics, the impedance estimate will be unbiased by noise
power, provided the noise in the reference signal is
uncorrelated with noise in the electric and magnetic
channels. See magnetotelluric method and Gamble et
al. 共1979兲.
remote sensing: Measurements made from large dis-
tances, as from high-flying aircraft or Earth satellites.
Especially refers to measurements of either natural
radiation „passive methods… or radiation from a source
in the sensor „active methods… that has been reflected
back from the earth. Determination of characteristics
replacement density
without direct physical contact. Often implies detect-
ing, imaging, and interpretation by means of reflected
or emitted electromagnetic radiation. Data covering all
parts of the world are available from a number of
remote sensing satellites operated by the US or other
countries. Sensors record different wavelengths and
have different spatial resolutions, and some spacecraft
carry active systems such as radar altimeters. These
data form the basis of NASA’s Earth Observing System
共EOS兲. Data can be purchased publicly in either digital
or graphical form. Passive data yield information only
about the surface of the Earth and are useful in the
study of topography and geomorphologic features, in
identifying rock type, in identifying land use and envi-
ronmental changes, vegetated and agricultural usage,
the extent of urbanization, roads and coastal features,
etc.
The most common data are AVHRR, Landsat, and
SPOT data, each having different orbital characteristics
and each has several versions of data 共see Figure L-1兲.
AVHRR 共Advanced Very High Resolution Ratiometer兲
instruments on NOAA’s polar orbiting weather satel-
lites cover a hugh swath width, nearly 2700 km, but
with the poorest spatial resolution. A full Landsat scene
is 185⫻185 km represented by 3240 pixels east-west
and 2340 scans north-south. Landsat bands for multi-
spectral scanners are band 4: 05 to 0.6 ␮m 共green兲;
band 5: 0.6 to 0.7 ␮m 共red兲; band 6: 0.7 to 0.8 ␮m
共infrared兲; band 7: 0.8 to 1.1 ␮m 共infrared兲. A number
of Landsat instruments have been placed in orbit,
including Landsat 7, launched in April, 1999. The more
recent Landsat instruments have better resolution,
record more components of the electromagnetic spec-
trum, and are better calibrated. SPOT 共Satellite Pour
l’Observation de la Terre, operated by CNES of France兲
gives the greatest resolution of the three data types. In
general, as the resolution increases, the size of the scene
decreases, and the price per square kilometer greatly
increases. Displays sometimes use imaging 共to produce
a picture of the radiation, as in a photograph兲, some-
times are nonimaging 共to produce a profile of the
variation of radiation along the flight path兲. May also
include measurements of the magnetic field or other
nonradiation measurements.
remote triggering: A method of controlling ‘‘on’’ and
‘‘off’’ voltage switching of IP receiving equipment to
record the decay signal. A synchronous-detection
method that uses the ground signal for a timing chan-
nel.
repeatability: The deviation from the average of data
from repeated tests.
repeat formation tester „RFT…: A method of recovering
fluid pressures with a wireline. The padded tool seals
formations and pumps fluid until resistivity indexes
indicate formation fluids are present; it measures tem-
perature and pressure and recovers a fluid sample.
repeat section: 1. The portion of a section that is recorded
twice to check the reliability of measurements. 2. Rock
formations that are repeated because of thrust or reverse
faulting.
repetition rate: The number of full cycles per unit of
time.
replacement density: The difference in density between
replacement velocity 297
that assumed for rock and that of sea water, used for
making a Bouguer correction of marine gravity.
replacement velocity: The velocity used in static correc-
tions to compensate for low-velocity near-surface mate-
rials.
replicate: To reproduce a function, as by convolving with
a series of impulses.
replicating function: Comb 共q.v.兲.
reproducible recording: Recording on a medium that
readily permits automatic reading, such as on magnetic
or optical media, but excluding an ordinary print on
paper.
resample: To change the sampling frequency 共or the inter-
val between adjacent samples兲. To decrease the number
of samples is to decimate; for example, a data set at 2
ms intervals can be ‘‘decimated’’ to a data set at 4 ms
intervals by dropping every other sample. To increase
the number of samples is to reconstitute; for example,
FIG. R-12. SPE resource classification system. (Courtesy of James G. Ross.)
reservoir characterization
to obtain samples interpolated between the values of a
data set at 2 ms intervals to yield a data set at 1 ms
intervals.
resection: 共ri sek’ sh⳵n兲 Determining a survey station
location by the intersection of lines indicating the direc-
tion from other stations at known locations. See Figure
P-3.
reserves: Resources 共q.v.兲 that are 共1兲 discovered, 共2兲
recoverable, 共3兲 commercial, and 共4兲 remaining. SPE/
WPC definitions require that reservoirs satisfy all four
criteria to be classified as reserves. See resources and
Figure R-12.
reserved words: Words in a computer program that have
predefined meanings that cannot be changed.
reservoir: 1. A porous permeable rock formation, often
detrital. 2. Rocks containing oil and gas. See resource.
reservoir characterization: Determining the physical
properties of a reservoir 共porosity, permeability, fluid
reservoir delineation
saturation, etc.兲 and changes in their distribution
throughout the reservoir.
reservoir delineation: Defining the geometry of a reser-
voir, including faults and facies changes that limit pro-
duction.
reservoir depletion: Loss of reservoir drive 共q.v.兲 or some
condition that prevents economical production from a
reservoir.
reservoir description: Reservoir characterization 共q.v.兲.
reservoir drive: The energy that causes reservoir fluids to
flow out of the reservoir rock and into a wellbore.
Gravity drive is simply like draining a tank. Gas drive
depends on the expansion of the gas in a reservoir to
provide the driving energy; the pressure is reduced as
the reservoir is produced. Solution gas drive depends
on gas coming out of solution in the oil as the pressure
is reduced. Water drive depends on water pressure to
force hydrocarbons into the wellbore, and depends on
the connectivity of the reservoir with a surrounding
aquifer. Water drive is much more efficient at driving
oil than is gas drive. Natural reservoir drives are
supplemented by injecting gas, water, or other sub-
stances in secondary recovery and enhanced oil recov-
ery 共q.v.兲.
reservoir geophysics: The use of geophysical methods to
assist in delineating or describing a reservoir, or moni-
toring the changes in a reservoir as it is produced. See
Sheriff 共1992兲.
reservoir simulation: Use of a computer or physical
model of a reservoir to test how the reservoir will
perform as production or stimulation or other possible
changes proceed.
reservoir stimulation: 1. Enhancing fluid flow into a well
bore by fracturing, acidizing, or other means. 2.
Enhancing flow through a reservoir by water or gas
injection or by the use of enhanced oil recovery 共q.v.兲.
reservoir surveilance: Keeping track of the flow of fluids
in a reservoir as production proceeds.
resident programs: Programs stored within a computer’s
memory that do not need to be specifically loaded to
use them.
residual: 共r⳵ zij’ ⳵ w⳵l兲 1. The difference between
observed data and the regional, as in gravity and mag-
netics. What is left after the regional has been removed.
See residualize and Figure R-10. 2. An anomaly, the
difference between measurement of a quantity and the
expected value; what is not otherwise accounted for. 3.
Salt residual 共q.v.兲.
residual disturbance: Disturbances that persist during
relatively quiet days following magnetic storms.
residualize: 共r⳵ zij’ ⳵ w⳵l īz,兲 1. To separate a curve or a
surface into its long wavelength 共or low-frequency兲
parts, called the regional, and its short-wavelength 共or
high-frequency兲 parts, called the residual. Residualiz-
ing attempts to predict regional effects and find local
anomalies by subtracting the regional effects. This
separation is not unique. Residualizing methods 共Figure
R-10兲 include 共a兲 graphical methods, in which a smooth
regional is drawn on a profile or contours are smoothed
and spaced more uniformly; 共b兲 polynomial method, in
which the regional is represented by a polynomial fit to
the observed data; 共c兲 spectral-domain filtering, in
which certain wavenumbers are attenuated by filtering;
共d兲 stripping method, in which the field of a model that
298 resolution
represents certain parts of the geology is calculated and
subtracted from the observed field; 共e兲 upward continu-
ation, which attenuates the effects of shallow sources.
These methods can be thought of as 2D convolution
operations 共map convolution兲 and some of them pro-
duce halo effects about local anomalies. See Cowan and
Cowan 共1993兲.
residual migration: Successive migration with velocities
V i smaller than the proper migration velocity V, such
that
V 2 ⫽⌺V 2i .
residual normal moveout: A small amount of normal
moveout that remains because of incomplete normal-
moveout removal. Compare differential normal
moveout.
resistance: Opposition to the flow of direct current. Com-
pare impedance and reactance and see Ohm’s law.
resistive coupling: See coupling.
resistivity: The property of a material that resists the flow
of electrical current. Also called specific resistance.
The ratio of electric-field intensity to current density.
The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. Resistivity
is a tensor in nonisotropic material, the inverse of the
conductivity tensor. See ohm meter and apparent resis-
tivity.
resistivity anisotropy coefficient: See anisotropy (electri-
cal).
resistivity-contrast factor: The ratio, ( ␳ 2 ⫺ ␳ 1 )/( ␳ 2
⫹ ␳ 1 ), which appears in the analysis of resistivity rela-
tionships between materials of resistivity ␳ 1 and ␳ 2 .
Also called reflection coefficient.
resistivity index: The ratio of the resistivity of a forma-
tion bearing hydrocarbons to the resistivity if 100 per-
cent saturated with formation water. See Archie’s for-
mulas.
resistivity logs: 1. Well logs that depend on electrical
resistivity: normal, lateral, laterolog, and induction
logs 共q.v.兲. Most resistivity logs derive their readings
from 10 to 100 ft3 of material about the sonde. Microre-
sistivity logs 共q.v.兲, on the other hand, derive their
reading from a few cubic inches of material near the
borehole wall. See Figure D-8. 2. Records of surface
resistivity methods 共q.v.兲.
resistivity method: 1. Observation of electric fields
caused by current introduced into the ground as a
means for studying earth resistivity. The term normally
includes only those methods in which a very low fre-
quency or direct current is used to measure the apparent
resistivity. Includes electric profiling and electric
sounding 共q.v.兲. Various arrays 共q.v.兲 are used. See also
Gish-Rooney method and Lee partitioning method. 2.
Sometimes also includes polarization and electromag-
netic methods 共q.v.兲.
resistivity spectrum: The resistivity of a polarizable
material, measured at successive frequencies and plot-
ted against frequency. This spectrum can be trans-
formed into an IP decay curve and vice versa. The IP
resistivity spectrum of a polarizable material appears to
be distinctive of the nature of some kinds of substances
共types of mineralization兲.
resolution: 1. The ability to separate two features that are
close together. The minimum separation of two bodies
before their individual identities are lost on the resultant
resolution of well logs 299
map or cross-section. See resolvable limit and Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 172–177兲. 2. The smallest change in
input that will produce a detectable change in output.
共See Figure D-8 for the vertical resolution of logging
tools.兲 3. The ability to localize an event seen through a
window, usually taken as the half width of the major
lobe.
resolution of well logs: The minimum formation interval
over which a logging tool gives the true response of the
formation, usually 1/2 to 1 meter. All tools involve
some volumetric averaging. See Figure D-8.
resolvable limit: 1. For discrete seismic reflectors, the
minimum separation so that one can ascertain that more
than one interface is involved. The value depends on
the criteria for ascertaining. The Rayleigh resolution
limit is ␭/4, where ␭ is the dominant wavelength. The
Widess limit is ␭/8. Compare detectable limit. 2. Hori-
zontal resolution on unmigrated seismic sections is
often taken as the width of the first Fresnel zone 共q.v.兲.
resolve: To separate into parts. 1. To determine the com-
ponent orthogonal vectors that add together to form a
given vector. Usually implies finding the components in
the directions of an orthogonal coordinate system. 2. To
show two features as separate rather than blended
together.
resonance: A buildup of amplitude as a result of a stimu-
lus that has nearly the natural frequency of the system.
resonant frequency: Natural frequency 共q.v.兲.
resource: Concentrations of naturally occurring materials
in such form that economic extraction is currently or
potentially feasible 共U. S. Bureau of Mines definition兲.
While Figure R-12 relates to petroleum, similar defini-
tions apply to other materials. SPE/WPC identify
reserves as resources that are 共1兲 discovered, 共2兲 recov-
erable, 共3兲 commercial, and 共4兲 remaining. Contingent
resources as the quantities which as of a certain date
are estimated to be potentially recoverable from known
accumulations but which are not currently considered
to be commercially recoverable. They can be further
subdivided according to 共a兲 those that could be recov-
ered using proved techniques but where there is cur-
rently too much uncertainty to commit to development
or where commerciality has yet to be confirmed, 共b兲
those which require unproved techniques to be devel-
oped, or 共c兲 those that require further commercial con-
siderations. Prospective resources are the quantities
that are estimated to be potentially recoverable from
undiscovered accumulations. They can be further
divided into prospects that are sufficiently well devel-
oped to represent viable drilling targets, leads that
require more data to be classified as prospects, and
plays that require more data to become prospects or
leads. A reservoir is a single subsurface rock formation
capable of containing moveable petroleum. A pool is an
individual and separate natural accumulation of move-
able petroleum that is confined by impermeable rock or
by water barriers and is characterized by a single pres-
sure system. A field is an area consisting of pools that
are grouped on or related to the same individual geo-
logic structural feature and/or stratigraphic condition.
Different pools in a field may be separated vertically by
impermeable rock or laterally by structural or strati-
graphic barriers. To be considered discovered, an accu-
mulation must have been penetrated by a well that
return-beam vidicon „RBV…
clearly demonstrates the existence of moveable petro-
leum by recovery of a sample 共although sometimes
good log or core data may suffice兲. A decision as to
commerciality is up to the country or company con-
cerned with possible development and generally
implies that it will be marketable within five years.
Proved reserves are those that are commercial under
current economic conditions, while probable reserves
and possible reserves are based on future economic
conditions. The distinction between proved, probable,
and possible reflects the range of uncertainty in estimat-
ing recoverable volumes, the distinctions often being at
cutoffs of 90%, 50%, and 10% probability. Possible
reserves have less than a 50% risk that they can be
produced economically. The reliability of estimates
should improve over time. See Figure R-12 and SPE-
WGC 共2000兲.
response parameter: See induction number.
response time: The time between the initiation of an
operation and the receipt of results. Response time
includes transmission of data to the computer, process-
ing, file access, and transmission of results to the output
terminal.
restore: 1. A write-after-read computer operation. 2. Rec-
reating data from break-up storage copy.
restored section: Paleosection 共q.v.兲.
retarded potential: A potential function whose argument
is retarded time 共q.v.兲, from which the seismic response
can be determined.
retarded time: The response to distant causes is delayed
by traveltimes to the point under consideration. These
time delays can be accommodated if the time at distant
causal points precedes that at the observing point, that
is, if observations are made in ‘‘retarded time.’’ See
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 41兲.
retrocorrelation: 共ret, r⳵ kor ⳵ lā sh⳵n兲 Correlation of a
function with a reversed version of itself, or the equiva-
lent, convolution of a function with itself; autoconvo-
lution. Retrocorrelation of a seismic trace yields a
retrocorrelogram that contains multiples that involve
the surface 共time zero兲.
retrograde: 共re’ tr⳵ grād,兲 1. Rotational motion opposite
to the usual direction. Rayleigh waves are sometimes
called retrograde waves because motion near the sur-
face is in elliptical orbits such that the particle is
traveling opposite to the direction of the wave while at
the top of the ellipse; see Figure R-3. 2. A branch of a
time-distance curve resulting from very steep velocity
gradients. See Figure D-19b. Also called reverse
branch 共q.v.兲.
retrogradation: Landward movement of the shoreline
when the rate of sediment supply is less than can be
accommodated by the rate of rise of relative sea level.
As a consequence the distal toes of successively
younger parasequences move landward. See Figure
D-6.
retrograde condensation: The formation of liquid drop-
lets in a gas as a well is produced and the pressure
drops. Some hydrocarbons exist naturally above their
critical temperatures in the reservoir; as a result, when
pressure is decreased, instead of expanding to form a
gas, they condense to form a liquid. See Figure H-11.
return-beam vidicon „RBV…: 共vid’ e kon,兲 A TV camera
that is scanned by an electron beam; used on Landsat
reverberation
satellites 共band 3兲 to form images.
reverberation: 1. Multiple reflection in a layer, usually
the water layer in marine work; ringing; singing.
Sometimes the term is reserved for the case where the
successive multiples blend together into a more-or-less
steady oscillation; occasionally it includes also the situ-
ation where the water is so deep that the successive
multiples are discrete. Reverberation sometimes occurs
on land records also. Removing reverberation effects
may be an objective of deconvolution. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 165–166, 169兲. 2. The effect of a long
oscillatory source such as sometimes occurs with
explosive or air-gun 共or other兲 sources.
reversal: 1. A local change in the direction of the dip
along a line. Often refers specifically to a dip reversal
that denotes a structural lead. 2. A transient electromag-
netic signal that crosses the reference dc level.
reverse branch: A consequence of a buried focus such as
can be produced by sharp synclinal curvature or focus-
ing by a velocity lens. For zero offset and constant
velocity, this occurs where the radius of curvature for a
concave-upward reflector is less than the reflector
depth. See Figure B-11 and buried focus. The reverse
branch involves a phase shift; see Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 156兲. Compare backward branch. Also called
retrograde branch.
reverse control: Profiles shot from opposite directions;
two-way control. 1. The portions of a refractor for
which there is overlap of relative delay-time data result-
ing from shooting in opposite directions 共i.e., the sub-
surface coverage from which arrivals are seen in oppo-
site directions兲. 2. Sometimes merely the portion of a
refraction profile that has been shot from opposite
directions. 3. Reflection surveying where dip can be
verified by data shot in opposite directions.
reverse crossover: Opposite of proper crossover 共q.v.兲.
reversed: A spread or refraction profile recorded from
FIG. R-13. Reverse migration. (a) Depth section showing migrated seismic events. (b) Time section showing reverse-
migrated dipmeter data. Structural models may be reverse-migrated to find where their seismic evidences should be
sought.
300 reverse time migration
sources in opposite directions.
reversed magnetic field: See normal magnetic field.
reverse drag: Rollover 共q.v.兲.
reverse fault: See fault and Figure F-3.
reverse migration: Determining where the reflection
event from a given portion of reflector would be
observed at normal incidence. See Figure R-13.
reverse polarity: Having polarity opposite to ‘‘normal.’’
Seismic sections are sometimes plotted with both nor-
mal and reverse polarity, amplitude values in the former
being multiplied by ⫺1 to achieve the latter. An attempt
is usually made to have positive reflectivity show as a
central peak that is shaded black on a normal polarity
plot but achieving absolute phase significance is often
ellusive. See polarity standard.
reverse Polish: 1. The scheme for entering data into
Hewlett-Packard hand computers; the sequence for A
⫹B would be: ‘‘A, enter, B, add,’’ as opposed to the
sequence used with Texas Instruments computers,
where the sequence would be: ‘‘A, add, B.’’ 2. A
method used in parsing computer language statements
into operator and operand stacks 共last in, first out buff-
ers兲. Operators and operands are pushed onto their
respective stacks in reverse order of execution so they
can be popped off the stacks in correct order.
reverse SP: Where the drilling mud is more saline than
the formation water, SP voltages are reversed with
respect to the usual situation.
reverse symmetric: A matrix 共q.v.兲 for which
Axx 共 t 兲 ⫽Axx
T
共 ⫺t 兲 .
reverse time migration: Backward propagation of the
wavefield in time. Often uses a finite-difference
approximation to the wave equation. Time samples
from a seismic section are used as the surface boundary
condition for a wave-equation extrapolator and succes-
sive time samples are used until the surface is reached,
reverse VSP
when the image is completed. See McMechan 共1983兲.
reverse VSP: A vertical seismic profile 共q.v.兲 made with
the source in the borehole and geophones on the sur-
face.
reverse-wound geophone: See humbucking.
reversible process: A physical or chemical change that
can be caused to proceed in either direction by small
alteration in one of the controlling equilibrium condi-
tions such as concentration, temperature, or pressure. If
a small change in current shifts the equilibrium posi-
tion, a change back to the original value restores the
equilibrium to its original position. See equilibrium
conditions.
review: To reinterpret data or to rework.
Reynolds number: 共ren’ ⳵ldz兲 The ratio of inertial force
to viscous force for viscous fluid flow. In the bubble
effect, R⫽2ua ␳ / ␮ , where u⫽radial water velocity,
a⫽bubble radius, ␳ ⫽water density, and ␮ ⫽water
viscosity. Named for Osborne Reynolds 共1842–1912兲,
British physicist/engineer. See Fowler 共1990, 251兲.
RF: Radio Frequency 共q.v.兲.
RFC: 1. Request For Comments. 2. ReFlection Coeffi-
cient.
RFP: Request For Proposal; an invitation to submit a
request for funding, usually for the funding of research.
RFT: Repeat Formation Tester: The primary method of
recovering fluid pressures with a wireline. The padded
tool seals formations and pumps fluid until resistivity
indexes indicate formation fluids are present; then mea-
sures temperature and pressure.
Rg-wave: A short-period Rayleigh wave that travels as a
guided wave in the crust. 共The subscript ‘‘g’’ refers to
the granitic layer.兲
rho-rho determination: 共rō rō兲 Positioning 共q.v.兲 in
which the distance from two known points is used to
determine the location. Also called range-range. Other
ways of determining location include rho-theta deter-
FIG. R-14. Ricker wavelet. (a) Time-domain and (b) frequency-domain representations. Expressions for the Ricker
wavelet are:
2 2 ⫺␲ 2f 2
f 共t兲⫽共1⫺2␲ 2f M t 兲e
2
Mt ↔
冑␲ f M3
Also,
TD⫽冑6/ ␲ f M
The mean frequency f mean⫽(2/ ␲ 1/2 )f M and the median frequency f median⫽1.08 f M .
301 Rieber mixing
minations, measurement of differences in distances, use
of azimuthal systems, dead reckoning, etc. Rho-rho-
rho measurements involve measuring distances from
three known points.
rho-theta determination: Positioning 共q.v.兲 in which the
distance and direction from a fixed point are used to
determine location.
RHS: Right-Hand Side.
rhumb line: A line on the surface of the earth making the
same angle with all meridians, thus having constant
azimuth 共constant direction with respect to geographic
north兲; loxodrome. A straight line on a Mercator pro-
jection.
ribbon: A very thin sheet used as a magnetic model; a
very thin dike model.
ribbon map: A color-coded display of data plotted along
lines before the areas between the lines is filled in.
Richter scale: 共rik’ t⳵r兲 A scale for measuring the magni-
tude 共q.v.兲 of an earthquake 共q.v.兲. The logarithmic
scale was devised in 1935 by Charles Francis Richter
共1900–1985兲, American seismologist.
Ricker wavelet: 共rik’ ⳵r兲 A zero-phase wavelet, the second
derivative of the Gaussian function or the third deriva-
tive of the normal probability density function. A
Ricker wavelet is often used as a zero-phase embedded
wavelet in modeling and synthetic seismogram manu-
facture. See Figure R-14. Named for Norman H. Ricker
共1896 –1980兲, American geophysicist.
Rieber mixing: 共rē b⳵r兲 To time-shift adjacent traces and
sum, thus emphasizing energy that comes from a par-
ticular direction relative to energy from other direc-
tions. By varying the amount of time shift, various
directions can be searched to find a maximum for a
particular arrival, thus ascertaining the raypath direc-
tion associated with it. Interfering events from different
directions can be sorted in this way. The display as a
function of arrival time for various directions is called a
2 f2
冉 冊
2 2
e⫺f /f M ⫽F 共 f 兲
and TR⫽TD /冑3.
Riedel shear 302 rms velocity

sonograph or sonogram. See Rieber 共1936兲. Named

for Frank Rieber 共1891–1948兲, American geophysicist.
Riedel shear: 共rē d⳵l兲 A slip surface that is an early stage
冋
␴ ⫽ 共 1/n 兲 兺 共 m ⫺m̄ 兲 册
i
2
1/2
;

of shearing, often found en échelon. Subsidiary sets of also called the standard deviation. For a normal dis-
faults inclined to a through-going fault. tribution, 0.683 of the population has less than the rms
Riemann surface: 共rē’ man兲 A surface in the complex error. See statistical measures.
plane having more than one sheet such that multi- rms positional error: The circle whose radius is the
valued functions are single-valued on each Riemann square root of the mean of the sum of the squares of the
surface. Named for G. F. B. Riemann 共1826 –1866兲, distances of measured positions from a point. If the
German mathematician. uncertainties in x and y directions are equal and normal
rift: 1. A region where the crust has split apart, usually 共that is, a Rayleigh distribution兲, the probability of a
associated with a long graben such as the mid-Atlantic measurement lying within the rms positional-error
rift, the Rhine graben, or the rift valleys of East Africa. circle is 41 percent. Called one-sigma circle because
2. A region associated with a pull-apart zone. 3. A fault; this radius is equal to the standard deviation when taken
especially a long strike-slip fault such as the San about the mean of the observations. Compare CEP.
Andreas fault. rms velocity: Root-mean-square velocity. For a series of
riftÕdrift unconformity: An unconformity in the evolu- parallel layers of velocity V i , where the traveltime for
seismic energy perpendicularly through each is t i , the
tion of a continental rift when rift faulting ceases and
rms velocity for travel perpendicular to the layers is
sea-floor spreading begins. The stretched lithosphere of
the newly formed continental margin then undergoes V rms ⫽ 关共 兺 V 2i t i 兲 / 共 ⌺t i 兲兴 1/2 .
thermal subsidence. See Moores and Twist 共1995, 102兲.
rig: Drill 共q.v.兲. The average velocity for this path, V̄ , on the other
right ascension: 1. The angular distance to a celestial hand, is
body, measured east of the vernal equinox line 共first
line of Aries兲 on the celestial sphere. 2. The angle V̄ ⫽ 共 兺 V i t i 兲 / 共 ⌺t i 兲 .
between the vernal equinox line and the intersection of The stacking velocity, the velocity determined from
the plane of the orbit of a satellite with the plane of the velocity analysis based on normal-moveout measure-
celestial equator. See Figure K-1. ments, is often used to approximate rms velocity; this is
right-hand rule: A rule that gives the direction of torques valid only in the limit as the offset approaches zero
and the force on a current in a magnetic field. See where interfaces and velocities are horizontal and iso-
Figure I-3. tropic.
right lateral fault: A strike-slip fault where the far side
moves to the right 共clockwise兲. See Figure F-3.
rigidity modulus: See elastic constants.
rim syncline: A syncline partially surrounding a salt
dome. It results from withdrawal of salt that has moved
into the dome.
ringing: 1. Reverberation 共q.v.兲. 2. The oscillatory effect
produced by a narrow-band filter.
ringy: Oscillatory.
rippable: Material that can be excavated with relative
ease using a ripping device mounted on a tractor. Can
be roughly related to P-wave velocity as shown in
Figure R-15.
RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer, a type of com-
puter chip which responds to simplified instructions.
RISC chips operate much faster than predecessor chips.
rise-time error: A delay in measuring the onset of an
event because of the time required to reach detectable
amplitude level.
risk: The probability of undesirable consequences arising
from possible events. Risk management is the system-
atic estimation of risk and implementation of risk con-
trols. Risk differs from uncertainty 共q.v.兲, which is the
precision with which a measurement or value is known;
while risk can be managed, uncertainty requires more
or better data.
risk map: See uncertainty map.
RJE: Remote Job Entry 共q.v.兲.
rms: Root Mean Square 共q.v.兲.
rms error „␴…: The square root of the average of the
squares of the differences between a series of n mea- FIG. R-15. Rippability with a D-8 tractor. (Courtesy
surements m i , and their mean m̄. The rms error Caterpillar Tractor Co.)
Robinson projection 303
Robinson projection: This projection is often used to
display the entire Earth. It is a compromise that permits
some distortion in size at high latitudes to maintain
shapes at middle and low latitudes. Named for A. H.
Robinson.
robust: Relatively insensitive to data errors, as a computer
program or process that can tolerate poorly conditioned
data.
rockbit: Roller bit. See bit and Figure D-26.
rock magnetism: Study of the magnetic properties of
rocks and minerals.
rock physics: Study of rock properties and their interre-
lation based on rock, core, or log samples. Also called
petrophysics.
rod: A graduated pole used as a target in surveying. See
stadia.
rodman: A surveyor’s assistant, one of whose jobs is
holding the stadia rod.
roentgen: 共rent’ g⳵n or rent’ j⳵n兲 The quantity of radiation
that will produce one electrostatic unit of charge
(2.08⫻10 9 ion pairs兲 per cm3 in air at STP. The
maximum safe human dosage is about 300 mR/week.
Named for Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen 共1845–1923兲,
German physicist.
roll: 1. Rotational motion of a ship about the axis of
principal direction of motion. The average tilt to one
side is called list. Compare pitch and yaw. 2. To move
a seismic acquisition pattern; ‘‘50% roll’’ means 50%
ground overlap. 3. To move the portion of a display that
can be seen on a computer screen.
roll along: The field method for common-midpoint
recording; see common-midpoint stack.
roll-along switch: A switch that permits connecting dif-
ferent geophone groups to the recording instruments,
used in common-midpoint recording.
roller bit: A type of drill bit 共q.v.兲. See Figure D-26.
roll off: 1. The frequency beyond which a filter produces
significant attenuation. Usually taken as the point where
the amplitude is down by 3 dB 共or the power by 6 dB兲.
2. Attenuation produced by a filter, often given in
decibels per octave.
roll on „roll off…: Acquiring data at the beginning 共or end兲
FIG. R-16. Rose diagram showing frequency of observa-
tions in different directions.
ROV
of a seismic line where the stack multiplicity gradually
builds up 共or drops off兲 to that nominal for the line.
roll one station: To record one station interval farther
down the line as the source moves ahead by one inter-
val. Usually accomplished with a roll-along switch
共q.v.兲.
rollover: 1. Reversal of the dip direction such as produced
by rotation of a block resulting from sliding along a
curved 共listric兲 fault plane. Usually associated with
gravity faulting contemporaneous with deposition
共growth fault兲. 2. Cable rollover is an ambiguity result-
ing from having more than one group of geophones at
different offset distances simultaneously connected to
the same channel.
roll the patch: To move geophones an integral number of
intervals in either x- or y-directions.
ROM: Read-Only Memory.
root: 1. A value of x that satisfies the equation F(x)
⫽0. 2. Relatively light crustal material projecting
down into the mantle and thus isostatically balancing
topographically high areas 共mountains兲. See Figure I-7.
root-mean-square „rms…: The square root of the average
of the squares of a series of measurements. The auto-
correlation value 共without normalizing兲 for zero lag is
the mean square value. For a sine wave, the rms value
is (&)/2 times the peak amplitude.
rose, rosette: A polar diagram in which radial length
indicates the relative frequency of observation at a
certain angle. Used to illustrate the direction probabili-
ties of wind, dip directions 共from dipmeter measure-
ments兲, lineations, faults, etc. See Figure R-16.
Rossi-Forel intensity scale: 共ros’ sē for ⳵l’兲 A scale of
earthquake intensity devised in 1878 by M. S. de Rossi
and F. A. Forel. Compare Mercalli Scale.
rotary drill: See drill.
rotary-field electromagnetic method: A method using
circularly polarized electromagnetic energy. See Sinha
共1970兲.
rotary table: See drill rig.
rotating dipole: A rotating dipole source consists of two
fixed dipoles, either magnetic or grounded electric cur-
rent dipoles, oriented with their axes mutually perpen-
dicular and energized by sinusoidal current with a 90°
phase shift between sources so that the resultant mag-
netic and electric fields appear to rotate in space. Pro-
duces elliptically polarized waves.
rotation of components: Coordinate rotation 共q.v.兲.
rotational latency: See latency.
rotational wave: S-wave 共q.v.兲.
rotation tensor: A matrix that transforms to a new coor-
dinate system 共but not a right-handed one to a left-
handed one兲.
rot U: Rot U⫽Curl U 共q.v.兲.
round-off error: The error created when a decimal num-
ber is approximated by a number with fewer digits, the
deleted digits being in the least significant positions.
Round-off error is a characteristic of computer hard-
ware and it accumulates with the number of arithmetic
operations performed.
round trip: Pulling the drill pipe to change the drill bit or
for other reasons, and lowering it again to resume
drilling.
ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle such as sometimes
used for planting ocean bottom seismometers, observ-
row binary
ing sea-floor conditions, or working on deep-water well
heads.
row binary: A method of recording binary information on
cards. Each punched hole is a binary 1 and lack of a
punch indicates zero. One 36-bit word can be punched
in any half row, so 24 words may be put on a card.
row matrix: See matrix.
row vector: See matrix.
royalty: A payment to one holding rights because of own-
ership of mineral rights or creation of a literary work or
invention. See also override.
RPG: Reflection-Point Gathers 共q.v.兲.
RVSP: Reverse Vertical Seismic Profile.
RTD: Recommendation To Drill.
RTP: Reduction To the Pole 共q.v.兲.
RTU: Remote Telemetry Unit, a remote data unit 共q.v.兲
used with the Opseis system that radios information
back to the recording truck.
RU: Remote unit.
rubber bands: Straight-line interpolation between points.
At an interactive work station a rubber band is
‘‘attached’’ to one point and the other point is moved
about by the cursor until the band is correctly located.
Used to assist in picking seismic events, measuring
map areas, etc..
rubidium-vapor magnetometer: A type of optically
pumped magnetometer 共q.v.兲.
rubidium vapor clock: An atomic clock based on a 87Rb
frequency standard 共q.v.兲.
rugosity: Roughness, especially the irregularity of a bore-
hole wall. The readings of logging tools which have to
be held in contact with the hole wall 共such as density
and microresistivity logs兲 are affected by rugosity.
rule of scaling: If A results in B, then kA results in kB, k
being any constant.
304 RZ
rule of superposition: If A results in B and C results in D,
then A⫹C results in B⫹D.
rule of thumb: A pragmatic generalization, such as Side-
lobe to main lobe⫽1/bandwidth in octaves.
run: Term to indicate how often tool has been run in the
hole.
Runge-Kutta method: 共runj’ ⳵ kud’ ⳵兲 A numerical
method of solving differential equations. See Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 529–530兲. Named for Carl David
Tolmew Runge 共1856 –1927兲, German mathematician.
running tool: Operating a tool 共e.g., well sonde, perforat-
ing gun兲 in a borehole.
running window: An aperture whose position moves a
sample value at a time. Also called a sliding window.
runup height: The elevation of the highest water level
above the tide level because of a tsunami 共q.v.兲.
run time: 1. The time required to complete a single,
continuous execution of an object program. Usually
measured in CPU time rather than elapsed time. 2.
Occuring during a run, e.g., a ‘‘run-time’’ error.
Rutherford-Williams AVO classification: A classifica-
tion of reservoir sands according to their normal-
incidence impedance contrast with surrounding rocks
and their AVO responses. See amplitude variation with
angle/offset (AVA/AVO), Figure A-12, and Rutherford
and Williams, 1989.
Rwa-analysis log: Formation analysis log 共q.v.兲.
R-wave: Rayleigh wave 共q.v.兲.
Rx: Receiver for electromagnetic waves.
RZ: Return to Zero; a method of digital recording on
magnetic tape in which a one is indicated by magneti-
zation in one direction whereas a zero is indicated by
magnetization in the opposite direction. Compare NRZ
and NRZI.
 S
s: Second共s兲, the SI unit of time.
S: 1. Siemans 共q.v.兲, the SI unit of conductance. An
ampere/volt⫽1/ohm. 2. Admittance; see S-rule.
S1 , S2 : The faster, slower S-wave travel in a given direc-
tion in shear-wave splitting 共q.v.兲.
sabkha: 共sab’ k⳵兲 A supratidal to semi-arid environment,
often characterized by evaporite-salt, tidal-flood, and
eolian deposits.
sack: 94 pounds of cement.
saddle point: Where the curvatures of a surface in the two
principal directions have opposite polarity.
sag: 1. A narrow depression along a fault, often marking
strike-slip faults. 2. An apparent time low caused by a
shallower low-velocity body; a push-down.
SAGE: Summer of Applied Geophysical Experience, a
summer program to give university geophysics students
field experience and opportunity to acquire research
data. See Jiracek et al. 共2000兲.
sagittal plane: 共saj’ i t⳵l兲 1. The median longitudinal plane
of a body. 2. A plane containing the raypath of specified
rays. The plane through source and receiver that also
contains the reflection point.
sail line: The line traversed by a ship acquiring geophys-
ical data; the line of acquisition of marine data, espe-
cially of a ship towing several seismic streamers.
Saile: Seismic Acoustic Impedance Log Estimation; see
synthetic acoustic-impedance log. Conoco tradename.
Sometimes spelled Sail.
salinity: Total salts in solution 共sodium, potassium, chlo-
ride, sulfate, etc.兲. Normal seawater has around 35 000
ppm 共parts per million兲 salinity. Less than 2000 ppm
often is regarded as fresh.
salinization: Environmental damage by salt, a conse-
quence of minimum-water irrigation.
salt: Halite 共NaCl兲 and other saline minerals deposited as
a result of evaporation. Salt has low density 共2.1–2.6
g/cm3, average 2.22兲, susceptibility ⫺0.01 henries/
meter, and high plasticity that results in the creation of
salt pillows, domes, walls, and allochthonous features
and deformation of sediments.
salt dome: Salt that has moved by viscous flow. It may or
may not penetrate overlying sediments. Sometimes
assumes a mushroom shape. The salt movement is
caused by buoyancy because the salt is lighter than
surrounding sediments.
salt flood: A stage in seismic depth migration 共q.v.兲
wherein the model velocity of salt is used below the top
of salt to define the base of the salt. See flood.
salt glacier: Extrusion of salt from an exposed diapir that
spreads beneath the air or water.
salt lead: An earlier-than-normal arrival time for a head
wave, attributed to a salt dome intervening between
source and detector.
salt masking: Poor illumination because of raypath bend-
ing in an overlying irregular high-velocity salt layer.
salt proximity survey: A survey to determine the location
of the salt-sediment interface at a salt-dome flank. May
305
involve recording offset and azimuthal VSP surveys in
a borehole into the salt or near the salt flank from
various surface locations. May also involve borehole
gravimeter, long-spaced electrical log measurements, or
other types of measurements.
salt residual: A gravity map from which the calculated
effects of a salt-dome model have been subtracted, thus
showing the gravity effects for which the model does
not account.
salt tectonics: Deformation involving salt or other evapor-
ites; halotectonics. Halokinesis involves salt flow pow-
ered entirely by gravity 共buoyancy兲. Salt piercement
may be active 共upbuilding兲, possibly actively piercing
through overlying sediments, or it may be passive
共downbuilding兲 where the salt remains more-or-less at
the same depth while sediments around it subside.
salt weld: Zone joining strata that originally were sepa-
rated by salt. A feature resulting from the nearly com-
plete removal of intervening salt.
salt window: A place where salt is either absent or suffi-
ciently smooth so that deep 共subsalt兲 reflections can be
mapped relatively easily.
salvo: A sequence of source points 共usually vibroseis兲 all
recorded into the same active spread of receivers.
sample-and-hold circuit: A circuit that connects with an
input for a very short time to assume the amplitude of
the input at that time, and which then holds that value
until it can be digitized.
sample interval: The interval between readings, such as
the time between successive samples of a digital seis-
mic trace or the distance between gridded gravity val-
ues. Also called sample period.
sample log: A log depicting the sequence of lithologies
penetrated in drilling a well, usually compiled by a
geologist from low-power 共12 to 20⫻兲 binocular micro-
scopic examination of drill cuttings and cores recovered
at the well site. Also called strip log.
sample rate: The inverse of the sample interval 共q.v.兲.
sampling function: A comb 共q.v.兲; an infinite sequence of
impulses occurring at equal time intervals. Multiplying
a waveform by the sampling function produces the set
of sample values that represent the digitized waveform.
See Figure C-8.
sampling skew: A small systematic channel-to-channel
time delay in seismic digital recording, produced
because the multiplexer samples adjacent channels suc-
cessively to present them to a single channel A/D
digitizer.
sampling theorem: Band-limited functions can be recon-
structed from equispaced data if there are two or more
samples per cycle for the highest frequency present.
Also called cardinal theorem and Nyquist theorem.
See alias and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 177, 282,
547-8兲.
sand count: 1. The total effective thickness of a perme-
able section excluding shale streaks or other imperme-
able zones. Often determined from well logs. 2. The
sand dune
number of separate permeable sands separated by
impermeable zones.
sand dune: A mound of windblown sand. The windward
face of sand dunes is apt to be 15–20°, the lee slopes at
the angle of repose, 30°. Acoustic velocity increases
downward within the dune because of compaction.
sand line: 1. A line that can be drawn through the maxi-
mum deflections for thick, clean sands on an SP log in
a section where the formation water is of constant
salinity. Compare shale baseline. See Figure S-17. 2. A
wire line on a drilling rig often used to run or recover
tools inside the drillpipe.
saphe: 共saf’ ⳵兲 The cepstrum-domain equivalent of phase
in the frequency domain. A permutation of the letters in
phase.
saprolite: 共sap’ r⳵ lı̄t兲 A soft decomposed rock, the result
of chemical weathering, especially common in humid
tropical and subtropical regions. Often clay-rich and
electrically conductive.
SAR: Synthetic Aperture Radar. See synthetic aperture.
AeroService tradename.
SASW: Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves 共q.v.兲.
satellite altimetry: Measuring surface relief by radar from
a satellite, where the elevation of the satellite is nearly
constant. Measurements of the sea surface reveal undu-
lations of the geoid, which permit mapping marine
gravity anomalies. Capable of measuring the sea sur-
face to an accuracy of less than 10 cm depending on the
sea-surface roughness.
satellite gravity: Determining the gravity field at the sea
surface from satellite altimetry 共q.v.兲 with an accuracy
of 3–7 mGal and 20–30 km resolution. See Green et al.
共1998兲.
Satellite Laser Ranging „SLR…: See laser ranging.
satellite magnetics: Measuring the Earth’s magnetic field
with satellites at about 400 km to a resolution of 1–2
nT.
satellite navigation „satnav…: 1. Location determination
by the Global Positioning System 共q.v.兲. Permits con-
tinuous determination of location based on observations
of a navigation satellite. 2. The Transit system 共which
has been phased out by the Global Positioning System兲
consisted of satellites in polar orbits that transmitted
ultra-stable carrier frequencies of 150 and 400 MHz. It
provided timing and range information that gave a fix
once for each satellite transit. See Figure K-1.
satellite pass: The transit of a navigation satellite which
can be used for a determination of position.
satnav: SATellite NAVigation 共q.v.兲.
saturable system: A system which can be used by only
one 共or a few兲 users at a time.
saturation: 1. The limiting value of a nonlinear quantity.
2. The maximum magnetization as the magnetic field is
increased. 3. Apparent nonlinear resistivity or IP behav-
ior due to large contrasts in electrical properties and
extreme values of resistivity contrast. These conditions
make it difficult to evaluate the true resistivity and IP
effects of a body but easier to find its depth. 4. In
induced-polarization measurements, the IP response
sometimes varies nonlinearly with charging current,
probably due to exceeding the current-density limit of
the polarizable body. 5. The extent to which hue 共q.v.兲
is dominant in a color. The deviation of a color from the
grey axis on a color chart; see Figure C-7a. 6. Percent-
306 scan
age of the pore space filled with a particular fluid 共e.g.,
water saturation, oil saturation, gas saturation兲. 7. The
nature of the fluid predominately filling pore spaces,
oil, gas, or water 共brine兲.
saturation exponent: See Archie’s formula.
saturation prospecting: The use of several exploration
methods over an area.
sausage powder: A long plastic tube containing low-
velocity explosive, used to provide a directional charge.
S-AVO: Variation of amplitude with offset 共q.v.兲 for
S-waves.
sawtooth pattern: A method of moving thumper or vibra-
tor trucks in a zig-zagging pattern.
sawtooth SP: A jagged SP curve. When a very permeable
salt-water sand containing a shaly streak is invaded by
fresh-mud filtrate, the filtrate tends to accumulate just
below the shaly streak, setting up an electrochemical
cell which causes the SP to develop a sawtooth appear-
ance.
S-band: Radar frequencies between 1550 and 5200 MHz;
see Figure R-1.
scale: 1. To change the dimensions of a graphical repre-
sentation. 2. A bar-graph showing the dimensional
units, the preferred way of showing scale where figures
are apt to be enlarged or reduced. 3. To adjust param-
eters to achieve proportionality when changing cell
size.
scalar: 1. A number which is not associated with a direc-
tion, as opposed to a vector 共q.v.兲. Compare scaler. 2. A
single data element as opposed to a set; compare vector.
scalar magnetotelluric method: A method in which one
electric component and one orthogonal magnetic com-
ponent are used to define the apparent resistivity sound-
ing curve. Applicable only to isotropic horizontal lay-
ering, such as in some basin environments. In areas of
more complex geology, the tensor magnetotelluric
method 共q.v.兲 is used.
scalar wave equation: See wave equation.
scale modeling: Physical modeling 共q.v.兲.
scaler: A constant expressing a proportionality; a scale
factor. Compare scalar.
scaling: 1. Changing the amplitude by multiplying by a
constant. See linear system. 2. Determining appropriate
parameter values when upscaling sparse core and rock-
physics measurements that may not be representative,
or when downscaling values where resolution is inad-
equate.
scaling law: A rule associated with marine air-gun array
design, which states that, for two sources with different
equivalent cavities, the far-field wavelets are related by
the cube root of the ratio of the source energies. Let S 1
and S 2 be the two wavelets and E 1 and E 2 the respec-
tive energies:
S 1 共 t 兲 ⫽aS 2 共 t/a 兲 ,
where a⫽[E 1 /E 2 ] 1/3 .
scan: 1. One complete sequence of events, such as sam-
pling all record channels or beam-steering for all appar-
ent dips. 2. A display of data calculated with different
parameter values, used to select the optimum parameter
value. A velocity scan or velocity panel is shown in
Figure V-7. 3. To examine in a systematic way, as to
look through a data set to see the effects of a parameter
or parameter change. 4. To traverse systematically as is
scanning electron microscope 307
done by an electron beam in a television tube.
scanning electron microscope: An instrument which
builds up an image by displaying the reflected and
emitted electron intensity as a highly focused electron
beam sweeps a surface.
scatter diagram: A diagram on which points are plotted
against two 共or more兲 variables to demonstrate the
relationship between the variables.
scattergram: Diagram showing the geographical distribu-
tion of midpoints in a crooked-line survey or 3D sur-
vey. See Figure C-18.
scattering: 1. The change in the direction of energy travel
because of collisions or inhomogeneity or anisotropy of
the medium. 2. The irregular and diffuse dispersion of
energy caused by inhomogeneities in the medium
through which the energy is traveling. A perturbation of
a uniform field caused by irregularities in the medium.
A scattered wavefield is the wavefield that remains
when the primary wavefield is subtracted from the total
wavefield.
scatterpoint: A subsurface location that will reflect a ray
from any source to any receiver. A reflector may be
represented by many aligned scatterpoints. Reflections
from a scatterpoint are defined by the double-square-
root equation; they form a surface in the prestack vol-
ume (x,h,t) that is known as Cheops pyramid.
scenario: Exploring possible logical conclusions of a
hypothetical 共‘‘What if’’兲 situation. The primary objec-
tive of reservoir simulation is to determine the optimum
methods for developing/producing a reservoir, and it
generally involves running a variety of scenarios.
Schelkunoff potentials: A set of potential functions used
to solve wave equations in space. See Schelkunoff
共1943兲.
schlieren: 共shler’ ⳵n兲 1. A technique whereby streaks of
FIG. S-1. Modified Schmidt diagram used for plotting dipmeter data.
Schuler period
density and index-of-refraction differences in a turbu-
lent fluid permit photographic detection of density
variations. 2. A seismic experimental method with
physical models using spark sources and a high-speed
camera. From the German for ‘‘streak.’’
Scholte wave: An interface wave in a borehole, often
called a Stoneley wave.
Schlumberger electrode array: Electrode arrangement
used in surface resistivity surveying consisting of four
collinear electrodes, with the outer two serving as cur-
rent sources and the inner two 共which are closely
spaced about the midpoint of the outer pair兲 serving as
potential-measuring points. See array (electrical) and
Figure A-18. Named for Conrad 共1878 –1936兲 and Mar-
cel 共1884 –1953兲 Schlumberger, French geophysicists.
Schmidt diagram: 共shmit兲 A polar plot where the angle
indicates dip or drift direction and the distance from the
origin indicates the dip or drift magnitude. In the modi-
fied Schmidt diagram used for plotting low dips, zero
dip is on the outside and dips become larger toward the
diagram center. See Figure S-1.
Schmidt field balance: A magnetometer which consists
of a permanent magnet pivoted on a horizontal knife-
edge. The torque of the magnet trying to align with the
Earth’s field is balanced by a gravitational torque
because the magnetometer is not pivoted at its center of
gravity.
Schmidt net: An equal-area plot of latitude and longitude,
used in plotting geologic data such as the direction of
structural features. The Schmidt net is the same as
Lambert’s azimuthal equal-area projection 共but differ-
ent from Lambert’s conic projection兲. See Figure S-1.
Schuler period: 共shu’ l⳵r兲 The time equal to
2 ␲ (R/g) 1/2 ⫽84 minutes, where R is the Earth’s
Schumann resonance 308
radius and g is the acceleration of gravity. The Schuler
period is a natural precession rate for gyrocompasses.
Schumann resonance: 共shoo’ man兲 An electromagnetic
waveguide phenomenon between the Earth and the
ionosphere; the space between acts as a cavity resona-
tor. Frequencies of the lowest-order modes are about 7,
14, 20, and 26 Hz; the 7 Hz peak is often seen in
electromagnetic measurements.
scintillometer: 共sin, t⳵l om’ ⳵t ⳵r兲 A device for detecting
and measuring scintillations caused by radiation. A
gamma-ray spectrometer measures the abundance of
gamma rays with different energy values.
scissors fault: A fault where the throw and possibly the
throw direction vary considerably with location. See
Figure F-3.
scout: 1. To go to the field and look over an area, perhaps
in the course of planning a geophysical survey. 2. To
watch competitive activity.
scratch-pad memory: Any memory space used for the
temporary storage of data. Typically, scratch-pad
memories are high-speed integrated circuits which are
addressed as internal registers.
screen: A device to retain solids entering a borehole dur-
ing production of the formation fluids.
screw wave: A type of guided wave in a borehole.
script file: The program for a survey, especially a 3-D
survey.
scroll: To change the portion of a large data file that is
observable within a window.
scroll bar: The icon that causes the visible portion of data
to move.
SCSI, scuzzy: Small Computer System Interface, a high-
speed port used mainly for connecting hard disks to a
computer.
sculpting: Deleting portions from a 3D visualization in
order to view desired voxels.
sea chest: A fitting in a ship’s hull below the water line,
such as used to mount sonar transducers.
sea-floor spreading: The process by which adjacent
plates separate along mid-ocean ridges. Spreading rates
are generally 0.5 to 10 cm/year.
Sea Grant: National Sea Grant College Program under
FIG. S-2. Scintilometer. An incident gamma ray on a scintillation crystal of NaI causes the crystal to emit a photon,
which then causes the photo electrode to emit electrons. The number of electrons is multiplied as each strikes a series
of electrodes, finally being collected by an anode where the consequent current is proportional to the energy of the
incident gamma ray. (From Sheriff, 1989, 154.)
secondary field
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
共NOAA兲.
seal: A seal or cap rock through which fluid flow is so
small that even during long geologic time only a small
amount of fluids will have passed through. Cap rocks
have permeabilities of the order of 10 ⫺6 to 10 ⫺8
darcies and very high capillary entry pressures. The
most common seal rocks are shale or salt.
sea level: Mean sea level is the average height of the sea
surface averaged for all stages of the tides over a
19-year period.
seamount: Steep-sided peak rising from the ocean floor,
with its top below sea level; guyot. Usually of volcanic
origin.
seam wave: A seismic channel wave in a low-velocity
member, such as a coal seam. See channel wave.
search: To examine data systematically for predefined
items.
Seasat: An unmanned, polar orbiting, oceanographic sat-
ellite.
sea-slug model: A progradational or clinoform model
used in sequence stratigraphy. See Figure S-32.
sea state: A scale of the height of sea waves. The Douglas
sea state scale is shown in Figure B-2.
secant projection: See map projection.
sech criterion: 共sek兲 An optimization criterion involving
minimizing
兺 ln关 cosh关共 d 쐓i ⫺d i 兲 / ␴ 兴 2 兴 ,
where d 쐓i are observed and d i are model data. Implies
that errors have the probability distribution 共1/␲␴兲
sech[(d⫺d0)/␴], where sech is the hyperbolic secant
and ␴ is the standard deviation about the maximum
likelihood point d 0 .
second arrival: 1. An energy wave-train, especially a
refraction event, which is not the first arrival. 2. A ghost
or simple multiple. 3. S-wave 共q.v.兲.
secondary: Second arrival 共q.v.兲.
secondary field: 1. The electromagnetic fields which
result from the induction of currents in a medium by a
primary field. 2. In methods where galvanic energiza-
secondary lobe
tion of the earth is used, the secondary field is that
resulting from the difference between the actual current
system in the earth and the system which would exist if
the earth were homogeneous.
secondary lobe: A pass region other than the principal.
Applies especially to the directivity graph 共q.v.兲 of
arrays, the mixing of traces in velocity filtering, etc.
secondary patterns: The use of the sum and difference
frequencies 共‘‘red⫹green’’ and ‘‘red⫺green’’兲 to yield
‘‘coarse’’ networks which can be used to remove lane
ambiguities in medium-frequency radio-positioning
systems.
secondary porosity: Porosity 共q.v.兲 resulting from the
alteration of formations such as by fractures, vugs,
solution channels, dolomitization, etc.
secondary-porosity index „SPI…: A measure of the sec-
ondary porosity, usually attributed to fractures or vugs,
calculated from sonic-log values in conjunction with
either density-log or neutron-log values. If ␾ density is the
porosity calculated from a density 共or neutron兲 log and
␾ sonic the porosity calculated from a sonic log, SPI is
sometimes defined as ( ␾ density⫺ ␾ sonic), usually as (1
⫺ ␾ sonic/ ␾ density).
secondary recovery: Recovering hydrocarbons by inject-
ing water 共usually兲 or gas into the reservoir to sustain
reservoir energy.
secondary reflection: Multiple 共q.v.兲.
secondary voltage: 1. In IP surveying, the polarization
voltage observed at a time-domain receiver immedi-
ately after the primary current is turned off. Sometimes
called initial transient or initial decay voltage. 2. In
electromagnetics, the voltage induced in the receiver by
a secondary induced magnetic field.
secondary wave: S-wave 共q.v.兲.
second critical angle: For an incident P-wave, the angle
␪ ⫽sin⫺1 共 V P1 /V S2 兲 ,
where V P1 is the P-wave velocity in the incident
medium and V S2 is the S-wave velocity in the second
medium.
second-derivative map: A map of the second vertical
derivative of a potential field, such as gravity. Such
maps tend to emphasize local anomalies and isolate
them from a regional background. Often made using
Laplace’s equation relating the second vertical deriva-
tive to second horizontal derivatives, which can be
approximated from differences in the values near the
point. See also grid residual.
second-order correction: 1. A correction which is signifi-
cantly smaller than first-order corrections. 2. Frequently
refers to refinements to correct for slightly incorrect
normal moveout or static corrections.
second-order triangulation: See triangulation.
second vertical derivative: See second-derivative map.
section: 1. What might be seen by slicing through a solid
object, such as a slice through the earth. 2. A profile
showing the geologic formations that would be exposed
in a vertical cut, or some physical property of what
would be so exposed. 3. A plot of seismic events, as a
record section. 4. Geologic formation, as ‘‘the section
in this area is Mesozoic.’’ 5. A square mile⫽640 acres.
Section numbering is shown in Figure T-11.
sectional correlogram: The autocorrelation of successive
traces, displayed like a record section.
309 Seislog
section gauge: Caliper log 共q.v.兲.
secular equilibrium: The condition of a radioactive iso-
tope being created at the same rate as that at which it is
disintegrating.
secular variation: A change that does not repeat within a
long period of time. From the Latin for ‘‘long period of
time.’’ The ‘‘secular variation of the Earth’s magnetic
field’’ often means periods greater than 30 to 300 years.
Geomagnetic poles precess about the geographic poles
with a period of about 7000 years.
sedimentary rock: A rock formed from sediment that has
accumulated in layers, or a chemical rock formed by
precipitation from solution, or an organic rock consist-
ing of the remains of the secretions of plants or animals.
Clastic rocks were transported from their source area as
solid particles whereas chemical rocks were transported
as ions in solution and then precipitated. Clastics are
often rich in quartz and/or feldspar and the most promi-
nent chemical rocks are carbonates, salts, and sulphates.
See Figure L-7.
sediment bypassing: The situation which results in areas
not receiving significant amounts of sediments because
rivers are not bringing significant volumes to the area.
Especially occurs as a result of a fall of sea-level.
sediment flood: A stage in seismic depth migration 共q.v.兲.
See flood.
seed: 1. To select the voxel 共or pixel兲 to be followed by an
automatic picker. Usually the picked point is a maxi-
mum, minimum, or zero-crossing, preferably deter-
mined by fitting a curve to several 共often 3兲 successive
data points spanning the maximum or minimum. 2. To
initialize an iterative calculation.
seek latency: See latency.
seep: Natural leakage of hydrocarbons.
SEG: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
SEG A, SEG B, SEG C, SEG D, SEGDEF, SEG Y: SEG
standard magnetic tape formats. See SEG (Standards).
SEG X is no longer supported as a standard. SEGDEF
and SEG Y are exchange formats. See also SEG PI.
SEG1: An SEG standard format for PC 共DOS兲 recording.
SEGÕEAGE 3-D models: Structure or other models
developed in cooperation with National Laboratories.
See Figure S-3.
segmented sweep: A vibroseis sweep where the frequency
band is divided into segments with different character-
istics.
SEG Pl: SEG standard magnetic tape format for exchange
of positional information. See Morgan et al. 共1983兲 and
UKOOA.
SEG standards: SEG standards for digital tape formats,
SI metric system of units, data interchange, seismic
subroutines, digital seismic recorder specifications,
exchange formats for positional data, marine seismic
hydrophones and streamer cables, polarity standards
共q.v.兲, and specifying marine seismic energy sources are
discussed in separate SEG Technical Standards Com-
mittee publications, available from the SEG.
seiche: 共sash兲 Free oscillation of an enclosed body of
water, especially as a consequence of an earthquake.
seis: 共sīs兲 Seismometer or geophone 共q.v.兲.
Seiscrop: GSI tradename for a time slice 共q.v.兲.
Seislog: Teknika tradename for a synthetic acoustic-
impedance log 共q.v.兲.
Seislog 310 Seislog

FIG. S-3. SEG-EAEG seismic models. Two 3D models were numerically modeled as the the Advanced Computational
Technology Initiative (ACTI) project by U.S. Department of Energy laboratories and a somewhat simplified version of
their salt model was physically modeled by the Allied Geophysical Laboratory (AGL) at the University of Houston. (a) The
3D salt dome model. (b) One cross-section showing the plunging salt stock and a secondary reactivation crest; there are
sub-salt hydrocarbon accumulations. (c) One unmigrated and migrated sections across the salt model. (d) The 3D
overthrust model structure. (e) Two vertical sections through the overtrust model. (From Aminzadeh et al., 1994 and
1995)
Seisloop 311
FIG. S-3 (Continued.)
Seisloop: GSI tradename for a three-dimensional survey
arrangement.
seismic: 共sīz’ mik兲 1. Having to do with elastic waves.
Energy may be transmitted through the body of an
elastic solid by body waves of two kinds: P-waves
共compressional waves兲 or S-waves 共shear waves兲 共see
P-waves, S-waves兲, or along boundaries between media
of different elastic properties by head waves and sur-
face waves 共q.v.兲. Equated with ‘‘elastic,’’ often with
‘‘acoustic’’ and ‘‘sonic.’’ 2. Having to do with natural
earthquakes. Derived from the Greek ‘‘seismos’’ mean-
ing ‘‘shock.’’ While seismic is an adjective, it is fre-
quently used as a noun.
seismic anisotropy: See anisotropy (seismic).
seismic array: A grouping of geophones or seismographs
in a spatial pattern to enable seismic signals to be
enhanced with respect to noise or because of their
arrival direction.
seismic event
seismic cap: See cap.
seismic constant: In building codes dealing with earth-
quake hazards, an arbitrary amount of horizontal accel-
eration that a building must be able to withstand.
seismic datum: See datum.
seismic discontinuity: 1. Any discontinuity in elastic
properties and/or density where seismic velocity and/or
acoustic impedance changes abruptly. 2. Specifically,
the Moho discontinuity between the Earth’s crust and
mantle, the Gutenberg discontinuity between the
mantle and the core, and the gradational change
between the outer and inner core.
seismic-electric effect: A voltage between two electrodes
in the ground caused by passage of a seismic wave.
seismic event: Arrival of a new seismic wave, usually
ascertained by a phase change and an increase in ampli-
tude on a seismic record. It may be a reflection, refrac-
tion, diffraction, surface wave, random signal, etc.
seismic exploration 312
seismic exploration: The use of seismic techniques to
map subsurface geologic structure and stratigraphic
features with the aim of locating deposits of oil, gas, or
minerals. Synonyms: prospecting seismology, explo-
ration seismology, applied seismology. Includes use
of both reflection and refraction surveys, although often
only the former is meant.
seismic facies: The character of a group of reflections
involving amplitudes, abundance, continuity, and con-
figuration of reflections. See Figure R-8 and Sheriff
共1980: chap.5兲.
seismic facies analysis: Examining seismic character to
identify seismic facies 共q.v.兲 and predict the stratigra-
phy and depositional environment.
seismic gap: 1. A portion of an active fault on which there
has been no recent slippage and which may be ready for
an earthquake. 2. A region where earthquake waves are
not observed with the amplitudes and arrival times
expected by interpolating observations. May indicate a
low-velocity layer.
Seismic Immunity Group: A group of companies who
agreed to cross-License each other’s patents. Aban-
doned in 1950’s.
seismic impedance: Acoustic impedance 共q.v.兲.
seismicity: 1. The likelihood of an area being subject to
natural earthquakes. 2. The relative frequency, intensity,
magnitude, and kind of natural earthquakes.
seismic lithologic modeling „SLIM…: An iterative tech-
nique whereby a seismic velocity and density model is
changed until synthetic seismic data calculated from it
matches observed data within some specified tolerance.
seismic log: See synthetic acoustic impedance log.
seismic map: 1. A contour map constructed from seismic
data. Values may be in either time or depth, unmigrated
or migrated, with respect to a datum or with respect to
another reflector 共in which case it is usually called an
isopach map兲. 2. Any sort of map based on seismic
FIG. S-4. Seismoscope. This Chinese seismoscope dates from about 100 A.D. An earthquake would upset an inverted
pendulum (fastened to the base of the vase) and knock a ball from the dragon’s mouth into the toad’s mouth to indicate
the direction from which the temblor came.
seismic survey
data, including time slice, horizon slice, attribute dis-
plays, etc.
seismic method: See seismic survey.
seismic moment: A measure of earthquake magnitude
共q.v.兲 in ergs of energy released. Differs from Richter
magnitude. See moment of earthquake.
seismic profile: See profile.
seismic pulse: The signal generated by an impulsive seis-
mic energy source 共explosive, thumper, air gun,
sparker, etc.兲. Sometimes ‘‘wavelet’’ is used as a syn-
onym. A correlated vibroseis sweep signal is sometimes
included.
seismic record: A plot of the seismic traces from a single
source point; a seismogram.
seismic refraction method: See refraction survey.
seismic reflection tomography: See reflection tomogra-
phy.
seismic section: A plot or display of seismic data along a
line. The vertical scale is usually arrival time but some-
times depth. The normal convention is that the left of
the section is the westernmost end of the line in a
generalized sense ignoring minor deviations from a
straight line.
seismic sequence analysis: The procedure of picking
unconformities and correlative conformities on seismic
sections to separate the sediment packages involved
with different time-depositional units. See Sheriff
共1980, chap. 3 and 4兲.
seismic stratigraphy: Methods to determine the nature
and geologic history of sedimentary rocks and their
depositional environment from seismic evidence. See
Sheriff 共1980兲.
seismic survey: A program for mapping geologic struc-
ture by observation of seismic waves, especially by
creating seismic waves with artificial sources and
observing the arrival time of the waves reflected from
acoustic-impedance contrasts or refracted through high-
seismic trace 313
velocity members. See passive seismic survey, reflec-
tion survey, refraction survey.
seismic trace: A regular set of measurements from one
seismic channel 共or stacked channels兲; a digital one-
dimensional array of regularly sampled numerical val-
ues.
seismic velocity: See velocity.
seismic wave: An elastic disturbance that is propagated
from point to point through a medium. Seismic waves
are of several types: 共a兲 two types of body waves:
P-waves and S-waves; 共b兲 several types of boundary
waves or surface waves: Rayleigh waves, pseudo-
Rayleigh waves or ground roll, Love waves, Scholte
waves, Stoneley waves, tube waves; 共c兲 channel waves.
There are also 共d兲 air waves and shock waves
⫽Mach effect, and 共e兲 standing wa v es⫽stationary
waves. See individual italicized entries.
seismoelectric: Electromagnetic signals that result from
seismic waves stressing certain materials. See Russell
et al. 共1997兲.
Seismogel: An ammonium nitrate based explosive with a
built-in booster. Tradename of Dupont.
seismogram: A seismic record 共q.v.兲 or section.
seismograph: 1. A seismic recording instrument or sys-
tem. 2. A geophone 共q.v.兲.
seismologist: 共sīz mol’ ⳵ jist兲 One knowledgeable of seis-
mic principles, such as required in earthquake analysis,
oil or groundwater exploration, and engineering stud-
ies.
seismology: The study of seismic waves 共q.v.兲, a branch of
geophysics. Especially refers to studies of earthquakes
共q.v.兲 or of seismic exploration 共q.v.兲 for oil, gas, min-
erals, engineering information, etc.
seismometer: Geophone 共q.v.兲.
seismoscope: An instrument that indicates the occurrence
of an earthquake; see Figure S-4.
Seisviewer: Borehole televiewer 共q.v.兲. Birdwell trade-
name.
selective stacking: Summing several time series in which
extrema values 共those which fall outside the standard
deviation兲 are eliminated. Similar to a median stack.
Used to stack time-domain electromagnetic soundings.
self-exciting dynamo: A dynamo that produces a mag-
netic field around itself so that motions of an electrical
conductor cutting the magnetic lines of force generates
the current that keeps the dynamo turning. Such a
mechanism is proposed as the source of the Earth’s
magnetic field in the Earth’s core. The interactions of
two or more such natural dynamos may explain the
periodic reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field.
self-potential „SP…: Spontaneous potential or SP 共q.v.兲.
self-potential method: Observation of the static natural
voltage existing between sets of points on the ground,
sometimes caused by the electrochemical effects of ore
bodies. Used in mining exploration, especially for shal-
low sulfide bodies. Compare telluric current method
and see also SP.
self resistance: See electrode resistance.
SEM: 1. Scanning Electron Microscope. 2. Shared-Earth
Model.
semantics: Rules that define what the data mean and how
they are used. Compare syntax.
semaphore: 1. A flag 共q.v.兲. 2. A method of signaling.
semblance: 共sem’ bl⳵nz兲 A measure of multichannel
sequence
coherence. If f i j is the j th sample of the i th trace, then
the semblance coefficient S c is
冋 册
k⫹N/2 M 2
兺 兺f
j⫽k⫺N/2 i⫽1
ij
S c共 k 兲 ⫽ k⫹N/2 M
,
M 兺 兺 共f
j⫽k⫺N/2 i⫽1
ij兲
2
where M channels are summed; the coefficient is evalu-
ated for a window of width N centered at k. It is
basically the energy of the stack normalized by the
mean energy of the components of the stack. This is
equivalent to the zero-lag value of the unnormalized
autocorrelation of the sum trace divided by the mean of
the zero-lag values of the autocorrelations of the com-
ponent traces. Perfect agreement yields a value of unity.
semiconductor: A substance such as germanium or sili-
con whose electrical conductivity at normal tempera-
ture is usually intermediate between that of a metal and
an insulator, and whose conductivity is anisotropic. Its
concentration of charge carriers increases with tempera-
ture over a given range. Current flow may be by move-
ment of electrons 共n-type兲 or by the transfer of positive
holes or missing electrons 共p-type兲. Many common
metallic sulfides and oxides are semiconductors. Their
resistivity generally lies between 10 ⫺5 and 10 7
ohm-m. See transistors.
semi-infinite: Extending so far that some of the bound-
aries have no effect. Thus a semi-infinite slab is a
horizontal unit of finite thickness bounded by a vertical
plane on one side but extending so far in other direc-
tions that the boundaries in those directions create no
measurable effects. A semi-infinite prism is a vertical
prism with a bottom so remote as to not affect measure-
ments. See Figure M-15.
sender: A current waveform generator for IP or resistivity
surveying; transmitter.
sensitivity: The least change in a quantity which a detec-
tor is able to perceive. An instrument can have excellent
sensitivity and yet poor accuracy 共q.v.兲. Compare read-
ability.
separation: 1. A difference in values between two mea-
surements, especially well-log-based measurements. 2.
The difference in resistivity readings from two logging
tools which have different depths of investigation 共see
Figures I-4 and M-10兲. Low-resistivity mud cake
共which becomes thicker where formations are more
permeable兲 causes the apparent resistivity of a shallow
measurement to be lower than that of a deeper mea-
surement, a situation called positive separation. See
microlog and movable-oil plot. 3. Apparent displace-
ment on a fault. See Figure F-2. 4. Displacement
between source and receiver.
separation filtering: Separating regional and residuals
共residualizing, q.v.兲, generally by upward continuation.
See also Jacobsen filter.
sequence: A relatively conformable succession of geneti-
cally related strata bounded by unconformities or their
correlative conformities. A sequence begins with a fall
of relative sea level and ends with the next fall of
sea-level. It is generally divided into three system
tracts: lowstand 共or shelf-margin兲, transgressive, and
sequence analysis
highstand system tracts 共see individual entries and Fig-
ure S-32兲. The subunits of a sequence are parase-
quences. Sequences form in response to the interaction
between the rates of eustatic changes, subsidence, and
sediment supply.
sequence analysis: See seismic sequence analysis.
sequence boundary: A type-1 sequence boundary 共or
unconformity兲 is characterized by subaerial erosion,
stream rejuvination, a basinward shift of facies, a
downward shift in coastal onlap, and onlap of overlying
strata. A type-2 sequence boundary lacks the subaerial
erosion associated with stream rejuvenation and the
abrupt basinward shift of facies. It forms when the rate
of eustatic fall is less than the rate of basin subsidence
at the depositional shoreline break. See Figure S-32.
sequence stratigraphy: The study of rock relationships
within a chronostratigraphic framework of genetically
related strata bounded by surfaces of erosion or non-
deposition or their correlative conformities 共Van Wag-
oner, 1995兲. See sequence, sequence boundary, and
Haq chart. See Figures S-5 and S-32.
sequestration of CO2: Storing carbon dioxide so that it is
effectively removed from the atmosphere system.
series: A chronostratigraphic subdivision; see strati-
graphic classification.
server: 1. A computer having large memory and software
that offers service to other computers. 2. The part of a
program that controls the computer display.
servo system: An electronically controlled system, such
as one that maintains a gravimeter platform horizontal.
setup: 1. A particular arrangement of cables, geophones,
source points, etc., for making a recording in the field.
2. The selection of parameters that govern the action of
algorithms that process data in digital systems.
seven-bit alphameric code: A computer code in which
numeric, alphabetic, and special characters are repre-
sented by seven binary positions: one check position,
two zone positions, and four numeric positions. This is
an even-parity code.
sextant: A doubly reflecting instrument for measuring
angles, particularly the altitude angle of a celestial body
above the horizon.
Sezawa M2 wave: 共sa za’ wa兲 Hydrodynamic wave 共q.v.兲.
Named for Katsutada Sezawa 共1895–1944兲, Japanese
seismologist.
sferics: 共sfer’ iks兲 Natural ‘‘atmospheric’’ fluctuations of
the electromagnetic field, generally at frequencies from
1 to 10 5 Hz, caused by lightning discharges. See Schu-
mann resonance. Also spelled spherics.
SFL: Spherically-focused resistivity log. See Spherically
Focused Log.
SGR: Seismic Group Recorder. A type of remote data unit
共q.v.兲 in which data are stored on a tape cassette which
is collected at the end of the day.
SH: See SH-wave.
shadow zone: Effects seen on seismic sections or in other
ways that obscure or distort data from a particular
region, usually affecting amplitudes 共amplitude
shadow兲 but sometimes effects of other kinds 共such as a
fault shadow or velocity shadow, q.v.兲. 1. A subsurface
region in which there is little penetration of waves,
usually because of the velocity distribution; a region
that is not illuminated or only poorly illuminated. See
Figure S-6. 2. A portion of the subsurface from which
314 shallow-water survey
reflections are unobservable because raypaths do not
reach the geophones on the surface. The overlying beds
may have such dips and velocity contrasts that raypaths
to or from reflectors within the shadow zone become
refracted or undergo total reflection. A different con-
figuration of sources and receivers may permit record-
ing data from the region. 3. A region from which
reflections are incoherent or exceptionally weak
because of shallower complicated velocity distribution,
such as beneath very rough 共rugose兲 surfaces such as
the boundaries of some allocthonous salt. Irregular gas
disseminated throughout a gas chimney can have simi-
lar effects. Irregular raypath bending because of rapid
changes in large velocity contrasts along faults may
also destroy coherency. 4. A portion of the subsurface
that does not evidence itself on refraction profiles, such
as beds whose velocity is lower than that of an overly-
ing refractor. See also blind zone, hidden layer, channel
wave. 5. A region 100–140° from the epicenter of an
earthquake in which there is no direct penetration of
P-waves due to refraction at the mantle-core boundary.
A similar shadow region for direct S-waves extends
from about 100° to 180°. 6. A region of weakened
amplitude, such as sometimes appears under a hydro-
carbon accumulation.
shake table: A test instrument on which geophones can be
mounted and driven with known frequencies and ampli-
tudes so that geophone characteristics can be deter-
mined.
shale baseline: 1. A line drawn through the minimum
deflections characteristic of impermeable shales on an
SP log 共see Figure S-17兲, which is used as the reference
in making measurements to determine the characteris-
tics of sands and their formation waters. Compare sand-
line and see also SP and base-line shift. 2. A line drawn
through the characteristic of thick shales on the gamma-
ray log.
shale potential: Also called Mounce potential and Nernst
potential. See electrochemical SP.
shale shaker: A vibrating sieve used to remove solids
brought to the surface by the circulation of drilling
mud.
shale sheath: An outer layer of diapiric shale on a salt
diapir.
shaliness: The content of shale 共or clay兲 in a dominantly
nonshale formation; the degree to which ion-exchange
processes contribute to resistivity measurements. Elec-
trical conduction in shales is an ion-exchange process
whereby electrons move between exchange sites on the
surface of clay particles. See dirty and pseudostatic SP.
shallow-focus earthquake: An earthquake whose focus
occurs at a depth of less than 50 to 70 km. Most
earthquakes are of this type.
shallow water flow: A flow of overpressured water or
sediments not far below the sea floor. Such a flow
constitutes a drilling hazard and is especially a problem
when drilling in deep water.
shallow-water survey: A geophysical survey in waters
where conventional marine survey ships cannot operate
easily because of insufficient water depth or obstruc-
tions such as reefs or platforms, etc.
 shape anisotropy
315

FIG. S-5. Sequence stratigraphy (Haq) chart that relates magnetochronostratigraphy (polarity reversals), the standard geologic age nomenclature,
biochronostratigraphy (fossils), relative change in coastal onlap (seismic stratigraphy), and eustasy. Only part of the chart is shown. (Courtesy AAPG.)
shape anisotropy
shape anisotropy
FIG. S-6. (a) Shadow zones not reachable by direct rays
because of raypath curvature caused by a velocity
gradient. Velocity decreasing with depth; (b) velocity
increasing with depth.
shape anisotropy: Anisotropy resulting from preferred
orientation of nonspherical particles which are them-
selves isotropic.
shaped charges: Explosives so designed that the explo-
sive effect is concentrated in one direction. Their effect
on seismic waves is usually minimal.
shapefile: A file format used for geographic imaging-
system data.
shaping deconvolution: Wiener deconvolution 共q.v.兲
wherein the desired wavelet shape is specified. A zero-
phase waveshape is often specified 共see phase charac-
teristics兲.
Sharpe’s equation: Relation for the wave generated by a
spherically symmetrical source. See Sharp 共1942兲.
shear modulus: See elastic constants.
shear wave: An S-wave 共q.v.兲.
shear-wave splitting: Splitting of an incident S-wave into
two 共or more兲 waves with different polarizations, also
called birefringence, S-wave splitting, mode split-
ting, double refraction 共Crampin 1981兲. In a polar
anisotropic 共transversely isotropic兲 medium, for each
travel direction only two orthogonal polarizations of
plane shear waves are allowed 共although they are not
necessarily orthogonal to the propagation direction兲. An
S-wave of arbitrary polarization entering such a region
in a direction other than along the symmetry axis splits
into two S-waves 共one of which is quasi-shear兲 that
propagate at different velocities S1 for the faster, S2 for
the slower 共often written S1, S2 ). For horizontal thin-
layer anisotropy, the two waves are the SH- and qSV-
waves, the qSV not necessarily being polarized perpen-
dicular to the propagation direction. For parallel
fracturing the S1 mode that is polarized parallel to the
fractures travels faster than the S2 mode that is polar-
ized perpendicular to the fracture direction 共see Figure
B-4兲, See also polar anisotropy, Thomsen anisotropic
parameters, and anisotropy (seismic).
sheet: A thin layer model.
shelf break: The physiographic feature defined by a
change in dip from less than 1:1000 landward to the
slope seaward of the break 共often 1:40兲.
shelf-margin systems tract: The lowermost systems tract
above a type-2 sequence boundary 共see sequence
boundary兲. Characterized by weak progradation to
aggradation as one goes upward, onlaping of an under-
lying highstand tract in the landward direction, and
316 shootback method
FIG. S-7. Shingling resulting from shift of energy in a
wavetrain. Compare Figure D-13.
downlaping in the seaward direction. A transgressive
tract usually overlies the shelf-margin tract. See Figure
S-32.
Shepherd’s cane: An earth-resistivity meter used to mea-
sure the resistance of soil to the passage of electrical
current.
shield: A large mass of continental crust that has remained
stable for long periods of time.
shielding: 1. Enclosing electrical wires or components in
electrical or magnetic conductors in order to reduce the
effects of noise and electrostatic, magnetic, or electro-
magnetic coupling. 2. The encircling conductors which
shield the interior wires or components.
shift: A time or depth shift of a seismic trace.
shingling: Forming an echelon pattern; see Figure E-4. 1.
On refraction recordings, loss of visibility of early
cycles with increase in range; see Figure S-7. 2. Incor-
rect migration of segments of a continuous reflection
event so that the migrated segments do not join to form
a continuous event. 3. A seismic facies pattern indicat-
ing prograding.
shipborne gravimeter: An instrument or system for mea-
suring the acceleration of gravity from a ship in motion.
Complex arrangements are used to insulate the meter
from the many accelerations to which the ship is subject
and to correct the data for the effects of measuring
while moving 共see Eötvös effect兲.
shock wave: A high-amplitude wave that propagates at
greater than seismic 共sonic兲 velocity. In contrast to an
elastic wave.
shoe: A protective plate at the bottom of casing; casing
shoe.
shoestring sand: A long, narrow sand deposit, usually a
buried sandbar or filled channel.
shoot: 1. To fire an explosive. 2. To generate seismic
energy by means other than the detonation of explo-
sives. 3. To carry out a seismic survey, as ‘‘to shoot a
prospect.’’
shootback method: An electromagnetic-surveying
method which employs two tilted coils, each of which
serves both as a transmitter and a receiver. At every
station, readings are taken with each coil serving as
shooter 317
transmitter for one and as receiver for the other. By
averaging the readings, errors due to misalignment or
topographic differences are essentially eliminated. Also
called Crone shootback.
shooter: The person on a seismic party in charge of deto-
nating the explosive.
shooting a well: The procedure of measuring directly the
traveltime from a source on the surface to a geophone
positioned in a well. Compare vertical seismic profiling.
shooting through the patch: The use of extra source
locations at or between geophone groups to maintain
better multiplicity at the ends of a seismic line.
shooting under: See undershooting.
shoot on paper: Thinking through a field program before
starting it; calculating the results which may be
expected, trying to anticipate problems which may
occur and ambiguities that are likely to arise, and
deciding whether the desired objectives are likely to be
achieved.
shoran: Short-range navigation; a positioning system
where the distances from reference transponders are
determined by measuring the traveltime of pulsed radio
waves to and from the station. See Figure S-8. Range is
generally line-of-sight limited. See also extended-range
shoran.
short Doppler count: See satellite-navigation.
short lateral: See lateral.
short normal: A normal resistivity log made with the A
and M electrodes in the sonde 共see Figure E-10a兲 about
16 inches apart. See normal.
short-path multiple: A multiple reflection in which
energy is reflected back and forth over only a small
portion of the section so that the resulting wave blends
with the primary pulse, changing its waveshape and
adding a tail. See Figure M-18. Often called a peg-leg
multiple.
short shot: 1. Weathering shot 共q.v.兲. 2. A refraction pro-
file where the source is at the end of the active line of
geophones. The near geophone is often displaced a half
interval away.
short-trace section: A near-offset section, a record sec-
tion composed of the traces for the same short source-
geophone distance from each successive record.
shot: 1. The detonation of an explosive. 2. Any impulsive
source of seismic energy. 3. Any source of seismic
energy. 4. A measurement through an alidade or transit
sighting on a stadia rod.
shot bounce: Noise on a seismic record caused by
mechanical motion of the recording truck.
shotbox: Blaster 共q.v.兲.
shot break: Time break 共q.v.兲. 1. The instant of an explo-
sion. 2. Initiation of a seismic wave by a nonexplosive
source.
shot depth: The distance down the hole from the surface
to the top 共usually兲 of the explosive charge, often
measured with 10 ft loading poles. With long charges
the distance to both top and bottom of the column of
explosives is often given.
shot elevation: Elevation of the top of the explosive
charge in the shot hole. Compare shot-hole elevation.
shot hole: The borehole in which an explosive is placed
for blasting.
shot-hole elevation: The elevation of the ground at the
top of the shot hole.
side lobe
shot-hole fatigue: See hole fatigue.
shot-hole log: The driller’s record of the depth and litho-
logic characteristics of the formations encountered in a
shot hole.
shot instant: Time break, the time at which a shot is
detonated and/or a seismic wave initiated.
shot-moment line: A wire wrapped around an explosive
charge which is ruptured when the charge is detonated,
a primitive way to record the time break.
shot noise: 1. Hole noise 共q.v.兲. 2. Noise in a semiconduc-
tor because of the discreteness of current carriers. Such
rms current noise is proportional to the square root of
the product of current and bandwidth.
shotpoint „SP…: 1. The location where a source is located,
such as where an explosive charge is detonated. 2. The
location of any seismic source, such as weight drops,
air-gun pops, vibroseis excitations, etc. See source
point. 3. The area immediately surrounding the shot-
hole共s兲.
shotpoint gap: See source-point gap.
shotpoint interval: The distance between source points
共shotpoints兲 or between the centers of source-point pat-
terns.
shotpoint seis: Uphole geophone 共q.v.兲.
shoulder-bed effect: Effect of adjacent beds on a log
reading. Also called the adjacent-bed effect. For
example, high-resistivity beds adjacent to a low-
resistivity bed may result in more current flowing in the
low-resistivity bed than if the high-resistivity beds were
not present, thus changing the apparent resistivity of the
low-resistivity bed.
Shover: A method for generating S-waves with two
P-wave vibrators operating simultaneously but 180°
out-of-phase. Prakla-Seismos tradename.
show „of oil or gas…: A small amount of oil or gas in a
well or a rock sample. ‘‘Show’’ usually signifies that the
hydrocarbons are not in commercial quantity.
shrink-wrap: To finalize something completely and have
it ready for shipment.
SH surface wave: Love wave 共q.v.兲.
shut in: Not producing but capable of producing.
shut-in pressure: The formation pressure when fluids are
not flowing, often measured by a downhole tool in
contact with the formation.
shuttle air gun: The moving part of an airgun; com-
pressed air is confined in the chamber when the shuttle
is closed but released into the water when the gun is
fired by opening the shuttle. See Figure A-6.
SH-wave: 1. An S-wave which involves only horizontal
motion. 2. The horizontal component of any S-wave. 3.
A surface Love wave 共q.v.兲 sometimes mistaken for an
SH-bodywave.
SI: International System of units, very similar to the MKS
or MKSA system. See Appendix A and Figures E-8 and
M-1.
sial: 共sī al兲 Granitic, generally acidic continental crust,
plus the overlying sediments. Composition is domi-
nantly silica-alumina and specific gravity is about 2.7.
The name comes from silicon-aluminum. Compare
sima. The concept that the crust is made up of a sial
layer overlying sima is overly simplistic.
side lobe: A subsidiary passband outside of the main
passband. Can refer to filter curves, array directivity
patterns, multichannel mixing arrangements, velocity
sideral hour angle
FIG. S-8. Shoran system.
filters, etc. See Figure D-15.
sideral hour angle: 共sī dē’ r⳵ l兲 See hour angle.
side-scan sonar: A method of locating irregularities on
the ocean bottom. A pulse of sonar energy 共typically
120 kHz兲 is emitted from a fish which is towed 50 to
500 ft above the bottom, depending on the range and
resolution sought. The sonar beam is narrow in the
direction of traverse because the source consists of a
line array of elements. Bottom irregularities 共rock out-
crops, pipelines, shipwrecks, boulders兲 and variations
in bottom sediments produce changes in the amount of
energy return; see Figure S-9. The arrival time mea-
sures the distance from the fish to the reflecting object.
Other names include: asdic, basdic, sideways asdic,
sideways-looking sonar, sideways sonar, echo-ranger,
horizontal echo-sounder, and lateral echo-sounder.
side shot: A reading or measurement from a survey station
to locate a point which is not intended as a base for an
extension of the survey. Usually made to determine the
position of some object to be shown on the map 共such
as a seismic source point兲.
sideswipe: Evidence of a structural feature which lies off
to the side of a line or traverse.
sidetrack: To drill in a new direction from a shallower
part of an existing borehole. Used if there is an obstacle
to drilling in the original hole or to test another objec-
tive without redrilling from the surface.
sidewall core: A formation sample obtained with a wire-
line tool from which a hollow cylindrical bullet is fired
into the formation and retrieved by a cable attached to
the bullet. The type of bullet and size of charge is varied
318 sigmoid configuration
to optimize recovery in different formations.
sidewall neutron log „SNP…: An epithermal neutron log
made with a skid which is pressed against the borehole
wall and which may cut into the mud cake to minimize
borehole effects. SNP is a Schlumberger tradename.
sidewall pad: A measuring device which is pressed
against the side of a borehole, such as used with
microresistivity logs, density logs, many radioactivity
logs, etc.
sidewall sampler: A wireline device for taking sidewall
cores 共q.v.兲. Some samplers are rotary and cut a core in
both hard and soft formations. Others are percussion
and are shot into soft formations, which may compro-
mise core properties and values but are cheaper to
acquire.
siemens „S…: 共sē’ m⳵nz兲 The SI unit of electrical conduc-
tivity; an ampere/volt, the reciprocal of ohm. Also
called mho. Siemens is both the singular and plural
form. Named for Werner 共1816 –1892兲 and Wilhelm
共1823–1883兲 Siemens, German inventors who pio-
neered electricity applications.
sight: 1. A bearing or angle measured with a compass,
transit, or alidade. 2. Any established point on a survey.
3. An opening through which an object can be seen,
used to determine the direction and/or distance to the
object.
sigma „␴…: 1. Standard deviation 共q.v.兲. 2. Poisson’s ratio
共q.v.兲. 3. A sigma unit 共q.v.兲.
sigma unit „su…: A unit of measure of capture cross-
section. Also called capture unit 共q.v.兲.
sigmoid configuration: A type of offlap reflection con-
signal 319
figuration 共q.v.兲 signifying quiet-water deposition; see
Figure R-8.
signal: That which is sought, which carries desired infor-
mation. As opposed to noise. See signal-to-noise ratio.
Sometimes ‘‘message’’ is used for the desired informa-
tion and ‘‘signal’’ is used to include both message and
noise.
signal averager: An electronic device used to stack a
repetitive signal many times to improve the ratio of
signal to random noise.
signal compression: A process whose objective is to
shorten the effective length of the embedded wavelet
共q.v.兲, usually by wavelet processing 共deconvolution兲.
signal correction: A correction for differences in timing
or waveshape resulting from changes in the outgoing
signal at various source locations.
signal deconvolution: A deterministic deconvolution
based on a recorded wavelet.
signal enhancement: Vertical stacking, that is, adding
successive waveforms from the same source point and
thereby discriminating against random noise. Espe-
cially used with seismic recorders for engineering
work.
signalÕnoise ratio: See signal-to-noise ratio.
signal theory: The concept that a relatively pure signal is
transmitted from a source through some medium, is
received at a receiving station together with superfluous
information called noise, and that the problem is to
separate the signal from the noise so that the final result
approximates as closely as possible the original signal.
signal-to-noise ratio (SÕN) : The energy 共or sometimes
amplitude兲 of the signal divided by all remaining
energy 共noise兲 at the time. Sometimes the denominator
is the total energy, that is, S/(S⫹N). Signal-to-noise
ratio is difficult to determine in practice because of the
difficulty in separating out the signal 共the desired por-
tion兲. Sometimes S 2 is measured by a cross-correlation
and (S⫹N) 2 by an autocorrelation.
signature: 1. The aspect of a waveshape pattern which
makes it distinctive; character. 2. A waveshape which
distinguishes a particular source, transmission path, or
reflecting sequence.
signature deconvolution: A wavelet-processing or decon-
volution operation in which one attempts either to
determine the embedded wavelet 共q.v.兲, to remove
trace-to-trace variations in it, or to replace it with some
other wavelet shape.
signature log: See full-waveform log.
sign bit: The bit which indicates the algebraic sign 共plus
or minus兲 of the number, usually 0 for positive, 1 for
negative.
sign-bit recording: 1. Recording, for a series of measure-
ments, only the information as to which samples were
positive and which negative. 2. Recording of zero-
crossings only, that is, when values changed from posi-
tive to negative or vice-versa.
signed offsets: To indicate the direction from source to
geophone by plus or minus signs.
sign filter: A signal detection filter that designates a seg-
ment as signal or noise based on a sign-test statistic.
See Hansen et al. 共1988兲.
significance: The ratio of the smallest change which can
be detected to the magnitude of a quantity at that time,
such as the number of significant bits in a quantity. See
simulator
Figure D-29 and dynamic range.
significance level: The complement of probability; e.g.,
10 percent significance⫽90 percent probability.
sill: 1. A tabular igneous interlayer which is longer in
horizontal dimension than vertical. See plate. 2. The
level of variance where a variogram 共q.v.兲 reaches its
correlation range.
sima: 共sī m⳵兲 Basaltic, peridotitic, basic oceanic crust, of
specific gravity 3.0 to 3.3. Name derives from Sllica-
MAgnesium composition. Compare sial.
similar fold: See folding and Figure F-17e.
similarity analysis: Checking the phase of several vibra-
tors that operate together.
Simplan: A method to simulate the response of the earth
to plane or cylindrical waves by summing of observa-
tions with spherical waves. Acronym for SIMulated
PLANe waves. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 322-4兲
and see plane-wave simulation.
Simplan stack: Stack of a common-source gather without
applying normal-moveout corrections. See Simplan.
simple multiple: A long-path multiple that has undergone
only three reflections 共that is, twice reflected from the
same deep interface and once from a shallow interface,
the shallow reflections usually being at the base of the
weathering or at the surface兲. Most multiples are more
complex than this.
simple pole: See pole.
simplex: 共sim’ pl⳵ks兲 A one-way circuit; half duplex 共q.v.兲.
simplex method: A method of solving a linear-
programming problem involving inequalities by follow-
ing gradient vectors along the inequality limits. See
Figure L-5.
Simpson’s rule: Numerical integration that involves a
higher-order polynomial fit than linear interpolation.
simulated annealing: Algorithms based on an analogy
between optimization and the growth of long-range
order, such as the growth of large crystals in a slowly
cooling melt. It is usually implemented by a Monte
Carlo ‘‘drunkard’s walk’’ through model space where
steps begin in random fashion but progressively
become more biased toward stepping in the uphill
direction. Simulated annealing has three components:
an ‘‘energy function’’ which defines the problem in
terms of a parameter set 共including interactions
between parameters兲, an ‘‘order function’’ which mea-
sures coherence, and a ‘‘temperature’’ which regulates
the system’s energy and order 共high temperature
implies high energy and low order兲. See Vasudevan et
al. 共1991兲 and Sen and Stoffa 共1991, 1624 –1638兲.
simulation: 1. A method of predicting the likely behavior
of a system by constructing a model of the system and
processing the model. 2. Estimating the distribution of a
physical property based on an interpolation scheme that
involves a random approach. A point selected at ran-
dom is first calculated based on the known data, then
another point based also on the points already deter-
mined, and so on until values are determined for all
points. The calculation of many simulations allows a
measure of the probability of the statistical result. Two
types of data 共often well and seismic data兲 are used in
co-simulation. 3. Specifically, a computer model of a
hydrocarbon-field production that allows one to predict
what will happen given various scenarios.
simulator: A device or a computer program that simulates
simultaneous reconstruction technique „SIRT… 320 sines, law of

FIG. S-9. Side-scan sonar. (a) Schematic diagram; (b) record showing reflections from sea-floor relief. There is a blind
zone under the ship’s track. (Courtesy CGG.)

the operation of another device or computer.

simultaneous acoustic and resistivity imager „STAR…:
A borehole imaging tool that contains an electric
imager 共q.v.兲 with 6 pads and an acoustic imager with a
rotating acoustic head. See also borehole televiewer and
Figure I-1. Baker Atlas trademark.
simultaneous reconstruction technique „SIRT…: A
variation of the algebraic reconstruction technique
共q.v.兲 algorithm used in tomography 共q.v.兲. See Dines
and Lytle 共1979兲 and Stewart 共1991兲.
sinc x: (sin x)/x, also called the diffraction function. This
function is the Fourier transform of a unit boxcar 共q.v.兲
and is extensively used in seismic data processing.
Sometimes sinc x⫽(sin ␲x)/␲x.
sines, law of: In any plane triangle 共Figure S-10兲, the ratio
of the lengths of any two sides 共small letters兲 is the
same as the ratio of the sines of the angles 共capital
letters兲 opposite the sides:

FIG. S-10. Laws of sines and cosines. a/ 共 sin A 兲 ⫽b/ 共 sin B 兲 ⫽c/ 共 sin C 兲 .
sine transform
sine transform: The Fourier transform 共q.v.兲 of the odd
or antisymmetrical part of a function. The cosine trans-
form involves the even or symmetrical part.
sing around: A system where the echo from one transmit-
ted pulse triggers the next pulse; used in velocimeters.
The sing-around frequency is related to the path length
and the propagation velocity.
singing: Ringing or reverberation 共q.v.兲, usually produced
by short-path multiples in a water layer.
single-ended spread: A reflection profile where the
source is at one end. Also called end-on spread. See
Figure S-18 and compare off-end shooting.
single-fold: Continuous coverage without redundancy, as
opposed to common-midpoint coverage.
single phase flow: The movement of only one kind of
fluid at a time.
single square-root equation: The time-distance equation
for a diffraction for coincident source and receiver. See
Cheops pyramid.
singular: Having a value of zero, and hence unsuitable as
a divisor.
singularity: 1. A point where a function is not differen-
tiable. 2 A value of a variable for which a function
becomes infinite. Also called a pole.
singular matrix: A matrix that has no inverse.
singular transformation: A transformation for which
there is no inverse transformation.
singular-value decomposition „SVD…: Solving the matrix
A for the positive square roots of the eigenvalues of
A 쐓 A where A 쐓 is the adjoint of the matrix A. A com-
mon and precise way of solving linear least-squares
problems, similar to principal-component analysis and
the Karhunen-Loeve transform. See Lines and Treitel
共1984兲.
FIG. S-11. Slip-sweep technique. (a) The start-time of different vibrator’s sweeps is delayed but their sweeps overlap.
(b, c) Conventional correlation results in a mother record, that then (d) separates into the individual records. (Wams and
Rozemond, 1998, 1058.)
321 skew
singy: Having an oscillatory character; ringy.
sinistral: 共sin’ i str⳵l兲 Rotation to the left or counter-
clockwise. A ‘‘sinistral’’ wrench fault is left lateral.
Opposite to dextral. See Figure F-3. From the Latin for
‘‘left.’’
sink: A singularity or pole to which lines 共of force兲 con-
verge; the opposite of a source.
sintering: Forming a coherent bonded mass by heating
metal powders without melting them.
sinusoid: A sine or cosine curve.
SIROTEM: A portable time-domain electromagnetic
method 共q.v.兲. Named for the Australian Common-
wealth Scientific Industrial Research Organization
CSIRO兲.
SIRT: SImultaneous Reconstruction Technique 共q.v.兲.
site characterization: Analysis of the hydrogeological,
geochemical, and/or geophysical properties of a volume
of the earth, often for subsurface environmental evalu-
ation and/or remediation.
site damping: See damping.
six-fold: Having a redundancy of six. ‘‘Six-fold common-
midpoint’’ involves recording so that six different traces
have the same midpoint.
sixth-line banding: An image fault in Landsat MSS data
because one of the six sensors used in a scan had a
different response from the others.
skew: Systematic asymmetry. 1. A condition of the bits
not being written straight across a magnetic tape. It
occurs when a magnetic tape is not mounted properly
with respect to the magnetic heads. The tracks may
deviate from their proper position and produce cross-
feed, time displacement between channels, parity
errors, etc. 2. In magnetotellurics, an invariant of the
tensor impedance which indicates the amount of three-
skewbox 322 skirt

dimensionality. It is zero for one- and two-dimensional
models with noise-free data. 3. See skewness. 4. To
distort.
skewbox: A hardwired device for correcting for skew
when reading a digital tape.
skewness: 1. Asymmetry in a distribution. See statistical
measures. 2. A measure of the non-two-dimensionality
of the electrical impedance tensor in magnetotellurics
共q.v.兲:
S⫽ 兩 Z xx ⫹Z y y 兩 / 兩 Zxy⫺Z yx 兩 .
skew-symmetric matrix: See matrix.
skid: 1. Mounting for a borehole sonde which cuts into the
mud cake and presses the sonde against the borehole
wall to minimize borehole effects. See Figure D-5. 2. A
sled on pontoons on which geophysical equipment is
carried and which is dragged from one location to
another. Used in marsh work. 3. To move sources or
receivers away from their intended positions because of
obstructions.
skidded source: A source point which has been moved a
short distance from its normal location, usually because
of access difficulties.
skin depth „␦…: The effective depth of penetration of
electromagnetic energy in a conducting medium when
displacement currents can be neglected. The depth at
which the amplitude of a plane wave has been attenu-
ated to 1/e 共or 37 percent兲:
skin depth ⫽ ␦ ⫽ 共 2/ ␴ ␮ ␻ 兲 1/2 m ⫽ 503 共 ␴ f 兲 1/2 m,
where ␴⫽conductivity in mhos/meter, ␮⫽permeability
in henries/meter, ␻⫽angular frequency in radians/
second, and f ⫽frequency. Also called effective depth.
skin effect: 1. The tendency of alternating currents to flow
near the surface of a conductor. 2. A reduction in
apparent conductivity. The diffusion of an electromag-
netic wave through a conductive formation results in a
phase shift. 3. In logging, the frequency-dependent
depth resolution. To compare different depth curves,
this effect is often filtered out 共skin-effect correction兲.
See skin depth.
skip: 1. See cycle skip. 2. A portion of a seismic section
where data are not available. May refer to stations
which were not occupied for some reason or to stations
near the source which were not used because they were
too noisy. 3. A local loss of information on a continuous
profile.
skip distance: The minimum distance from a transmitting
antenna at which a sky wave 共q.v.兲 can normally be
received.
skip mixing: The mixing of data from alternate 共nonadja-
cent兲 channels so that adjacent output channels do not
contain common input information.
skirt: A large diameter device around an ocean-bottom
seismometer to improve coupling.

FIG. S-12. Snell’s law relations when a wave crosses a boundary between two isotropic solid media; the wave changes
direction such that for either incident P-wave or S-wave, sin i/V1⫽sin ␪p1 /V p1 ⫽sin ␪s1 /V s1 ⫽sin ␪p2 /V p2 ⫽sin ␪s2 /V s2
⫽p, where i is the angle of the incident wave with a velocity V i ⫽V P1 if a P-wave or V i ⫽V S1 if an S-wave; ␪ P1 and ␪ S1
are the angles of reflection of the P- or S-waves in medium 1, which have velocities V P1 and V S1 , respectively; ␪ P2 and
␪ S2 are the angles of refraction of the P- and S-waves in medium 2 which have velocities V P2 and V S2 , respectively; p
is the raypath parameter (which will be a constant along a raypath through parallel layering). If sin ␪P2 or sin ␪S2
exceeds 1 as given by this equation, a head wave will be generated.
Skylab
Skylab: A NASA Earth satellite which made three mis-
sions between May 1973 and February 1984. Many
photographs taken from Skylab are used for geologic
and other studies.
sky wave: Electromagnetic 共radio兲 waves reflected from
ionized layers in the ionosphere. Involved in sky-wave
interference and in making radio waves receivable
beyond the line-of-sight horizon. Compare tropospheric
scatter.
sky-wave interference: Interference between the direct
共or ground兲 radio wave and waves reflected from ion-
ized layers in the ionosphere. The ionization results
from sunlight and the ionized layers vary around sun-
rise and sunset, so sky-wave interference is especially
variable at these times. Sky-wave interference degrades
the accuracy and range of radio-positioning systems.
slab correction: See Bouguer correction.
slalom: Crooked line 共q.v.兲. CGG tradename.
slanted arrays: Use of vertically inclined hydrophone
arrays in marine recording to reduce the filtering action
associated with ghosting from the water surface. Also
called Flair, a tradename of Seatex Services.
slant path correction: A correction to side-scan sonar
data to yield a display linear in distance.
slant range: A distance measurement which involves both
horizontal and vertical components, such as the dis-
tance from an observing station to a navigation satellite.
slant recording: See slanted arrays.
slant stack: Time-shifting traces proportional to their dis-
tance from some reference point and then stacking; the
effect is to emphasize events with certain dips, that is,
to beam-steer. Also used with ␶ -p mapping 共q.v.兲.
Essentially the same as Rieber mixing or beam steer-
ing.
SLAR: Side-Looking Airborne Radar; see SLR. Aeroser-
vices tradename.
slave drum: A recording drum which is kept synchronous
with another drum.
slave station: A transmitting station used to retransmit
signals from another station so that the two transmitters
are synchronous and so that the two will set up standing
wave patterns. Used in phase-measurement positioning
systems. The slave station may or may not be under the
control of the master station.
sled: 1. The tail buoy towed at the end of a streamer. 2. A
skid device dragged along the sea floor to improve the
coupling of an ocean-bottom seismometer.
sledge hammer: An impulsive seismic energy source in
which a small weight 共8 –16 lb兲 impacts against a steel
plate laid on the ground.
sleeper: An explosive charge loaded into the hole for an
appreciable time 共up to several days兲 before it is to be
used.
sleeve gun: An air gun with a cylindrical sleeve which
covers the exhaust ports. When activated, the sleeve
moves along the axis of the gun, exposing the ports and
allowing the compressed air to escape. See Figure
A-6b, c. Halliburton tradename.
slew rate: 1. The highest speed at which a digitizer input
device can be moved without affecting the accuracy. 2.
Reciprocal of the time delay between the sampling of
successive channels in a multiplexing operation. Com-
pare slue.
323 slug flow
slick line: A wireline that does not include electrical con-
ductors.
sliding window: An aperture whose position moves a
sample at a time. Also called a running window.
SLIM: Seismic LIthologic Modeling 共q.v.兲. Western Atlas
tradename.
S-line: See S-rule.
slingram: 共slin’ gram兲 Swedish for horizontal-loop
method (HLEM) 共q.v.兲 Also called Ronka EM. See
Figure E-7.
slip: The relative motion of one side of a fault with respect
to the other side.
slips: Devices for catching and supporting the drill pipe
during adding or removing sections.
slip sweep method: A method whereby vibrators sweep at
different locations with their sweeps overlapping but
offset in time by at least the duration of the final
records. The early part of the correlated record yields
the record for the sweep that started earlier and the next
portion the record for the sweep that started later. See
Wams and Rozemond 共1998兲 and Figure S-11.
slip time: The time between the start of successive
sweeps.
slip-vector analysis: Examining the first motion involved
in an earthquake, whether it appears as a push or pull,
with the objective of determining the fault motion
involved. See nodal plane, Fowler 共1990, 101兲, and
Figure F-10.
slope-distance rule: See depth rule.
slope fans: Fans deposited on a significant slope and made
of turbidite leveed-channel and overbank deposits.
Slotnick method: A graphical refraction interpretation
method applicable for plane multilayer refractors. See
Slotnick 共1950兲.
slots: Space on an offshore platform or underwater tem-
plate for drilling a well. As many wells can be drilled
from the platform as the number of slots provided.
slowness: The reciprocal of the phase velocity 共q.v.兲.
Slowness p is related to wave number ␬ by
␬ ⫽ ␻ p,
where ␻ is angular frequency.
slowness surface: A constant-velocity surface calibrated
in reciprocals of the phase velocity. The components of
slowness parallel to an interface are identical for inci-
dent, reflected, and refracted waves 共Snell’s law兲. In
anisotropic media, SH and SV slowness surfaces may
separate, have dimples, and touch or cross each other.
slow P-wave: A Biot slow wave 共q.v.兲.
slow-shear formation: A formation whose S-velocity is
less than the P-velocity in the borehole fluid.
SLR: 1. Satellite Laser Ranging; see laser ranging. 2.
Side-Looking Radar, a remote-sensing method which
involves sweeping the earth to either side of an aircraft
with a radar beam and recording the reflected signals,
which are displayed to give the appearance of an aerial
photograph. An aircraft at 20 000 feet can map a strip
about 12 miles wide. Also SLAR.
slue: 共sloo兲 To turn about its own axis. The slueing char-
acteristics of a gyrocompass enable it to follow faith-
fully variations of the ship’s heading. Also called slew.
slug: See radioactive-tracer log.
slug flow: A relatively small amount of a fluid that will
help sweep hydrocarbons followed by injection of
slurry explosive
water to push the slug through a reservoir. An enhanced
oil recovery 共q.v.兲 method.
slurry explosive: A bulk-type explosive which can be
poured into boreholes. Not cap sensitive and requires a
primer charge to detonate.
slush pit: The pit used in rotary shothole drilling for
storage of water or mud for circulation through the
hole. Muds can be mixed in the pit. Sometimes a pit is
dug in the ground but more often a portable sheet-iron
pit is used.
small circle: A circle on the surface of a sphere; the plane
of the circle may be parallel to the equatorial plane, but
the center of the circle is not the center of the sphere.
Lines of latitude 共excepting the equator兲 are small
circles.
smart stacking: Selective stacking 共q.v.兲.
smash down: To reduce the number of seismic traces by
stacking adjacent traces.
smear: 1. To mix 共stack together兲 data that are not in
complete register. 2. To average seismic data originat-
ing from sources at different locations, or recorded by
geophones at different locations, or both; a conse-
quence of ground mixing. The data from several shots
or other source impulses often are combined without
any time adjustment by vertical stacking, especially
with surface sources. The amount of smear is the dis-
tance over which the sources are located plus the dis-
tance over which the geophones feeding one channel
are planted. 3. The effect of stacking common-midpoint
traces for a dipping reflector, because the reflecting
point is not common. Remedied by DMO processing.
See Figure C-9b.
smile: A wavefront-shaped event on a migrated seismic
section, the result of the migration of a noise burst. Also
produced by data truncation and in other ways.
Smith rule: See Bott-Smith method.
smoothing: 1. Averaging adjacent values according to
some scheme. Involves filtering out higher frequencies.
Often accomplished by use of a running window 共q.v.兲.
2. Straightening a good, shallow reflection and using it
as a reference to remove undesirable lateral velocity
and topography variations. Also called datuming. 3.
Smoothing 共often flattening兲 a reflection in order to
emphasize irregularities in nearby reflections 共such as
might be caused by reefs or other features兲.
SÕN: Signal-to-Noise ratio 共q.v.兲.
snapping: Moving picked points to the local maximum or
minimum values.
snapshots: Displays showing the locations of wavefronts
共wavefield intensity兲 at various instants of time, a fea-
ture of some wave-equation modeling programs.
Snell’s law: 共snelz兲 When a wave crosses a boundary
between two isotropic media, the wave changes direc-
tion such that
sin i/V 1 ⫽sin r/V 2 ,
where i is the angle of the incident wave, V i is the
velocity of the incident medium, r is the angle of
refraction, and V 2 is the velocity of the second medium.
See Figure S-12. If sin r exceeds 1 as given by this
equation, a head wave will be generated. See also
Zoeppritz’s equations. Snell’s law is also called Des-
cartes’ law. In anisotropic media 共where wavefronts
are not necessarily perpendicular to raypaths兲, Snell’s
324 solar wind
law holds for the angles measured between an interface
and the wavefronts, using phase velocities. Named for
Willebrord Snell 共1591–1626兲, Dutch mathematician.
Snell path: A path on a source gather that connects points
having constant apparent velocity 共i.e., where the ray-
path parameter p is constant兲. Implies that reflecting
interfaces and velocity layering are parallel 共often hori-
zontal兲.
sniffer: 1. A device that collects samples of seawater and
analyzes them for hydrocarbon content by determining
rate-of-flow through a diffusion column 共colorometric
共q.v.兲 technique兲. 2. A device that collects gas samples
and analyzes them for radioactivity.
snorkel: A tube to the surface from an underwater energy
source through which waste gases escape.
SNP: Sidewall Neutron 共Porosity兲 log 共q.v.兲.
SNR: Signal-to-Noise Ratio 共q.v.兲.
soak: 1. To allow a system to come to equilibrium with its
surroundings. For example, a borehole gravimeter may
have to rest at the bottom of a deep well bore for a
period of time to allow it to adjust to the temperature
and pressure regimen before meaningful readings can
be obtained from it. 2. Time between injecting heat into
a formation and producing fluids from it, to allow the
heat to change the viscosity so that the fluids flow more
readily.
SOFAR: A low velocity layer in the oceans which carries
channel waves 共q.v.兲 to long distances. There is no
channel north of 55 °N. Named for the SOund Fixing
And Ranging system used for locating aviators downed
at sea. See Figure C-2.
soft copy: A screen rendering of data. Cf. hard copy.
soft data: 1. Data whose reliability is less than that of hard
data. 2. Non-quantitative data.
soft error: A read error from which one can recover by
rereading.
soft formation: A poorly consolidated sand-shale
sequence lacking significant compressive and shear
strength.
soft magnetism: That component or portion of remanent
magnetization which has relatively low coercive force.
In paleomagnetism studies, this softer magnetization is
removed by alternating-field demagnetization in order
to isolate harder remanent magnetism.
soft mantle: Upper mantle which has lower-than-normal
velocity; occurs under plate boundaries.
soft rock: Sedimentary rock. Used to distinguish between
metal mining 共hard rock兲 and petroleum 共soft rock兲
objectives.
soft spring: An elastic spring with very low natural fre-
quency used to insulate from high-frequency mechani-
cal noise.
software: Computer programs for data processing, includ-
ing those that control the internal operation of the
processing system itself.
soil: The natural unconsolidated mineral and organic mat-
ter occurring above bedrock. Engineering classifies any
loose, soft, deformable material as soil.
Sokolov rule: See depth rule and Figure D-10.
solar wind: Ionized particles flowing radially outward
from the sun. Transient magnetic disturbances 共see
K-index兲 are correlated with solar wind variations. The
effect is to produce a time-variable external magnetic
field.
sole
sole: The lowest movement surface of a fault, especially
where a gravity listric fault or a thrust fault becomes a
bedding-plane fault. Also called the fault baseplate.
solid-state circuitry: The use of semiconductor elements
such as transistors, integrated circuits, etc., which do
not require much space or power.
solid streamer: A neutrally buoyant streamer that con-
tains no liquid. Generally of smaller diameter and qui-
eter than fluid-filled streamers.
solidus: 共sol’ i d⳵s兲 The line on a state diagram indicating
where the solid solution is in equilibrium with liquid or
vapor phases; the melting-point line.
solution gas: Lighter hydrocarbons 共natural gas兲 that are
in solution or that exist as liquids under reservoir pres-
sure conditions but that become gases when the pres-
sure is lowered as the reservoir is produced. See also
reservoir drive.
sonar: SOund Navigation And Ranging, a method used
for navigation, positioning, and communication. Gen-
erally sonic 共acoustic兲 waves in water. See Doppler
sonar, acoustic positioning, and side-scan sonar.
sonar reference intensity: For a plane wave, an rms pres-
sure of 1 ␮Pa.
sonde: 共sond兲 A logging tool such as is lowered into a
borehole to record resistivity, sonic, radioactivity, or
other types of well logs.
S1, S2 wave: See shear-wave splitting.
sonic: Pertaining to acoustic or P-waves in fluids. Some-
times includes other wave modes and hence becomes
synonomous with seismic and elastic.
sonic log: A well log of the traveltime 共transit time兲 for
seismic waves per unit distance, usually measured in
microseconds per foot, which is the reciprocal of the
P-wave velocity. Also called acoustic-velocity log and
continuous-velocity log. Usually measured with fre-
quencies 1 to 50 kHz. Used for porosity determination
by the time-average equation 共q.v.兲. The interval transit
time is integrated down the borehole to give total one-
FIG. S-13. Sonic log. (a) Schematic compensated sonic logging sonde. (b) Sonic log. (Courtesy Schlumberger.)
325 sonobuoy
way traveltime. For the compensated sonic log, two
transmitters are pulsed alternately and measurements
are averaged to cancel errors due to sonde tilt or
changes in hole size. See Figure S-13 and also cycle
skip, dipole sonic log, array log, cement bond log, and
fracture log.
sonic wave: Acoustic wave 共q.v.兲.
sonic waveform log: A three-D log 共q.v.兲, also called a
full-waveform log.
sonification: Use of sound in virtual-reality studies, usu-
ally in conjunction with information conveyed by other
senses. May involve pitch, amplitude, duration, stereo
effects, timbre, etc.
sonify: To have acoustic or seismic energy reach a par-
ticular point.
sonobuoy: 1. A free-floating device consisting of a hydro-
phone and radio-transmitting antenna. Used in marine
refraction surveys and extended profile work for detect-
ing energy from a distant shot and radioing the infor-
mation to the recording ship; see Figure S-14. A
sonobuoy is a free-floating buoy which is usually sim-
ply thrown off a recording ship. Once in the water,
seawater activates the buoy’s batteries, one or more
hydrophones drop 共are suspended兲 below the buoy, and
a radio antenna is extended upward into the air. As the
ship travels away from the buoy, firing charges 共or other
energy source兲 as it goes, the seismic arrivals are
received by the hydrophones and transmitted to the
ship, where they are recorded and timed. The distance
from the energy source to the sonobuoy can be deter-
mined by the arrival time of the wave which travels
directly through the water. The buoy is expendable and
sinks itself after a certain time, the cost of the buoy
usually being smaller than the cost of retrieving it. 2. A
buoy which automatically transmits a radio signal when
triggered by a water-borne sonic signal; used in posi-
tioning. 3. Military passive-receiver/transmitter for
detecting underwater movement.
sonogram
sonogram: A display of seismic information as a function
of the apparent dip or apparent velocity of events. See
Figure S-15. Sonogramming is also called beam steer-
ing and Rieberizing.
sonograph: An acoustic picture obtained under water by
side-scan or sector-scanning sonar.
sophisticated: Complex or intricate. Often refers to meth-
ods which were not feasible before the use of high-
speed digital computers.
sorption: The binding of one substance to another by
mechanisms such as adsorption 共holding on the surface兲
or absorption 共taking in completely兲.
Sosie: 共so’ se兲 A seismic method which employs a pseudo-
random series of seismic impulses to generate seismic
waves. The recorded data can be correlated with the
pseudo-random series to produce an interpretable
result. Societe Nationale Elf-Aquitaine tradename.
sound: 1. To measure the depth of water. 2. To determine
how some quantity varies with depth. 3. P-waves in
fluids such as air or liquids.
sound channel: See SOFAR.
sounding: Measuring a property as a function of depth; a
depth probe or expander. Especially a series of elec-
trical resistivity readings made with successively
greater electrode spacing while maintaining one point
in the array fixed, thus giving resistivity-versus-depth
information 共assuming horizontal layering兲; electric
drilling, probing, VES 共vertical electric sounding兲.
FIG. S-14. Sonobuoy operation. (Courtesy Aquatronics.)
326 source point „SP…
Also used with electromagnetic, magnetotelluric, and
other types of geophysical surveying. See also geomet-
ric sounding and parametric sounding. As opposed to
profiling, where the objective is to ascertain lateral
rather than vertical variations.
sound wave: Acoustic wave 共q.v.兲.
source: 1. A device that releases energy, such as an explo-
sion or an air gun release. Some seismic source wave-
forms are shown in Figure S-16. 2. The point from
which lines of force in a vector field originate; a mass
for the gravitational field. Opposite of sink.
source code: See source program.
source level: The total power output of an active trans-
ducer in dB/␮Pa at 1 yard from the transducer.
source parameter imaging method „SPI…: Source
parameter imaging that assumes either a dipping con-
tact or a dipping thin sheet. iSPI, standing for
‘‘Improved SPI,’’ relates local wavenumbers to a struc-
tural index to discriminate between depths determined
by basic models. CGG-Geoterrex trademarks. See
Thurston and Smith 共1997兲.
source pattern: See array (seismic).
source point „SP…: 1. The location where seismic energy
is released, such as by an explosive shot, an air gun
release, a weight drop, a vibroseis excitation, etc.
Where patterns of sources are used, usually refers to the
center of the pattern. 2. The area surrounding the source
point.
source-point gap 327 SP

source-point gap: The distance between the nearest geo- seismic energy, or two separate weights are dropped to
phone groups on opposite sides of the source point, generate S-wave energy. Tradename of Geomecha-
which is often greater than the otherwise uniform geo- nique.
phone group spacing. Used so that the geophone groups southing: See latitude.
that are nearest the source are far enough away that south-seeking pole: See magnetic pole.
source-associated noise has little effect. Also used sovel: Velocity of sound in water; see Figure W-1.
because the range of amplitudes to be recorded near the SP: 1. Source Point or ShotPoint. 2. Spontaneous poten-
source point is much larger than that for offset geo- tial or self potential, a well log of the difference
phones, thus lessening recording problems because of between the potential of a movable electrode in the
excessive range of amplitudes. borehole and a fixed reference electrode at the surface.
source program: A computer program prior to machine The SP results from electrochemical SP and electroki-
decoding; e.g., a program in some symbolic language netic potentials 共q.v.兲 which are present at the interface
such as Fortran, C, C⫹⫹.
source-receiver offset: See offset.
source-receiver product: The number of traces with
separate raypaths mixed together to produce the final
display; also called effort. The product of the number
of impulses per record 共or holes per shot兲, the number
of geophones per group, the number of records stacked,
and 共for Vibroseis兲 the duration of the sweep.
source rock: The strata that serve as the source of hydro-
carbons.
source signature: See signature and Figure S-1b.
sour gas: Gas containing appreciable amounts of sulfur
compounds, especially H2 S.
Soursile: An impulsive energy source in which a 200 kg
weight is simply dropped over 1 m to generate P-wave

FIG. S-16. Marine source waveforms. Far-field wave-

FIG. S-15. Sonogram. (a) Hypothetical seismogram
showing two events and a noise burst on one channel. (b)
Sonogram of these events. (From Trorey, 1961.)
forms generated by marine seismic sources. (a) Single air
gun; (b) array of air guns; (c) sleeve exploder; (d) Vapor-
choc; (e) Maxipulse; (f) Flexichoc; (g) water gun; (h)
sparker. Amplitudes are not to scale. B indicates bubble
effects and I indicates implosion. (From Sheriff and
Geldart, 1995, 217)
space domain 328 sparse spike operation

between permeable beds adjacent to shale. In imperme-

able shales, the SP is fairly constant at the shale-
baseline value 共see Figure S-17兲. In permeable forma-
tions the deflection depends on the contrast between the
ion content of the formation water and the drilling fluid,
the clay content, the bed thickness, invasion, bed-
boundary effects, etc. In thick, permeable, clean, non-
shale formations, the SP has the fairly constant sand-
line value, which changes if the salinity of the
formation water changes. In sands containing dissemi-
nated clay 共shale兲, the SP will not reach the sand line
and a pseudostatic SP value will be recorded. The SP
is positive with respect to the shale baseline in sands
filled with fluids fresher than the borehole fluid. See
also SSP. An SP log 共like the gamma-ray log, with
which it generally correlates兲 is used to distinguish
sands from shales and to determine qualitatively the
abundance of clay-particles in a sand body, also spoken
of as ‘‘clean’’ or ‘‘dirty’’ and as ‘‘coarsening’’ or ‘‘fin-
ing’’ 共see Figure C-6兲. 3. The natural ground voltage
observed between nearby nonpolarizing electrodes in
field surveying. In many mineralized areas this is
caused by electrochemical reaction at an electrically
conducting sulfide body. In geothermal areas, SP can be
caused by the motion of ions 共streaming potential兲 or
from contrasts in temperature. Compare induced polar-
ization.
space domain: Expressing a quantity as a function of
distance units.
space filtering: See apparent velocity filtering.
space-frequency domain: A two-dimensional representa-
tion of seismic data as wavenumber versus frequency
rather than location versus time.
spacer section: See streamer.
space-time filter: An apparent-velocity filter 共q.v.兲 or
frequency-wavenumber 共f, k兲 filter. Also called beam
pointing.
spacing, span: The separation of certain electrodes or
sensors on logging sondes. In nuclear devices, usually
the distance from the source to the detector. On the
sonic sonde, span is the distance between two receivers
of a pair whereas spacing is the distance from trans-
mitter to the midpoint of the corresponding receiver
pair. See Figures D-5, E-10, and S-13.
spacing adjustment, span adjustment: Calculation of a
log which would have resulted from the use of a spac-
ing or span different from the one actually used.
sparker: A seismic source in which an electrical discharge
in water is the energy source. The discharge is between
two electrodes in the salt water; the heat generated by
the discharge vaporizes the water, which then con-
denses to create an implosion. See also exploding wire.
Spark Pak: An impulsive seismic energy source in which
an explosive electrical discharge between two elec-
trodes in a salt-water filled hole is the energy source.
Trademark of Geomarines Systems Inc.
sparse: Having values associated with only a relatively
few coordinate values.
sparse matrix: A matrix with very few nonzero elements.
sparse spike operation: Approximating a time series by a
few sizeable impulses, for example, approximating a
FIG. S-17. SP log in sand-shale series with fresh mud in reflectivity function by a small number of reflecting
the borehole. A gamma-ray log would appear similar. interfaces, or, in deconvolving a time series, finding
(Courtesy Schlumberger.) such a reflectivity function.
sparse 3D
sparse 3D: The use of lines more widely spaced than
desirable to decrease the cost of 3D acquisition, also
called exploration 3D. Usually results in an inferior
survey and is false economy.
spatial aliasing: Misrepresentation of high-frequency data
as low-frequency data due to undersampling; see alias.
The aliasing frequency⫽velocity/共4⫻bin size⫻sine of
geologic dip兲.
spatial domain: A space where physical location is one of
the variables.
spatial frequency: Wavenumber 共q.v.兲, the number of
wave cycles per unit of distance in a given direction
共usually the direction of the spread兲.
spatial sampling: Making measurements only at discrete
locations. Spatial sampling potentially involves aliasing
problems 共see alias兲.
spatial stationarity: Having statistical properties which
do not change with location. The statistics are the same
if the location of the origin is changed.
SP buckout: A variable voltage-compensation circuit in
series with the input terminals of an IP, resistivity, or SP
receiver. Used to match the input voltage level of the
voltmeter-receiver to that of the ground. The buckout
voltage is the dc self-potential.
specific: Refers to the normalized dimensional or volume
properties of a material.
specific acoustic impedance: Acoustic impedance
divided by the acoustic impedance of water.
specific capacity: A polarization parameter in the time
domain similar to the metal factor in the frequency
domain; long-time chargeability 共area under decay
curve兲 divided by resistivity. Also called static capac-
ity. Dimensions are farad per meter.
specific conductance: See conductivity.
specific factor: See factor analysis.
specific gravity: The ratio of density to that of water.
specific impedance: See resistivity.
specific mass: Density 共q.v.兲.
specific volume: Volume/unit mass⫽1/density.
specific resistance: See resistivity.
spec shoot: A survey where a contractor carries all, or a
substantial portion, of the cost and risk, the cost to be
recovered by sale of the data to various companies.
Spector-Grant method: Magnetic depth-estimation based
on linear slopes of log radial-power spectra. Source
depth is the gradient divided by 4␲ 共if wavenumber is
in cycles/unit distance兲. See Spector and Grant 共1971兲.
spectral analysis: 1. A Fourier analysis 共q.v.兲. 2. Exami-
nation of the spectra of potential-field data to locate
changes in the slope of a graph of the logarithm of the
power spectra 共log of amplitude squared兲 versus wave-
number. See also radial power spectrum.
spectral decomposition: Use of short windows for Fou-
rier transforming and displaying the frequency spectra
共frequency slices兲.
spectral density: The square of the amplitude spectrum;
see Fourier transform.
spectral gamma-ray log: See gamma-ray spectroscopy
log.
spectral signature: A characteristic distinctive response
by which the reflector can be identified.
spectral stripping: Subtracting a fraction of a high-level
channel from a low-level channel to eliminate the high-
329 spherically focused log „SFL…
energy contribution to the lower-level channel. Used in
gamma-ray spectrometers.
spectral warping: Changing the relative amplitudes of
portions of the frequency spectrum 共filtering兲 in an
unusual 共often nonlinear兲 way.
spectrum: 1. Amplitude and phase characteristics as a
function of frequency for the components of a
wavetrain or wavelet. See Fourier analysis. 2. Filter
response characteristics. See transfer function. 3. Quan-
tities displayed in order to show the relative content of
various components. Thus a velocity spectrum 共or
normal-moveout spectrum兲 shows the amount of
coherent energy which appears to have various amounts
of normal moveout as a function of arrival time. A dip
spectrum shows the amount of coherent energy which
appears to have various amounts of dip moveout 共or
apparent velocity兲.
specular: Mirror-like.
speculative data: See spec shoot.
spheric: Sferics 共q.v.兲.
spherical coordinates: A system of three-dimensional
coordinates defined by a radius and two angles 共like
latitude and longitude兲. See Figure C-14.
spherical divergence: 1. The decrease in wave strength
共energy per unit area of wavefront兲 with distance as a
result of geometric spreading. A spherical wave travel-
ing through the body of a medium continually spreads
out so that the energy density decreases. For a point
source the energy density decreases inversely as the
square of the distance the wave has traveled; this means
that the amplitude deceases linearly with the distance
traveled. For energy which travels along a surface, the
analogous term is cylindrical divergence, where the
energy varies inversely as the distance and the ampli-
tude as the square root of the distance. Other mecha-
nisms by which a seismic wave loses energy involve
absorption and loss at interfaces by reflection 共includ-
ing diffraction, mode conversion, and scattering兲. 2.
The decrease in field strength 共flux density兲 for gravity,
magnetic, and similar fields where the intensity
decreases as the square of the distance.
spherical excess: The amount by which the sum of the
angles of a triangle on the surface of a sphere exceeds
180 degrees. For a sphere, this excess is the area of the
triangle. For a spherical triangle on an ellipsoid, such as
the Earth approximates, the spherical excess ␧ is
approximately:
␧⫽mbc sin ␣ ,
where b and c are two adjacent sides of the triangle
which intersect at the angle ␣, m⫽latitude function
⫽ ␳ /2RN, ␳ ⫽number of seconds of arc/radian
⫽206 264.8, R⫽radius of curvature in the meridian,
and N⫽radius of curvature in the prime vertical. Val-
ues of m for various ellipsoids are obtained from tables;
the value for the center of the triangle to the nearest half
degree is usually used. For greater precision a correc-
tion factor is often applied in iterative fashion.
spherical harmonic: Solution of Laplace’s equation in
spherical coordinates.
spherically focused log „SFL…: A short-normal resistivity
device to which current-focusing electrodes have been
added to maintain approximately a spherical distribu-
tion of the measuring current for better thin-bed reso-
spherical triangle
lution and response even with high formation-to-mud
resistivity contrast. Acts to prevent current travel in the
borehole. SFL is a Schlumberger tradename.
spherical triangle: The triangle formed on the surface of
a sphere by the intersections of three arcs of great
circles.
spherical wave: A wave generated by a point source. In
the case of constant velocity V, a spherical wave is any
function
共 1/r 兲 f 共 r⫾Vt 兲 ,
where r is distance from the source.
spherical wavefront: The surface which a given phase of
a seismic impulse generated by a point source occupies
at any particular time. The surface is not necessarily
spherical if the velocity varies with location.
spheroid: The oblate ellipsoid of revolution used to
approximate the Earth’s shape. The Earth’s shape can
now be determined by radar ranging from satellites. See
Figures G-2 and G-3 and Geodetic Reference System.
SPI: Secondary-Porisity Index 共q.v.兲.
spider plot: 1. A map showing the projection onto the
horizontal of directional wells indicating their azimuth
distribution. 2. A diagram showing the azimuth distri-
bution for data in a bin. Lengths are associated with
offset and direction with source-receiver azimuth. See
Figure T-3.
spike: 1. To work away from the crew’s normal area; to
hot shot. 2. An impulse 共q.v.兲.
spike filtering: Removing noise from data by assuming
that any value which differs from the average of sur-
rounding values by more than a threshold amount is
noise. Usually replaced by the average value.
spiking deconvolution: Deconvolution in which the
desired wavelet is a spike or impulse containing all
frequencies. Also called whitening deconvolution.
FIG. S-18. Spread arrangements for 24 inline geophone groups. Split spread or split dip if the source is at A, offset
split dip if the source is at B, end-on if the source is at C, inline offset if the source is at D, broadside T if the source
is at E, broadside L if the source is at F, and cross if some geophones are at right angles (G to H).
330 spline
spill point: The lowest closing contour on a hydrocarbon
trap capable of holding hydrocarbons under gravita-
tional equilibrium if the formation is permeable.
spinel: A mineral with the general formula AB2 O3 . Some
iron minerals are spinels and this crystal structure is
important in magnetic and electrical properties.
spinner magnetometer: A device which spins a sample
and measures the induced ac voltage to determine the
strength and direction of the sample’s magnetic field.
Used for paleomagnetic studies of small samples.
spinner survey: A log of the rate of flow of fluid in the
wellbore, casing, or tubing. See flowmeter.
S-P interval: In earthquake seismology, the time interval
between the first arrivals of P- and S-waves, a measure
of the distance from the earthquake hypocenter.
spirit leveling: Determining relative elevation by sighting
on the rod when the sighting level is horizontal. If the
elevation difference exceeds 1 to 2 meters, the process
has to be carried out in steps.
spit-out: To print out detailed data. Sometimes, to dump
共q.v.兲.
spitter: A mechanical devise to pick up geophone cable
while driving; squirter.
S-plane: The Laplace transform domain ␴ versus ␻,
where s⫽ ␴ ⫹i ␻ . See Laplace transform.
spline: 共splīn兲 1. A spline interpolator of order m satisfies
all specified points and their derivatives up to the order
(m⫺1). Thus a quadratic spline has a continuous first
derivative and a cubic spline has both first and second
derivatives continuous. Splines are used for digital-to-
analog conversion that employs curve 共or surface兲 fit-
ting, to assure a desired degree of smoothness. Splines
are implicit features of many modeling and inversion
programs, used to provide an analytic form to the
properties of the model over the entire data domain. 2.
A long flexible strip used in drawing a smooth curve. 3.
split 331 squelch circuit

Both the long flexible strip and analytic splines are SP recording: The recording of P-waves generated by an
sometimes used in residualizing, the smooth curve rep- S-wave source.
resenting the regional and the difference between the SP reduction factor: The ratio of actual SP to SSP 共q.v.兲.
smooth curve and the gravity profile representing the See pseudostatic SP.
residual. By extension, a smooth surface used to repre- SPS: 1. Source-Point Seismometer or uphole geophone
sent a regional gravity field. 共q.v.兲. 2. Shell Processing Support, SEG standard for-
split: Split spread 共q.v.兲. mat for information relating to survey and navigation
split-dip shooting: See split spread. data.
split migration: Achieving 3D migration of seismic data spudder: A drill used for making holes in hard rock. The
by dual 2D migration, first performing 2D migration in bit is raised and dropped and the resulting cuttings are
the inline direction and then 2D migrating in the removed by a bail, a pipe with a flap valve at the
crossline direction after sorting the result of the first bottom. Also used to pound casing into gravel or for-
migration. mations containing boulders such as glacial drift.
split spread: A method of reflection surveying in which spudding: To begin a drill hole.
the source point is at 共or perpendicularly offset from兲 spur: See trace.
the center of the geophone spread. Also called split-dip square-wave: A full square-wave is a waveform consist-
and a straddle spread. See Figure S-18. A split-spread ing of alternating equal magnitude ‘‘positive on’’ and
record is shown in Figure R-5. ‘‘negative on’’ portions. A half square-wave is
sponge boundary: An absorbing boundary so that there is switched on and off. A pulsed square-wave has por-
no reflection from the boundary. tions which are ‘‘positive on, off, negative on, and off.’’
spool: Acronym for ‘‘Store Printer Output OnLine,’’ a See Figure S-19.
technique for printing a document without tying up the squash plot: See compressed section.
resources of the computer. squeeze camera: A camera or printer that changes scale in
spoon fault: A listric fault 共q.v.兲. one direction 共usually horizontally兲 without altering the
spontaneous potential „SP…: Self-potential or SP 共q.v.兲. scale in the orthogonal direction.
sporadic noise: Electromagnetic noise caused by pumps, squeeze cementing: Forcing cement into perforations,
machinery, ac grid surges, etc. cracks, etc. under pressure.
SPOT: Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre; see squeeze section: A section with a highly reduced horizon-
remote sensing. tal scale; see compressed section.
spot correlation: Correlation of reflections on nonadja- squelch circuit: A control that permits the uphole geo-
cent seismic records based on reflection character or phone signal to be recorded on one of the ordinary
intervals between events. geophone channels prior to the first breaks. It then
spread: 1. Arrangement of geophone groups in relation to blocks or disconnects the uphole geophone signal so
the source point. Various arrangements are used; see that after the uphole break the uphole geophone will not
Figure S-18. See also Figure F-1 for fan shooting and interfere with the subsequent record.
Figure T-4 for 3D spreads. Spreads are interlocking if
the geophone group location and the source for one
profile are located at the source and geophone group
location 共respectively兲 for another profile 共for example,
source at A into geophone 24 and source at C into
geophone at 13 in Figure S-18兲. Spreads are reversed if
the same array of geophones is shot into from sources
in opposite directions inline 共for example, spread from
1 to 24 from both sources at C and J in Figure S-18兲. A
microspread has very small geophone group intervals
共2 to 15 ft兲. 2. The layout of electrodes or antennas in
resistivity or electro-magnetic surveying. See array
(electrical).
spread correction: 1. NMO or normal moveout correc-
tion 共q.v.兲. 2. Correction applied to refraction data to
produce reduced traveltimes 共q.v.兲.
spreading: Divergence; loss of amplitude because of geo-
metrical spreading; spherical divergence 共q.v.兲 for body
waves or cylindrical divergence 共q.v.兲 for surface
waves.
spreading rate: The speed of motion between adjacent
plates based on the assumption that the motion is
equally divided between the plates that are separating,
sometimes expressed as half spreading rates. Subduc-
tion can be oblique, and transform faults can involve
spreading or converging components.
spread spectrum: Signal transmission modulation that FIG. S-19. Square wave. „a… Full-square wave; „b… half-
employs bandwidths much wider than the information square wave; „c… pulsed-square wave such as sometimes
being conveyed. used with electrical surveying.
SQUID magnetometer
SQUID magnetometer: 共skwid兲 A sensitive magnetome-
ter which detects magnetic field changes by means of a
superconducting loop containing one or two Josephson
junctions. Acronym for ‘‘Superconducting Quantum
Interference Device.’’ A SQUID carries supercurrent up
to a certain critical value, beyond which a finite resis-
tance appears in the loop. The value of this critical
current depends upon the external flux as well as the
geometry. In the rf-SQUID magnetometer, a loop
with one Josephson junction is driven inductively by a
high-frequency 共typically 30 MHz兲 alternating current
which periodically exceeds the critical current. The
resulting voltage depends on the value of the critical
current which in turn depends on the external flux. In
the dc-SQUID magnetometer a dc current slightly
greater than the critical current is fed into a loop con-
taining two Josephson junctions. This produces high-
frequency oscillations in the loop due to the
ac-Josephson effect. Thus the current periodically
exceeds the critical current and a voltage appears which
depends upon the external flux. Both the rf- and
dc-SQUIDS are usually incorporated in negative feed-
back circuits which detect and null the flux, and the
output of the negative feedback circuit is proportional
to the output of the SQUID. SQUID magnetometers are
capable of detecting fields on the order of 10 ⫺5 nan-
otesla, and are used in magnetotelluric and controlled-
source electromagnetic field techniques. See Clarke
共1974兲 and Weinstock and Overton 共1981兲.
squiggle: 共skwig’ ⳵l兲 A wiggle trace or trace of galvanom-
eter deflection versus time. See Figure D-17.
squirter: A device to assist in deploying or retrieving a
cable or streamer.
S-reflectivity: The reflection coefficient for S-waves at
normal incidence:
␳ 2 V S2 ⫺ ␳ 1 V S1
R S⫽ , operation. The group length should equal 共or be a
␳ 2 V S2 ⫹ ␳ 1 V S1
where R S is the normalized amplitude of an S-wave
reflected from the interface between layers 1,2, ␳ 1 , ␳ 2
is the density of layers 1,2, and V S1 , V S2 is the S-wave
velocity in layers 1,2.
S-rule: An application of the equivalence principle used
in resistivity sounding. Sounding graphs over a series
of strata with resistivities ␳ i and thicknesses h i above a
highly resistive substratum possess the same asymptote
if the sum of longitudinal conductance (h i / ␳ i ) is con-
stant, i.e., if
S⫽⌺ 共 h i / ␳ i 兲 ⫽constant;
S is the admittance.
SS: 1. SubSea. 2. Sequence Stratigraphy 共q.v.兲.
S/(S⫹N) : Signal-to-noise ratio 共q.v.兲. A Wiener filter
共q.v.兲 is often called an S/(S⫹N) filter.
SSP: Static Self Potential 共q.v.兲.
SST: Sea-Surface Temperature.
stability: 1. The property that a bounded input elicits a
bounded output. 2. The property that a system will not
undergo a change without the application of an external
agency. 3. The property that a departure from equilib-
rium creates forces that tend to restore equilibrium. 4.
Resistance to overturning. 5. See stability of a filter.
332 stack array
stability of a filter: A filter is stable if the energy of its
impulse response is finite. Stable minimum-phase filters
have stable inverses. Maximum-phase wavelets do not
have stable inverse memory functions, but inverse fil-
tering can be accomplished by stable anticipation func-
tions. The inverse of a mixed-delay wavelet requires
both a stable memory function and a stable anticipation
function.
stabilized downward continuation: Downward continu-
ation 共q.v.兲 of potential field measurements after
removing high spatial frequencies, which otherwise
would lead to instabilities.
stabilized platform: A platform on which instruments
共such as gravimeters兲 can be mounted where they will
remain nearly level despite tilt of the platform support.
The platform, mounted on gimbals, is controlled by a
gyroscope coupled to an accelerometer-controlled servo
system on each gimbal axis. Used in measuring gravity
on a ship in motion and for mounting inertial navigation
sensors.
stable: A method is stable if, when applied to a well-
conditioned problem, a small change in the data result
in only a small change in the solution. A series is stable
if it is convergent.
stack: 1. A composite record made by combining traces
from different records. See common-midpoint stack,
diversity stack, uphole stack, and vertical stack. Stack-
ing also involves filtering because of timing errors or
waveshape differences among the elements being
stacked; see Figure S-20. 2. Combining a number of
time-domain transient electromagnetic signals. 3. A
computer buffer operated on a last-in first-out basis.
stack array: An arrangement that, when combined with
adjacent spreads, provides an even, continuous succes-
sion of geophone offsets in a common-midpoint gather.
Used to attentuate source-generated noise by effectively
creating a very long continuous array in the stacking
multiple of兲 the group interval. With a symmetrical
split-spread, sources should be midway between all
group centers, or, with an end-on spread, sources
FIG. S-20. Filter effect of timing errors in stacking. The
numbers on the curves are standard deviations of the
timing differences among the traces stacked. (From
Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 185)
stacked profiles
should be located midway between geophone group
centers. See Anstey 共1986兲.
stacked profiles: Display of magnetic or other profiles
from a number of lines, to facilitate interpretation.
Usually in a map form, sometimes in an isometric view.
stacking chart: A diagram showing the interrelationships
among the traces from common-midpoint surveying; a
graph of source-point location 共s兲 versus geophone-
group location 共g兲 for a surface stacking chart, of s
versus (s⫹g)/2 for a subsurface stacking chart.
Used to determine the proper traces for stacking and for
determining parameters for shifting traces 共as in mak-
ing static corrections兲. Components along various
alignments represent common midpoint, common
source, common geophone, or common offset. See Fig-
ure S-21.
stacking velocity: Velocity calculated from normal-
moveout measurements and a constant-velocity model.
Used to maximize events in common-midpoint stack-
ing. Sometimes erroneously called ‘‘rms velocity.’’
Usually calculated for the best-fit hyperbola to gather
data, the value thus depending somewhat on the range
of offsets involved. Fitting an NMO equation to CMP
data is equivalent to assuming an ellipsoidal wavefront,
yielding the stacking velocity of the horizontal compo-
nent. Nonelliptical wavefronts yield offset-variable
stacking velocities. See velocity analysis.
stacking velocity inversion: Constructing a velocity-
depth model from picked unmigrated horizons. Gener-
ally normal-incidence rays are traced through overlying
layers, traveltimes are computed, and the velocity of the
overlying layer is adjusted to minimize errors.
stadia: 1. An instrument for measuring distances, consist-
ing of a telescope through which a vertical graduated
rod can be seen, overlain by horizontal parallel
crosshairs 共stadia hairs, located in the focal plane of
the telescope eyepiece兲; the amount of rod seen
between the crosshairs allows one to determine the
distance to the rod. 2. The rod alone.
stadia factor: The ratio of the distance from a rod to the
FIG. S-21. Surface stacking chart. Each horizontal line shows the location of geophone groups and source point for
a single record. The triangle to the right shows the directions for finding traces with various elements in common. a
⫽source coordinate, g⫽geophone coordinate.
333 standard deviation „␴…
portion of the rod subtended between the stadia
crosshairs. Often a value of 100.
stadia tables: Tables giving values of the quantities
(sin 2␣)/2 and cos2␣ and/or sin2␣ as functions of ␣.
Used in calculating horizontal 共H兲 and vertical (V)
distances from a transit station to a stadia rod. If ␣ is the
angle which the line of sight makes with the horizontal,
F is the stadia interval factor 共often 100兲, and X is the
distance on the rod between the cross hairs, then H
⫽FX cos2␣⫽FX⫺FX sin2␣, and V⫽FX(sin 2␣)/2.
stagarray: A multiair-gun array. Petty Ray tradename.
stake: 1. A marker used by field parties to locate gravity
stations, source points, geophone locations, survey
locations, etc. Usually indicates a temporary location as
opposed to a monument that is a permanent location. 2.
To locate the site for a well. 3. An electrode, such as
might be used in electrical exploration or to ground a
seismic truck. 4. To mark the boundaries of a mineral
claim.
stake resistance: The electrical resistance between a cur-
rent electrode and the ground.
stand alone: Complete in itself rather than as a part of a
larger system.
standard curve: Type curve 共q.v.兲.
standard deviation „␴…: The standard deviation ␴ of n
measurements of a quantity X i with respect to the mean
X̄ is
␴ ⫽ 关共 1/n 兲 ⌺ 共 X i ⫺X̄ 兲 2 兴 1/2 .
With a normal or Gaussian distribution of data, 68.3%
of the data fall within a standard deviation about the
mean. The square of the standard deviation is the vari-
ance. See statistical measures. For two degrees of
freedom, measurements (X i ,Y i ) with respect to the
means (X̄ ,Ȳ ), ␴ is
␴ ⫽ 关共 1/h 兲 ⌺ 共 X i ⫺X̄ 兲 2 ⫹ 共 Y i ⫺Ȳ 兲 2 兴 1/2 .
For a Rayleigh distribution of data, 40.5% fall within a
circle of radius ␴ 共called one sigma兲.
standard Earth 334
standard Earth: An Earth model with spherical shells of
seismic velocity which contain the same volume as the
corresponding layers of equal velocity in the actual
Earth.
standard error: Standard deviation 共q.v.兲.
standard format: For seismic formats, see SEG 共1980兲.
standard lines: See map projection.
standard meridan: See map projection.
standard parallel: See map projection.
standard polarity: See polarity standard and Figure P-6.
standard pressure: The pressure exerted by a column of
mercury 760 mm high 共14.7 psia兲.
standard section: A diagram showing all the stratigraphic
units in an area in their sequence of deposition; used as
a standard for correlation. Often shows the maximum
thickness of units.
standards, SEG: Standards adopted by the Society of
Exploration Geophysicists 共SEG兲 for digital tape for-
mats, SI metric system of units, data interchange, seis-
mic subroutines, digital seismic recorder specifications,
exchange formats for positional data, marine seismic
hydrophones and streamer cables, polarity standards
共q.v.兲, and specifying marine seismic energy sources are
discussed in separate SEG Technical Standards Com-
mittee 共q.v.兲 publications, available from the SEG.
standard temperature: A predetermined temperature
used as a basic measurement, often 0 °C. The petroleum
industry uses 60 °F 共15.5 °C兲 as its standard tempera-
ture for measurement of oil volumes.
standby time: Time spent during acquisition when no
recording is taking place even though the crew is ready
to record. Standby time is generally accounted for sepa-
rately according to the reason for the standby.
standoff: 1. The distance a sonde is from the wall of the
borehole. 2. A device for keeping the sonde from lying
against the borehole wall.
standout: The amount by which the amplitude of an event
exceeds the mean amplitude.
standing wave: A phenomenon produced by the interfer-
ence of two continuous wavetrains having the same
frequency traveling in opposite directions. A standing
wave may result from the interference of a continuous
wavetrain from a source and one resulting from reflec-
tion, or from two reflected wavetrains. Standing-wave
patterns show amplitude nodes and antinodes alternat-
ing at 1/4 wavelength intervals. Continuous-wave
radio-navigation systems set up standing-wave patterns.
star: A configuration with a center and points in various
directions from the center. See array (seismic) and
triad.
STAR: SimulTaneous Acoustic and Resistivity imager
共q.v.兲. Baker Atlas trademark.
star diagram: A way of displaying the relative abundance
of different quantities by radii in different directions.
starvation: The condition when the rate of basin subsid-
ence exceeds the rate of sedimentation.
starved: Having low availability of sediments for deposi-
tion. In a starved basin the subsidence rate exceeds the
sedimentation rate.
state variable: One of the sets of variables which com-
pletely describe a system at any time. A state variable
may represent a derivative of a quantity which is itself
a state variable, allowing differential equations to be
expressed as a set of linear simultaneous equations. For
static corrections, statics
example, the voltage drop around an electrical circuit
which includes capacitance, inductance, and resistance
may be expressed by the differential equation: E(t)
⫽Rl⫹L dl/dt⫹C 兰 ldt. Using state variables of l,
Q⫽ 兰 ldt, and P⫽dl/dt permits this to be written as a
set of three simultaneous equations:
E 共 t 兲 ⫽Rl⫹L P⫹CQ, dQ/dt⫽l, and dl/dt⫽ P.
See also parameter.
static capacity: Specific capacity 共q.v.兲.
static corrections, statics: Corrections applied to seismic
data to compensate for the effects of variations in
elevation, near-surface low-velocity-layer 共weathering兲
thickness, weathering velocity, and/or reference to a
datum. The objective is to determine the reflection
arrival times which would have been observed if all
measurements had been made on a 共usually兲 flat plane
with no weathering or low-velocity material present.
These corrections are based on uphole data, refraction
first-breaks 共see Figure S-22兲, event smoothing, and
sometimes other geophysical methods. The most com-
mon convention is that a negative static correction
reduces the reflection time. „a… Uphole-based statics
involve the direct measurement of vertical traveltimes
from a buried source; see uphole shooting. This is
usually the best static-correction method where fea-
sible. „b… First-break statics are the most common
method of making field 共or first-estimate兲 static correc-
tions, especially when using surface sources. The ABC
method 共q.v.兲 and variations for more complex assump-
tions are used for this determination; see refraction
statics. „c… Data-smoothing statics methods assume
that patterns of irregularity which events have in com-
mon result from near-surface variations and hence
static-correction trace shifts should minimize such
irregularities. Most automatic statics-determination
programs employ statistical methods to achieve the
minimization. Data-smoothing methods are generally
applied to remove small residual errors after first apply-
ing methods 共a兲 or 共b兲. Second-order statics corrections
are often called trim statics. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 261–268, 303–307, 474兲 and Cox 共1999兲.
Underlying the concept of conventional static correc-
tions is the assumption that a simple time shift of an
entire seismic trace will yield the seismic record that
would have been observed 共1兲 if the geophones had
been displaced vertically downward 共or upward兲 to the
reference datum, an assumption not strictly true, espe-
cially if the surface-to-datum distance is large, and 共2兲
that the subdatum velocity does not change horizon-
tally. Conventional static correction methods are most
apt to fail where there are 共1兲 large rapid changes in the
topography or base of weathering, 共2兲 horizontal veloc-
ity changes below the weathering, thus violating the
assumption that the subdatum velocity does not vary
significantly, 共3兲 large elevation differences between the
datum and the base of the weathering, or 共4兲 inadequate
controls on long-wavelength statics 共q.v.兲. Large sea-
floor relief is apt to be associated with horizontal veloc-
ity changes that cannot be compensated with static
corrections. S-waves statics are often appreciably dif-
ferent and much larger than P-wave statics.
static field 335 station

static field: The field of an electric dipole that falls off where a w is the activity of the formation water and a m f
with distance r as 1/r 3 . that of the mud filtrate. Because of the inverse relation-
static shift: A frequency-independent scaling of the appar- ship between activity and equivalent resistivity, this
ent resistivity curve in electromagnetic sounding 共q.v.兲, equation can be written:
caused by small-scale near-surface resistivity inhomo-
geneities or topography. Especially important in mag- SS P⫽⫺K log10 共 R m f e /R we 兲 .
netotelluric 共q.v.兲 methods. See Jones 共1988兲.
where R m f e ⫽ equivalent mud filtrate resistivity, R we ⫽
statics: See static corrections.
equivalent water resistivity. For NaCl muds that are not
static self potential „SSP…: The maximum SP that would
too saline, R m f e ⫽R m f ; for other muds an activity cor-
be recorded when the borehole logging sonde passes
rection should be made. In these equations K⫽60
from within a very thick, porous, permeable, clean sand
⫹0.133 T where T⫽Fahrenheit temperature. See also
to a point that is well within a thick shale. The electro-
SP and pseudostatic SP.
chemical SSP 共the electrokinetic SP is often neglected兲
station: 1. A ground position at which an observation is
is approximately given by:
made with a geophysical instrument 共gravimeter, geo-
phone, etc.兲. 2. An input and/or output point on a
SS P⫽⫺K log10 共 a w /a m f 兲 , communications system.

FIG. S-22. Static correction equations based on first-break intercept time.

stationarity
stationarity: Having statistical properties that do not
change with time and/or position. The statistics are the
same if the time origin is changed. Stationary data do
not exhibit a trend, i.e., the mean and variance over a
moving window remain the same.
stationary field: A physical field that does not vary with
time.
stationary filter: A filter which is not time variant.
stationary mass: A weight that tends to remain quiescent
during the passage of seismic waves.
stationary wave: A standing wave 共q.v.兲.
statistical measures: The most common ‘‘measures’’ of a
distribution of data for a set of n values X i are shown in
Figure S-23.
statistical stacking: Selective stacking 共q.v.兲.
steady mass: Stationary mass 共q.v.兲.
steady state: Equilibrium conditions observed when there
are no short time variations.
steam flooding: High-pressure steam injected into a for-
mation to reduce the viscosity of heavy crudes so that
they can flow to production wells.
steam gun: Vaporchoc 共q.v.兲.
steam quality: 1. In geothermal development, the quality
of steam produced from underground is measured in
terms of the weight of steam required to generate one
kilowatt-hour of electrical energy. 2. The mass fraction
of steam divided by the total mass.
steam stimulation: High-pressure steam is injected into a
formation for several days or weeks, following which
the formation ‘‘soaks’’ up the heat, allowing viscous oil
to flow more freely when the same well is put on
production. The entire process is then repeated. Also
called steam soaking and huff and puff.
Steenland-Vacquier rule: 共stēn’ land vak’ ⳵ ā兲 See
straight slope measurement. Named for Nelson C.
Steenland 共1919–2000兲 and Victor Vacquier 共1907–兲,
American geophysicists.
steepest descent: 1. An iterative method of approaching a
minimum by taking an increment along the steepest
gradient to arrive at the next approximation, the step
FIG. S-23. Statistical measures. Common ‘‘measures’’
of a distribution of data.
336 stereographic projection
length often being proportional to the magnitude of the
gradient. Provision can be made to speed-up conver-
gence onto the minimum and prevent oscillation about
the minimum. It is assumed that the function is con-
tinuous and that the initial estimate is close enough to
the correct minimum, in the event that the function has
more than one minimum. Sometimes called steepest
ascent when used to approach a maximum. See Lines
and Treitel 共1984兲. 2. A method to compute the
asymptotic behavior of an integral, also called the
‘‘saddle-point method;’’ see Morse and Feshbach
共1967: 437兲.
steer: To introduce time shifts into an ensemble of traces
so that energy approaching from a given direction
appears at the same time on all traces. Used in beam
steering, in studying earthquakes with large arrays, etc.
Variations include weighting the components and/or
filtering before summing.
Stefan-Boltzmann’s law: 共shte’ fan bōltz’ monz兲 The
amount of energy radiated by a blackbody per unit time
per unit area is proportional to the fourth power of the
Kelvin temperature.
Stefanesco function: Kernel function 共q.v.兲.
stepback: The correction applied to a location 共such as the
location of a seismic ship determined by radio methods兲
to yield the midpoint for seismic data, allowing for the
positions of the streamer and source with respect to the
navigation antenna. See Figure O-1.
step function: An abrupt increase or decrease from one
constant value to another 共often from zero to one, or
vice versa兲. The first derivative of a step function is an
impulse. Also called Heaviside function.
step-function response: Output of a system when the
input consists of a step function. For a linear system it
is the integral of the impulse response.
step length: The magnitude of a change made during one
step of an iterative procedure.
stepout: 1. Trace to trace differences in arrival time
because of dip; moveout. Normal moveout is used for
differences because of offset 共source-to-geophone dis-
tance兲. 2. Step-out well 共q.v.兲.
step-out well: A well drilled following a discovery to
determine the extent of the reservoir.
stepped-gain amplifier: An amplifier whose gain is vari-
able in discrete steps. Gain changes may be pro-
grammed, i.e., predetermined by the user, or they may
be controlled by the magnitude of the signal being
amplified.
stepping method: A surveying method for determining
the elevation of the stadia rod with respect to the
transit. A point that is level with the transit is sighted
through the telescope, which is then tilted so that the
bottom cross-hair is aligned with the point. Another
point in the line of the top cross-hair is sighted and the
procedure is repeated until the stadia rod comes into the
view of the telescope. The number of steps or times of
retilting the telescope is counted and converted to Bea-
mans, the full intercept between the stadia wires being
one Beaman.
steradian: 共st⳵ rā’ dē ⳵n兲 A unit of measure of solid angle.
A sphere⫽4 ␲ steradians.
stereographic projection: 共ster’ ē ⳵ graf, ik兲 1. A repre-
sentation of directional information used in three-
dimensional structural problems. A stereonet or Wulff
stick
net is used if angular relations are to be preserved and
a Schmidt or Lambert net if areas are to be preserved.
Lines are represented as points indicating their direc-
tion, planes as either great circles 共cyclographic pro-
jection兲 or points for axial lines perpendicular to the
plane 共polar projection兲. See Figure S-24. 2. A projec-
tion used to map the Earth; see Figure M-4.
stick: A time-domain representation of amplitude at a
particular time. A scaled impulse. See stickogram and
compare stick plot.
stickogram: 1. Graph of reflection coefficients as a func-
tion of depth, often made from sonic-log data as an
intermediate step in synthetic-seismogram 共q.v.兲 prepa-
ration; see ‘‘model’’ in Figure S-30a. Stickograms may
or may not include sticks which represent multiples. 2.
A time-domain diagram of a sampled waveform or filter
showing the successive quantized values of the wave-
form or of the impulse response of the filter.
stick plot: A presentation of a dipmeter result where the
well bore is represented by a line according to the
projection of the well onto a vertical plane, and the
components of dip in this plane are indicated by short
line segments.
FIG. S-24. Stereographic net. „a… Wulff net; „b… Schmidt
net or Lambert equi-area plot.
337 straight slope measurement
Stiff diagram: Diagrams illustrating changes in ionic con-
centrations.
stiffness: The ratio of stress acting in a specified direction
to the strain in a specified direction, not necessarily the
same as that of the stress. Stiffness constitutes a tensor
of rank four. When expressed as a 6⫻6 matrix, the
stiffness tensor is the inverse of the compliance tensor.
See Figure E-5.
still readings: Stationary marine gravity readings at fixed
base locations.
stillstand: A period of time during which there is not
much variation in the level of the land with respect to
sea level.
stinger: See tail stinger.
stochastic: Random; a value determined from a specified
distribution by chance. Opposite of deterministic.
Compare Markovian variable.
stochastic modeling: 1. Random variation of model
parameters. 2. Generally used interchangably with con-
ditional simulation 共q.v.兲.
stock tank: Oil storage tank.
STOIIP: Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place in the reser-
voir.
Stoke’s theorem: 共stōkz兲 The vector relation relating a
line integral around a closed loop to the surface integral
of the curl:
冖 A•d ⫽ 冕冕 共 ⵜÃA兲 •ds,
where A is a vector field, dl is a line element, and ds is
a surface element.
Stolt migration: 共stōlt兲 A migration method in the f,k
domain assuming constant velocity. Vertical stretching
before Fourier transformation is done to approximately
accommodate vertical variations of velocity. See Stolt
共1978兲.
Stoneley wave: 共stōn’ lē兲 1. A type of seismic wave propa-
gated along an interface. A Stoneley wave is always
possible at solid-fluid interfaces and under very
restricted conditions at solid-solid interfaces. See
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 53–54, 133, 489兲. 2. A
surface wave in a borehole; see acoustic wave.
Stoneley-wave attenuation is sensitive to formation per-
meability. Named for Robert Stoneley 共1894-1976兲,
English seismologist.
stone-slab correction: Bouguer correction 共q.v.兲.
stop band: Reject region 共q.v.兲.
storage: A computer memory system; a device where data
can be stored and from which it can be retrieved.
Storage is divided into locations, each with an assigned
address; each location holds a specific unit of data 共a
digit, a word, or a complete record, depending on the
system兲.
storm: A temporary, considerable disturbance of a geo-
physical field, e.g., a magnetic storm 共q.v.兲.
STP: Standard Temperature 共0 °C兲 and Pressure 共one
atmosphere兲.
stradle packer: See packer.
straddle spread: Split spread 共q.v.兲.
straight: 1. Not mixed; see mixing. 2. Linear.
straight slope measurement: The source depth is given
by the horizontal distance over which a magnetic
anomaly is nearly linear at the maximum slope, divided
strain (␧ ij )
by an index value. Indices are 1.9 for a vertical or
horizontal thin sheet, 1.7 for a thick sheet, 1.4 for a
plug-like body, 1.3 for a wide body, 1.2 for a contact,
and 1.5 as a default value. Also called maximum slope
distance, Vacquier rule, Steenland-Vacquier rule.
See Figure D-10 and depth rule.
strain (␧ i j ) : The change of dimensions or shape produced
by a stress. Strain is usually expressed in dimensionless
units such as change of length per unit of length, angle
of twist, change of volume per unit of volume. Rotation
or translation without change of shape is not strain. See
elastic constants and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
36 –37兲. If u, v , w are the stress-produced displace-
ments in the x,y,z directions of a point in an anisotropic
body, the strains are:
normal strains:
␧ xx ⫽⳵u/⳵x,
␧ y y ⫽⳵v /⳵y,
␧ zz ⫽⳵w/⳵z;
shearing strains:
␧ xy ⫽␧ yx ⫽⳵v /⳵x⫹⳵u/⳵y,
␧ yz ⫽␧ zy ⫽⳵w/⳵y⫹⳵v /⳵z,
␧ zx ⫽␧ xz ⫽⳵u/⳵z⫹⳵w/⳵x.
The fractional change in volume 共dilitation兲 ⌬ is
⌬⫽␧ xx ⫹␧ y y ⫹␧ zz .
strain ellipsoid: A representation of strain by showing the
ellipse into which a circle would be distorted if subject
to the same strain. See Figure S-25.
FIG. S-25. Strain ellipsoids show the changes to small
circles if subjected to the same strain.
FIG. S-26. Streamer.
338 stratigraphy
strain energy: The work involved in straining a body; for
a conservative system, the potential energy stored in a
strain. If the body is elastic, the work is
E⫽ 共 1/2 兲 ⌺⌺ ␴ i j ␧ i j ,
where ␴ i j is the stress in the i-direction on a face
perpendicular to the j-direction and ␧ i j is the rate of
change of i-direction displacement in the j-direction.
strain seismometer: A seismometer that is designed to
detect deformation of the ground by measuring relative
displacement of two points.
Strakhov filter: A linear filter that smooths a spectrum in
a least-squares manner.
stranded gas: Discovered natural gas that cannot be pro-
duced because of lack of transport to markets.
stratal surface: The surface of a sheet-like rock unit that
is visibly distinguishable from units above and below it.
Represents the surface of the solid earth at some time.
Seismic reflections parallel stratal surfaces.
stratigraphic classification: Rock classification is orga-
nized according to different schemes which do not have
one-to-one correspondence; that is, lithostratigraphic
and geochronologic or chronostratigraphic subdivisions
sometimes cross each other. Lithostratigraphic subdi-
visions 共based on lithologic character, also called
facies, q.v.兲 are 共from largest to smallest兲
Group, Formation, Member, and Bed.
Geochronologic subdivisions 共based on age relations兲
are Eon, Era, Period, Epoch, Age, and Chron;
these correspond to the Chronostratigraphic subdivi-
sions Eonothem, Erathem, System, Series, Stage, and
Chronozone.
There are also biostratigraphic subdivisions 共based on
fossil content兲, classification by residual magnetism
共magnetostratigraphy, q.v.兲, chemical properties
共chemostratigraphy兲, etc. Terminology is standardized
by the International Subcommission on Stratigraphic
Classification of the IUGS 共Hedburg, 1976兲.
stratigraphic interpretation: Prediction of lithology,
depositional environment, and/or interstitial fluid based
on seismic measurements, especially reflection patterns.
See Sheriff 共1980兲.
stratigraphy: The study of rock strata, their original suc-
cession and age relations, their lithologic composition,
physical, chemical, and biological properties, distribu-
tion, and other characteristics, and their interpretation
in terms of environment or mode of origin and geologic
strat test
history. Rocks may be classified in various ways; see
stratigraphic classification. Principles of stratigraphy
include 共1兲 principle of superposition 共lower layers are
older than upper layers兲, 共2兲 principle of original hori-
zontality 共stratified rocks are originally deposited
nearly horizontally兲, and 共3兲 principle of lateral conti-
nuity 共a stratified rock body originally extended later-
ally until it terminated at the edge of a basin, thinned to
zero thickness, or changed character into another
deposit兲.
strat test: A well that is drilled primarily to obtain geo-
logical information rather than to discover hydrocar-
bons.
streamer: A marine cable incorporating pressure hydro-
phones, designed for continuous towing through the
water. A marine streamer 共Figure S-26兲 is typically
made up of 96 or more active or live sections which
contain hydrophone arrays separated by spacer or dead
sections. Usually a streamer is nearly neutrally buoyant
and depressors or depth controllers 共q.v.兲 are attached
to depress the streamer to maintain the proper towing
depth. The entire streamer may be 3– 8 km in length.
streamer feathering: Drift of a marine streamer to one
side because of a cross-current. See Figure T-4a.
streaming potential: See electrokinetic potential.
stream tracking: A mode of tracking 共picking兲 used at
seismic work stations.
strength: The limiting stress before failure.
stress: The intensity of force acting on a body, in terms of
force per unit area. Stress⫽stiffness tensor ⫻ strain.
The largest principal stress is usually designated ␴ 1 and
the least stress ␴ 3 , ␴ 2 being intermediate.
stretch: 1. The change in wavelet shape produced by
applying a normal-moveout correction. 2. To change
the scale to make comparisons easier, e.g, to display S-
and P-wave sections at approximately double time scale
to roughly accommodate the differences between S-
and P-wave velocities. 3. To change the assignment of
display color to successive frequency windows to
obtain similar populations in each window; a way of
assigning false colors 共q.v.兲.
stretch and squeeze: To arbitrarily shorten or lengthen
short intervals of well logs to better match a seismic
trace.
stretch modulus: Young’s modulus; see elastic constant.
stretch section: A portion of a marine seismic streamer
designed to isolate the sensitive portion of the streamer
from shocks because of motions of the towing ship or
tail buoy.
strike: 1. The direction of the intersection of a surface and
a horizontal plane; the horizontal direction at right
angles to the dip. As in the ‘‘strike of a bed’’ or the
‘‘strike of a fault.’’ 2. The projection on the horizontal
of the major axis of the ellipse of polarization.
strike filter: A band-pass filter designed to pass or attenu-
ate Fourier components along a specified azimuth.
strike shooting: Attempting to acquire data such that azi-
muths between source and receiver are perpendicular to
the dominant geologic dip.
strike-slip fault: A fault across which motion has been
predominantly horizontal. See Figure F-3.
string: 1. Several geophones which are permanently con-
nected together; a flyer. 2. A computer string is a
sequence of elements 共such as bits or characters兲.
339 su
stringer: A thin layer 共whose presence may be erratic兲
that has high velocity and is within the near-surface
low-velocity layer. A stringer is too thin or not continu-
ous enough to carry refracted energy very far.
string galvanometer: A wire in a magnetic field that gets
deflected proportional to the current flowing through it.
The shadow of the wire projected onto photographic
film gives a record of the current variations. Used in
seismic cameras up to the 1950s.
strip log: A sample log 共q.v.兲.
striping: Clustering 共q.v.兲 in a more-or-less linear way.
strip migration: Migration of a swath of 3-D data.
stripper well: A well producing less than 10 barrels of oil
per day.
stripping: A procedure that successively removes the
effects of upper layers. 1. Making corrections which
effectively place seismic source and receivers at the
base of the stripped layers. 2. Removing the calculated
effects of layers successively. Stripping is sometimes
used in gravity interpretation. Synonym: layer strip-
ping.
strips of convergence: See Laplace transform.
strobe: To read or measure at discrete time intervals.
strong-motion accelerograph: A self-actuating, triaxial
earthquake recorder designed to provide acceleration
data on strong, local earthquakes. Used in engineering
studies for dams, power plants, etc.
strontium isotope dating: Age dating of marine sedi-
ments less than 200 ka old based on their 87Sr/ 86 Sr
ratio. This ratio has been changing with time because
water from river systems has a higher ratio than sea
water. Measurement of the ratio in marine sediments
thus can be related to the ratio value at the time the
sediments were deposited.
structure: 1. The general disposition, attitude, arrange-
ment, or relative position of the rock masses of an area;
the sum total of the structural features of an area,
consequent upon such deformational processes as fault-
ing, folding, and igneous intrusion. 2. Any physical
arrangement of rocks 共such as an anticline, fault, or
dome兲 that may involve the accumulation of oil or gas.
3. A subsurface area characterized by folding and/or
faulting. 4. Seismic anomaly, usually a closed high.
structural model: A model showing the spatial distribu-
tion of density, magnetic susceptibility, velocity, resis-
tivity, or other parameters.
structural section: A display of seismic reflections which
attempts to portray the attitude of bedding.
structural style: The structural features that result from a
certain stress history. Structural style considerations can
assist in seismic interpretation. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 364-70兲.
structured program: A program organized around sepa-
rate semi-independent modules linked together by a
single sequence of simple commands.
structure-sensitive conductivity: See extrinsic conduc-
tion.
strum: See cable strum.
stub line: Short lines to fill in space otherwise inad-
equately covered.
stunt box: A device which controls the nonprinting func-
tions of an output device upon receiving orders.
su: 1. Sigma Unit or capture unit 共q.v.兲, a unit for measur-
ing capture cross-section. 2. Seismic Unix, open soft-
sub
ware available from Colorado School of Mines.
sub: A subassembly, a portion of a larger assembly or
system.
sub-bin: A bin smaller than the nominal bin, used in bin
fractionation.
subbottom profiler: An instrument that produces a high-
resolution, cross-section-like record of sediments below
the sea floor. A pinger.
subcarrier: A carrier which is applied as a modulating
wave to another carrier.
subcritical reflection: Reflection at angles smaller than
the critical angle, that is, an ordinary reflection.
subduction zone: The zone where one plate plunges
beneath another plate. See Figure P-5. B-type „Benioff…
subduction involves an oceanic plate plunging under-
neath another plate. An A-type 共alpine or Ampferer兲
collision involves a continent-continent collision.
subpoint: 1. The location of one of the elements in an
array. 2. Subsurface point.
subroutine: A computer program called for as part of a
larger program.
subsample: To resample digitized data at a longer interval
than formerly used. For example, to subsample from 2
to 4 ms means to retain only every other sample of 2 ms
data. Alias filtering must be included to avoid possible
aliasing. Sometimes called decimate. Opposite of
reconstitute.
subsea: A wellhead on the sea floor.
subsea seismic „SUMIC…: S-wave recording on the sea-
floor, often with 4-component detectors 共three orthogo-
FIG. S-27. Subsurface trace. The straight vertical lines
are contours on a north-south cylindrical syncline. For
seismic line AA⬘ (perpendicular to strike) the subsurface
trace is vertically under the line; on line BB⬘ it is shown by
the dashed line; for line CC⬘ (parallel to strike) there are
three parallel subsurface traces as indicated by the dotted
lines. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 161.)
340 superposition
nal geophones plus a hydrophone兲.
subsource: A seismic energy release 共impulsive or of
another kind兲; the records from a set of subsources are
then stacked vertically to make one profile for input to
a processing system.
subsurface coverage: 1. The locations of midpoints
assuming plane horizontal reflectors. Reflection points
do not lie under these positions if the reflectors dip. For
a single-ended spread, the subsurface coverage extends
from the midpoint between the source and the nearest
geophone group to the midpoint between the source and
the most distant geophone group, therefore of length
equal to half the spread length. 2. Sometimes the
migrated positions of the actual reflection points, thus
allowing for dip 共and possibly for velocity variations兲.
See Figure S-27. 3. The multiplicity associated with
common-midpoint data.
subsurface stacking chart: See stacking chart.
subsurface trace: The locus of subsurface reflecting
points as a seismic line is traversed, making allowance
for migration perpendicular to the line as well as along
the line. See Figure S-27.
subtractive primary colors: See primary colors.
subweathering velocity: Velocity immediately below the
base of the weathering. Often taken as the velocity of a
refraction at the base of the weathering.
sucker rods: See artificial lift.
suitcase sand: A formation found to be nonproductive.
共The drilling crew should pack their suitcases and move
on.兲
SUMIC: SUbsea seisMIC, a 4-component ocean-bottom
cable method developed by Statoil.
summation check: See check.
summation method: A method of calculating weathering
corrections to seismic arrival times. For adjacent inter-
locked split-dip profiles with sources just below the
low-velocity layer, the correction for each group is half
the sum of the first-arrival times at that group from the
two interlocking records minus the average high-
velocity time between the source points 共obtained by
subtracting the uphole time from the first-arrival time of
the group at one of the source points when the source is
fired at the other source point兲. See Figure S-22.
sun angle: Artificial illumination of a surface with the
light source 共sun兲 in an arbitrary direction 共sun decli-
nation兲 at an azimuth measured clockwise from north
and a fairly low elevation 共sun inclination兲 above the
horizon. Changing the sun direction and elevation
causes shadows that emphasize different features.
super bin: See maxibin.
superconducting magnetometers: See SQUID magneto-
meter.
supercritical reflection: A wide-angle reflection where
the incident angle exceeds the critical angle.
supergathers: Gathers from two or more adjacent bins
merged together.
superimposed mode: A display in which two presentation
modes are superimposed on each other. Often refers to
wiggle-trace superimposed on variable density or vari-
able area. See Figure D-17.
supernormal pressure: Abnormally high pressure 共q.v.兲.
superposition: 1. The situation where the same end result
is obtained by an operation on a whole input as is
obtained from the sum of the results of operations on
supervised classification
the components of the input. If ␣, ␤, and ␥ are opera-
tions to be performed on a(t) and b(t), then superpo-
sition dictates that
␥ 关 ␣ a 共 t 兲 ⫹ ␤ b 共 t 兲兴 ⫽ ␥␣ a 共 t 兲 ⫹ ␥␤ b 共 t 兲 .
Superposition allows a problem to be broken into a
number of component problems which may be easier to
solve than the entire problem, in order to solve the
larger problem. Superposition is a necessary and suffi-
cient condition for linearity; see linear system. 2. Con-
volution 共q.v.兲 involves superposition.
supervised classification: Assigning each pixel to a class
according to a specified decision rule.
supervisor: 1. The individual overseeing the work of one
or more geophysical parties. The immediate supervisor
of the party chief. 2. The function of a computer which
keeps tasks in order; executive.
suppressed layer: A layer whose resistivity is intermedi-
ate between the resistivities of the enclosing layers and
which may not be ‘‘seen’’ unless it is thick.
suppression: See initial suppression.
surface anomaly: An anomaly caused by variations at or
near the surface of the earth.
surface attributes: Seismic data measurement over a 3-D
horizon. See attribute, seismic.
surface conductivity: Conduction along the surfaces of
certain minerals due to excess ions in the diffuse layer
共q.v.兲.
surface-consistent model: The concept that all raypaths
which pass through a spatial region will be affected in
the same way and that the total effect for any element
can be obtained by summing up along the raypath. The
contributions for the different regions can be obtained
statistically from a multitude of observations. Used for
determining and removing changes because of statics,
amplitude effects, and waveshape changes 共surface-
consistent statics, surface-consistent amplitude,
surface-consistent deconvolution兲. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 18, 303–305兲.
surface corrections: Corrections of geophysical measure-
ments for near-surface anomalies and ground elevation.
surface density: 1. Mass per unit area. 2. The density used
in calculating the Bouguer correction 共q.v.兲. 3. Green’s
equivalent layer, a surface density distribution which
produces the same potential field outside the closed
surface as does the mass distribution over the volume
contained by the closed surface. See Gauss Law.
surface duct: The zone of increasing velocity just below
the sea surface where sound rays are refracted back to
the surface, where they are reflected. High-frequency
sound can travel very large distances with little attenu-
ation in this duct. See Figure C-2.
surface fitting: A method of approximating a data set by a
mathematical surface, usually of low order. Used in
residualizing 共q.v.兲; the mathematical surface represents
the regional and the departures of the original surface
from the mathematical surface represents the residual.
surface impedance: See impedance.
surface-ship gravimeter: Shipboard gravimeter 共q.v.兲.
surface SH-wave: Love wave 共q.v.兲.
surface slicing: To display samples along a surface in
map form, as with a time slice or horizon slice.
341 Swanson’s rule
surface source: A seismic energy source which is used on
the surface of the ground as opposed to one in a
borehole.
surface stacking chart: See stacking chart.
surface tension: The force acting on the surface of a
liquid that acts to minimize the surface area. Also called
interfacial tension.
surface wave: Energy which travels along 共or near to兲 the
surface. Motion involved with the wave falls off rapidly
with distance from the surface. In seismic exploration
usually refers to ground roll, but also includes Ray-
leigh, Love, hydrodynamic waves, etc. Also called an
interface wave and long wave.
surfactant: A substance that affects the properties of the
surface of a liquid or solid by concentrating on the
surface layer. The use of surfactants can ensure that one
substance is in thorough contact with the surface of
another substance.
surfactant flooding: See chemically enhanced recovery.
surfactant mud: 共s⳵r fak’ t⳵nt兲 A drilling mud prepared
by adding a surfactant to a water-base mud to change
the colloidal state of the clay from that of complete
dispersion to one of controlled floculation.
SURF diagram: A Shallow Underground Reflection Fea-
sibility diagram that shows the shallowest possible
depth of seismic or radar reflection as a function of
frequency and wave propagation velocity.
surgical mute: A sharp division in offset-time space
between elements that are retained unchanged in mag-
nitude and those deleted entirely. As opposed to a
tapered or ramped mute where the change is gradual.
Usually the data muted 共deleted兲 are those preceding
and immediately following the first breaks, including
shallow headwaves. Sometimes refers to a slice diago-
nally cutting across an x, t plot, where the values within
the slice have been set equal to zero, as might be done
to remove a ground-roll wavetrain.
survey: To determine the form, extent, position, subsur-
face characteristics, etc., of an area or prospect by
topographical, geological, or geophysical measure-
ments.
surveying: 1. Determining surface locations. Conven-
tional plane surveying is done using level and chain,
stadia, transit, plane table, or other methods. Location
networks may be resolved by traversing, triangulation,
or trilateration. Surveys over larger areas require cor-
rections for earth curvature; see spherical excess and
Legendre theorem. Various radio, sonic, and satellite
positioning methods 共q.v.兲 are used in marine and air-
borne work. Today the global positioning system 共q.v.兲
is the primary way of determining locations. 2. Carry-
ing out other types of measurements as a function of
location.
susceptibility: See magnetic susceptibility and electric
susceptibility.
SVD: Singular Value Decomposition 共q.v.兲
SV-, SH-wave: S-waves whose motion is entirely within a
vertical or horizontal plane. Converted waves are
共mostly兲 SV.
Sw: Water saturation 共q.v.兲.
swab: A means of removing fluid from a well when pres-
sure is insufficient to support flow.
Swanson’s rule: The mean of a lognormal distribution is
given by the sum of 30% of the 10th and 90th percen-
swarm
tile values and 40% of the median value.
swarm: 1. A series of minor earthquakes, none of which
may be identified as the main shock, occurring in a
limited area and time. Often of volcanic origin. 2. A
group of roughly parallel igneous intrusives 共usually
dikes兲.
swath: 1. A strip of terrain recorded by sensors at one time
or during one sweep. 2. 3D land acquisition where lines
of geophones are orthogonal to source lines.
swath method: A type of three-dimensional (3D) survey-
ing 共q.v.兲; see Figure T-4.
S-wave: A body wave in which the particle motion is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Also
called secondary wave 共undae secundae兲, shear wave,
transverse wave, rotational wave, distortional wave,
equivolumnar wave, tangential wave. S-waves are
generated by the incidence of P-waves on interfaces at
other than normal incidence, whereupon they are called
converted waves 共SV-waves兲. In an isotropic medium
the velocity of shear waves V s is given by
V s ⫽ 共 ␮ / ␳ 兲 1/2 ⫽ 兵 E/ 关 2 ␳ 共 1⫹ ␴ 兲兴 其 1/2 ,
where ␮ is the shear modulus, ␳ is the density, E is
Young’s modulus, and ␴ is Poisson’s ratio. S-waves
have two degrees of freedom and can be polarized in
various ways. See SH-wave and SV-wave. S-wave
reflection data are often displayed at half the vertical
scale of the comparable P-wave data to compensate
roughly for the differences between S-wave and P-wave
velocities; see Figure S-28. See Danbom and Domenico
共1987兲, Tatham and McCormack 共1991兲, and Garotta
共2000兲.
S-wave splitting: See shear-wave splitting.
FIG. S-28. S-wave and P-wave sections compared. „a… P-wave section; „b… S-wave section plotted at half the vertical
scale used for the P-wave section. (Courtesy CGG.)
342 Syledis
SWC, sidewall core: A sample of a formation obtained by
firing a bullet into the formation or by mechanical
coring.
sweep: 1. The frequency of a vibroseis source is varied
continuously during a ‘‘sweep’’ period, commonly 7 s
or longer. See sweep frequency and Figure V-12. 2. To
explore the effect of varying a parameter. Velocity
sweeping consists of trying various normal moveouts
on a set of common-midpoint data to see which stack-
ing velocity emphasizes desired events. Dip sweeping
is done in the sonograph process; see sonogram. 3. The
steady movement of the electron beam across a
cathode-ray screen. 4. A cycle of operations such as a
radar antenna making one rotation or a side-scan sonar
cycle.
sweep frequency: Changing the frequency of a vibroseis
source during a ‘‘sweep’’ period. In an upsweep fre-
quencies are generally increased linearly during the
sweep, in a downsweep they are decreased linearly.
Other patterns of changing the frequency during a
sweep are sometimes used.
sweep rate: The vibroseis signal bandwidth divided by
the sweep length.
sweet gas: Natural gas containing few sulfur compounds.
sweet spot: A favorable location to drill a well.
swell noise: Marine noise due to long-period changes in
the ocean surface, which changes the hydrostatic pres-
sure at the streamer.
swivel: See drill rig.
Sykes diagram: ‘‘Beach balls’’ 共see Figure F-10兲 that
indicate the type of faulting involved in earthquakes.
Syledis: 共sī lē’ d⳵s兲 A medium-range UHF pulsed-time
radiopositioning system operating in the 420– 450 MHz
symbolic language
range. Signal processing using pseudorandom noise
coding allows very accurate time measurements and
hence high accuracy. Sercel tradename.
symbolic language: A collection of symbols used in pro-
gramming to represent operation codes, functions,
addresses, etc., with rules of usage.
symmetry system: There are eight groups of symmetry
properties possessed by homogeneous solids which can
be distinguished from each other by the forms of their
elastic tensors. Rotational symmetry means that a
body is the same after rotation 共other than rotation of
2␲兲 about a symmetry axis. Mirror symmetry exists at
a plane in a body if and where the body on one side of
the plane is identical to the reflection of the body on the
other side. The symmetry systems ranked according to
the number of independent elastic constants are shown
in Figure S-29. The various systems can be thought of
as caused by parallel sets of cracks, though this may not
be how they are created. See also anisotropic (seismic).
synapse: The physical signal contact between neurons. On
FIG. S-29. Symmetry systems.
343 synthetic seismogram
receipt of the action potential at the axon terminal, a
neurotransmitter signal is released into synaptic
cleftaxon. Fibers conduct the action potential signal to
other neurons. Represented by a node in neural nets.
synchronous data link control: An IBM communications
protocol that supports transmission of binary data, mul-
tidrop devices, and multiplexing of multiple logical
links on one physical line.
synchronous detection: A method of enhancing signal
and suppressing noise by synchronizing the detection
period of the voltmeter receiver with the ‘‘on’’ cycle of
the current transmitter or reference signal.
synchronous protocol: 1. A communications protocol in
which the two stations synchronize to the carrier signal
before any data are transmitted. 2. A protocol in which
receipt of data is acknowledged before additional data
are transmitted.
syncline: A fold in stratified rocks in which the rocks dip
toward a central depression, that is, the attitude of the
rocks is concave upward; opposite of anticline.
syndepositional: Contemporaneous wiith deposition, such
as a growth fault.
synergetic: 共sin, ⳵r jet’ ik兲 A combination of data elements
such that more information is apparent from the com-
bination than from the elements treated independently.
Also spelled synergistic. Synergetic Log is a Schlum-
berger tradename.
syntax: 共sin’ taks兲 1. Rules for recording objects in sets. 2.
The rules that govern creating valid program code in a
computer language.
synthetic acoustic impedance log: A graph of acoustic
impedance, velocity, or slowness 共transit time兲 derived
by inversion of seismic data and additional constraints;
for synthetic velocity or slowness logs, additional den-
sity data are required. The vertical scale may be either
time or depth and the data may or may not have been
migrated before inversion. Also called seismic log,
synthetic sonic log, G-log, saile log, Seislog. See Fig-
ures A-3 and Lindseth 共1979兲.
synthetic aperture: The effect of a much larger antenna
achieved by summing readings as the antenna is
moved. Usually refers to radar 共SAR兲 where the dipole
antenna is transported normal to its axis to achieve
greater directivity 共effectively a larger aperture兲. See
also beam-forming.
synthetic fault: A minor fault whose throw is in the same
sense as that of the major fault with which it is associ-
ated. Opposite of antithetic fault.
synthetic seismogram: An artificial seismic reflection
record manufactured by assuming that a particular
waveform travels through an assumed model. See Fig-
ures S-30 and D-18a. 共a兲 A 1D synthetic seismogram
is formed by simply convolving an embedded wave-
form with a reflectivity function 共also called a sticko-
gram because it is usually plotted as a series of spikes
indicating the sign and magnitude of the reflectivity at
successive interfaces, the variable usually being two-
way traveltime兲. The embedded waveform is some-
times an assumed waveform 共such as a Ricker wavelet兲
and sometimes a waveform resulting from analysis of
actual seismic data 共the embedded wavelet, also called
the equivalent wavelet兲. The reflectivity function some-
times involves primary reflections only, sometimes
selected multiples are added, sometimes all multiples
synthetic seismogram 344 synthetic seismogram

are added. Sometimes earth-filtering effects 共divergence
and other attenuation effects, including frequency-
dependent absorption兲 are also simulated. The reflectiv-
ity is usually that calculated for normal incidence from
velocity and density data, but often only velocity
changes are considered because density changes are
unknown 共or else some relationship between density
and velocity is assumed兲. 共b兲 While a 1D synthetic
seismogram is a single-channel convolution 共in effect
involving vertical travel in the assumed model only and
horizontally continuous layering兲, often the model is
varied and successive 1D traces are displayed side-by-

FIG. S-30. Synthetic seismogram. „a… Schematic of manufacture process. (From Stommel and Graul, 1978.) „b…
Portion of synthetic seismogram (right half) compared to actual seismic section (left half). (Courtesy Grant-Norpac.)
synthetic seismogram 345 synthetic seismogram

FIG. S-31. Syslap method. „a… Explosion in center hole generates mainly P-waves. „b… Because of the asymmetry
produced by the explosion in the center hole, the explosion in the right hole generates S-waves as well as P-waves.
„c… The left hole produces P-waves plus S-waves of polarity opposite to those from the right hole. Subtracting records
from the right and left holes doubles the S-wave contributions and considerably reduces the P-wave contributions.
(Courtesy CGG.)

FIG. S-32. System tracts and the seismic patterns that indicate sea-level changes. Coastal onlap is evidence of a rise
of sea level, a seaward and downward shift in onlap is evidence of a fall of sea level, and a landward movement of
sediment packages is evidence of transgression. „a… Types of reflection terminations. „b… System tracts; a stratigraphic
sequence begins with a sea-level fall at the end of a highstand tract (HST) and ends with the next highstand tract. A
lowstand tract (LST) is the first unit after a large sea-level fall, lying on top of a type 1 sequence boundary (SB1). It is
subdivided into basin-floor fan (bf), slope fan (sf), and lowstand wedge (lsw). A rapid rise of sea level produces a
transgressive tract (TST), at the top of which there lies the maximum flooding surface (mfs) and a thin, fossil-rich
condensed section. The first unit after a sea-level fall that does not fall below the shelf edge (type-2 sequence boundary,
SB2) is a shelf-margin tract (SMST). (From Vail, 1987, 2, 4.)
synthetic sonic log 346
side to simulate a seismic section. It is used to compare
with an actual seismogram to aid in identifying events
or to predict how variations in the model might appear
on a seismic section. 共c兲 A two-dimensional synthetic
seismogram allows for wave effects including reflec-
tions from dipping reflectors, diffractions, etc. Usually
only 2D effects are included but occasionally true 3D
effects are included. Often only coincident source and
receiver are modeled, but sometimes offset-dependent
effects are included, occasionally including head
waves, surface waves, and other wave modes. It some-
times involves stratigraphic modeling. 共d兲 A 1.5D syn-
thetic seismogram includes AVO effects. The making
of a synthetic seismogram is an example of direct
modeling.
synthetic sonic log: 1. A sonic log manufactured from
seismic data. See synthetic acoustic impedance log. 2.
A sonic log manufactured from other logs.
Syslap method: 共sīs’lap兲 A method of generating an
S-wave record. See Figure S-31. Tradename of CGG.
system: 1. An assemblage united by interactions. For
example, the seismic system includes the earth, geo-
phones, amplifiers, seismic wave transmission through
the earth, recording, processing, and final presentation.
system tract
2. A chronostratigraphic subdivision; see stratigraphic
classification.
systematic error: Error not attributable to chance alone.
Systematic errors generally do not average out merely
by including more measurements. They may be caused
by bias produced by the instruments 共for example,
incorrect scale factor or incorrect zero兲, by the observer
or measuring procedures 共for example, not selecting
representative samples or altering samples before the
measurements兲, or by the action of factors or physical
laws that are not properly allowed for or understood.
Most geophysical noise is systematic.
system deconvolution: See deconvolution.
system response: The response of an electromagnetic sys-
tem to an ideal spike input signal.
system tract: A subdivision within a sequence: lowstand,
transgressive, highstand system tracts 共see individual
entries and Figure S-32; see also shelf-margin tract兲.
System tracts result from a linkage of contemporaneous
depositional systems. Each is associated with a specific
segment of a eustatic curve and is characterized by
geometry and facies associations. They result from the
interaction of eustasy, sediment supply, and isostatic
subsidence. Often spelled systems tract.
 T
T: 1. Tera, the SI prefix for 10 12 . 2. Tesla, the SI unit of
magnetic field strength; equals 1 weber/m2 or 1 N/A.m.
3. Period; the time between adjacent corresponding
points on a periodic wave; the reciprocal of frequency.
See Figure W-2.
T1,T2: See nuclear magnetic resonance log
␶: Tau 共q.v.兲.
tab: 1. An indicator of where data begin or end. 2. A
special character which indicates that the next character
should be placed at some predetermined position. 3. To
indent.
TABS: 1. Three-component geophone 共q.v.兲. 2. TriAxial
Borehole Seismometer.
tabular body: A body of finite thickness with one edge
horizontal but other edges infinitely remote; an infinite
dike. Implies that a body’s width is more than 50 times
its thickness. Used as a model in potential field calcu-
lations. See Figure M-15.
tactical characteristics: Characteristics which determine
manuverability under various conditions.
tadpole plot: A type of plot of dipmeter or drift results; an
arrow plot. The position of a dot gives the dip angle
versus depth and a line segment pointing from the dot
gives the direction of dip, using the usual map conven-
tion of north being up. See Figure D-14.
Tafel’s law: An empirical relationship between overvolt-
age ␩ and current density J at an anode or cathode:
␩ ⫽a⫺b log10 J,
where a and b are experimentally determined constants.
This law applies over a greater current-density range
than is used in IP field measurements.
Tagg method: A method of interpreting resistivity-
sounding data obtained with the Wenner array over a
two-layered earth.
tail buoy: A floating marker, usually with a reflector to aid
in its location by radar, attached to the end of a seismic
streamer. An active tail buoy has its own power source
and GPS unit for determination of position.
tail end: The portion of a seismic line behind the source,
that is, in the direction from which the source has been
moving.
tailing: Lengthening of a waveform, as by adding extra
cycles.
tail mute: Deleting data that arrive after some boundary
drawn in offset-time space. Used to eliminate ground
roll, air waves, or similar slow wavetrains. Also called
inside mute.
tail stinger: A mounting for an instrument 共often a mag-
netometer兲 that protrudes from the tail of a survey
aircraft.
takeout: A connection point to a multiconductor cable
where geophones or geophone flyers can be connected.
Takeouts are usually polarized to reduce the likelihood
of making the connection backwards.
Talwani inversion: Gravity interpretation that assumes
only one contrast at the top of a homogeneous layer
347
composed of vertical prisms. Differences between the
gravity calculated from the model and observed gravity
is used to change the depths to the prisms iteratively.
Talwani modeling: 共tal wa’ nē兲 1. The gravity field of a
body is represented by horizontal polygonic thin layers
and the field of each is calculated. It can accommodate
density variation with depth. See Talwani et al. 共1959兲.
2. Potential-field models of polygonal cross-section and
very great 共infinite兲 strike length. Named for Manik
Talwani 共1933–兲, American geophysicist.
tamp: To pack material about an explosive in a shothole.
The objectives of tamping are better coupling of the
explosive energy with the earth and retarding the expul-
sion of the gaseous and other products of the explosion,
thereby improving the conversion of explosive energy
to seismic energy and delaying hole-blow effects. Water
or mud is usually used, sometimes sand and earth.
tamper: An earth compactor used as an energy source
with Sosie 共q.v.兲; whacker.
tandem survey: Electromagnetic survey method in which
both transmitting and receiving coils are moved simul-
taneously, maintaining a constant separation between
them. Equivalent to moving-source method.
tangential stress: Shearing stress; see stress.
tangential wave: S-wave 共q.v.兲.
tangent projection: See map projection.
tape: 1. A magnetic tape 共q.v.兲. 2. A survey chain 共q.v.兲.
tape-guide pins: Pins of nonmagnetic material which help
position magnetic tape and prevent tape skew 共q.v.兲.
taper: To become smaller gradually, such as values at the
edge of a survey gradually decreasing to prevent a
discontinuity at the edge of the survey or as the multi-
plicity at the end of a seismic line decreases regularly.
See also tapered array.
tapered array: A source or geophone array in which
elements contribute unequally. Tapered source arrays
may be achieved by loading different amounts of explo-
sives in different shotholes of a pattern, by varying the
number of source impulses 共pops, weight drops, etc.兲 or
their spacing, or by varying the weighting while vertical
stacking. Tapered geophone or hydrophone arrays may
be achieved by varying the output of the different
elements, the spacing of the elements, or 共most com-
monly兲 the number of elements at each location. Array
tapering is used to change the directivity pattern. Gen-
erally the attenuation in the reject region is made
greater and more nearly constant but at the price of
widening the major lobe 共for the same number of ele-
ments and overall array size兲. See Figure D-15c.
tapered sweep: Vibroseis sweep where source varies as
A 共 t 兲 cos关共 ␻ o ⫾b 共 t 兲 t 兴 ,
A(t) being the time-dependent factor that produces the
tapering. Most vibroseis sweeps are tapered for 100–
200 ms at the start and end of the sweep to make it
easier on the equipment and to avoid the undesirable
tapered window 348
effects of a sharp start or stop discontinuity. Compare
nonlinear sweep.
tapered window: Window or gate with gradual edges.
Compared to an abrupt boxcar window, a tapered win-
dow lessens the dependence on high frequencies
required to represent it adequately, simplifying many
types of processing. Some tapers in common use are
shown in Figure W-12. See also Gibbs’ phenomena.
taper mix: See mixing.
taphrogenic: A term referring to regional block-faulting
tectonics. See tectonic types.
tap test: A recording made as a geophone is tapped
lightly, showing which channel that geophone feeds.
Used to check that the spread is properly connected and
oriented and also that the geophone is live.
TAR: True-Amplitude Recovery; a process for removing
the effects of variable gain in the field recording and
adjusting the amplitude to compensate for spherical
divergence and other time-dependent attenuation.
tare: See tear.
target: 1. The object at which a survey sighting is aimed.
2. A sliding marker on a stadia rod on which one sights
while leveling.
Tarrant method: A graphical refraction interpretation
method applicable where refractor shape varies; see
Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 440-441兲 or Tarrant 共1956兲.
task: A piece of a computation.
task force: A team of people usually of different disci-
plines assigned to solve a specific problem.
tau „␶…: 1. Time to reach a background: see pulsed neutron
capture log. 2. Intercept time; see tau-p mapping.
tau-gamma „␶-␥… mapping: See tau-p mapping.
tau-p „␶-p… domain: See tau-p mapping and Figure T-1.
tau-p mapping „␶-p…: An unstacked seismic record or a
FIG. T-1. Tau-p (␶-p… mapping. „a… An end-on seismic record is f(x,t) where x⫽source-geophone distance (offset) and
t⫽arrival time. „b… Its tau-p transform is F( ␶ ,p) where p⫽dt/dx⫽1/V a and ␶ ⫽intercept time at x⫽0. The reciprocal of
the apparent velocity, p, is called slowness. Hyperbolic reflections transform into ellipses, straight events into points (the
direct wave into P 1 , the head wave into P 2 ).
TCA
common-midpoint gather can be described in terms of
slope dt/dx⫽p and intercept time ␶, the arrival time
obtained by projecting the slope back to x⫽O, where
x⫽source-geophone distance; see Figure T-1. The
transform process is also called slant stack, the Radon
transform, and plane-wave decomposition. Filtering
can be done on the ␶ -p map and the filtered result
transformed back into a record. Negative offsets can be
padded with zeroes to avoid wrap-wound problems. See
Diebold and Stoffa 共1981兲. Similar to tau-gamma
mapping, where gamma is angle of emergence,
gamma⫽ ␥ ⫽sin⫺1(pV0).
Taylor series: A function f (x) can be expressed in terms
of the value of the function and its derivatives at any
point x⫽b. In one variable this is
d f 共b兲 d2 f 共b兲
f 共 x 兲⫽ f 共 b 兲⫹ 共 x⫺b 兲 ⫹ 共 x⫺b 兲 2
1!dx 2!dx 2
d3 f 共b兲
⫹ 共 x⫺b 兲 3 ⫹ . . . ,
3!dx 3
where ! denotes factorial 共e.g., 3!⫽3•2•1⫽6 兲. This
series converges if
d f 共 b 兲 /dx
limit 共 x⫺b 兲 Ⰶ1.
n→⬁ n f n⫺b 共 b 兲
Named for Brook Taylor 共1685–1731兲, English math-
ematician. The Maclaurin series is the special case
where b⫽0.
TB: Time Break 共q.v.兲.
TBRT: Thin Bed Resistivity Tool 共q.v.兲.
TCA: Time of Closest Approach 共q.v.兲.
Tchebyscheff array 349
Tchebyscheff array: Chebyshev array 共q.v.兲.
TCP: Thickness-Conductivity Product.
TCR: Through-Casing Resistivity.
TD: Total Depth, the maximum depth reached by a well.
T-D curve: 1 Time-Distance curve 共q.v.兲. 2. Plot of Time-
Depth chart 共q.v.兲 data.
T2-D2: X 2 -T 2 ; see X 2 -T 2 analysis.
T-⌬T analysis: Normal moveout (⌬t) as a function of
offset 共x兲 and arrival time 共t兲 that can be used to yield
stacking velocity (V s ):
V s ⫽x/ 共 2t⌬t 兲 1/2 .
See velocity.
TDEM⫽TEM: Time-Domain ElectroMagnetic method,
a controlled-source method. See transient electromag-
netic method.
TE: 1. Transverse Electric 共q.v.兲. 2. Interecho spacing in
nuclear-magnetic-resonance logging.
tear: A discontinuity in data usually indicating an error in
measurement or computation rather than an actual jump
in the quantity being measured. Sometimes spelled
tare.
tear fault: A type of strike-slip fault; see Figure F-4.
tectogene: 共tek’ t⳵ jēn’兲 A downbuckling of the Earth’s
crust.
tectonics: Major structural features produced by uplift,
downwarp, compression, or faulting, with the more
significant lineations associated with such features.
‘‘Tectonic map’’ is usually applied to maps covering
large areas while maps of smaller areas showing the
same features are called structural maps.
tectonic types: Four types of broad structural deforma-
tions are 共a兲 orogenic or mountain-building involving
lateral forces, folding, and thrusting; 共b兲 epirogenic or
relatively gentle warping, 共c兲 taphrogenic involving
mainly vertical forces and block faulting, and 共d兲 lin-
eagenic involving strike-slip faulting.
tectonophysics: See geophysics.
tectonosphere: 共tek ton’ ō sphēr兲 The portion of the Earth
above the point of isostatic balance, that is involved in
tectonic activity.
telemetering: The transmission of data over a distance,
such as from a point of observation to a recording point.
Used to transmit to the recording unit data which are
digitized near the geophones, either over a wire or by
radio. Telemetered time signals can be used for syn-
chronous detection of resistivity and IP signals.
teleprocessing: A data-processing and communications
system which permits input/output devices to be remote
from the processing devices.
teleseism: An earthquake whose epicenter is over 1000
km away. Earthquakes originating nearer are ‘‘local’’
earthquakes.
televiewer: See borehole televiewer.
telluric: Of the earth. Often refers specifically to telluric
currents 共q.v.兲.
telluric current: 共te loor’ ik兲 A natural electrical earth
current of low frequency which extends over a large
region. Telluric currents originate in variations of the
Earth’s magnetic field that are induced by ionospheric
changes.
telluric-current method: A method in which orthogonal
components of the horizontal electric field associated
with currents induced in the earth by natural sources of
template
energy are measured simultaneously at two or more
stations. The measurements from one station, which
serves as a base, are used to normalize the measure-
ments from other stations to compensate for variation
of the source with time. The normalized measurements,
plotted as vectors at each station, may outline an ellipse
if signals from several different azimuths are recorded
as the source changes. The relative area of the ellipse at
each station is 共ideally兲 inversely proportional to the
conductance of the sedimentary section above the base-
ment. The orientation of the ellipse yields information
about the direction of current flow.
telluric magnetotelluric method: A reconnaisance mag-
netotelluric method where the magnetic field at one site
is used with the telluric fields measured at neighboring
sites. Also called EMAP.
telluric profiling: A rarely used reconnaissance resistivity
method in which an array of three inline electrodes
emplaced along the traverse line form two consecutive
grounded electric dipoles, with the central electrode in
common. Signals from the two dipoles are filtered
about a band of high geomagnetic activity 共e.g., periods
of the order of 20 s兲 to yield amplitude ratio and phase
difference. The array is leap-frogged along the survey
line to obtain continuous relative electric-field intensity
ratios. When successively multiplied together, the ratios
yield a relative amplitude profile of the component of
the electric field in the traverse line direction. Explora-
tion depth varies inversely with frequency and usually
two or more frequencies are recorded and analyzed.
Also known as inline tellurics or E-field-ratio tellu-
rics. See Beyer 共1977兲.
tellurometer: An electronic survey instrument for mea-
suring distances with great accuracy. A high-frequency
(3⫻10 9 Hz) radio pulse is transmitted to the ‘‘rod’’
transponder, where it is retransmitted back to the master
transmitter that measures the time that has elapsed since
the original transmission. Accuracy of a few inches in
several miles can be achieved with proper corrections
共mainly for moisture content of the air兲. Line-of-sight
limited. Tradename of Tellurometer, Ltd.
TEM: 1. Transient ElectroMagnetic method 共q.v.兲. 2.
Transmission Electron Microscopy.
temperature log: A well log of temperature, often made
with a resistance thermometer 共thermistor兲. Used for
locating 共a兲 cement behind the casing 共because the
setting of cement is exothermic and hence raises tem-
perature兲, 共b兲 intervals which are producing gas
共because the expansion of gas as it enters the borehole
lowers the temperature兲, and 共c兲 fluid flows 共particu-
larly behind the casing兲. The differential-temperature
log records the difference between two thermometers
which are usually about 6 ft apart; this log is especially
sensitive to very small changes in temperature gradient.
temperature surveying: Measurements of temperature to
locate thermal-energy sources or to investigate ground-
water problems, thermal springs, karst cavities, sulfide
deposits, dikes, structure 共faults兲 affecting groundwater
flow, etc. See geothermal prospecting.
template: 1. A pattern. 2. A sheet of transparent plastic
marked with statics or normal-moveout patterns; used
as a guide in picking seismic events. 3. A transparent
overlay for calculating gravity or magnetic effects such
as a dot chart 共q.v.兲. Templates are used for terrain
template scan
correction, isostatic correction, or residualizing. See
also graticule, patch, and zone chart. 4. The nominal
geometry 共active receivers兲 for a single source emis-
sion. 5. A subsea assembly to space boreholes under a
production platform.
template scan: Filtering with a matched filter 共q.v.兲.
temporal frequency: Ordinary frequency 共q.v.兲, i.e.,
cycles per unit time, as opposed to spatial frequency or
wave number, cycles per unit distance.
tensor: A set of functions of the coordinates. A rectangular
array of coefficients for a system of linear equations.
Concerned with how point functions change with a
change in coordinates, that is, how a function trans-
forms into another coordinate system. If a tensor can be
expressed in terms of partial derivatives of one coordi-
nate set with respect to another, it is an Einstein-Ricci
tensor; for example,
P in 共 x 兲 ⫽ 关 dy m /dx n 兴共 dx i /dy k 兲 P mk 共 y 兲 ,
where P in (x) and P in (y) represent stresses in the x- and
y-coordinate systems, respectively. Tensors of identical
type are parallel. The norm of a tensor equals the sum
of the squares of its components, that is, the square of
its magnitude. The scalar product of two tensors
equals the sum of the products of corresponding com-
ponents; it also equals the product of the two magni-
tudes multiplied by the cosine of the generalized angle
between the tensors. Nonzero stress and strain tensors
are mutually orthogonal if the corresponding strain-
energy density vanishes.
tensor gradient: A nine-component symmetric tensor that
defines the rate of change of the three components of a
potential-field gradient:
冏 冏
F xx F xy F xz
F yx Fyy F yz . thermal capacity: The ability of a material to store heat.
F zx F zy F zz
For the field F, the rate of change in the j direction of
the gradient in the i direction is Fij.
tensor impedance: The impedance obtained from total-
vector measurements of the electric and magnetic
fields. The vector electric field E and the vector current-
density field J are related by the resistivity tensor ␳ in
which E⫽ ␳ J; in an isotropic material ␳ is a scalar.
tensor magnetotelluric method: A magnetotelluric
method 共q.v.兲 in which orthogonal measurements of
both horizontal magnetic and electric fields are made
(H x ,H y ,E x ,E y ) so that the impedance can be described
as a complex tensor to account for anisotropy or two-
dimensional structure.
terminal: An input and/or output device for a computer.
Terra: The first of NASA’s EOS spacecraft was launched
early in the year 2000. It carries five remote sensing
instruments especially to cover land areas. The MODIS
and ASTER instruments on this spacecraft will prob-
ably be most used by the geophysical community. Two
other EOS spacecraft with instruments of superior char-
acteristics for studying the hydrosphere and the atmo-
sphere were to be launched in 2000 and 2001.
terrain correction: 1. A correction to gravity data
required because the surroundings are not all at the
same elevation as the meter. Relief in the immediate
350 thermal imaging
vicinity of the station may require special surveying
共terrain surveying兲, whereas corrections for more
remote relief often are made from a topographic map
using a terrain-correction template or zone chart. 2. A
correction to seismic data because of the effect of
topographic loading on velocity. 3. A correction to
magnetic or electrical data because of terrain effects.
terrane: 共t⳵ rān’ or ter’ ān兲 A body of regional extent,
whose geological history differs from that of surround-
ing terranes. At least one of the terranes is allochtho-
nous and adjacent terranes were fused to it by collision
at an active plate margin. Often fault-bounded.
terrestrial magnetism: See magnetic field of the Earth
and geophysics.
tertiary recovery: Enhanced oil recovery 共q.v.兲.
tesla „T…: A unit of magnetic induction B. 1
tesla ⫽1 weber/m2 ⫽1 newton/amp.m ⫽ 10 4 gauss
⫽ 10 9 gamma. 1 nanotesla⫽1 gamma. Named for
Nikola Tesla 共1851–1943兲, American inventor.
tessalation: A surface approximation by contiguous poly-
gons using triangles without gaps or overlapping.
tetrahedron: A four-sided solid whose faces are triangles.
texture: The frequency of change and arrangement of
tones in an image.
Thalen method: The depth of a magnetic source is 0.7
times the horizontal distance between selected maxima
and minima. See also depth rules.
themes: Ground-truth for Landsat.
thematic mapper: A remote-sensing device which mea-
sures the radiation in frequency bands which are sensi-
tive to variation in vegetation 共for example兲. A part of
the Landsat D satellite. Aeroservice tradename.
theodolite: 共thē od’ ⳵ līt,兲 A precision survey instrument;
see transit and Figure T-12.
theoretical gravity: Values given by the International
Gravity Formula 共q.v.兲.
thermal conductivity: The heat flow across a surface per
unit area per unit time divided by the negative of the
rate of change of temperature perpendicular to the
surface. Also called heat conductivity.
thermal-decay-time log „TDT…: See neutron-lifetime log.
TDT is a Schlumberger tradename.
thermal diffusivity: A quantity which relates to how long
it takes for a remote thermal event to have perceptible
effect on temperature. The value k/ ␳ c p , where k
⫽thermal conductivity, ␳ ⫽density, and c p ⫽specific
heat at constant pressure. For most rocks it is of the
order of 15– 60 km2/Ma.
thermal enhanced-recovery methods: Methods that
involve heating a reservoir to improve the production of
heavy viscous crudes. Methods include steam stimula-
tion 共huff and puff兲, steam flooding, and in-situ com-
bustion 共see individual entries兲. Other enhanced oil
recovery 共EOR兲 methods include miscible and chemi-
cal flooding.
thermal gradient: The rate of temperature increase within
the Earth as a function of depth.
thermal gradient hole: A hole logged by a temperature
probe to determine the thermal gradient. Usually
involves a hole less than 500 ft deep drilled specifically
for this purpose.
thermal imaging: Mapping with infrared radiation. See
thermal-infrared.
thermal inertia 351
thermal inertia: A composite thermal property, k/K 1/2 ,
where k is thermal conductivity and K is thermal diffu-
sivity, that is, it is a measure of the response of a
material to temperature changes induced from outside
the material.
thermal-infrared: A remote-sensing method in which an
infrared beam outside the natural thermal range is
swept back and forth across the earth from an aircraft
and the reflected energy recorded. The display often
simulates an aerial photograph. Thermal infrared sur-
veys have to be carried out at night to avoid solar
radiation effects.
thermal methods: See thermal enhanced-recovery meth-
ods.
thermal neutron: A neutron whose motion energy corre-
sponds to ambient temperatures; neutrons with mean
energies of the order of 0.025 electron volts. See also
neutron log.
thermal-neutron decay-time log „TDT…: See pulsed
neutron-capture log and neutron-lifetime log. TDT is a
Schlumberger tradename.
thermal noise: Noise resulting from random thermal
energy; Johnson noise. The mean-square voltage
because of thermal noise in an electrical circuit varies
as the absolute temperature, bandwidth, and resistance.
thermal-relaxation time: See nuclear-magnetism log.
thermal remanent magnetism „TRM…: See remanent
magnetism.
thermistor: A device whose electrical resistance varies
with temperature. Used to measure the temperature and
hence the velocity of sea water 共assuming the salinity兲.
thermocline: 共thur’ m⳵ klīn,兲 The decrease in water tem-
perature and increase in density with depth in the
ocean. A region of rapid temperature decrease 共about
1.5°C/m兲 usually extends from 10–500 m to 1500 m.
FIG. T-2. Thermodynamic functions
thin-bed resistivity tool „TBRT…
thermocouple: Two dissimilar conductors welded
together at one end. When the junction is heated, a
voltage develops across it which is proportional to the
temperature difference between the junction and the
open ends.
thermodynamic functions: 共thur’ mō dī nam, ik兲 See
Figure T-2. The first law of thermodynamics simply
recognizes that heat is a form of energy and thus a
factor in the conservation of energy. The second law
states that a cyclic heat engine requires a difference of
temperature over which to operate. These laws may be
expressed as
dU⫽TdS⫺ PdV,
where U⫽intrinsic energy and dU⫽⳵Q⫺⳵W,
T⫽temperature⫽(⳵u/⳵s) v , S⫽entropy and dS
⫽⳵Q/T, P⫽pressure⫽⫺(⳵u/⳵v ) s , V⫽volume, Q
⫽heat, W⫽work, and a subscript indicates a variable
which remains constant during a differentiation; u
⫽intrinsic energy/unit mass, s⫽entropy/unit mass,
v ⫽volume/unit mass⫽specific volume. Only two of
the variables u, s, T, v , P are independent and describe
the state of a substance; an equation of state is a
relation among any three.
thermoelectric coupling: The ratio of the voltage differ-
ence to the temperature difference.
thermoremanence: See remanent magnetism.
thief zone: 1. A permeable member that allows borehole
fluids to enter. 2. A permeable unit that allows fluid flow
to bypass portions of a reservoir.
thin-bed effect: Adjacent beds may cause log measure-
ments in thin beds to be too low or too high.
thin-bed resistivity tool „TBRT…: A laterolog with a
single button on a pad that has guard electrodes for
thin-bed resistivity tool „TBRT… 352 thin-bed resistivity tool „TBRT…

FIG. T-3. 3D control plots show the distribution of multiplicity, offsets, azimuths, etc. in various bins; they permit
visualizing the uniformity that has been achieved. The black squares and green circles show source and geophone
locations. The distribution of offsets „a… and azimuths „b… is not completely uniform even in a land survey where the
acquisition is regular. Minor deviations in streamer location produce multiplicity irregularities in a marine survey „c… that
are partially alleviated by flexible binning. (From Yilmaz, 2000, 1023, 1032, 1033.)
thin-layer anisotropy 353
FIG. T-3c.
focusing. Has a bed resolution of about 2 inches and
return of about 20 feet. Baker-Atlas trademark.
thin-layer anisotropy: See transverse isotropy.
thin, thick layers: A layer is regarded as ‘‘thin’’ when its
thickness is less than 1/4 of the dominant wavelength.
The thickness of individual thin layers cannot be deter-
mined by time measurements but sometimes can be
determined by amplitude measurements 共see tuning
effect兲, whereas the thickness of a thick layer is deter-
mined mainly from time difference measurements.
thinÕthick dike: A thick dike is a vertical body whose
width is about the same as, or greater than, the depth to
its top. The width of a thin dike is much less than the
depth of its top; also called thin sheet.
third-order sequence: A sequence 共q.v.兲 deposited in 1–3
million years 共Van Wagoner, 1995兲.
thixotropic: 共thik sō’ tr⳵ pik兲 A property of gels which
allows them to become liquid when agitated. Drilling
muds are often thixotropic.
Thomsen anisotropic parameters „tom’ s⳵n兲: The rela-
tionship between the stress ␴ and strain ␧ vectors for
polar anisotropic 共transversely isotropic兲 media can be
expressed as ␴⫽C␧, where C is the stiffness tenaor as
shown in Figure H-7. With the z-axes as the symmetry
axis, we have
Thomsen anisotropic parameters „tom’ s⳵n…
The five independent constants, c11 , c13 , c33 , c44 , c66 ,
for weak anisotropy have been combined into the
Thomsen parameters that relate more directly to seis-
mic data:
␣ 储 ⫽(c 33 / ␳ ) 1/2 ⫽ P-wave velocity parallel to the sym-
metry axis;
␤ 储 ⫽(c 44 / ␳ ) 1/2 ⫽ S-wave velocity parallel to the sym-
metry axis;
␧(epsilon)⫽(c 11 ⫺c 33 )/(2c 33 )⫽( ␣⬜ ⫺ ␣ 储 )/2 ␣ 储
⫽ 21 fractional change in the P-wave velocity;
␥ (gamma)⫽(c 66 ⫺c 44 )/(2c 44 ).⫽( ␤⬜ ⫺ ␤ 储 )/2 ␤ 储
⫽ 21 fractional change in the S-wave velocity;
(c ⫺c ) 2 ⫺(c ⫺c ) 2
␦ (delta) ⫽ 21 13 c 44(c ⫺c33 ) 44 ,
33 33 44
where c i j indicate elements in the stiffness matrix. Note
that ␧, ␥ and ␦ are dimensionless and have values
smaller than 0.5, frequently much smaller. For longer
offsets another parameter, ␩ 共eta兲, captures the devia-
tion of the long-offset P-wave moveout from what it
would have been for an isotropic medium:
␩ ⫽ 共 ␧⫺ ␦ 兲 / 共 1⫹2 ␦ 兲 .
For weak polar anisotropy, the velocities of P- and
S-waves at the angle ␪ with the symmetry axis are:
␣ 2 共 ␪ 兲 ⫽ ␣ 0 关 1⫹␧sin2 ␪ cos2 ␪ ⫹␧sin4 ␪ 兴 ,
␤⬜ 2 共 ␪ 兲 ⫽ ␤ 储 0 关 1⫹ ␣ 0 / ␤ 储 0 兴 2 共 ␧⫺ ␦ 兲 sin2 ␪ cos2 ␪ ],
␤ 储 2 共 ␪ 兲 ⫽ ␤ 储 0 关 1⫹ ␥ sin2 ␪ 兴 .
Thomson scattering 354 Thornburgh’s method

See polar anistropy 共transverse isotropy兲, Thomsen
共1986兲, Alkhalifah and Tsvankin 共1995兲, and Thomsen
共2002兲.
Thomson scattering: 共tom’ s⳵n兲 Scattering of electromag-
netic radiation by free or loosely-bound charged par-
ticles. The transverse electric field of the radiation
accelerates the charged particles which then re-radiate
the energy removed from the primary radiation. A non-
relativistic interaction. Named for Joseph John Thom-
son 共1856 –1940兲, British physicist.
Thomson-Haskell method: A frequency-domain method
for plane waves propagating in a multilayered half-
space. A layer-by-layer solution, used for body-wave
propagation and surface-wave dispersion problems. See
Haskell 共1953兲.
Thornburgh’s method: 共thorn’ burgz兲 A refraction inter-
pretation method that uses Huygens’ principle to con-
struct wavefronts from reciprocal source points, work-
ing backward from the observed arrival times at the
surface. The velocities above the refractor must be

FIG. T-4. 3D surveying. „a… Use of a cross-current to pull streamer off to the side; streamer positions are shown at 15
minute intervals. „b… Use of paravanes to pull marine source arrays to the side. Paravanes are also used to pull stramers
to each side; sometimes as many as 12 streamers are used with two source arrays firing alternately, giving as many as
24 parallel seismic lines on one pass with the seismic ship. „c… Wide-line layout. „d… Block layout; usually several parallel
geophone lines are recorded from several parallel source lines, producing multiple coverage over a rectangle having half
the dimensions of the source and geophone lines. Most land surveys employ several parallel lines of geophones and
several orthogonal lines of sources to build up the multiplicity. See also Figure B-7. „e… Loop pattern of geophones and
sources produces midpoints within the loop without the need to enter inside the loop. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995,
454, 455, 456.)
Thornburgh’s method 355 Thornburgh’s method

FIG. T-4. 3-D surveying (Continued)

FIG. T-5. 3D data cube obtained from a set of closely spaced north-south lines. „a… Isometric diagram of the volume
these traces occupy. The easternmost north-south section is shown along with the southernmost east-west section
made from the southernmost traces on each north-south line. „b… The data set with the topmost portion removed; the top
now constitutes a time slice. „c… The data sliced along one reflection constitutes a horizon slice. „d… An arbitrary line
cuts through the data volume, perhaps to connect well locations. „e… A fault slice runs parallel to a fault but displaced
a small distance from it. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 459.)
Thornburgh’s method 356 Thornburgh’s method

FIG. T-6. 3D data displays. (a) Isometric chair display (Brown, 1999, 204), „b… several lines and a horizon slice
(Courtesy Prakla-Seismos AG.).
three-array
known for the construction. See wavefront method and
Thornburgh 共1930兲 or Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 442兲.
three-array: A special case of the pole-dipole array in
which the three electrodes are equally spaced. See
array (electrical).
3-C: Three component.
3-C, 3D survey: A three-dimensional survey employing
three-component geophones. See Tatham and McCor-
mack 共1991兲.
three-component „3-C… geophone: A sensor that records
three mutually orthogonal components of particle
velocity. Provides the information for determining the
type of wave responsible for an event and its direction
of approach.
3D: Three-dimensional.
3D land data format standards: See SEG Technical
Standards Committee 共1995兲.
3D survey: A survey involving collection of data over an
area with the objective of determining spatial relations
in three dimensions, as opposed to determining compo-
nents along separated survey lines. Various field
arrangements are used; see Figure T-4. The data from
such a survey constitute a volume 共Figure T-5兲 which
can be displayed in different ways; examples are shown
in Figure T-6. See Brown 共1999兲 and Weimer and Davis
共1996兲.
three-layer resistivity models: Models of horizontal elec-
trical layers are given ‘‘type’’ names; see Figure T-7.
The curves for such models 共type curves兲 are used in
the interpretation of electrical-resistivity observations.
Compare layered earth.
three-point method: 1. A method for locating a station by
taking backsights on three previously located stations.
2. Determining geographic position by the intersection
of bearing lines from three stations. 3. Determining the
strike and dip of a bed from the location and elevation
of three points on the bed.
three-point operator: An operator having only three non-
zero points, such as the smoother 关1/4, 1/2, 1/4兴.
threshold: The lower limit that will produce a phenom-
enon. For example, the IP saturation threshold is the
current density above which the IP phenomenon
becomes nonlinear.
throats: The connections between pores in a rock matrix.
through-casing resistivity log: A measurement of the
resistivity behind casing by taking second derivative
measurements. Vertical resolution is 1–2 feet.
throw: The vertical component of separation of a rock
unit 共bed兲 by a fault. See Figure F-2.
thrust fault: A reverse fault, especially a low-angle
reverse fault where the dip of the fault plane is gener-
ally less than 30°. See Figures F-3 and F-4.
Thumper: Device for dropping a weight to provide seis-
mic energy. Typically a three-ton weight is dropped 10
ft. Tradename of Geosource Inc.
Tiburg rule: A depth rule 共q.v.兲 used in magnetic-data
interpretation: the depth to a pole is 2/3 the horizontal
distance at half the maximum amplitude.
tidal correction: A correction to gravity measurements to
compensate for the attraction of the Sun and Moon.
Sometimes included as part of the drift correction. See
tidal effect.
tidal effect: Variations in gravity observations resulting
from the attraction of the Moon and Sun and the dis-
357 timbre
tortion of the Earth so produced. Tidal corrections to
gravity observations are made by means of tables or are
included with drift corrections.
tidal statics: Small time-dependent statics corrections
because of water-depth variations produced by tides.
tidal wave: See tsunami.
tie: Observations repeated at previously observed points,
with the objective of establishing the relationship of
two data sets or to check for error.
tie-in: To relate a new station to previously established
stations.
tie-line: A survey line which connects other survey lines.
Especially such a line which closes a traverse loop.
tie-time: See time tie.
tight: 1. Having very low permeability. 2. Data held con-
fidential.
tight hole: A well about which information is kept secret.
Also spelled tite hole.
TIH, TIV anisotropy: Polar anisotropy 共q.v.兲 or Trans-
verse Isotropy with a Horizontal, Vertical axis of sym-
metry.
tilt: Pitch 共q.v.兲.
TILT: Transverse Induction Logging Tool, a tool designed
to measure conductivity in the bedding plane.
tilt angle: See polarization ellipse.
tilting strip: A list of remote-sensing data about the acqui-
sition. Often shows a spirit level, altimeter, clock, cam-
era identifier, focal length of the camera, and a counter.
tiltmeter: An instrument for measuring minute tilting of
the surface, such as might result from production-
associated subsidence, fault movement, etc. Used as a
predicator of volcanic and earthquake activity.
tilt table: A device on which a meter can be mounted and
then tilted by precisely known amounts. Used to test
geophones and to calibrate certain kinds of gravimeters.
timbre: Musical quality whereby notes of similar pitch
and amplitude can be distinguished, e.g., those pro-
duced by different instruments. Involves differences in
the overtones and harmonics.
FIG. T-7. Three-layer resistivity types.
timbre 358 timbre

FIG. T-8. „a… Refraction time-distance curves R A ,R B ⫽reflections from A,B. H A ,H B ⫽head waves at A,B. W A , W B
⫽wide-angle reflections from A,B. „b… Wavefront diagram showing first arrivals. „c… Wavefront diagram showing first
arrivals from an idealized salt dome. „d… Composite time-distance curves (dashed lines) constructed from arrival
curves from sources 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (solid lines). Refraction portions from sources 2, 3, and 4 have been displaced
upward to show the ‘‘equivalent arrival times’’ as if the profiles from these sources had been longer. Such displaced
curves should overlap for confidence and show the same reciprocal time t r . Actual time-distance curves from these
sources might have been different if another refractor had been reached (e.g., dotted lines).
time
time: 1. Record time 共q.v.兲. 2. Geologic age; see Appendix
I.
time anomaly: Arrival time which is different from that
expected.
time-average equation: 1. An empirical equation stating
that the transit time ⌬t⫽1/V through a rock with
matrix velocity V m and porosity ␾ that is filled with
fluid of velocity V f is approximately
⌬t⫽1/V⫽ 共 1⫺ ␾ 兲 /V ma ⫹ ␾ /V f .
This relation works well in clean consolidated forma-
tions with uniformly distributed pores. In formations
containing vugs, the sonic log may not reflect the
secondary porosity, and in unconsolidated formations,
this relationship may overestimate porosity. The for-
mula may be empirically modified to give better values.
Also called Wyllie relationship 共Wyllie et al., 1956兲. 2.
A generalization of the foregoing equation for other
constituents, weighting the velocity of each according
to its volume fraction.
time branch: One of several reflection events produced
by the same curved or discontinuous reflector observed
at the same point. Coherent reflections may be seen
from different portions of the same reflector where
synclinal curvature produces buried-focus effects 共q.v.兲;
see Figure B-11. Time branches due to curvature in the
plane of the seismic line migrate into a syncline if the
proper velocities are used, but not if there is curvature
perpendicular to the line.
time break „TB…: The mark on a seismic record which
indicates the source instant, the time at which the
seismic wave was generated. See Figure R-6.
time constant: 1. The time taken for the current in a
circuit having a steady emf to reach a definite fraction
of its final value after the circuit is closed. The fraction
is (1⫺1/e)⫽0.632. 2. The time taken for the current
to decay to 1/e⫽0.368 of its value after the emf is
removed. Also called decay constant or relaxation
time. 3. AGC time constant 共q.v.兲. 4. A time over which
readings are averaged to remove statistical fluctuations,
as with nuclear-log readings.
time delay: See delay time, filter correction, and Elcord.
time-depth chart „T-D chart兲: A graph or table of reflec-
tion time 共or sometimes one-way time兲 against reflector
depth for vertically traveling energy. It is specific for a
particular velocity distribution. Used in converting
times to corresponding depths. Compare time-distance
curve.
time-depth for a refractor: Time for travel to the refrac-
tor at the critical angle minus the time for travel along
a projection of that path at right angles onto the refrac-
tor at the refractor velocity. Same as delay time 共q.v.兲.
time-distance curve „T-X curve兲: A plot of arrival time
against the source-to-geophone distance. Used in veloc-
ity analysis and in interpreting refracted events 共head
waves兲. The slopes of segments of the curve give the
reciprocals of the apparent velocities for various refrac-
tor beds. See also normal-traveltime curve, reduced
traveltime, and Figure T-8. Time-distance curves are
sometimes composited from measurements made at
shorter offsets 共see Figure T-8d兲.
time domain: 1. Expression of a variable as a function of
time, as opposed to its expression as a function of
frequency 共frequency domain兲. Processing using time
359 time signal
as the variable is done ‘‘in the time domain.’’ For
example, convolving involves taking values at succes-
sive time intervals, multiplying by appropriate con-
stants, and recombining; this is equivalent to filtering
through frequency-selective circuitry. It is also equiva-
lent to Fourier transforming, multiplying the amplitude
spectra and adding the phase spectra 共‘‘in the frequency
domain’’兲, and then inverse-Fourier transforming. 2.
Time-domain induced polarization is called the pulse
method 共q.v.兲. 3. For time-domain electromagnetic
methods, see transient electromagnetic method.
time-domain sounding: See electric sounding and
induced polarization.
time invariant: Not changing with time. A time-invariant
filter has the same action regardless of record time.
time lag: The amount by which arrival times are larger
than expected. Indicates that some of the paths from
source to detector include a low-speed portion. Delays
may also be due to phase shifts in filtering, shot-hole
fatigue, etc.
time-lapse: Repeating measurements to determine the
changes that have occurred in the intervening time.
time-lapse logging: Repeating well logs to determine the
changes that have occurred in the interval.
time-lapse seismology: Repeating a seismic survey to
determine the changes that have occurred in the inter-
vening time, such as may be caused by production.
Results are often displayed as difference sections or
maps. When using multiple 3D surveys run at different
times, this is sometimes called a 4D survey, the fourth
dimension being the intervening time 共Jack, 1998兲.
time lead: 共lēd兲 The amount by which arrival time is
smaller than expected, indicating that the path from
source to detector includes a high-speed segment. See
also lead.
time line, time surface: A line or surface indicating sedi-
ments deposited at the same time on a geologic cross-
section or correlation diagram. At that time a time
surface was the surface of the solid earth. Reflections
tend to follow time lines. Also called stratal surface.
time migration: Migration which assumes no lateral
velocity variations. It does allow for vertical velocity
variations. The result is usually plotted in 2-way verti-
cal time but sometimes in depth. Compare depth migra-
tion, which allows for horizontal velocity variation.
time of closest approach „TCA…: The time when a navi-
gation satellite is closest during a pass.
time sag: A push-down of seismic reflections because of
local overlying low-velocity volumes
time section: A seismic section where the vertical scale is
linear in arrival time, i.e., an ordinary seismic section.
time-sequential format: Multiplexed format 共q.v.兲.
time series: The series of values of a function sampled at
regular time intervals. Sometimes represented as a set
of values, as a stickogram, in z-transform form, etc. A
digitized seismic trace is such a series.
time sharing: 1. Multi-access to a computer system where
each user is allocated a time slice of the system’s
resources, while appearing to have continuous use of
the system. 2. The practice of two or more marine
crews in the same area taking turns to avoid interfering
with each other.
time signal: A signal indicating an exact instant of time.
time slice 360 time variable „TV…

Such a signal is used to indicate the time of energy
release in seismic work.
time slice: A display of the seismic measurements 共usu-
ally amplitude兲 corresponding to a single arrival time
共or single depth兲 for a grid of data points; a horizontal
slice or section through a volume of 3D data. Also
called a Seiscrop section or horizontal section. Com-
pare horizon slice. See Figures T-5, T-9, and A-16.
time structure map: A structure map where values are in
two-way seismic traveltime, not having been converted
to depth.
time surface: See time line.
time tie: 1. To verify that arrival times are the same for
events on different records which possess common
raypaths. 2. To relate data obtained in opposite direc-
tions or along intersecting seismic lines. 3. To relate
reflection events to contacts seen in wells. Used as both
verb and noun.
time-to-depth conversion: For vertically traveling
reflected energy:
depth⫽(average velocity)⫻(two-way time/2),
where the two-way time is the time for the signal to go
down and come back. Average velocity may be
obtained from well data, calculated from velocity
analysis, or simply assumed.
time variable „TV…: Describing an operation in which the
parameters vary with record time, as in ‘‘time-variant

FIG. T-9. Time slices. The area is 3.6⫻8.0 km; „a… through „g…: time slices for t⫽1.580 to 1.604 s at 4 ms intervals;
„h… time-contour map made by tracing one contour from each of the preceding time slices, starting with the outside of
the central area on map „a…. (Courtesy Haliburton Geosciences.)
time-variable filtering
filtering.’’ Usually, time-variable processes are imple-
mented by determining parameters over several fairly
long portions of a trace at different times in a time-
invariant manner, processing the data twice using the
two sets of parameters, and then blending the two
results together over some time interval 共merge zone兲
by varying the mix of the two results; ramping.
time-variable filtering: Varying the frequency band-pass
with record time. Time-variable deconvolution is some-
times used to compensate for the shift of reflection
energy to lower frequencies at late record times.
time-variable gain: See gain control.
time vs depth migration: The difference between these
two terms is not time versus depth, but rather whether
the migration considers velocity changes in the hori-
zontal direction 共depth migration兲. Both allow for
velocity changes in the vertical direction and both can
yield a section plotted in either time or depth.
timing lines: Marks or lines at precise intervals of time
such as used on seismic records 共usually 0.01 s inter-
vals兲 to help measure the arrival times of seismic
events. See Figure R-6.
timing word: A word at the head of a block of data which
gives the elapsed time since the source instant.
tin hat: 1. A hard hat worn as protection to the head. 2. A
shot-hole plug shaped somewhat like a hat.
tipper: 共tip’ ⳵r兲 A complex function of frequency whose
amplitude is the ratio between the vertical and horizon-
tal magnetic fields perpendicular to apparent strike.
Devised by Vozoff from general tensor relations for
magnetotelluric fields over a 2D earth.
tite: See tight hole.
TIV: Polar anisotropy 共q.v.兲 Transverse Isotropy with
Vertical axis of symmetry; layering anisotropy.
TLU: Threshold Logic Unit.
TM: Transverse Magnetic 共q.v.兲.
TMIV: Tuned Vibration Isolation Module; see VIM:
TOC: Total Organic Carbon, a measure of the possibility
a source rock can produce hydrocarbons.
Toeplitz property: 共tep’ litz兲 Property when all the ele-
ments on a given diagonal of a matrix are identical. A
Toeplitz matrix can be solved by the Levinson algo-
rithm 共q.v.兲. Named for Otto Toeplitz 共1881–1940兲,
German mathematician.
toe structure: The rumpling or overthrusting at the for-
ward end of a block of material sliding down under
FIG. T-10. Conductivity crosshole tomography uses
measurements from a transmitter in one borehole to a
receiver at many locations in another borehole, and then
repeats for a number of transmitter locations to determine
the conductivity in a grid of cells in the intervening space.
(Courtesy Kurt Strack.)
361 topographic correction
gravitational force; the terminal portion of a landslide.
toggle: 1. To switch on or off. 2. To switch back and forth,
as between images on a display screen.
tolerance: How much uncertainty is permitted.
tool: Sonde 共q.v.兲.
Tomex: A process for producing vertical seismic profiles
using the seismic waves generated by the drill bit as a
source. The source waveform is detected by a sensor at
the wellhead after traveling up the drillstem. Correla-
tion of the source waveform with the output of a
geophone on the surface produces a VSP trace. Devel-
oped by Societe Nationale Elf Aquitaine; tradename of
Western Geophysical.
tomographic inversion: Determining the subsurface
velocity distribution using tomographic methods.
tomographic statics: A surface-consistent statics varia-
tion, not necessarily confined to the low-velocity layer,
using tomographic methods.
tomography: 共t⳵ mog’ r⳵ fē兲 A method for finding the
velocity and reflectivity distribution from a multitude of
observations using combinations of source and receiver
locations, or of determining the resistivity distribution
from conductivity measurements using a transmitter in
one well and a receiver in another well 共see Figure
T-10兲. Tomography is derived from the Greek for ‘‘sec-
tion drawing.’’ Generally space is divided into cells and
the data are expressed as line integrals along raypaths
through the cells. Transmission tomography involves
borehole-to-borehole, surface-to-borehole, or surface-
to-surface observations. Reflection tomography 共q.v.兲
involves surface-to-surface observations 共as in conven-
tional reflection or refraction work兲. In seismic tomog-
raphy, slowness 共or velocity兲, and sometimes an attenu-
ation factor, is assigned to each cell and traveltimes
共and amplitudes兲 are calculated by tracing rays through
the model. The results are compared with observed
times 共and amplitudes兲; the model is then perturbed and
the process repeated iteratively to minimize errors.
Raypaths have to be recalculated after each change of
assumed velocity. Diffraction tomography involves
calculations assuming least-time travelpaths according
to Fermat’s principle rather than Snell’s law bending at
cell boundaries. Layer-based tomography divides the
earth into layers, allowing for lateral variation of veloc-
ity within the layers, instead of subdivision into cells.
Tomographic methods include the algebraic recon-
struction technique 共ART兲, the simultaneous recon-
struction technique 共SIRT兲, and Gauss Seidel methods
共q.v.兲. See Ivansson 共1986兲 and Lo and Inderwiesen
共1994兲.
tomostatics: Using tomographic methods to determine
static corrections.
T1, T2: See nuclear magnetic resonance log.
tone: A distinguishable shade of grey from black to white.
tool: A downhole sonde 共q.v.兲.
tool bar: A set of icons on a computer screen that allow
accessing particular functions.
tool pusher: The drilling rig superintendent who is in
direct charge of drilling operations. He often lives on
site and is continuously available during operations.
toplap: An offlap reflection configuration at the top of a
depositional sequence; see Figure R-9 and S-32a.
Sometimes called offlap.
topographic correction: Terrain correction 共q.v.兲.
topographic-loading effect
topographic-loading effect: The effect of variable over-
burden on seismic velocity.
topographic names: Latin place names used with features
on planets and satellites: dorsa, scarp; maria, seas 共sin-
gular mare兲; monte, mountains 共singular mons兲; patera,
shallow dish-shaped depression; planitia, plains; rupes,
ridges; rille, narrow linear valleys; valles, valleys.
topology: The study and description of spatial relation-
ships and the connectivity of points in space. A simple
object is composed of only one element. Simple
objects include: vertex, a unique point which is zero-
dimensional; edge, a one-dimensional, straight or
curved spatial element; loop, a one-dimensional, con-
tinuous object that encloses a two-dimensional object;
face, the flat or curved surface bounded by a loop;
shell, a three-dimensional surface enclosing a volume;
region, a three-dimensional volume. An edge does not
include the vertices at its termination, nor a face include
its loop, nor a region its shell. Complex objects are
composed of more than one simple or other complex
object. Disjoint objects do not touch or overlap; objects
meet if they share a common boundary; they overlap if
they share common space but do not have a common
boundary; they cover if they overlap and share a com-
mon boundary; they contain if one is wholly within the
FIG. T-11. Township-range location system showing the system for numbering square-mile sections.
362 total intensity
other without a common boundary. They are equal if
they are spatially equivalent. Spatial objects may inter-
sect.
tornado chart: A chart for correcting logging curves for
distortions because of adjacent beds, now largely super-
ceded by inversion techniques.
torr: The unit of pressure required to support a column of
mercury one mm high at standard gravity. Named for
Evangelista Torricelli 共1608 –1647兲, Italian mathemati-
cian and physicist. Equals 133.3 pascal.
torsion balance: 1. An instrument for measuring second
derivatives of the gravitational potential. In a non-
uniform field, the forces on equal masses at opposite
ends of a horizontal beam suspended by a very fine
torsion wire differ, producing a torque that can be
measured by counter balancing it with a known torque.
The measured gradients can be integrated to make a
gravity map. 2. A device for measuring the derivatives
of force fields, such as magnetic or electrical.
tortuosity: 共tor, choo os’ i tē兲 The length of the path of a
fluid passing through a unit length of rock.
total conductance: The integral conductance of a layer-
cake.
total gradient method: See analytic signal method.
total intensity: The total magnetic intensity as opposed to
total reflection 363
components in the vertical or horizontal directions.
total reflection: Reflection where the angle of incidence
exceeds the critical angle. At and beyond the critical
angle the energy is either reflected or converted.
tour: 共tow’ ⳵r兲 A time shift in drilling operations.
towed deep ocean gravimeter „Towdog…: An automated
gravimeter towed just above the seafloor.
tower: Tour 共q.v.兲.
towing bridle: Assembly by which the towing ship holds
a marine streamer in the proper position amidship and
keeps it from rubbing the stern.
township „Twp…: 1. A unit of area, nominally six miles on
a side. It is subdivided into 36 sections, numbered as
shown in Figure T-11. 2. A designation of an east-west
row of townships. American townships are specified in
relation to standard reference parallels 共which often are
not stated explicitly兲; T3N indicates a township in the
third row north of a reference parallel. Canadian town-
ships are counted northward from the 49th parallel. See
also range.
T.P: Turning Point 共q.v.兲, sometimes turn point.
TPH: Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons.
T-phase: A short period 共1 s or less兲 wave which travels
through the ocean with the speed of sound in water; it is
occasionally identified on the records of earthquakes in
which a large part of the path is across deep ocean.
trace: 1. A record of the data from one seismic channel,
one electromagnetic channel, etc. See Figure R-6. 2. A
line on one plane representing the intersection with
another plane, such as a fault trace. 3. The sum of the
diagonal elements of a matrix; spur.
trace analysis: Determining and plotting the corrected
arrival time of events for every trace.
trace attributes: Seismic data measurements along a seis-
mic trace. See attribute, seismic.
trace equalization: Adjusting a seismic channel so that
the amplitudes of adjacent traces are comparable in the
sense of having the same rms value over some specified
interval, or some other criterion.
trace gather: See gather.
trace integration: A form of mixing that was used with
the weight-drop method.
trace inversion: Calculating acoustic impedance or veloc-
ity from a seismic trace to make a synthetic acoustic-
impedance log 共q.v.兲 or synthetic sonic log.
tracer: A distinctive element or chemical used to trace the
movement of fluid in a reservoir.
trace sequential: An arrangement of data in which one
channel 共trace兲 is recorded without interruption, fol-
lowed sequentially by other channels. As opposed to
time sequential or multiplexed format in which the
data for one record time are recorded for all channels,
followed by the data for the next record time, etc.
trace, subsurface: A line on a reflecting surface connect-
ing reflection points for successive locations along a
seismic line. The subsurface trace allows for migration
effects. See Figure S-27.
track: 1. A trace 共q.v.兲. 2. The data positions which can be
read by a single magnetic head. 3. The route 共lane兲 for
a boat to take. 4. To follow the movements of an object.
trackball: A ball that can be turned in any direction to
move a cursor on a videodisplay so that something can
be done with the matrix element whose location is
transfer function
indicated by the cursor. Its function is similar to that of
a joystick or a mouse.
track etch: A radon detector similar to an alpha cup 共q.v.兲.
tracking: Following an attribute such as the maximum or
minimum associated with an event across a section or
throughout a volume; same as picking. Automatic
tracking is done at a workstation; the event to be
tracked is picked 共seeded兲 manually and then the com-
puter finds the corresponding event nearby by using a
correlation algorithm such as cross-correlating. An
interpreter needs to verify the results of autotracking
and occassionally intervene because autotracking algo-
rithms encounter difficulties at discontinuities 共as at
faults兲 and where waveshape changes 共perhaps because
of interference兲, and where the signal becomes too
small.
track plotter: A device that continuously displays the
position of a ship, operated from navigation system
signals.
traction: 1. A stress 共q.v.兲 on a surface. 2. Frictional stress.
3. A shearing stress, as opposed to pressure.
train: A series of successive semi-periodic motions, as a
‘‘wavetrain.’’
training set: The data analyzed to determine decision
criteria as a prerequisite to classification. Also called a
learning set.
trajectory: The path of a seismic wave. Synonym: ray-
path 共q.v.兲.
transceiver: Device which is both a transmitter and a
receiver, such as used in sonar. See transponder.
Transcontinental Geophysical Survey: The study by
geophysical methods of the crust and upper mantle
along a band 4° wide 共about 440 km兲 centered on
latitude 37 °N extending across the U.S. and offshore
into the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
transcribe: To copy information from one storage
medium to another, as to make a magnetic tape from a
paper seismic record. See also reformat.
transcurrent fault: A strike-slip or wrench fault. Defor-
mation occurs around the ends of the fault. Compare
transform fault and see Figure F-3.
transducer: A device that converts one form of energy
into another. Many types of transducers are reversible,
for example converting electrical energy into acoustical
energy and vice versa. The electrodynamic geophone is
a reversible transducer that converts mechanical motion
to electrical voltage, or passing a current through the
coil causes the coil to move with respect to the case.
Other reversible transducers are electrostatic, variable
reluctance, magnetostrictive, piezoelectric, etc. Piezo-
electric transducers of barium or lead zirconate or titan-
ate are used in many hydrophones and sonar transduc-
ers.
transduction factor: Ratio of output to input for a trans-
ducer. For digital-grade velocity geophones, it is of the
order of 0.25 V/cm/s. For a hydrophone, of the order of
6 V/bar.
transfer characteristics: Transfer function 共q.v.兲.
transfer function: The ratio of output to input as a func-
tion of frequency. The frequency-domain characteristics
of a system 共e.g., a filter兲. The complex function of
frequency that changes sinusoidal inputs into outputs.
Multiplying the frequency-domain transform of the
input by the transfer function yields the frequency-
transfer impedance
domain transform of the output. The transfer function
usually is represented by amplitude-versus-frequency
and phase-versus-frequency curves; these contain the
same information as the impulse response in the time
domain and are convertible into the impulse response
through the Fourier transform.
transfer impedance: The complex ratio of a potential
difference at one pair of terminals or electrodes to the
current at the other pair.
transform: To convert information from one representa-
tion into another, as with the Fourier transform or
Laplace transforms.
transformed wave: Converted wave 共q.v.兲.
transform fault: A fault that separates tectonic plates and
which displaces the rift zone associated with the gen-
eration of new crust and/or the zones where plates
collide. Motion takes place on the portion between the
active centers. See Figures F-3 and P-5 and Moores and
Twist 共1995, 132兲
transform pair: A waveform and its frequency-domain
equivalent, or a time-domain operation and its
frequency-domain equivalent. See Figures F-19 to
F-22. Used also for transforms other than Fourier.
transgression: A landward movement of the shoreline.
Opposite of regression.
transgressive surface: The first major flooding surface
across the shelf within a sequence 共Van Wagoner,
1995兲.
transgressive system tract: The middle tract in a
sequence, bounded below by a transgressive surface
and above by a downlap surface or maximum-flooding
surface onto which a highstand tract downlaps. Parase-
quences within it backstep in retrogradational manner.
It is deposited during a rapid eustatic rise. See Figure
S-32b.
transient: A nonrepetitive pulse of short duration, such as
a voltage pulse or seismic pulse.
transient electromagnetic method „TEM…: An electro-
magnetic method in which the waveform of the trans-
mitted signal is a train of pulses, step-functions, ramps,
or other waveforms, and measurements are made in the
off-times between pulses, usually after the primary field
has stopped changing. Principal advantages of transient
methods over continuous-wave methods are that the
primary field is not present during the measurement of
the secondary field and that measurements of the sec-
ondary field as a function of time are equivalent to
continuous-wave measurements over a wide frequency
range. Transient methods are used for both depth
sounding and continuous profiling. Also called time-
domain electromagnetic method „TDEM…. See Fig-
ure E-7 and Input system.
transient IP method: See pulse method.
transient response: Response of a system to a very short
transient, ideally an impulse 共which would yield the
impulse response, q.v.兲.
transistor: An electrical device with three or more termi-
nals using a semiconductor for controlling the flow of
current between two terminals by means of current flow
between one of these terminals and a third terminal.
Ideally it is a current-controlled current source which
operates in only one direction.
transistorÕtransistor logic „TTL…: A family of integrated
circuit logic in which multiple inputs on gates are
364 transmission loss
provided by multiple emitter transistors.
transit: 1. A precision instrument for measuring horizon-
tal and vertical angles. It consists of a telescope
mounted so as to swivel vertically and secured to a
revolvable table carrying a vernier for reading horizon-
tal angles. A graduated circle for measuring vertical
angles and a compass and level are also included. Also
called transit-theodolite. ‘‘Transit’’ and ‘‘theodolite’’
are largely interchangable, American usage generally
favoring the first, European usage the latter. Usually a
transit has an open vernier and a built-in compass
whereas a theodolite has a micrometer and a detachable
compass. An especially precise transit is sometimes
called a theodolite. An accuracy of about 10 seconds of
arc can be achieved, though 30-second accuracy is
more likely. See Figure T-12. 2. The passage of a
celestial body across a celestial meridian. 3. The pas-
sage of a satellite involved in satellite navigation.
‘‘Transit’’ was the system name of the former Navy
Navigation Satellite System.
transit-and-chain surveying: A survey in which direc-
tions are determined by transit and distances are mea-
sured directly.
transit-and-stadia surveying: A survey in which hori-
zontal and vertical directions are determined by transit
and distances are measured by observing a stadia rod
through the transit’s telescope.
transition zone: 1. The region near the land-sea boundary
where neither land nor marine operations can be carried
out without significant modifications. May include
marsh, shallow lagoons, surf zone, and marine waters
that are too shallow or too obstructed for normal towed-
streamer marine operations. 2. A region where physical
properties are changing rapidly, such as the lowermost
mantle.
transit theodolite: See transit.
transit time: The traveltime of a sonic-log pulse over one
foot 共or one meter兲 of distance. See sonic log.
translocation: A positioning technique which uses infor-
mation from a nearby fixed station to correct for tem-
poral variations. 1. Observation of a satellite transit
from a nearby fixed location in order to correct for
minor variations in satellite orbit. 2. Observation of
radio-positioning signals at a fixed station for informa-
tion on sky-wave variations.
transmission coefficient: 1. The ratio of the amplitude of
a wave transmitted through an interface to that of the
wave incident upon it. This ratio can be greater than
one. 2. A measure of the amplitude of a wave passing
through an interface restricted to the case of normal
incidence. 3. Because 共with the reflection method兲 we
are usually interested in energy which has passed
through an interface twice 共once going down and once
returning upward兲, a two-way transmission coefficient
T* for normal incidence is often used:
T*⫽1⫺R 2 ⫽ 共 4 ␳ 1 V 1 ␳ 2 V 2 兲 / 共 ␳ 1 V 1 ⫹ ␳ 2 V 2 兲 2 .
where R is the reflection coefficient at normal inci-
dence, ␳ 1 , ␳ 2 , V 1 , and V 2 are the densities and veloci-
ties in the upper and lower media. 4. A ratio of the
energy densities 共which involves the square of trans-
mission coefficients as defined above兲.
transmission loss: The loss of wave energy in traveling
through an interface. The amplitude of a transmitted
transmitter „Tx…
wave may be either smaller or larger than that of the
incident wave and still involve loss of energy.
transmitter „Tx…: In resistivity and IP surveying, a cur-
rent waveform generator. Also called a sender. In elec-
tromagnetic methods, the current in a loop or grounded
wire.
transmutation: 共trans, myoo tā sh⳵n兲 A nuclear transfor-
mation in which one element is changed into a different
element.
transparent: 1. Not evident to the user; something the
user does not need to take into account. 2. A material
that allows waves 共or light兲 to pass right through it so
that one can see what is beyond it.
transponder: 共tran spon’ d⳵r兲 A device which transmits a
signal upon receiving another signal. When the receiver
in the device detects the ‘‘interrogating signal’’ it trig-
gers the transmitter which replies with a coded pulse or
sequence of pulses or responds in some other way.
Transponders are used with both electromagnetic and
sonar waves. A radar transponder is also called a radar
beacon, a sonar transponder a pinger.
transport: 1. A device or method for moving equipment
or personnel, as transport for a geophysical crew. 2. A
device for moving magnetic tape past magnetic heads
for reading or writing on the tape.
transpose: The transpose AT of a matrix A is the matrix
whose rows are identical to the columns of A. Thus if
matrix A is of size (m⫻n), matrix AT is of size (n
⫻m). For conformable matrices,
共 AB兲 T⫽B TA T.
FIG. T-12. Transit-theodolite.
365 transverse isotropy
For any matrix, (AT) T⫽A.
transposed recording: Seismic field recording in which a
single large geophone group 共or a small number of
groups兲 records energy generated at a succession of
source positions, as opposed to ‘‘conventional’’ survey-
ing where single source locations are recorded by a
number of geophone groups.
transverse electric „TE…: A mode of EM wave propaga-
tion in which the electric field is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. In 2D modeling and process-
ing of magnetotelluric 共q.v.兲 data, the mode in which
the electric field is parallel to strike. Also called
E-polarization. See also transverse magnetic.
transverse isotropy: Also called polar or azimuthal
anisotropy; see Figure T-13. It involves elastic proper-
ties that are the same in any direction perpendicular to
a symmetry axis and it has five independent elastic
constants; see Thomsen anisotropic parameters. This
symmetry is like a crystal having hexagonal symmetry;
see Figure S-29.
Layering and parallel fracturing tend to produce trans-
verse isotropy. A sequence of isotropic layers 共such as
sedimentary bedding兲 produces thin-layer 共also called
periodic thin-layer PTL… anisotropy, although the
layering need not be periodic兲 for wavelengths that are
appreciably larger than the layer thicknesses. The axis
of symmetry is perpendicular to the bedding with the
velocities of P- and SH-waves parallel to the bedding
being larger than that perpendicular to the bedding. The
velocity parallel to the bedding is greater because the
transverse isotropy 366 transverse isotropy

FIG. T-13. Transverse isotropy. „a… Wavefront with vertical axis of symmetry (TIV); „b… with horizontal symmetry axis
(TIH) leading to azimuthal anisotropy; „c… phase (wavefront) angle ␪ and group (ray) angle ␾ for transverse isotropy; „d…
elliptical wavefront where ␧⫽⫺ ␦ ; in this case V NMO⬎V vertical; „e… anisotropic wavefront where ␧⫽ ␦ ; in this case
V NMO⬍V vertical; „f… wavefront for tilted symmetry axis; „g… wave equations for transverse isotropy.
transverse magnetic „TM…
FIG. T-14. Trigonal grid of equilateral triangles (or inter-
locking hexagons) and a possible grid-identification
scheme (c⫽a⫺b).
higher-velocity members carry the first energy whereas
in measurements perpendicular to the bedding all mem-
bers contribute proportionally to the time taken to
traverse their thicknesses. Parallel isotropic layering
where there are more than eight or so layers per wave-
length behaves as a transversely isotropic medium.
Near-vertical jointing/fracturing/microcracks 共azi-
muthal anisotropy, sometimes called extensive dila-
tancy anisotropy, EDA兲 tends to have a horizontal axis
of symmetry perpendicular to the fracturing and the
velocity of waves that are polarized parallel to the
fracturing is larger than for those perpendicular to the
fracturing. The symmetry axis may be tilted. This situ-
ation is involved in shear-wave splitting 共q.v.兲 or bire-
fringence.
Vertically fractured horizontal bedding may produce
orthorhombic symmetry 共the symmetry of a brick兲
where velocity is different along the three orthogonal
symmetry axes. This situation involves nine indepen-
dent elastic constants and leads to different S-wave
splitting in the three directions.
With a vertical symmetry axis, pure S- and P-waves
may exist only in certain directions. SH-wavefronts are
ellipsoidal in shape 共elliptical anisotropy, q.v.; see Fig-
ure A-10c兲 and SV- and P-modes of propagation are
coupled with wavefronts that in general are not
orthogonal to the directions of wave propagation.
Phase velocity is velocity perpendicular to a surface of
constant phase 共wavefront兲 and ray velocity 共in the
direction of energy transport, also called group veloc-
ity兲 is generally not in the same direction as phase
velocity, phase and ray velocities being different 共see
Figure A-14a兲. The reciprocal of phase velocity, also a
vector quantity, is called slowness. The surfaces for
SV-wavefronts may have cusps.
transverse magnetic „TM…: A mode of EM wave propa-
gation in which the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. In 2D modeling and pro-
cessing of magnetotellric 共q.v.兲 data, transverse mag-
netic is the mode in which the magnetic field is parallel
367 trench
FIG. T-15. Trigonometric identities.
to strike. Also called H-polarization. See also trans-
verse electric.
transverse Mercator projection: See map projection.
transverse resistance: Resistivity times thickness. Trans-
verse resistance referencing is adjusting the thick-
nesses and/or resistivities of a layer-cake model while
keeping the transverse resistance unchanged.
transverse shear: SH-waves.
transverse wave: S-wave 共q.v.兲.
trap: 1. A waveguide phenomena; see channel wave. 2. A
configuration of rocks which is able to confine fluids
共such as oil兲 which float on other fluids 共water兲. A
closed structure in porous formations may be a trap if it
has an impermeable cap; an unclosed structure may
also be a trap if permeability variations block the
escape route of fluids. Compare closure. 3. A CPU-
initiated interrupt which is generated when a predeter-
mined condition, such as an illegal instruction, break-
point, specified error, or power failure, is detected.
trap-door structure: The high area on the upthrown side
of each of two intersecting faults.
trapezoidal rule: 共trap’ ⳵ zoid, ⳵l兲 The integral of f
between x 1 and x 2 is approximately equal to the aver-
age value times the width:
冕 x1
x2 1
f 共 x 兲 dx⫽ 共 x 2 ⫺x 1 兲关 f 共 x 1 兲 ⫹ f 共 x 2 兲兴 .
2
The extended trapezoidal rule applies the rule to
subintervals.
trapped modes: See trapped wave.
traveling block: See drill rig.
trapped wave: Channel wave 共q.v.兲.
travel path: The path given by Fermat’s principle 共q.v.兲.
Usually a least-time path from the source to receiver
共geophone兲 that also satisfies some other constraint.
traveltime: The time between time break and the record-
ing of a seismic event.
traveltime curve: A time-distance curve 共q.v.兲.
traverse: 1. A survey line or series of connected survey
lines. 2. A sequence of connected profiles, as a seismic
line. 3. A series of measured distances at measured
angles; see Figure P-3. A closed traverse consists of
measurements in a closed loop. Compare triangulation
and trilateration. 4. An ordered collection of bin nodes.
An arbitrary line.
trawl door: A type of paravane used to pull streamers to
the side of a towing vessel.
tree: A non-linear data structure, where each item is a
node linked 共connected兲 to other items.
tree structure: An acyclic graph of nodes and branches.
One node is the root of the tree.
trench: A long, narrow, arcuate depression in the sea floor
which results from the bending of a lithospheric plate as
trenching
it descends into the asthenosphere at a subduction zone.
trenching: 1. Electrical profiling 共q.v.兲. 2. Burying geo-
phones in an ocean-bottom cable.
trend: 1. The direction of prevailing alignments, structure,
stratigraphic features, etc. 2. The direction of the strike
of a magnetic model with respect to magnetic north.
Principal profiles are perpendicular to the model; thus
east-west for a trend of 0°, north-south for a trend of
90°.
trend analysis: 1. The fitting of an analytic surface 共the
regional兲 to data points as a representation of the
‘‘order’’ in the data, as opposed to the erratic element
共the residual兲. The objective may be to analyze trends
in the data or to interpolate between data points. The
underlying assumption is that the data may be decom-
posed into a relatively low-order, smooth surface plus
more-or-less random noise. The number of independent
parameters in the analytic surface should be apprecia-
bly less than 共usually less than 10 percent of兲 the
number of data points. Also called surface fitting. 2.
The 2D Fourier analysis of a surface into spatial fre-
quency components 共or wavelengths兲 so that one can
determine preferred orientations and wavelengths.
triad: Three stations 共one master and two slaves兲 which
constitute a positioning system, such as loran, raydist,
etc. A master and three slaves constitute a star.
triangulation: 1. Establishing locations by a system of
overlapping triangles where the angles are directly
measured but only a few of the sides are directly
measured. Sometimes called the method of intersec-
tion. First-order triangulation has an accuracy from
one part in 25 000 to one part in 100 000; second-
order, an accuracy of one part in 10 000; third-order
one in 5000. Fourth-order is ‘‘without any appreciable
error’’ considering the application of the survey results.
Triangulation with a plane table is shown in Figure P-2
共but a plane table is not an accurate way to triangulate兲.
Compare traverse and trilateration. 2. Tesselation
共q.v.兲, representation of a surface by triangles.
triaxial borehole seismometer „TABS…: A three-
component seismometer such as the Gal’perin geo-
phone, where the components are each at a 54.7° angle
with the vertical so that their responses are identical.
Tridem: A frequency-domain EM system employing two
vertical coplanar coils on opposite wingtips, operating
at 520, 2020, and 8020 Hz.
tridiagonal matrix: A square matrix in which the only
non-zero elements are those on the principal diagonal
and the two adjacent diagonals.
trigonal: 共trig’ ⳵ n⳵l or trī’ gon ⳵l兲 1. A grid of equilateral
triangles 共or regular hexagons兲 produced by three sets
of equally spaced lines positioned at 60° to each other,
used in making grid-residual maps. See Figure T-14. 2.
One of seven crystal systems of symmetry; hexagonal
symmetry.
trigonometric identities: Some statements which hold for
all angles are shown in Figure T-15.
trilateration: Establishing locations by a system of over-
lapping triangles where all sides are directly measured.
Compare triangulation and traverse.
trim: 1. The longitudinal axis of a ship not being horizon-
tal on the average, the bow being raised or depressed.
Compare pitch and list. 2. To apply statics based on a
shallow reflection.
368 tripping
trim statics: Second-order statics corrections; see statics.
trip: To pull the drillstem from a borehole, e.g., to change
the drill bit.
tripartite array: 共trī par’ tīt兲 A method of determining the
apparent surface velocity and direction of propagation
of microseisms or earthquake waves by determining the
times at which a wave passes three separated, noncolin-
ear points. The recording stations are arranged in a
triangle; the spacing should be large enough to measure
time differences but small enough that dip changes are
small.
triple junction: The place where three plates of the
Earth’s lithosphere join. The boundaries of the plate
junctions may be rifts 共R兲, subduction zones 共T兲, or
transform faults 共F兲. Triple junctions may be of 16
different types, such as RRR, TTT, FFF, RRT, RRF,
TTR, TTF, FFR, FFT, or RTF; see Figure T-16. A triple
junction is stable when the relative motions of the three
plates and the azimuths of their boundaries are such that
the configuration of the junction does not change with
time, although the location of the triple junction may
move along one of the boundaries. An unstable triple
junction evolves to a different geometry.
triple product: A triple scalar product is
共 PÃQ兲 •R⫽R• 共 PÃQ兲 ⫽⫺R• 共 QÃP兲 ⫽⫺ 共 QÃP兲 •R
冏 冏
Px Py Pz
⫽ Qx Qy Qz
Rx Ry Rz
A triple vector product is
共 PÃQ兲 ÃR⫽⫺RÃ共 PÃQ兲 ⫽RÃ共 QÃP兲
⫽ 共 R•P兲 Q⫺ 共 R•Q兲 P.
triplication: Having three branches, as the reflection from
a buried focus. See Figures B-11 and D-19
triplets: 1. A method of determining the elevation correc-
tion factor 共ecf兲 for gravity data from sets of three
readings each. It is assumed that elevation does not
correlate with geologic structure. If the difference
between the height at a station and the weighted mean
of the heights of stations on either side of it is h i and the
difference between the observed gravity reading at the
station and the weighted mean at the neighboring sta-
tions is g i 共where the weighting is usually taken as
inversely proportional to the distance兲, then the eleva-
tion correction factor k is given by:
k⫽⫺ 共 ⌺h i g i 兲 /⌺h 2i ,
and the probable error ␧ in k is
␧⫽0.67 关共 ⌺g 2i /⌺h 2i ⫺k 2 兲 /n 兴 1/2 .
See Siegert 共1942兲. 2. A method of flying aerogravity or
aeromagnetics for reconnaisance mapping. Three
closely-spaced lines are flown that are significantly
separated from the next set of three lines.
tripping: 1. Changing the mode of operation. For
example, switching a seismic recording channel from
the uphole geophone to the group assigned to the chan-
nel, or changing from fixed initial gain to AGC or
binary gain. 2. Exiting or entering the borehole with the
drill string.
trisponder 369 truncation

trisponder: A type of tellurometer 共q.v.兲. Del Norte trade-
name.
trivial solution: A solution that is so simple 共or so obvi-
ous兲 as to not involve any difficulties 共or any interest兲.
Trojan horse: See virus.
troop: Party 共q.v.兲.
tropospheric correction: 共trōp’ ⳵ sfir, ik兲 A correction to
radio-wave propagation for velocity and refraction
variations because of meteorological conditions, prin-
cipally because of variations in atmospheric moisture.
The troposphere is the lower 10–18 km of atmosphere.
tropospheric scatter: The bending of radio-waves in the
troposphere by scattering instead of by refraction.
Responsible for extended-range shoran and other UHF
radiopositioning beyond the line of sight.
troubleshoot: To look for the cause of a malfunction.
trough: The lowest part of a waveform between succes-
sive peaks.
trough-peak pair: 1. A 90° wavelet. 2. Reflections attrib-
uted to the top and bottom of a reflecting bed. See
tuning effect.
true: The effect if all distortions introduced by the experi-
mental situation were removed, as with ‘‘true resistiv-
ity’’ or ‘‘true IP effect.’’ See apparent.
true bearing: Azimuth with respect to true north.
true dip: 3D dip; as opposed to the component of dip in
some direction.
trumpet log: A microlaterolog 共q.v.兲 in which the guard
electrodes are concentric about the current electrode so
that the current flow is concentrated in a tube which
gradually flares out.
truncation: 1. The cutoff of bedding 共or reflections兲 by

FIG. T-16. Triple junction geometry and stability. R denotes a ridge (spreading), T a trench (converging), F a transform
fault. The dashed lines ab, bc, ac represent velocities that leave the boundary geometry between the respective plates
unchanged; a triple junction is stable if they meet at a point. (After McKenzie and Morgan, 1969.)
truncation error 370 turbidity current

erosion at an unconformity. Apparent truncation is pro- method employing a ground Turam transmitter and
duced by the thinning of bedding because of starvation. helicopter-borne receivers.
2. See truncation error. Turam method: 共tur’ am兲 Electromagnetic-survey
truncation error: 1. The error resulting from using only a method employing an energizing source consisting of a
finite number of terms of a series, or the error produced long insulated cable grounded at both ends, or a large
by using only a limited operator length in a convolu- horizontal loop. The cable is often several kilometers
tion, or a finite gate length in a correlation. 2. The effect long and energized at 100 to 800 Hz. Measurements are
of digitizing an analog signal whose corresponding made of the field-strength ratio and phase difference of
digital value exceeds the maximum value permitted; the voltages induced in two receiving coils about 100 ft
see clipped. Loss of information in digitized data apart. Usually the plane of the two loops is horizontal.
because of truncation of high-order or low-order bits Many profiles may be made using the same source
causes different kinds of errors. 3. In calculating the location. See Bosschart 共1964兲 and Figure E-7.
total mass from a gravity anomaly, the error resulting turbidimetry: Estimate of the turbidity of a suspension by
from integration not being carried to the limit of the visually estimating light extinction or measurement of
anomaly. absorption of a light beam passing through the suspen-
truth table: A listing which presents all possible input and sion.
output states of a logical function. See Boolean algebra turbidite: Sediment laid down by a turbidity current
and gate. 共q.v.兲.
TS Dip: Temperature Salinity Dip, a device used to deter- turbidity current: 共tur bid’ ⳵ tē兲 A bottom-flowing current
mine the velocity of sound in sea water by measuring resulting from a fluid that has higher density because it
the temperature, salinity, and depth and using an equa- contains suspended sediment. Turbidity currents are
tion to relate this to velocity.
TSP: Time at the Source Point; up-hole time 共q.v.兲.
T-spread: A seismic spread in which the source point is
offset perpendicular to the center of the spread by an
appreciable distance; a broadside. See Figure S-18.
TST: Transgressive System Tract 共q.v.兲.
tsunami: 共tsoo na’ mē兲 Water waves set up by distur-
bances in the seafloor; tidal wave. From the Japanese
for ‘‘harbor wave.’’
TTI: Tilted Transverse Isotropy, transverse isotropy 共q.v.兲
with a tilted axis.
TTL: Transistor/Transistor Logic 共q.v.兲.
tubing: Small diameter pipe used as a flow line within a
borehole.
tube wave: A surface wave in a borehole. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 53–55, 489兲.
tumescence: 共too mes’ ⳵nz兲 Swelling 共increase in eleva-
tion兲 because of increase in a magma chamber under-
neath. From the Latin ‘‘to swell.’’
tuned array: An array of marine seismic sources of dif-
ferent strengths arranged to suppress bubble pulses
relative to the initial pulse.
tuned voltmeter: A voltmeter containing a band-pass fil-
ter.
tuning effect: Constructive or destructive interference
resulting from two or more reflectors spaced closer than
a quarter of the dominant wavelength. The composite
wavelet exhibits amplitude and phase effects that
depend on the time delays between the successive
reflection events and the magnitude and polarity of their
associated reflection coefficients, and also on the shape
of the embedded wavelet. See Figure T-17.
tuning fork: A U-shaped bar of hard steel, fused quartz, FIG. T-17. The tuning effect illustrated for a wedge; the
or other elastic material that vibrates at a definite natu- material above and below it is the same, but the wedge
ral frequency when set in motion. Used as a frequency has different acoustic impedance. When the wedge is a
quarter-wavelength (1/4) thick, the second half-cycle of
standard.
the reflection from the top interferes constructively with the
tuning thickness: A bed that is 1/4 wavelength in thick- first half-cycle from the bottom, resulting in an increase in
ness, for which reflections from its upper and lower amplitude. The magnitude of the increase and how many
surfaces interfere. The interference is constructive amplitude maxima there are depend on the shape of the
where the contrasts of the two interfaces are of opposite embedded wavelet. „a… The wedge; „b… seismic section
polarity, often resulting in an exceptionally strong across a linear wedge that has lower acoustic impedance
reflection. See Figure T-17. than the surrounding sediments for a minimum-phase
Turair system: 共tur’ ⳵r兲 An electromagnetic exploration wavelet; „c… amplitude versus thickness graph.
turkey shoot 371
intermittent, but they possess considerable erosional
power and transport appreciable volumes of sediment.
See Bouma sequence.
turkey shoot: A direct comparison of the results of
recording with two or more sets of instruments simul-
taneously under the same field conditions, or of pro-
cessing with different algorithms or by different com-
panies. Done to compare relative performance.
turn around: The period of time between submission of
data for computer processing and receipt of the results.
turning point, turn point „TP…: 1. The location of the
survey rod in the procedure where transit and survey
rod successively leap-frog over each other in traversing
along a line. The point on which a foresight is taken
from one instrument station in a line of survey and on
which a backsight is taken from the next instrument
station. 2. A point on maximum-depth-estimation
curves at which limiting depths reach a minimum; an
aid in gravity interpretation. 3. The deepest point on a
diving wave 共q.v.兲.
turning wave: 1. A downward-going wave who’s raypath
has been curved so much that it has an upward compo-
nent of motion; a diving wave. If it is reflected on its
upward going path 共for example, by an overhanging salt
flank兲, it is called a turning-wave reflection 共see Fig-
ure D-19兲. They require special processing, as applying
ordinary normal moveout will destroy their coherency.
They are useful in defining features such as the flanks
of salt domes below salt overhangs.
turning wave migration: Migration of turning-wave
reflections.
turnkey: A design and/or installation in which the user
receives a complete running system. A turnkey bid is a
price for specified work which is all-inclusive; a turn-
key bid for services, often a fixed price per unit of
production. A turnkey system is a system that is com-
plete by itself. A turnkey computer console contains a
single control, usually a power switch, that can be
turned on and off only with a key.
turtle structure: A structure resulting from successive
sediment flowage 共usually salt flowage兲 contemporane-
ous with deposition. Salt withdrawal first leaves a
depression which then fills with sediments; subsequent
salt withdrawal from the surrounding region then leaves
the region of the early withdrawal relatively high
because of the greater thickness of sediments there.
TV: Time-Variant 共q.v.兲.
TVD: True Vertical Depth in a borehole, often measured
from the kelly bushing. Differs from the measured
depth if the hole is deviated.
TVG: Time-Varying Gain. See time-variant.
TVSW: Time-Variant Spectral Whitening.
TW: Polarization time in nuclear magnetic resonance log-
ging.
T-wave: Tertiary wave; seismic waves from earthquakes
characterized by travel within the oceans as ordinary
sonic waves, which are then converted to P-, S-, or
surface waves for travel on the continents.
twin array: A dipole-dipole array where one dipole is
fixed as the other dipole is moved about to make
measurements rapidly.
two array: Pole-pole array 共q.v.兲.
2-boat marine acquisition: The use of two boats in
marine acquisition where only one carries a source, for
type location
example, to undershoot a platform or to obtain longer
offset data than feasible by towing longer streamers.
two-dimensional „2D…: Having no variation perpendicu-
lar to the vertical plane which includes the line of
measurement, such as a plane perpendicular to the axis
of an infinitely long feature. Infinitely long means so
long that the effects of the ends are negligible.
two-dimensional filtering: Apparent velocity or f-k filter-
ing; see apparent velocity.
two-dimensional plot: A contour plot of depth-probe or
sounding data 共delay time, apparent resistivity, metal
factor, etc.兲 as a function of position along a line 共often
plotted below midpoints兲 and electrode separation or
offset. See pseudosection and Figure P-17.
2.5D „21Õ2D… body: A body that is limited in extent per-
pendicular to the profile line.
2.5D „21Õ2D… modeling: Potential field modeling where
end corrections are applied to the field of a model that
extends to infinity perpendicular to the line.
2.5D „21Õ2D… seismic: A pseudo-3D survey made by inter-
polation between data from 2D surveys.
2.5D prestack migration: Passes of 2D prestack migra-
tion in orthogonal directions.
two-level display: A composite of two time slices dis-
played in different color or intensity, to indicate the
gradient direction. See Figure D-18b.
two-phase flow: Two different states of fluid, gaseous and
liquid, moving simultaneously.
two’s complement: The radix complement form for rep-
resenting negative binary numbers. It can be found by
replacing all ones by zeros and all zeros by ones and
then adding one. For example, the decimal number 27
is represented as 0011 011 and ⫺27 by 1100 101. When
a number is added to its negative, all registers are
empty. There is only one representation for zero: all
zeros. Compare one’s complement.
two-sided: Being defined for both positive and negative
values of the argument.
two-way control: Reverse control 共q.v.兲.
two-way transmission coefficient: See transmission coef-
ficient.
TWP: Township 共q.v.兲.
twt: Two-way time.
Tx: An electromagnetic transmitter.
T-X curve: Time-distance curve 共q.v.兲.
type curves: Master curves, computed IP, resistivity, or
electromagnetic response plotted against electrode
interval, source-receiver spacing, or frequency for vari-
ous models. Type curves are used for interpreting field
data where the conditions of the models appear to hold.
Abscissa and ordinate are usually normalized so that
the curves are dimensionless and plotted on log-log
paper; data may be compared by using transparent
overlays. Type-curve derivations often employ the
method of images. Models are sometimes given ‘‘type’’
names as in Figure T-7.
type location: The location where stratigraphic units 共for-
mations or their subdivisions兲 were originally specified.
 U
Udden-Wentworth scale: See Wentworth scale.
UKOOA: United Kingdom Offshore Operators’ Associa-
tion format for record identification and location infor-
mation. See UKOOA-PI/84 共1985兲 and compare SEG-
PI.
ULSEL: Ultra-Long Spaced Electric Log 共q.v.兲.
ultra-long spaced electric log „ULSEL…: A modified
long-normal borehole log mounted on a 5000 ft bridle.
The A to M spacings are 75, 150, 600, and 1000 ft.
Differences between the measured resistivities and
anticipated resistivities calculated from conventional
resistivity logs indicate nearby resistivity anomalies,
such as a salt-dome, or nearby hydrocarbons. Has been
used to sense casing in a blow-out well from an
approaching relief well.
ultrasonic: P-wave frequencies in the range of 105 to 107
Hz.
umbilical: 共um bil’ i k⳵l兲 1. A cable connecting a remote
sonde with the mother ship. 2. High-pressure hoses
linking air gun arrays to the compressors on board a
seismic vessel.
uncertainty: The precision with which a measurement or
value is known. Often implies a 50-50 chance that any
one of a series of measurements would fall within a
given range. Does not necessarily imply anything about
accuracy, which is comparison with the true value. See
probable error and standard deviation. Uncertainty dif-
fers from error 共q.v.兲, which is a deviation from the
correct value.
uncertainty map: A map based on conditional simula-
tions that show the probability that values are above or
below a given threshold value, such as maps showing
the probability that porosity is greater than some value.
unconformity: A surface separating younger from older
rocks along which somewhere there has been subareal
erosional truncation with a significant hiatus indicated
共Van Wagoner, 1995兲. Erosion which is only local is
generally excluded but sometimes surfaces of subma-
rine erosion are included. Generally evidenced by a
basinward shift in facies, onlap, and/or truncation, and
generally involves an appreciable time of nondeposi-
tion. The date assigned to an unconformity is that of its
correlative conformity; see sequence boundary. An
unconformity is often a good seismic reflector and can
be recognized even where the layers above and below
the unconformity are parallel. At an angular unconfor-
mity the older strata dip at a different angle 共usually
steeper兲 than the younger strata. At a disconformity the
beds above and below are generally parallel despite a
significant hiatus. At a nonconformity stratified beds
lie on igneous or metamorphic rocks.
uncontacted oil: Oil that cannot move toward a well
because no connecting passageway exists.
uncorrelated record: A vibroseis record to which corre-
lation with the vibroseis sweep has not been performed.
uncracking: Unwrapping 共q.v.兲.
underbalanced drilling: Drilling with mud weight
372
slightly less than formation pressure. This produces less
formation damage but is dangerous because of the
possibility of a blow out.
underdamped: See damping.
underdetermined: A system that contains more
unknowns than equations.
underplating: 1. Addition of material at the base of an
accretionary prism by scraping it off a subducting slab
or by thrusting to produce duplex structures in the
accretionary prism. 2. Addition of gabroic material
from the mantle to the base of the Earth’s crust through
partial melting.
underpressure: Formation fluid pressure lower than
hydrostatic, i.e., lower than that of a column of inter-
stitial fluid extending to the surface. Usually taken as
lower than 9.74 kPa/m⫽0.433 psi/ft.
undershooting: Seismic surveying using a source on one
side of an obstacle or property into a spread on the
opposite side in order to obtain subsurface coverage
under the obstacle or property itself. Used when the
surface of the property is inaccessible 共such as on a line
crossing a river兲 or to get data beneath some feature
whose presence might introduce intolerable uncertain-
ties if measured through it 共such as to map beneath a
salt dome兲.
underthrusting: Thrust faulting in which a lower plate is
pushed under relatively passive overlying rock.
undetermined multiplier: Lagrange multipliers 共q.v.兲
undrillable: A proposed well where the fluid pressure is
so close to the fracture pressure that it is impractical to
drill, because to do so would require excessive casing
strings.
unexploded ordnance „UXO…: Military explosives,
including landmines, that were employed in wartime
action or training exercises that for any of several
reasons did not explode and were lost or left behind,
creating potential hazards.
Uniform resource locator „URL…: A World-Wide-Web
address looking like ‘‘http://www.Garnet.Geosc.uh.
edu//.html.’’ The first part 共http兲 is a hypertext transfer
protocol, the // indicates the path.
unijunction transistor: A transistor made of n-type semi-
conductive material with a p-type alloy region on one
side; connections are made to base contacts at either
end of the n-type material, and also to the p region.
Primarily used in timing circuits.
union: Disjunction 共q.v.兲; see Figure B-5.
Unipulse: An airgun designed to minimize bubble effects.
Petty-Ray tradename.
uniqueness: Retaining only one trace of each offset range
for further processing where more than one CMP with
the same offset falls within a bin.
unit cell: The area defined by 2 source and 2 receiver lines
in an orthogonal geometry, which contains bins with all
possible offset distributions in the nominal full-fold
CMP geometry.
unit circle 373
unit circle: A circle of unit radius. See z-transform and
Figure Z-3.
unit impulse: Impulse 共q.v.兲 having a value of one.
unit step: A step function 共q.v.兲 whose magnitude is one.
univariant: Having only one parameter.
Universal Transverse Mercator „UTM…: A standard
rectangular map grid. The projection is onto a cylinder
tangent to the Earth along a central meridian 共i.e., with
the cylinder axis perpendicular to the Earth’s axis兲. See
Figure M-4 and Mercator Projection. The Earth is
divided into 60 north-south columns, each 6° of longi-
tude wide. The central meridian is assigned the value of
500 000 m easting and the equator a northing of 0 in the
Northern Hemisphere and 10 000 000 m in the South-
ern Hemisphere.
universe: The complete collection of objects, numbers,
functions, etc., with probabilities attached to relevant
subcollections; population.
UNIX Operating system: 共yew-nihks兲 An easy-to-
build-on freeware operating system that uses the C
language. Originated at Bell Laboratories in 1969;
trademark UNIX is owned by The Open Group, an
industry standards organization. UNIX has evolved in a
variety of versions: Solaris is an operating environment
developed by Sun Microsystems to run on Sun’s
SPARC workstations, IRIX is an operating system
developed by SGI, Silicon Graphics, AIX is an open
operating system from IBM, and systems from other
companies.
unloading effect: The relatively small change in rock
properties as pressures on the rock are relieved. The
effect is usually small compared to irreversible com-
paction effects caused by putting the rock under pres-
sure 共loading兲.
unmigrated seismic map: A map showing seismic reflec-
tion traveltime data posted at midpoints. See also map
migration.
unsupervised classification: Determining the natural
classes into which a population divides without use of a
training set; see classification 共q.v.兲.
unwrapping: Determining phase as a continuous function
of time or frequency from data where discontinuities of
2n ␲ 共n being an integer兲 are possible. Also called
uncracking.
update: To correct a system for deviation or drift that has
FIG. U-1. Uphole survey. „a… Plot of traveltimes versus source depth for geophones at the source point and three offset
distances. „b… Vertical section showing raypaths.
VH⫽共x1⫺x7兲/共t1⫺t7兲.
upscaling
occurred since it was last updated. Satellites are
updated by having new position information injected
each day. Doppler-sonar positions are updated with
satellite-fix information.
updip shooting: The direction of seismic surveying where
reflectors or refractors dip away from the geophones
toward the source point.
uphole geophone: A geophone placed a few feet from a
shothole to detect uphole time 共q.v.兲. Sometimes called
a bug.
uphole method: 1. Constructing a shallow wavefront dia-
gram by sources located at several depths and recording
on a full surface spread of geophones. See also Meiss-
ner technique and Figure M-8. 2. See also uphole
survey.
uphole seis: Uphole geophone 共q.v.兲.
uphole shooting: Uphole survey 共q.v.兲.
uphole stack: The combining of seismic records from
sources at different depths, after time-shifting based on
uphole-time measurements, so that reflection energy is
in register. A method of attenuating ghost energy.
Sometimes erroneously called ‘‘vertical stack,’’ which
is a different process. See also flair.
uphole survey: 1. Successive sources at varying depths in
a borehole in order to determine the velocities of the
near-surface formations, the weathering thickness, and
共sometimes兲 the variations of record quality with source
depth; see Figure S-22. 2. A string of geophones is
sometimes placed in a hole of the order of 200 ft deep
to measure the vertical travel times from a nearby
shallow source. See Figure U-1.
uphole time: Time for the first wave from an explosion to
reach the surface at or near the shotpoint. Used in
determining weathering or near-surface corrections to
seismic data. See Figure R-6. Also called bugtime.
uplap: In-filling of a basin, usually accompanied with
greater compactional settling in the center than near the
margins so that reflections near the margins dip toward
the basin.
UPS: Universal Polar Stereographic projection, used for
latitudes 80–90°; see Figure M-4.
upscaling: Deciding on the rock-property parameters to
use for modeling at a coarser scale than that at which
they were measured, for example, determining the
parameter values to use in reservoir simulation. Upscal-
upstairs
ing tends to lose heterogeneities.
upstairs: In the numerator of an equation.
upstream: Exploration and production operations as
opposed to refining, marketing, and transportation
operations.
upsweep: Vibroseis sweep in which the frequency
increases with time 共usually linearly兲.
upward continuation: Calculation of the potential field at
an elevation higher than that at which the field is
known. The continuation involves the application of
Green’s theorem and is unique if the field is completely
known over the lower surface 共which could be true for
gravity and magnetic fields兲 and where all sources
above the lower surface are known 共usually all are
zero兲. Upward continuation is used to smooth out near-
surface effects and to tie aeromagnetic surveys flown at
different heights.
upward-view detector: A gamma-ray detector shielded
from gamma rays approaching from below. Used in
airborne surveying to determine the contribution from
radon in the atmosphere.
374 UXO
user friendly: Equipment or a technique that is easy to
use.
user group: An organization of those who use specified
equipment, software, etc., whose objective is to share
experiences with the equipment, etc.
user-defined line: Arbitrary line 共q.v.兲.
USGS: United States Geological Survey.
UTEM: University of Toronto ElectroMagnetic system
that transmits a continuous triangular waveform and
measures the transient response in a series of windows
beginning at the changes of slope of the transmitted
waveform. See West et al. 共1984兲.
utility routine: A standard routine, usually part of a larger
software package, which performs service and/or
program-maintenance functions, such as file mainte-
nance, file storage and retrieval, media conversions, and
production of memory and file printouts.
UTM: Universal Transverse Mercator projection 共q.v.兲.
UXO: Unexploded ordnance 共q.v.兲.
 V
V: 1. Volt 共q.v.兲, the SI symbol for electrical potential. 2.
Symbol for velocity, especially seismic velocity 共q.v.兲.
␯: The Greek letter nu 共q.v.兲.
VA, VAR: Display in Variable-Area 共q.v.兲 form.
Vacquier rule: 共vak’ ⳵ ā兲 See straight slope measurement.
Named for Victor Vacquier, American geophysicists.
Vacupulse: Seismic energy source in which a weight is
dropped in an evacuated chamber. Geophysical
Resources tradename.
vadose zone: 共vā’dōs兲 Shallow sediments above the water
table where pore spaces are not saturated with water;
the weathered zone.
valley: The downward displacement of a single cycle of a
seismic trace; a trough. Opposite of peak.
validity check: See check.
Vandermonde matrix: 共van’ d⳵r mond,兲 A matrix with
Variance⫽ ␴ 2 ⫽ 兺 共x mean⫺x i 兲
2
/n,
where n is the number of samples. Covariance involves
more than one random variable. See statistical mea-
sures.
variogram: 共var’ ē ō gram or ver ē ⳵’ gram兲 A measure of
the spatial continuity of a quantity; a plot of the differ-
ence between quantities as a function of their separation
共see Figure V-1兲. Points close to each other generally
differ by only small amounts and differences increase
as points are separated by larger distances, until beyond
some characteristic distance 共the range兲 there is no
systematic similarity, i.e., the curve levels off 共the sill兲.
Variograms may differ in different directions 共aniso-

冏 冏
the form tropic variograms兲. Also called a semivariogram. The
difference between the constant value of the sill and a
1 x1 x 21 ... x N⫺1
1 variogram curve is effectively a correlogram. Vari-
1 x2 x 22 ... x N⫺1
2
ograms are generally modeled for kriging or simulation
. by assuming a simple curve up to the elbow and a flat
... ... sill thereafter. Kriging uses smooth models that
1 x N x N2 ... x NN⫺1 approximate the data rather than the data themselves.
Van Houten cycles: Cycles of about 21, 100, 400 ka, variometer: 共ver ē om’ i t⳵r兲 An obsolete instrument used
determined from sediment repetitions in the Newark for measuring small magnetic variations by slight rota-
Basin that roughly correlate with Milankovitvch cycles tions of a magnet suspended on a torsion fiber. See also
共q.v.兲. magnetometer.
Vaporchoc: A marine seismic energy source in which a varisweep: 共var ⳵’ swēp兲 A method of increasing the
quantity of superheated steam under high pressure is energy in specific bandwidths by vibroseis sweeping
injected into the water. Subsequent condensation of the over narrow bands and summing.
steam attenuates bubble oscillation. Also called steam VAX: 1. Variable-Area record section; see variable area.
gun. CGG tradename. 2. A computer; Digital Equipment tradename.
vaporware: Hypothetical software marketed as already V-band: Radar frequencies between 46 and 56 GHz; see
existing. Figure R-1.
vara: An old Spanish unit of length, about 33 inches or V-bar: Average velocity V̄; see velocity.
0.85 m, but the exact length differs from country to VCA, VCP: A Vertical-loop EM configuration with the
country. receiving loop CoAxial, CoPlanar. See VLEM.
variable amplitude recording: Recording wiggle trace VD: Variable-Density 共q.v.兲.
共q.v.兲. See Figure D-17.
variable-area „VA…: A display in which the width of a
blacked-in area is roughly proportional to the signal
strength. See Figure D-17.
variable-density „VD…: A display method wherein the
photographic density is proportional to signal ampli-
tude. See Figure D-17.
variable-density log „VDL…: A microseismogram log or
3D log.
variable reluctance geophone: A geophone whose mag-
netic reluctance is made to vary by mechanically
changing the size of an air gap.
variable word length: Data words containing variable
numbers of characters.
variance: The square of the standard deviation ␴, a mea-
sure of dispersion about the mean, a measure of the
width of the probability distribution for a single random
variable. The average squared difference of each obser-
vation from the mean. FIG. V-1. Variogram.

375
VDL 376 vector

Vectors are quantities that have both magnitudes and directions, commonly represented by bold face, by arrows
whose length is proportional to the vector’s magnitude, or by components.
In Cartesian coordinates 共with the unit orthogonal vectors i, j, and k),
A⫽a 1 i⫹a 2 j⫹a 3 k; B⫽b 1 i⫹b 2 j⫹b 3 k; a i ⫽ 兩 A兩 cos共A,i兲 ; 兩 A兩 ⫽magnitude of A⫽ 共 a 12 ⫹a 22 ⫹a 32 兲 1/2 .
A⫾B⫽ 共 a 1 ⫾b 1 兲 i⫹ 共 a 2 ⫾b 2 兲 j⫹ 共 a 3 ⫾b 3 兲 k.

Addition is shown in 共a兲; the negative of a vector is represented by an arrow pointing in the opposite direction and
subtraction by adding the negative vector.
The dot product 共or inner product兲 is not a vector but a scaler of magnitude
A"B⫽ 兩 A兩兩 B兩 cos共A,B兲 ⫽a 1 b 1 ⫹a 2 b 2 ⫹a 3 b 3 ,
where the cosine is of the angle between their directions.
The cross product 共or outer product兲 is a vector perpendicular to both A and B in the direction a right-hand screw
would advance if turned from A toward B 共c, see also Figure I-3兲:
AÃB⫽k兩 A兩兩 B兩 sin共A,B兲 ⫽ 共 a 2 b 3 ⫺a 3 b 2 兲 i⫹ 共 a 3 b 1 ⫺a 1 b i 兲 j⫹ 共 a 2 b 1 ⫺a 1 b 2 兲 k

冏
⫽ a1
b1
i j
a2
b2
k
a3 .
b3
冏
A vector field has values associated with every point in space 共d兲.
del⫽“⫽ 共 ⳵ / ⳵ x 兲 i⫹ 共 ⳵ / ⳵ y 兲 j⫹ 共 ⳵ / ⳵ z 兲 k,

•
divergence: div V⫽“ V⫽ ⳵ V 1 / ⳵ x⫹ ⳵ V 2 / ⳵ y⫹ ⳵ V 3 / ⳵ z;

curl V⫽“ÃV⫽i共 ⳵ V 3 / ⳵ y⫺ ⳵ V 2 / ⳵ z 兲 ⫹j共 ⳵ V 1 / ⳵ z⫺ ⳵ V 3 / ⳵ x 兲 ⫹k共 ⳵ V 2 / ⳵ x⫺ ⳵ V 1 / ⳵ y 兲 .

Vectors are not limited to three dimensions. Equivalent expressions in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are shown
in Fig. C-14. For rotating vectors, see complex notation.

(e)
FIG. V-2. Vectors. „a… Addition 共and subtraction兲 of vectors; „b… components of vectors and orthogonal unit vectors
i, j, and k; „c… cross product of two vectors is orthogonal to both of them; „d… an increment to a vector is not
necessarily in the direction of the vector; „e… vector operations.

VDL: Variable Density Log 共q.v.兲, also called a 3D log.
Schlumberger tradename.
vectogram method: 共vek’ tō gr⳵m兲 A scheme in telluric
surveying in which x-y rather than strip-chart recorders
are used. The technique yields more accurate results
and is faster than triangle or ellipse methods. Exact
time-ties are not required to establish simultaneity of
electrical vector observations at the station and base.
See Yungul 共1968兲.
vector: 共vek’t⳵r兲 1. A one-dimensional array; a sequence
of values that go together in some way, such as values
of a wavelet at successive discrete time intervals. Thus
a wavelet which has the values 0.75, 0.25, ⫺0.50 at
three successive time intervals and is zero at other times
vector computer, vector processor 377 velocity

might be considered as a 3-term row vector, 关0.75, 0.25,

⫺0.50兴. Vector data represent data as points, lines, or
polygons. See matrix. 2. A quantity having both a
magnitude and a direction; see Figure V-2. 3. An
ordered sequence of numbers; a 1⫻n matrix. Vectors
are not restricted to three dimensions.
vector computer, vector processor: A computer that per-
forms the same operation individually and simulta-
neously on all the elements of a vector. An array
processor.
vector graphics: Graphic display devices which represent
the image as lines drawn between specified points 共a set
of vectors兲. Compare raster graphics.
vector infidelity: Failure to record a component of
3-component data correctly with respect to other com-
ponents, possibly caused by errors in phone orientation,
rocking of the phones during recording, cross talk,
coupling problems, etc.
vectoring: Passing control in a computer program to an
intermediate address 共or vector兲 whose stored instruc-
tions can be changed to route the results to different
locations.
vectorize: To combine sets of numbers representing dif-
ferent parameters for vector computer processing.
vector operations: Operations on quantities that have
both magnitudes and directions; see Figure V-2. Vectors
are not restricted to three dimensions.
Vectorseis: Solid-state 3-component accelerometers for
use as geophones. Input-Output tradename.
vector wave equation: See wave equation.
vector wavefield: Three-dimensional space in which
waves are characterized by the direction of particle
motions; vector space.
Vela Uniform: A project under the Nuclear Test Detection
Office to devise methods of detecting nuclear explo-
sions by the characteristics of the seismic waves which
they generate. See also Large-aperture seismic array.
Vellum: A chemically treated translucent paper used for
original drawings in pencil or ink.
velocimeter: 1. An instrument for measuring the velocity
of sound in water; used to correct Doppler-sonar data
for salinity and temperature variations. An acoustic
pulse is transmitted over a fixed distance between trans-
ducers in the instrument, amplified, and used to gener-
ate the next pulse to be transmitted. The regeneration
frequency depends on the traveltime and hence on the
velocity of the acoustic wave. This technique is some-
times called sing around. 2. A device which measures
fluid flow; a flowmeter 共q.v.兲.
velocity: 共vel oss’ ⳵t ē兲 1. A vector quantity that indicates
time rate of change of displacement. 2. In seismic usage
共see Figure V-3兲 velocity refers to the propagation rate
of a seismic wave without implying any direction, i.e.,
velocity is a property of the medium. Adjectives pre-
ceding ‘‘velocity’’ are required to produce specific
meaning and much confusion results because of the
multitude of modifying adjectives in use 共Figures V-3
and V-4兲. P- and S-wave velocities are given in Figure
E-5 in terms of elastic constants for isotropic media and
in Figure T-13 for polar anisotropy 共transversely isotro-
pic兲 cases. Velocity is measured 共or inferred兲 from sonic
logs 共q.v.兲, normal moveout 共see velocity analysis兲,
image focusing in depth-migration focusing analysis,
well surveys 共q.v.兲, and refraction time-distance curves FIG. V-3. Seismic velocity terminology.
velocity analysis 378
FIG. V-4. Velocity terminology involves adjectives
preceding the word velocity to give a specific meaning. Is
it not easy to see how confusion can arise when ‘‘velocity’’
is used without a qualifying adjective? (Courtesy F. Hilter-
man.)
共q.v.兲. For a discussion of the factors affecting seismic
velocity, see Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 113–122兲. 3.
Usually the apparent speed of a phase 共phase velocity兲
is intended but sometimes the speed of the center of a
packet of wave energy 共group velocity兲. See group
velocity, phase velocity.
velocity analysis: Calculation of stacking or NMO veloc-
ity 共see velocity兲 from measurements of normal
moveout. In current usage, it generally involves finding
the velocity associated with the best-fit hyperbola to
common-midpoint data. Most analysis schemes assume
a normal moveout, measure the coherency at that nor-
mal moveout, and then vary the normal moveout in
order to maximize the coherency. However, even in the
absence of noise and errors, time-offset data are not
hyperbolic except in the constant-velocity case, and the
stacking velocity value often depends somewhat on the
amount of data included in the analysis. Where all
reflectors are horizontal and where velocity varies only
with depth, the stacking velocity is approximately the
rms velocity. With good data, velocity analysis can
yield depths to about 1/2%. Usually analyses are aver-
ages over 3–10 CMP and they may involve picking
about 50 t-x pairs. Departure from a hyperbolic rela-
tionship is especially likely as offset distances become
large. See Figures V-5 to V-7 and Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 303–313兲.
velocity anisotropy: See anisotropy (seismic) and polar
anisotropy 共transverse isotropy兲.
velocity anomaly: A feature which appears because of
velocity irregularities, usually because velocity changes
in the horizontal direction which has not been allowed
for properly. See also velocity pull-up, push-down.
velocity contrast: A change in velocity, such as produces
a reflection or a change in wave direction.
velocity correction: A modification made to seismic data
based on assumptions with regard to the velocities of
the various media through which the seismic signal has
passed, made in order to represent as nearly as possible
reflectors in their correct relative relationships.
velocity corridor: The range of stacking velocity values
allowed in a velocity analysis.
velocity function
velocity cube: A 3D model of the distribution of seismic
P-wave velocity 共usually兲. See velocity model.
velocity curves: Plots of velocity versus depth.
velocity-depth ambiguity: The inability to determine
unambiguously both velocity and depth 共or structure兲
from ordinary seismic data.
velocity-depth relationship: See velocity function. A
number of velocity-depth curves are shown in Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 306 –313兲.
velocity discontinuity: An abrupt change in the rate of
propagation of seismic waves within the earth, as espe-
cially occurs at interfaces between different beds.
velocity filter: Discrimination on the basis of apparent
velocity 共or normal moveout兲. Coherent arrivals with
certain apparent velocities are attenuated. Also called
apparent velocity filter, fan filter, dip filter, f-k filter,
and pie-slice filter. See Figure F-11. Velocity filtering
is different from discrimination based on stacking
velocity as accomplished in common-midpoint stack-
ing.
velocity focusing: The bending of seismic rays at curved
interfaces which act like optical lenses, resulting in
focusing or defocusing wavefronts and distorting struc-
ture and velocities calculated from normal-moveout
measurements. The distortion becomes greater as the
curvature of the velocity lens increases and as the depth
of the feature being studied increases.
velocity function: A mathematical expression relating
velocity to depth or reflection arrival time, used to
approximate the actual velocity distribution that usually
involves abrupt discontinuities. The most common
forms of velocity function are 共a兲 linear with depth and
共b兲 linear with arrival time. The use of any functional
form is an approximation because lithology and the
other factors involved in velocity do not vary system-
atically and smoothly. Especially the extrapolation of
velocity functions can lead to errors. A number of
FIG. V-5. The interval velocity between two picks on a
velocity analysis plot can be approximated by projecting
the opposite diagonal to the stacking velocity axis, using
Bauer’s method. (From Sheriff and Geldart 1995, 141).
velocity gradient 379 velocity layering

functional forms are given by Al-Chalabi 共1997兲.
velocity gradient: The derivative of the velocity field.
Sometimes means a lateral 共horizontal兲 change in
velocity, sometimes a vertical change.
velocity inversion: A decrease in velocity with depth.
Such a situation can result in erroneous calculation for
the depth of refractors; see hidden layers 共q.v.兲.
velocity layering: The layering formed by contours of
velocity values 共usually instantaneous velocity, some-
times stacking velocity or average velocity兲, which may
be quite different from the bedding. Often implies a
series of layers each of which has constant velocity, as

FIG. V-6. Velocity analysis. (a) Seismic record section. (b) Velocity analysis of data in (a). The graph shows semblance
as a function of the velocity that normal moveout implies. (c) Graph of the maximum semblance at each arrival time. (d)
Graph of the peak amplitude at each arrival time. (Courtesy Grant Norpac.)
velocity log 380 vernal equinox „⌼…

is often involved in ray tracing and modeling.
velocity log: Sonic log 共q.v.兲.
velocity model: The spatial distribution of velocity, often
using constant-velocity units 共layers兲, through which
raypaths obeying Snall’s law can be traced. Often refers
to the velocity model used in migration, especially
depth migration. Also called a velocity cube. See
Schultz 共1999兲.
velocity panels: A display of the coherence when various
normal moveouts 共implying various velocities兲 are
assumed. See Figure V-7 and velocity analysis.
velocity profile: Data obtained with an expanding spread
designed to record reflections over a large range of
offset distances so that velocity can be determined from
the time-distance data for reflection events. Also called
X 2 ⫺T 2 共q.v.兲.
velocity pull-up, push-down: A velocity anomaly
共q.v.兲 resulting from local shallower material of excep-
tionally high 共or low兲 velocity. It has the effect of
pulling up 共or pushing down兲 horizons under the shal-
lower high 共or low兲 velocity.
velocity scan: Velocity panel 共q.v.兲.
velocity sag: A velocity anomaly 共q.v.兲 involving a time
delay.
velocity shadow: An anomalous uplift or depression that
is not real underneath a high- or low-velocity feature.
See velocity pull-up, push-down.
velocity spectrum: 1. Stacking velocity as a function of
reflection traveltime, such as shown in a velocity analy-
sis 共q.v.兲 or velocity panels 共q.v.兲. 2. Velocity as a
function of frequency in a medium that shows disper-
sion 共q.v.兲.
velocity survey: 1. A series of measurements to determine
average velocity as a function of depth, as results from
well survey 共q.v.兲. 2. May also refer to running a sonic
log 共q.v.兲. 3. Sometimes refers to surface velocity
shooting, X 2 ⫺T 2 . 4. See also vertical seismic profile.
velocity sweeping: Trying various stacking velocities to
see which seems to produce the best results.
velocity wavelet: A wavelet which depicts the velocity of
earth-particle motion rather than displacement. The
most common type of wavelet encountered.
Vening Meinesz hypothesis: 共vān’ ing mī’ nez兲 See isos-
tacy. Named for Felix Andries Vening Meinesz 共1887–
1966兲, Dutch geophysicist.
Venn diagram: 共ven兲 An illustration of relationships used
in logic and in Boolean algebra; see Figure B-5d.
Named for John Venn 共1834 –1923兲, British mathema-
tician and logician.
vented-gas column: A stream of gas bubbles above a sea
floor mound that is caused by gas from depth forcing its
way to the sea bottom.
vergence: The edge or margin, especially the limit where
conditions change significantly.
vernal equinox „⌼…: The point on the celestial sphere
occupied by the sun at the time of the vernal equinox
共about March 21兲, which is the reference point from
which right ascension and celestial longitude are calcu-

FIG. V-7. Velocity panel. Panels (e) and (f) show a common-midpoint gather for the applied stacking velocity V S ; a
mute has been applied in (f). Other panels show the results where V S has been decreased or increased by ⫾n⌬V S ;
n⫽4,3,2,1; ⌬V S is often 200–500 ft/s. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 310.)
vernier 381 vertical seismic profiling „VSP…

vertical profile: See sounding and vertical seismic profil-

ing.
vertical section: 1. A plot of seismic events directly
beneath the point midway between the source and
detector locations. Such a section does not represent
structural relationships correctly except where reflec-
tors are flat. The vertical scale is usually either vertical
time or depth 共obtained by multiplying vertical time by
average velocity兲. Often the same as a stacked CMP
FIG. V-8. Vernier principle. A Vernier scale to read to 1/n section or unmigrated section. 2. A plot of projections
contains n subdivisions in the space of (n⫺1) subdivi- of seismic data showing where interfaces attributed to
sions of the main scale. The tenths figure is given by the seismic events would intersect a vertical plane. Such a
mark on the Vernier scale that lines up with a mark on the
section is a correct structural section to the extent the
main scale.
picking, plotting, velocity, and projecting are correct. 3.
A geologic cross-section showing structure. 4. The ver-
tical versus stratigraphic thickness of a geologic unit.
lated. Also called the first point of Aries and symbol- vertical seismic profiling „VSP…: Measurements of the
ized by ⌼ 共upsilon兲. One of the two points of intersec- response of a geophone at various depths in a borehole
tion of the ecliptic and the celestial equator. to sources on the surface. See Figures V-10, V-11, and
vernier: An auxiliary scale used in conjunction with the Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 487– 492兲. Sometimes the
main scale of a measuring device to obtain a more surface sources are moved about the area as well as the
precise reading. See Figure V-8. geophone depth being changed. Where the source point
versine: 共vur’ sīn兲 Versine ␣ ⫽1⫺cos ␣. is an appreciable horizontal distance from the well
vertical angle: The angle between a direction and the head, the result is an offset VSP; this provides a way to
horizontal plane; attitude. look to the side of the borehole. For an azimuthal VSP
vertical cable: A cable used in deep water that is sus- sources are offset in different directions. In a walkaway
pended vertically and contains several hydrophones. It VSP a surface source moves while the geophone in the
is anchored to the seafloor and used with a mobile borehole remains stationary; this provides another way
source near the surface that moves over an area sur- to look to the side of the borehole. In a reversed VSP
rounding the vertical cable. The result simulates a ver- the source is in the borehole and geophones are on the
tical seismic profile and permits imaging a large area
around the vertical cable.
vertical closure: See closure.
vertical electric sounding „VES…: See electric sounding.
vertical exaggeration: 1. The use of a vertical scale
which is larger than the horizontal scale. Exaggeration
makes subtle effects more evident but distorts structural
relationships. Seismic time sections involve variable
vertical exaggeration because the velocity varies with
depth. The picking and interpretation of significant
features on record sections is greatly affected by verti-
cal exaggeration. See compressed section and Figure
V-9. 2. The ratio of vertical scale to horizontal scale;
aspect ratio.
vertical fold: The number of separate records from the
same source location summed together.
vertical integration: Involved in successive operations of
an industry, e.g., all aspects of hydrocarbon exploration,
production, transportation, marketing, etc.
vertical intensity: The component of the total-intensity
field in the vertical direction.
vertical-loop dip-angle method: An electromagnetic-
prospecting method in which the transmitter coil or
loop is vertical and the receiver coil is in the plane of
the transmitter coil. The null or minimum-coupling
orientation is observed for the receiver coil. This orien-
tation will be horizontal except near a conducting body.
The angle between the plane of the coil and horizontal
共dip angle兲 corresponds to the angle between the major
axes of the ellipse of polarization and the horizontal.
vertical parity check: Parity check on a frame of data FIG. V-9. Vertical exaggeration. Exaggeration allows
across tracks of a magnetic tape. Usually the parity one to see both vertical detail and horizontal context but
track is recorded to make the number of 1 bits in the severely distorts bed thickness-structural relationships,
frame odd. Compare Longitudinal parity check 共q.v.兲. fault dip, etc.
vertical seismic profile „VSP… deconvolution 382 very-low frequency „VLF…

surface. VSPs are also run in directional and horizontal
wells. A walkabove VSP is made with the sonde in a
deviated hole and the source moved so as to be verti-
cally above it. The result of a VSP is often displayed as
a corridor stack; see Figure C-16.
vertical seismic profile „VSP… deconvolution: On the
display emphasizing downgoing energy, everything
beyond the first arrivals must be a multiple of some
sort, so that a Wiener filter that removes this energy will
produce a deconvolved downgoing section. The same
filter applied to the upgoing section will deconvolve it.
vertical seismic profile „VSP… processing: The first step
is usually a slant-path correction to traveltimes because
the raypath is not vertical. The sonde depth z divided by
the first-break times t v gives the average celocity V̄(z)
and ⌬z/⌬t v gives the interval velocity V i . The energy
that arrives shortly after t v is relatively free of multiples
and is used to make a corridor stack 共sometimes called
an outside corridor stack兲. If t v (z) is subtracted from
each trace, downgoing arrivals are emphasized and if
t v (z) is added to each trace, upgoing arrivals are
emphasized. If the source generates S-waves and a
3-component geophone is used, the downgoing S-wave
can usually be seen and if its traveltimes are added to
each trace, S-wave reflections become evident. Other
types of processing are also done to VSP data or to data
involving appreciable offsets.
vertical seismic profiles while drilling: The noise gener-
ated by the drill bit is used as a seismic source. See
reverse VSP.
vertical stack: 1. Combining the records from several
sources at nearly the same location without correcting
for static or offset differences. Used especially with
surface sources in which the records from several suc-
cessive weight drops, vibrations, pops, etc., are com-
bined to give in effect the field record which would
have resulted from a much stronger source. 2. Adding
together the traces of a vertical seismic profile after
time-shifting so as to horizontally align upward-
traveling waves. 3. Sometimes used 共incorrectly兲 to
mean uphole stack 共q.v.兲.
vertical time: 1. The arrival time that would be observed
for a given reflection if the travel path had been verti-
cal. The vertical time differs from the observed arrival
time if the reflector is dipping so that the reflecting
point is not directly under the midpoint or if velocity
variations distort raypaths. 2. Uphole time 共q.v.兲.
very long baseline interferometry „VLBI…: Measuring
the distance between antennae by correlating random
quasar noise. This method can determine precise geo-
detic measurements with an accuracy of a few cm.
very-low frequency „VLF…: 1. Radio transmission at fre-
quencies of 3 to 30 kHz, used for communication with
submerged submarines and for long-range radio posi-
tioning. Most VLF transmitters work in the range 15 to
24 kHz. See Figure E-11. 2. An electromagnetic pros-

FIG. V-10. Vertical seismic profile. (a) Each trace is recorded at a depth in a borehole using an air-gun source at the
surface. (b) Same except each trace has been shifted by the one-way traveltime to the surface, thus aligning reflections
(upcoming events) horizontally. A shift in the other direction would align downgoing events horizontally. (c) Portion of a
reflection record section across the well location. (d) Sonic log in the well. (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 490.)
VES
FIG. V-11. Vertical seismic profile checklist. (From Gilpatrick and Fouquet, 1989, 35.)
pecting method which uses such transmissions as
plane-wave sources. The VLF receiver measures the tilt
of the total field by nulling one of two small orthogonal
coils in the plane of the primary field. See also Figure
E-7. 3. A radiolocation system such as Omega that used
very-low frequency energy.
VES: Vertical Electric Sounding 共q.v.兲, such as Schlum-
berger sounding, frequency, transient, or geometric
sounding in electromagnetic exploration, or frequency
sounding in magnetotelluric exploration.
vibe: Vibrator 共q.v.兲.
vibration monitor: A calibrated recorder of ground and
structural acceleration and velocity. Used to measure
vibrational amplitudes and the modal frequencies of
buildings, towers, etc. under ambient conditions. Also
used to measure potentially damaging vibrations due to
blasting, pile driving, etc.
vibration survey: Study to measure the amount, intensity,
and characteristics of the vibrations resulting from
blasting, pile driving, etc.
vibrator: An instrument which produces mechanical
oscillations used as a seismic source for vibroseis 共q.v.兲.
vibratory plough: A device for burying detonating cord
about 50 cm deep for use as a seismic source; a vibrat-
ing blade pulled by a tractor.
Vibroseis or vibroseis: 共vī’ brō sīz,兲 A seismic method in
383 virtual image
which a vibrator is used as an energy source to generate
a controlled wavetrain. A sinusoidal vibration of con-
tinuously varying frequency 共Figure V-12兲 is applied
during a sweep period typically lasting up to 32 s. In
upsweeping the frequency begins low and increases
with time, and in downsweeping the highest frequen-
cies occur first. The frequency is usually changed lin-
early with time. A non-linear sweep usually involves
vibrating longer at the higher frequencies to somewhat
compensate for the increased loss of high frequencies in
travel through the earth. A vibroseis field record con-
sists of the superposition of many long reflected
wavetrains and is generally uninterpretable because of
the extensive overlap; it is correlated with the sweep
wavetrain to produce an interpretable record which
resembles a conventional seismic record such as results
from an impulsive source. Developed by Conoco.
共Vibroseis is no longer a trademark兲.
VIM: Vibration Isolation Module, a device used to isolate
a seismic streamer from the vibrations of the towing
vessel and tail buoy. Also TMIV, Tuned Vibration
Isolation Module.
vintage data: Legacy data 共q.v.兲.
virtual image: An image point in a constant-velocity
model that could produce the same event as the actual
source; see image.
virtual memory
FIG. V-12. Vibroseis. (Courtesy Conoco.)
virtual memory: A technique that permits a user to treat
secondary memory as an extension of main processor
memory. Blocks of data 共pages兲 are transferred
between rapid access and secondary memories as
access to them requires. Use of the storage is transpar-
ent to the user.
virtual reality: A simulated environment generated by a
computer where a human provided with combinations
of visual, auditory, and tactile presentations can study
and manipulate data. Used to understand 3D seismic
data. Also called artificial reality, visualization, and
immersive simulation. See also visionarium and cave.
virus: Software which infects other programs and may
destroy information. A virus insinuates itself into
executable files or documents, from which it uses the
computer’s links to other programs to replicate itself. In
contrast, worms are able to spread to other computers
and replicate themselves there, using e-mail address
lists, so that a receiver is apt to believe that he knows
the sender and thus is apt to open and activate the
worm. A Trojan horse is a type of virus that, when
downloaded or opened, accesses the computer’s vital
systems and damages them. A hoax is an e-mail posting
that raises an alarm about a nonexistent virus. Unaware
readers are apt to forward the information to others,
creating a chain-letter effect.
viscoelastic: Having a stress-strain relationship which
includes terms proportional to both the strain and the
rate of change of strain. Leads to attenuation of seismic
waves dependent on the square of the frequency. A
viscoelastic solid behaves as a solid on a short time
scale and as a liquid on a long time scale; it is also call
a Voigt solid.
viscometer: A device for measuring fluid viscosity.
viscosity: Resistance of a fluid to flow; 共stress兲/共rate of
shear兲.
viscous magnetization „VRM…: Remanent magnetization
produced by a weak magnetic field over a long period
of time. It is generally proportional to the logarithm of
the time and parallel to the weak applied field. Viscous
magnetization has its origin in thermal energy which is
384 volume attributes
large enough to realign the magnetization direction of
domains with rather high energy barriers. The weak
field of the Earth acts to bias the direction of these
jumps.
visionarium: An area designed for virtual reality immer-
sion, often employing a curved screen and three or
more projectors. Compare cave.
visualization: Viewing data so as to appreciate 3D
aspects, sometimes by optical stereo or motion effects,
sometimes by virtual reality 共q.v.兲 or other methods.
Volume rendering.
vitronite reflectance: A measure of thermal maturity
determined by geochemical analysis.
VLBI: Very Long Baseline Interferometry 共q.v.兲.
VLEM, VEM: Vertical-Loop ElectroMagnetic configu-
ration where the transmitting loop is in a vertical plane.
Called VCP when the receiving loop is coplanar or
VCA when coaxial. See Frischknecht et al. 共1989兲.
VLF: 1. Very-low frequency 共q.v.兲. 2. VLF instrumentation
used to measure ellipse of polarization parameters.
voice grade: A channel with a frequency range from
approximately 300 to 3000 Hz.
void ratio: The ratio of porosity ␾ to nonporosity (1
⫺ ␾ ).
Voigt solid: 共voit兲 See viscoelastic. Named for Waldemar
Voigt 共1850–1919兲, German physicist.
Voigt waves: P-waves in a Voigt or viscoelastic solid.
volcanism: A geologic process which involves the erup-
tion of molten rock. Volcanism is associated with earth-
quake tremors 共swarms兲 and continuous vibration.
volt „V…: The SI unit of potential difference. The potential
difference between two points where one joule of work
is done by one coulomb going from one to the other, or
the unit of electromotive force that will drive one
ampere through a resistance of one ohm. Named for
Count Alessandro Volta 共1745–1827兲, Italian physicist.
voltmeter: An electrical instrument used to measure the
potential difference between points in a circuit. A volt-
meter may respond to average, root-mean-square, or
peak voltage values.
volume attributes: Seismic data measurement throughout
volume control 385 vugs

a volume. See attribute, seismic.
volume control: Gain control 共q.v.兲.
volume magnetization: Magnetic moment per unit vol-
ume.
volume rendering: Visualizing 3D data by optical stereo,
motion, or other means.
volume reverberation: Watertrack 共q.v.兲.
Von Neumann architecture: 共von noi’ man兲 Serial com-
puter design based on a high-speed memory feeding
VSP to CMP transform: An operation to move offset
VSP data to the reflecting point locations assuming
there is no dip. Where the dip is appreciable, it is
followed by VSP migration.
VS Õ VP: The ratio of velocities of S-wave to P-wave. This
ratio is sensitive to lithology or interstitial fluid. The
ratio is about 1/2 for most rocks, is larger for gas
saturation, and zero for fluids. Measurements of Pois-
son’s ratio ␴ give equivalent information.

冉 冊
data one point at a time into a central processing unit
共CPU兲. Compare parallel processing. Named for VS 2

冋 册
0.5⫺
Johann von Neumann 共1903–1957兲, Hungarian math- V S 0.5⫺ ␴ 1/2
VP

冉 冊
ematician. ⫽ , ␴⫽ .
VP 1⫺ ␴ VS 2
von Schmidt wave: Head wave 共q.v.兲. 1⫺
vortex shedding: A mode of fluid flow involved in pulling VP
a cable through the water. See fairing. VTI: Polar anisotropy 共q.v.兲 共Transverse Isotropy兲 with a
vote: See majority vote. Vertical axis; layering anisotropy.
voxel: A volume element, the 3D version of the 2D pixel. VTS: Vehicle Tracking System used to locate marine
voxel tracking: Following an event that is characterized vehicles.
by a seed voxel through a volume, e.g., by following a VTVM: Vacuum-Tube Voltmeter.
local cross-correlation maximum. Generally generates a V2: Subweathering velocity, often determined from first-
surface whose characteristics are changing slowly. break refraction arrivals.
VRM: Viscous 共Remanent兲 Magnetization 共q.v.兲. vugs: A cavity or open space in rocks, often of diagenetic
VSP: Vertical Seismic Profiling 共q.v.兲. origin.
 W
W: Watt, the SI unit of power, equal to one joule per
second.
Wadati-Benioff zone: 共wad a tē ben’ ē of兲 See Benioff-
Wadati zone.
wag: Water Alternating with Gas, an enhanced oil recov-
ery method, injection of water alternating with injection
of gas.
walkabove VSP: A vertical seismic profile 共q.v.兲 into a
deviated well where the surface source is moved so as
to produce vertical travelpaths.
walkaway: 1. Noise analysis (seismic) 共q.v.兲 performed by
moving source points to progressively larger offsets
while keeping geophones fixed, or the source point can
remain fixed while the geophones are moved to pro-
gressively larger offsets. See Figure N-3. 2. A walk-
away vertical seismic profile 共q.v.兲. 3. A profile extend-
ing to long offsets.
walkaway test: A test of the quality of an electromagnetic
transmitter by moving a receiver over long distances
perpendicular to the center of a transmitter.
walkaway VSP: See vertical seismic profile.
walking stick: A non-polarizing electrode used in self
potential measurements.
wall resistivity log: A microresistivity log 共q.v.兲.
Walsh-Hadamard transform: 共walsh had’ ⳵ mard兲 A
non-sinusoidal transform for digital system processing,
which can be computed using additions and subtrac-
tions only.
wand: An input device that reads bar codes.
Warburg impedance: 共var’ boorkh兲 Impedance involved
in current transfer at an electrode by a Faradaic path
共q.v.兲; it is a measure of the rate of ion-diffusion. Varies
inversely as the square root of the frequency. See also
Cole-Cole relaxation model. Named for Emil Gabriel
Warburg 共1846 –1931兲, German physicist.
Warburg region: The steep part of the resistivity-
spectrum curve near the inflection point where the
electrode impedance of a rock is dominated by
Faradaic-path conduction; see Faradaic path.
warping: Changing the processing or display parameters
for different parts of displays in order to better match
legacy data to more recent data.
wash: A situation where different factors cancel each
other.
washing: Demagnetizing 共degaussing兲 a rock or other
material, especially by gradually increasing the demag-
netization to remove successively harder portions of the
remanent magnetization.
washout: An interruption in the continuity of a coal seam
because the coal was eroded by a river channel cutting
into the coal deposits.
wash tank: A settling vessel where oil and water can
separate. Also called a gun barrel.
WASSP: Exploding wire 共q.v.兲, a marine energy source.
Teledyne tradename.
water-bottom roll: A pseudo-Rayleigh wave involving
the seafloor, analogous to ground roll on land.
386
waterbreak: The arrival of energy that travels in the water
directly from the source to a waterbreak detector. Used
to determine the location of waterbreak detectors in a
seismic streamer with respect to the source location.
Filters in the waterbreak circuitry pass components
between approximately 500 and 5000 Hz, thus avoiding
possible confusion with shallow refractions of lower
frequency and with background sonic energy of higher
frequency; see Figure C-2e. The velocity of seismic
共acoustic兲 waves in water is shown in Figure W-1.
waterbreak detector: A high-frequency detector sensitive
to the direct wave carried in the water; see waterbreak.
water cut: The volume fraction of water produced from a
well.
waterfall display: A graph of inline versus crossline loca-
tions of various groups within a towed streamer. Used
to show the drift of different parts of the streamer at
successive locations along a line.
water flood: See flood.
watergun: A seismic source that propels a slug of water
into the water mass, producing an implosive effect.
water injection: 1. A method of drilling that uses air as
the principal fluid for removal of cuttings but with
enough water added to lubricate the hole and make the
wall firm enough to prevent excessive caving. Used
when drilling dry sand. 2. Injecting water to help dis-
place oil or gas in secondary recovery.
water saturation „Sw…: Fraction of the pore volume filled
with formation water. See Archie’s formulas.
water track: A mode of reflected sonar energy produced
by scattering within the tens of feet below a transducer.
When using Doppler-sonar navigation in water deeper
than 100 to 300 m, the scattered energy overrides the
reflection from the deeper ocean bottom and accuracy
drops by about a factor of four compared with ‘‘bottom
mode.’’ Water-track positioning is done with respect to
the water which may itself be moving, introducing
additional systematic error.
water velocity: See Figure W-1.
water wave: A surface wave on water, usually wind-
generated. In deep water, wavelength ␭ depends on
wind speed V w :
␭⬇4 ␲ 2 gV w2 ,
where g⫽gravitational acceleration. In shallow water
waves become asymmetric and break when ␭⬇h,
where h⫽water depth.
watt „W…: The SI unit of power; a joule per second⫽volt
ampere. Named for James Watt 共1736 –1819兲, Scottish
engineer.
wave: A disturbance that is propagated through the body
or on the surface of a medium without involving net
movement of material. Waves are usually characterized
by periodicity 共Figure W-2兲. The general expression for
a plane wave in rectangular coordinates is
f 共 ᐉx⫹my⫹nz⫺Vt 兲 ⫹g 共 ᐉx⫹my⫹nz⫹Vt 兲 ,
wave amplitude 387 wave equation

where f and g are any functions and ᐉ, m, n are direction

cosines for the direction of travel. For a spherical wave,
the general expression is (1/r) f (r⫺Vt)⫹(1/r)g(r
⫹Vt), where r is the distance from the point source.
Wave amplitude is usually defined as the maximum
displacement from the equilibrium or null position. The
rms amplitude is the square root of the mean of the
squares of the displacements, which is 冑2/2 times the
peak amplitude for sinusoidal waves. A wave peak or
crest is a point at which the displacement is greater 共in
the positive direction兲 than at adjacent points, and a
wave trough is a point which is displaced farther than
adjacent points in the negative sense. The wave height
is the difference in displacement between successive
peaks and troughs. The wavelength 共␭兲 is the distance
perpendicular to the wavefront between successive
similar points on the wavetrain. The wavenumber is
the number of cycles per unit distance, the reciprocal of
the wavelength 共sometimes defined as 2␲/wavelength,
which is given the symbol ␬兲. Body waves propagate
through the body of the medium, and surface or inter-
face waves propagate along a boundary. Body waves
may be either P-waves 共q.v.兲 or S-waves 共q.v.兲. Wave
energy that has traveled partly as a P-wave and partly as
f 共 t 兲⫽ 兺 共A n cos 2 ␲ n f t⫹B n sin 2 ␲ n f t 兲
⫽ 兺C n cos共 2 ␲ n f t⫺ ␥ n 兲 ,
or in complex notation:
f 共 t 兲⫽ 兺Ce n
j共 2 ␲ n f t⫺ ␥ n 兲
,
where C n is amplitude, n is an integer, f is frequency,
␥ n is phase angle, and j⫽ 公⫺1.
wave amplitude: The maximum displacement from rest
position in an oscillatory motion.
wave attenuation: A decrease in amplitude with distance
from the source; see also absorption and divergence.
wave conductor: Refractor 共q.v.兲.
wave continuation: Determining the wavefield over a sur-
face from knowledge of the wavefield over a different
surface.
wave equation: An equation that relates the spatial and
time dependence of a disturbance which can propagate
as a wave. In rectangular coordinates x, y, z, it is

冉 冊
an S-wave is called a converted wave. Surface waves
共or interface waves兲 may travel by several modes, the ⳵2 ␺ ⳵ 2 ␺ ⳵ 2 ␺ 1 ⳵2 ␺
most common of which are Rayleigh waves 共q.v.兲 or ⵜ 2␺ ⫽ 2⫹ 2⫹ 2⫽ ,
⳵x ⳵y ⳵z V2 ⳵t2
pseudo-Rayleigh waves. Other surface waves include
Love waves 共q.v.兲, hydrodynamic waves, coupled where ␺ represents wave displacement 共pressure, rota-
waves, and Stoneley waves. A tube wave 共q.v.兲 is a tion, dilitation, etc.兲 and V the velocity of the wave.
surface wave which travels along the surface of a Functions f (ᐉx⫹my⫹nz⫾Vt兲 are solutions to this
borehole. See also wave notation. Wave motion at a equation. In spherical coordinates where r is the radius,
point is often described mathematically in terms of ␪ the colatitude, and ␾ the longitude, the wave equation
harmonic components: becomes:

FIG. W-1. Water velocity. (a) Velocity as a function of temperature and salinity. The speed of P-waves in water is given
by

V⫽1448.96⫹4.591 T⫺0.05304 T2⫹0.0002374 T3⫹1.34共S⫺35兲⫹0.0163 D⫹0.16573⫻10⫺6 D2⫺0.01025 T共S⫺35兲

⫺0.7139⫻10⫺12 TD3 m/s,
where T⫽Celsius temperature, S⫽salinity in ppm, D⫽depth in meters. (b) Typical velocity versus depth graph showing
the low-velocity Sofar channel. (From Ewing et al., 1948.)
wave-equation migration 388 wavefront healing

冉 冊
1 ⳵2 ⌿
V2 ⳵t2
1
⫽ 2
r 冉 冊 冋 冉 冊冉 冊
⳵
⳵r
r2
⳵⌿
⳵r
These forms do not provide for the conversion of
P-waves to S-waves nor vice-versa. The vector wave
equation is more general; it is

⫹ 冉 冊冉 冊冉
1
sin ␪
⳵
⳵␪
sin ␪
⳵⌿
⳵␪冊冉 冊 册
⫹
1 ⳵2 ⌿
sin ␪ ⳵␾ 2
2
共 2 ␮ ⫹␭ 兲 ⵜ 共 ⵜ• ␺ 兲 ⫺ ␮ ⵜ⫻ 共 ⵜ⫻ ␺ 兲 ⫽ ␳ ⳵2 ␺ /⳵t 2 ,
which can be written in component form as
The foregoing are forms of the scalar wave equation
␮ ⵜ 2 ␺ x ⫹ 共 ␮ ⫹␭ 兲共 ⳵/⳵x兲共 ⳵␺ x /⳵x⫹⳵␺ y /⳵y⫹⳵␺ z /⳵z 兲
⫽ ␳ ⳵2 ␺ /⳵t 2 .
If div ␺⫽0, this gives an S-wave; if curl ␺ ⫽0, a
P-wave. The wave equation in polar anisotropic 共trans-
versely isotropic兲 media is given in Figure T-13.
wave-equation migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 or imaging
accomplished by application of the wave equation in
one of several ways: in the time domain by a finite-
difference method, in integral form 共Kirchhoff migra-
tion兲, in frequency or wavenumber domains 共after a 2D
transform into frequency-wavenumber domain;
frequency-domain migration兲, or some combination of
domains. See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 267–268,
326 –335兲.
wavefield: 1. The spatial perturbations at a given time that
result from the passage of a wave, such as the pressure
changes caused by a seismic wave. 2. The temporal
perturbations over a given surface that result from
seismic waves. Migration is sometimes referred to as
‘‘downward propagation of the wavefield.’’
wavefield decomposition: Separating a wavefield into
two wavefields, one down-going and one up-going;
wavefield separation.
waveform: A plot 共usually as a function of time兲 of a
quantity involved in wave motion, such as voltage,
current, seismic displacement, etc. The waveform
involved in seismic work is called the embedded wave-
let 共q.v.兲.
wavefront: 1. The surface over which the phase of a
traveling wave disturbance is the same. The wavefront
moves perpendicular to itself as the disturbance travels
in an isotropic medium. A locus of equal traveltime. 2.
The leading edge of a waveform. A wavefront is a
phase velocity surface, the locus of phase propagation.
S-wave group velocity may have cusps when
S-anisotropy exceeds 10%.
wavefront chart: A plot of the location of wavefronts
emanating from a point source after various amounts of
travel time; see Figure W-3. Wavefronts are surfaces
rather than curves 共see Figure M-11兲. The shape of
wavefronts depends on the velocity distribution. Usu-
ally implies coincident source and receiver. Charts for
offset geophones are called bathtub charts 共q.v.兲 and
wavefronts are elliptical when the velocity is constant.
Raypaths corresponding to different values of apparent
velocity usually are drawn also on such charts; raypaths
are perpendicular to wavefronts for isotropic media; see
Figure W-3.
FIG. W-2. Wave definitions. For sinusoids, (a) how
wavefront curvature: See Figure W-4, buried-focus
displacement at one point varies with time; (b) how wave effect, normal moveout.
looks at different places at a given instant. (c) If wavefront wavefront healing: The diffraction of energy into shadow
approaches at an angle, the apparent wavelength differs zones obscures much of the effect of a shadow-
from the true wavelength. For nonperiodic waves, (d) producing obstacle at large distances from it; this is
dominant period is based on the time between principal called ‘‘healing’’ of the wavefronts. Figure W-5 shows
adjacent troughs (or peaks); (e) dominant wavelength is the reflection from a plane containing a hole, the effect
measured similarly. of the hole being nearly healed.
wavefront method 389 wavefront method

wavefront method: A seismic interpretation method
共often graphical兲 which involves reconstructing emerg-
ing wavefronts from the arrival times at various geo-
phones from a common source 共or the equivalent兲. The
wavefront for the time t is constructed by striking
circles 共assuming constant velocity兲 about each geo-
phone position of radius (t 1 ⫺t)V, where t 1 is the
traveltime observed by that geophone and V is the
velocity of the upper layer; see Figure W-6. Similar
wavefronts can be constructed from other source points

FIG. W-3. Wavefront charts. (a) Wavefronts for a particular velocity function become farther apart with depth because
of the increase of velocity with depth. Raypaths are orthogonal to wavefronts. (b) Wavefronts where velocity increases
from right to left as well as with depth. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.)
wavefront velocity 390
FIG. W-4. Wavefront curvature. Normalized curvature of
wavefronts at the surface (plotted horizontally) as a func-
tion of reflector curvature (plotted vertically) for a point
source. ‘‘Normalized’’ means the curvature has been
multiplied by the reflector depth. (From Sheriff and
Geldart, 1995, 157.)
or from the reversed profile of a refraction interpreta-
tion. The solution that locates the reflector or refractor
must satisfy the observed arrival times. See Rockwell
共1967兲.
wavefront velocity: The velocity of a wavefront, which is
in the direction perpendicular to the wavefront. Also
called phase velocity. Differs from ray velocity 共q.v.兲 in
anisotropic media.
wave guide: 1. An arrangement that constrains wave
travel to within a low-velocity layer by repeated reflec-
tion at the boundaries, or by velocity gradients that
bend raypaths back into the channel. Natural wave
guides have lower velocity than adjacent beds. Wave
travel in a wave guide is called normal-mode propa-
gation and the waves are called channel waves or
seam waves. A wave guide can also be formed where
FIG. W-5. Wavefront healing: A plane wavefront reflected from a reflector 5000 ft deep containing a slit (at the time of
the reflection, 1.330 s) three trace intervals wide shows how the diffraction process ‘‘heals’’ the wavefronts. (Courtesy
Chevron Oil Co.)
wave notation
the contrasts at the boundary are so large that they
produce almost total reflection. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 483– 486兲 and Figure C-2. 2. A device through
which high-frequency electromagnetic waves can be
transmitted.
wave impedance: 1. The ratio of orthogonal components
of electric-field to magnetic-field intensities. See
impedance. 2. The complex ratio of particle velocity 共or
pressure兲 to displacement in a wave as a function of
frequency.
wavelength „␭…: The distance between successive similar
points on two adjacent cycles of a monochromatic
wave, measured perpendicular to the wavefront.
␭⫽V/ f ⫽2 ␲ / ␬ ⫽1/wavenumber,
where V⫽wave velocity and f ⫽frequency. See Fig-
ure W-2. Dominant wavelength refers to the wave-
length of the dominant frequency component.
wavelet: A seismic pulse usually consisting of only a few
cycles. An embedded wavelet 共q.v.兲 or basic wavelet or
equivalent wavelet is the time-domain reflection shape
from a single positive reflector at normal incidence. See
also Ricker wavelet and polarity standard.
wavelet equalization: A form of wavelet processing used
with the objective of making the equivalent or embed-
ded wavelet 共q.v.兲 the same on different traces.
wavelet extraction: Wavelet processing used to determine
the shape of the embedded wavelet 共q.v.兲.
wavelet processing: Deconvolution processing which
attempts to determine the embedded wavelet shape or
to control or change the shape of the embedded wave-
let. The objective usually is to achieve some specified
wavelet shape. The specified wavelet is often 共but not
necessarily兲 zero phase and short in length. See Sheriff
and Geldart 共1995, 148, 299–300兲.
wave notation: 1. Earthquake waves are conventionally
identified using letters to designate the nature of the
wave over various legs of their travel path; see earth-
quake seismology and Figures W-7 and E-2. A Jeffreys-
Bullen chart 共Figure J-1兲 shows the normal arrival time
for various types of waves. See also T-wave, H-wave,
wavenumber „k… 391 weathered layer

and C-wave. 2. Guided electromagnetic waves are clas-

sified as TE, TM, or TEM to indicate that the electric or
magnetic field or both have transverse components
only.
wavenumber „k兲: 1. The number of waves per unit dis-
tance perpendicular to a wavefront, that is, the recipro-
cal of the wavelength. It equals ␬/2␲, that is, wavenum-
ber k is to ␬ as frequency f is to angular frequency ␻.
共Some authors define ␬ as the wavenumber.兲 2. Spatial
frequency, the number of wave cycles per unit of dis-
tance in a given direction 共direction of the spread兲;
apparent wavenumber. Specifically, the reciprocal of
the apparent wavelength ␭ app along the spread direc-
tion:
1/␭ a ⫽ f /V a ⫽k a ⫽ ␬ a /2 ␲ ,
where f ⫽frequency and V a is apparent velocity. If a
wavefront makes the angle ␪ with the given direction,
␬ ⫽2 ␲ f 共 sin ␪ 兲 /V.
where V is the actual velocity of the wavefront. A
wavenumber of zero indicates a wavefront striking a
line of detectors simultaneously. See f-k plot. 3. See
propagation constant.
wavenumber filtering: Filtering of certain wavenumbers
such as performed by spatial sampling and mixing. See
Figure D-15.
wavenumber-time domain: The result of 1D Fourier- FIG. W-6. Wavefront methods. (a) Reversed time-dis-
transforming 共in the spatial direction兲 a space-time tance curves showing both primary and secondary head
array 共such as a seismic section兲. waves. (b) Arcs of radii (t n ⫺t)/V 1 about geophone posi-
wave polarization: The sense of displacement for a wave tions (where t n ⫽arrival time at geophone n) locate wave-
共such as an S-wave兲. Motion may be predominantly front at time t. Symmetry of critical angles shows refractor
confined to one direction because of source and/or dip and reconciling the traveltimes locates the refractor.
receiver orientation, as with the preferred generation of (c) Extension to a second refractor; new arcs are drawn
SH-waves by a vibrator that is vibrating perpendicular about points where wavefronts impinge on the first
to the profile direction and recorded with horizontal refractor to locate the wavefronts in the second layer.
geophones likewise oriented. A preferred orientation
may also be imposed by anisotropy, for example,
S-waves involving displacement parallel 共or perpen- surements of the quadrature component of the electric
dicular兲 to vertical fractures in rocks. See anisotropy wave tilt; for a horizontally layered earth, the results are
(seismic). equivalent to a magnetotelluric measurement made at
waveshape: See waveform. the same frequency.
waveshape kit: A modification of an air gun so that air wave-vector filtering: Wavenumber filtering 共q.v.兲.
bleeds into the expanding bubble to increase the pres- wave velocity: The speed with which a wave advances. If
sure in the bubble during the collapse, thereby decreas- the medium is dispersive 共i.e., if the speed depends on
ing the sharpness of the collapse and simplifying the frequency兲, individual wave crests move with a velocity
seismic waveform. different from that with which the energy moves; the
waveshape stabilization: Shaping frequency spectra so as former is phase velocity, the latter group velocity.
to make the waveshape for adjacent traces more nearly Phase and ray 共group兲 velocity may also differ because
the same. Sometimes accomplished by cross- of anisotropy; see anisotropy (seismic).
equalization 共q.v.兲. wax: Solid noncrystalline components of crude oil 共such
wave slowness: The reciprocal of wave velocity, often as paraffins, asphaltenes, and hydrates兲 can solidify
regarded as a vector. when brought to the surface where temperatures are
wave spreading: See divergence. lower, causing problems by clogging pipes and valves.
wave surface: A wavefront 共q.v.兲. waypoint: Coordinates of a position to be occupied on the
wave test: Walkaway or noise analysis (seismic) 共q.v.兲. way to another point.
wave theory modeling: As opposed to ray-theory model- weak anisotropy: See anisotropy, weak.
ing, wave-equation modeling usually involves finite- weakness: The opposite of strength, which is often
difference approximations to the wave equation. described in terms of elastic moduli. Weakness usually
wave tilt: The ratio of horizontal to vertical electric fields. means failure because of fracturing, the stress at which
In some cases only the modulus is considered 共see failure occurs.
polarization ellipse兲. In an electromagnetic method weak reflection assumption: A convolutional model that
using VLF and higher-frequency radio waves, the assumes that transmission losses can be neglected.
apparent resistivity of the earth is calculated from mea- weathered layer: See weathering.
weathering „Wx, LVL… 392 well completion

weathering „Wx, LVL…: A near-surface, low-velocity averages or fitting curves to data. Generally ⌺␭ i ⫽1.
layer, usually the portion where air rather than water Weiss’s theory of magnetism: 共vīsz ⳵z or wīsz ⳵z兲 A
fills the pore spaces of rocks and unconsolidated earth. ferromagnetic material is made up of small regions or
Seismic weathering is usually different from geologic domains magnetized to saturation 共i.e., spins aligned
weathering 共the result of rock decomposition兲. The cooperatively兲 despite the tendency of thermal agitation
term LVL 共low-velocity layer兲 is often used for the to disorient the spins 共as in paramagnetism兲. A weak
seismic weathering. Frequently the base of the weath- external field can orient the domains with the field
ering is the water table. Sometimes the weathering direction, and, if strong enough, can align the domains
velocity is gradational, sometimes it is sharply layered. irreversibly, making a permanent magnet. Named for
Weathering velocities are typically 500 to 800 m/s Pierre Weiss 共1865–1940兲, French physicist.
共although weathering velocity may be 150 m/s for the Welch window: See Figure W-12.
first few cm兲 compared to subweathering velocities of weld: The seam line between sections formerly separated
1500 m/s or greater. Weathering thickness is calculated by salt after the salt has moved beyond.
from uphole-survey data and from refraction first well classification: The AAPG-API terminology for wells
breaks. See weathering correction. is shown in Figure W-8.
weathering correction: A correction of seismic reflection well completion: Preparation of a well for production.
or refraction times to remove the delay in the weather- Above ground the blow-out preventer is replaced with a
ing or low-velocity layer 共LVL兲. The simplest correc- production wellhead and other surface facilities are
tion is based on uphole times from shots in the subwe- installed. Downhole additional casing, a liner 共q.v.兲,
athering layer 共see uphole shooting兲. Correction and/or small-diameter tubing 共to bring produced fluids
methods based on first-break times include the ABC to the surface兲 may be installed. Packers 共q.v.兲 are used
method 共see Figure A-1兲, the Blondeau method, the to isolate reservoirs. In open-hole completion the cas-
summation method, and the first-break intercept-time ing shoe is just above the reservoir 共usually limestone兲.
method 共see Figure S-22 and separate entries兲. Auto- Liner completion may involve placing a screen or slot-
matic statics-correction programs 共see Sheriff and Gel- ted liner below the casing to exclude sand from enter-
dart, 1995, 18 –19, 146, 261–263兲, based on maximiz- ing; the region around the liner may be gravel-packed.
ing the coherence of reflection events are usually an Casing that has been set through the reservoir may be
early stage in digital processing. See also double-layer
weathering.
weathering map: A map showing the thickness 共occa-
sionally velocity兲 of the weathering or low-velocity
layer 共LVL兲.
weathering shot: A special source impulse to give weath-
ering data. Where pattern sources or geophone patterns
are used, the first-break quality may be too poor for
good weathering corrections and a separate single
weathering source may be recorded into a single geo-
phone of each group. See also uphole shooting. Some-
times called a poop shot or short shot.
weber: 共vā’ b⳵r兲 The unit of magnetic flux in the SI
system, being one joule/ampere. The analogous unit in
the cgs system is the maxwell⫽one erg/abampere.
1 weber⫽10 8 maxwells. Named for Wilhelm Edward
Weber 共1804 –1891兲, German physicist.
weight-drop: Use of a dropped weight as a seismic
source; thumper.
weighted array: Pattern in which geophones or seismic
sources are distributed along a line 共or over an area兲 so
that the contributions of various parts of the line 共or
area兲 are unequal. Sometimes achieved by varying the
geometric distribution of geophones and/or sources or
weightdrops, by varying the outputs of the different
geophone elements or varying the charge size in differ-
ent holes, or by varying the geophone/source spacing.
See also tapered array.
weighted average: The sum of a set of values x i multi-
plied by weighting values w i , normalized by the sum of
the weights: ⌺(w i x i )/⌺w i .
weighting material: Additives to drilling mud to increase FIG. W-7. Wave notation: Earthquake waves are identi-
its density and therefore permit a column of mud to fied conventionally using letters to designate the nature of
control high pressure and prevent a blowout. the wave over various legs of their travelpath. Arrivals of
weights: Numbers that multiply measurement values to seismic waves from earthquakes (see earthquake seis-
give greater emphasis to some values than to others in mology) are identified in this way; see Figures E-2 and
various mathematical operations, such as calculating J-1.
well-conditioned
perforated by shaped charges 共jets兲 or bullets. Produc-
tion may be stimulated 共increased兲 by fracturing or
acidizing 共q.v.兲.
well-conditioned: The situation where a small change in
the data results in only a small change in the solution.
well log: A record of one or more physical measurements
as a function of depth in a borehole. Also called a
borehole log. Distinction is sometimes made between a
log as an entire record 共which may contain curves
showing several measurements兲 and the individual
curves themselves, which are also called logs. 1. Wire-
line logs are recorded by means of sondes carrying
sensors which are lowered into the hole by a cable.
Examples include logs which record electrical measure-
ments 共SP, resistivity, etc.兲, acoustic measurements
共sonic, 3D, etc.兲, nuclear measurements 共natural radio-
activity, neutron logs, etc.兲, and miscellaneous measure-
ments 共hole size, temperature, etc.兲. 2. Other types of
well logs are made of data collected at the surface;
examples are core logs, mud logs 共q.v.兲, drilling-time
logs, etc. 3. Measurement-while-drilling 共q.v.兲 logs. 4.
Still other logs show quantities calculated from other
measurements; examples are moveable-oil plots, syner-
getic logs, etc. Pickett 共1970兲 lists types and applica-
tions of well-log measurements, as shown in Figure
W-9.
well stimulation: Operations such as fracturing and
acidizing that increase a well’s productivity.
well survey: A method of determining the average veloc-
ity as a function of depth by lowering a geophone into
a hole and recording energy from sources on the sur-
face. Often run in addition to a sonic log to supply a
FIG. W-8. AAPG and AGI well classification. (Courtesy AAPG.)
393 Werner deconvolution
reference time at the base of the casing and to check the
integrated time. A standard computation form is shown
in Figure W-10. See also vertical seismic profile.
well test: A borehole test of production characteristics.
Well tests can be of several kinds: see drillstem test and
interference test.
well-tie line: An arbitrary line 共q.v.兲 connecting wells.
well tie: Running a seismic line by a well so that seismic
events may be correlated with subsurface 共log兲 infor-
mation. The planning of well ties must consider the
migration of seismic data where dip is present, so that
the desired well tie is achieved properly.
well-velocity survey: Well survey 共q.v.兲.
Wenner electrode array: 共wen’ ⳵r兲 Electrode arrange-
ment used in resistivity surveying, consisting of four
equally spaced collinear electrodes, with the outer two
serving as current sources and the inner two as
potential-measuring points. See Figure A-18.
Wentworth scale: 共went’ w⳵rth兲 A scale of particle size.
See Figure W-11.
Werner deconvolution: 共wur’ n⳵r兲 A method of inverting
regularly spaced magnetic data such as obtained from
aeromagnetic surveys. The method assumes that
anomalies are produced by thin sheets or planar inter-
faces with infinite strike and depth extent which are
perpendicular to the line of measurement. The anomaly
produced by a thin sheet can be expressed in terms of
four unknowns so that, in a noise-free environment,
values at four successive points suffice for a solution.
Similarly, the vertical or horizontal derivative of the
anomaly produced by a planar interface between rocks
of differing magnetization can be expressed in terms of
westing
FIG. W-9. Well-log measurements and applications.
394 wide-line profiling
four unknowns. Usually two 共sometimes three兲 addi-
tional unknowns are added to allow for interferences
and a solution is found for each successive 6 共or 7兲
points on an overlapping basis. The results 共which
consist of position, depth, dip, and susceptibility con-
trast or thickness兲 are subsequently analyzed to remove
erratic solutions. The relation between an anomaly and
its magnetic source is expressed as a convolution, hence
calling the operation deconvolution 共or sometimes fil-
tering兲. See Hartman et al. 共1971, 891–918兲.
westing: See departure.
westward drift: The apparent westward drift of the geo-
magnetic field at a rate of about 0.2° per year. See
Figure P-8b.
wet: 1. Not containing hydrocarbons, therefore the same
as dry. 2. See wetable, wetability.
wetable, wetability: A liquid ‘‘wets’’ a solid if the contact
angle with the solid 共meniscus兲 curves upward. The
degree of wetting is expressed in terms of the angle of
contact.
wet auger: See auger.
wet gas: Gas containing more than 3 gallons/MCF of
condensable hydrocarbons 共which form liquified petro-
leum gas, LPG兲.
WGS84: World Geodetic System 1984 共q.v.兲.
whacker: An earth impactor used as a seismic source for
shallow-penetration studies. Used with the Mini-Sosie
method.
whetstones: A set of computational operations used to
measure and compare computer performance.
whipstock: A long wedge placed in a borehole to deflect
the drill bit in order to change the direction of the well.
whiskers: Small amplitude noise spikes.
white: Containing all frequencies in equal proportion.
whiten: To adjust the amplitudes of all frequency compo-
nents within a certain band-pass to the same level. A
method of deconvolving.
white noise: Random energy containing all frequency
components in equal proportions within the bandwidth
but with random phases.
white-noise level: The amount of white noise added to
data undergoing analysis for inverse-filter design. An
inverse filter tends to build up the higher frequencies in
which there is little meaningful data, an undesirable
consequence of which is that noise at such frequencies
is magnified. The addition of white noise 共or what is
equivalent, superimposing an impulse or biasing the
amplitude-frequency response curve兲 for filter-design
purposes limits the extent to which this can occur.
共Note that white noise is not added to the final data,
only to the inverse filter design.兲 See Sheriff and Gel-
dart 共1995, 295–297兲.
white spectrum: Containing all frequencies within a
specified bandpass in equal proportions.
whole-body excitation: Mise-a-la-masse method 共q.v.兲.
wide-angle reflection: Reflection where the angle of inci-
dence is near or greater than the critical angle. Reflec-
tion coefficients may have large values near the critical
angle so that reflection energy is exceptionally strong.
See Figures C-17 and Z-1.
wideband stack: A stack which does not produce appre-
ciable frequency discrimination. See also optimum
wideband.
wide-line profiling: A technique for obtaining, process-
Widess limit
ing, and displaying 3D data. See Figure T-4c. Trade-
name of Compagnie Generale de Geophysique.
Widess limit: 共wī’ d⳵s兲 See resolvable limit.
width: 1. The width of an anomaly usually is measured
between either half amplitude or inflection points. See
also half-width. 2. The width of a pulse is the width of
a boxcar 共q.v.兲 with the same peak height and contain-
ing the same area.
Wiener filter: 共wē’ n⳵r兲 A causal filter that will transform
an input into a desired output as nearly as possible,
subject to certain constraints. ‘‘As nearly as possible’’
共in a least squares sense兲 implies that the sum of the
squares of differences between the filter output and the
desired result is minimized. The filter optimizes stand-
out of a signal S 共which is a function of frequency, f 兲 in
the presence of random noise N 共also a function of
frequency兲. The filter is given by the normal equations
共q.v.兲. Each frequency is passed proportional to
关 S 共 f 兲兴 2
. radiant power peak is inversely proportional to the
关 S 共 f 兲兴 2 ⫹ 关 N 共 f 兲兴 2
If a desired output is specified, the Wiener filter will
give the output for an actual input which comes closest
to the desired output. Also called a least-squares filter.
See Wiener-Hopf equations and Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 293, 295, 559–560兲. Named for Norbert Wiener
共1894 –1964兲, American mathematician.
Wiener-Hopf equations: 共wē’ n⳵r hōpf兲 1. The Wiener-
Hopf equation of the first kind is an integral equation in
the unknown f (t):
冕
␾ xz 共 ␶ 兲 ⫽ f 共 t 兲 ␾ xx 共 ␶ ⫺t 兲 dt, ␶ ⬎0.
FIG. W-10. Well-shooting computation form.
395 windmill array
This equation is the necessary and sufficient condition
for minimizing the mean-square error between a
desired output z(t) and the actual output y(t) which
results from passing an input x(t) through a causal
filter with an impulse response f (t). ␾ xx ( ␶ ) is the
autocorrelation of x and ␾ xz ( ␶ ) is the crosscorrelation
of z and x. When digital processing is involved, this
equation becomes the normal set of linear simultaneous
equations 共normal equations兲. 2. The Wiener-Hopf
equation of the second kind which applies to a nonsta-
tionary input involves a time-varying filter f (t, ␦ ) and
time-varying correlation functions:
冕
␾ xz 共 t, ␶ 兲 ⫽ f 共 t, ␦ 兲 ␾ xx 共 ␦ , ␶ 兲 d ␦ .
See Wiener filter and Lee 共1960兲.
Wiener-Levinson algorithm: See Levinson algorithm.
Wien’s displacement law: 共vēn兲 The wavelength of the
temperature.
wiggle trace: A graph of amplitude against time, as on a
conventional seismic recording with mirror galvanom-
eters. Also called ‘‘squiggle’’ recording. See Figure
D-17.
wild: Having very large and often unpredictable ampli-
tudes, e.g., a noisy seismic channel at high gain.
wildcat well: An exploratory well in an area where oil or
gas has not yet been found in commercial quantities.
See Figure W-8.
winding number: How many cycles have passed since an
arbitrary starting point.
windmill array: An array designed to have nearly the
same response at all azimuths.
window 396 window attributes

window: 1. A portion of a seismic record free from certain
disturbances; that is, where noise trains are absent. 2.
The portion of a data set chosen for consideration, such
as for designing operators to be used for autocorrelation
or frequency analysis. Also called gate. See also win-
dow carpentry. The equivalent width of a window is
the width of a boxcar with the same peak amplitude
which contains the same energy. 3. To select for analy-
sis data within specified bounds. 4. A portion of a
computer screen in which some particular data are
displayed. Used when several data sets are to be dis-
played simultaneously. Windows can be moved about
or other windows laid on top of them.
window attributes: Seismic data measurement within a
window; see attribute, seismic. Window classification
involves the size of the window over which measure-
ments are made, the slopes of the edges of the window
共see window兲, weighting within the window, smooth-
ing, averaging, residuals, peak values, the distribution
within the window 共15, 50, and 85% values, mean,

FIG. W-11. Wentworth particle-size scale. ␾ ⫽⫺log 2 mm⫽⫺(log10 mm/log10 2), where mm⫽grain size in millimeters.
window carpentry 397
median, kurtosis, continuity, smoothness, edges, per-
cent greater/smaller than a threshold兲, linearity or cur-
vature, gradient 共e.g., AVO兲, slope or other derivatives,
integrated values, absolute values, averages of absolute
values, relations within or between windows 共correla-
tion, semblance, covariance兲, peak-trough differences,
FIG. W-12. Windows in the time and frequency domains.
(a) Window shapes in time-domain. (b) Spectral shapes.
The effective width of the boxcar is greater than that for
the other window shapes and hence the central lobe is
sharper.
working rays
polarity changes, spectra, etc.
window carpentry: Abrupt discontinuities, such as at the
edges of a boxcar window, produce undesirable ringing
and overshoot effects. Window carpentry concerns
designing the boundaries of windows to minimize
undesirable effects by weighting the values within a
window according to some scheme. Window weight-
ings in common use are shown in Figure W-12. Note
the tradeoff between narrowness of the major lobe and
low sidelobe energy.
window pair: A window and its Fourier transform, such
as shown in Figure W-12a,b.
wind scale: Wind force is often given in terms of a Beau-
fort number. See Figure B-2.
wink technique: Rapid alternation of two displays which
are nearly alike, so that the places of difference appear
to jitter whereas places which are alike remain station-
ary.
Winterstein layer stripping: A top-down procedure for
removing the azimuthal anisotropy from seismic data.
See Winterstein 共2001兲.
wipe-out zone: 1. A region without recorded reflections,
possibly representing gassy sediments or a zone with
very small internal contrasts 共such as a mud-filled chan-
nel兲. 2. A region from which reflections cannot be
obtained because of raypath disturbances or excessive
attenuation in a shallower region. Sometimes caused by
lack of illumination 共q.v.兲.
wire-frame representation „at workstation…: A graphi-
cal representation of the surface of a 3D object by
means of points or lines in a distorted mesh.
wireline: The wire rope used to lower and raise tools 共e.g.,
tools for recording well logs 共q.v.兲, corer 共q.v.兲 to take
sidewall samples, etc.兲 in a borehole.
wireline corer: See corer.
wireline log: A well log 共q.v.兲 recorded, while being with-
drawn by a sonde that has been lowered into the bore-
hole by a cable.
wiring harness: An arrangement of firing lines for a
series of explosive charges at various depths in a bore-
hole. The deepest charges have to be exploded first.
witness marker: A marked location 共such as a blaze on a
tree兲 which helps locate a survey point whose location
is known with respect to the witness marker.
WKBJ solutions: A method attributed to Wentzel, Kram-
ers, Brillouin, and Jeffreys for finding approximate
solutions to the equation
d 2 ␾ /dx 2 ⫹ ␻ 2 s 2 ␾ ⫽0,
where ␻ is large and positive and s 2 is a monotonically
increasing function of x. The WKBJ approximation is
a high-frequency approximation that assumes that the
properties of the medium are constant over several
wavelengths. See Aki and Richards 共1980, 416 – 418兲.
wood gator: A truck-mounted wood chipper used to clear
brush on seismic lines.
WOR: Water/Oil Ratio.
word: A group of characters occupying one storage loca-
tion in a computer. This unit is treated by the computer
as an entity. Often consists of 32 bits.
workbench: 1. Work station 共q.v.兲. 2. A 3D visualization
tool.
working rays: Rays that are perpendicular to a reflector
are traced to the surface, where they form a file that is
work station
used to locate the starting points for iterative raytracing.
See Fagan 共1991, 20兲.
work station: An interactive terminal, either stand-alone
or connected to a larger computer. Used for interpreta-
tion, modeling, making processing decisions, etc. by
one person at a time.
workstation network: Interconnected workstations that
can access files and data from each other.
World Data Centers: Centers for the collection,
exchange, and distribution of data from various geo-
physical disciplines, e.g., solid-earth geophysics, solar-
terrestrial geophysics, oceanography, glaciology,
meteorology, tsunamis. They were originally estab-
lished for the International Geophysical Year but are
being continued under the auspices of the International
Council of Scientific Unions 共ICSU兲. World Data Cen-
ter A is in Boulder, Colorado, World Data Center B is in
Moscow, World Data Center C is split with parts in
Japan and parts in Western Europe.
World Geodetic System: WGS84 is now used for satel-
lite positioning; WGS72 was used before 1987. See
Figure G-2.
World-wide Standard Seismograph network „WWSS…:
A network of seismic stations utilizing the same type of
instruments.
World Wide Web „WWW…: A distributed hypertext
information system developed at CERN.
worm: See virus.
wow: 1. Variations in the speed of a magnetic tape or a
camera, evidenced by an irregular timing-line pattern.
Often periodic and of low frequency. 2. A pattern seen
in isovelocity contours caused by a velocity anomaly
much smaller than the spread length.
wrap around: 1. Aliasing in the f -k domain 共q.v.兲. Wrap-
around can be prevented by padding 共q.v.兲 with zeroes.
See also Figure F-11b. 2. The effect produced when a
digital memory element 共usually a register兲 is incre-
398 Wyrobek method
mented 共decremented兲 past its maximum 共minimum兲
value. For example, a 4-bit register can contain any
value from 0 to 15. When it contains 15, incrementing
it results in a value of zero.
write-protect: A setting that makes it impossible to over-
write a digital storage device and hence alter data.
Diskettes have a hole in them which write-protects
them when the hole is open.
Wulff net: 共wolf兲 See sterographic projection. Named for
Georg Wulff 共1863–1925兲, Russian crystallographer.
WWSSN: World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Net-
work, each station consisting of three orthogonal short-
period geophones 共up, north, east兲 and three long-
period geophones.
WWV: The United States Bureau of Standards radio sta-
tion which broadcasts time and frequency standards.
WWV 共Ft. Collins, Colorado兲 and WWVH 共Maui,
Hawaii兲 broadcast continuously on 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20,
and 25 MHz 共the last 2 only by WWV兲. WWV is off the
air for 4 min commencing at 45 min 15 s after each
hour and WWVH for 4 minutes commencing at 15 min
15 s after each hour. Each second is marked by a signal
or tick. A voice announcement is given every minute,
for example, ‘‘National Bureau of Standards, WWV,
Fort Collins, Colorado. At the tone, 17 hr, 16 min,
Coordinated Universal time.’’ WWVB broadcasts a
binary-coded-decimal version of WWV.
WWW: World Wide Web 共q.v.兲.
Wyllie relationship: 共wī’ lē兲 The time-average equation
共q.v.兲. Named for M. R. J. Wyllie, American geophysi-
cist.
Wx: Weathering 共q.v.兲.
Wyrobek method: 共wi’ rō bek兲 A refraction interpretation
method based on applying delay and intercept times to
continuous refraction profiling, even where the profiles
are not reversed. See Wyrobek 共1956兲 or Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 441– 442兲.
 X
x: 1. The distance from the source to a particular geophone
group; offset. 2. An x-spread is a cross-spread; see
Figure S-18.
x-band: See radar and Figure R-1.
x-hole: Crosshole; see crosshole method.
xmit: To transmit.
xml: EXtensible Markup Language, a language for inter-
net use.
xo: Subscript used with log terms to indicate values appro-
priate to the flushed zone adjacent to the borehole.
XR: EXtended Range; see extended-range shoran.
X-ray fluorescence „XRF…: Measuring distinctive sec-
ondary X-rays emitted when a sample is bombarded by
electrons, X-rays, or ␥-rays.
XRD: X-Ray Diffraction.
XRF: X-Ray Fluorescence.
x-spread: Cross-spread 共q.v.兲.
Y
yardstick: A standard of performance for evaluating
devices or processes.
yaw: Rotational motion of a ship or aircraft about a ver-
tical axis. A steady heading at an angle to the course
共such as to compensate for cross wind or cross sea兲 is
called crab. Compare pitch and roll.
yellow pages: A directory of suppliers or service compa-
nies.
Young’s modulus: 共y⳵ng兲 See elastic constant. Named for
Thomas Young 共1772–1829兲, British natural philoso-
pher.
yo-yo: 1. Moving sources up/down in a borehole. 2. Depth
399
X2-T2 analysis: A method of determining stacking veloc-
ity V s and the depth of a reflector z from the arrival-
time versus offset relationship:
V s2 t 2 ⫽ 4z 2 ⫹x 2 .
If x 2 is plotted against t 2 , the slope gives the inverse of
the velocity squared and the depth can be obtained from
the intercept. Applies only to a constant velocity
medium. Because of the variation of velocity with
depth, x 2 -t 2 curves are not perfectly straight lines. For
horizontal velocity layering and horizontal reflectors,
the stacking velocity V s is given by the slope at the
origin. See also velocity and Sheriff and Geldart 共1995,
86, 134兲.
X-Y reader: A device for converting the positions of
points on a map or graph to digital coordinates. Coor-
dinatograph.
oscillation of a logging sonde because of unequal drag
as it is pulled up the hole. 3. A method of marine
seismic shooting in which the seismic cable or streamer
being towed by the recording boat is alternately
released so that it floats freely in the water during
recordings, and then is reeled in between recordings to
catch up with the recording boat, which is traveling
steadily ahead all the while.
Yumatsu impactor: 共ū, mat’ sū兲 An impulsive seismic
energy source that involves the use of hydraulics to
accelerate a 440 lb mass against a weighted baseplate.
Tradename of Japex Geoscience Institute Inc.
 Z
ZÕA: The ratio of atomic number Z to atomic weight A
and, hence, proportional to the ratio of electron density
共as measured by the density log兲 to mass density.
Apparent density equals true density where Z/A
⫽1/2, which is closely approximated for many miner-
als 共e.g., quartz, calcite, anhydrite, dolomite兲. The
apparent density is larger than the true density when
Z/A⬎1/2 共e.g., gypsum, oil, 110% for water兲, smaller
when Z/A⬍1/2 共e.g., salt兲.
Zeeman effect: 共zā’ m⳵n兲 A splitting of spectral lines in
the radiation emitted by atoms or molecules in a mag-
netic field. Named for Pieter Zeeman 共1865–1943兲,
Dutch physicist.
Zener diode: 共zē’ n⳵r兲 A silicon diode in which the break-
down voltage in the reverse direction 共Zener voltage兲 is
used for voltage stabilization or voltage reference.
zenith: 共zē’ n⳵th兲 A point directly overhead. Zenith dis-
tance is the angle between zenith and a body.
zero: A root 共q.v.兲 of an equation.
zero crossing: Where a seismic trace crosses the zero-
deflection axis, where the phase of a semiperiodic sig-
nal is zero.
zero-crossings, number of: An attribute sometimes used
as a frequency measure.
zero frequency: Alternating-current phenomena extrapo-
lated to zero frequency in the frequency domain. The
amplitude at zero-frequency is the dc shift.
zero-frequency seismology: Study of long-term displace-
ments, strains, and tilts.
zero-lag correlation: The value of an autocorrelation
␾ xx (0) or crosscorrelation ␾ zx (0) for zero time shift; a
measure of the mean power or crosspower.
zero-length spring: A spring whose effective length, as
measured from its fixed point of support, is zero when
the external forces acting upon it are zero. The stress-
strain relationship between its points of attachment
projected back to zero length has zero strain. Gravime-
ters using a zero-length spring are linear and have
extreme sensitivity combined with stability and reduced
sensitivity to leveling error.
zero offset „ZSR…: Source and receiver located at the
same place, the objective of a common-midpoint sec-
tion by correcting for normal moveout and stacking.
Also coincident source-receiver.
zero-offset ray tracing: Using seismic rays that are
orthogonal to a seismic reflector so that after reflection
they retrace the same path they traversed in reaching
the reflector.
zero-offset section: A seismic section where each trace is
the result of a coincident source and geophone, the
section that a common-midpoint section simulates. Also
called a ZSR 共Zero Source-Receiver distance兲 section.
zero-phase: 1. A filter for which the phase shift is zero for
all frequencies. Zero-phase filters are anticipatory and
hence are not physically realizable, i.e., half of the
energy arrives before the time reference so that one gets
output before the input arrives. If the input to a zero-
400
phase filter is symmetric, then the output will also be
symmetric. Zero-phase filtering can be approximated
by using a linear-phase filter, a mixed-phase filter which
shifts component frequencies proportional to their fre-
quency, and then delaying the time reference. A zero
phase filter produces no phase distortion. See Figure
P-2 and phase characteristics. 2. A wavelet symmetric
about zero time. It is the shortest possible wavelet for
any given spectrum. The SEG standard for display of a
zero-phase wavelet is shown in Figure P-6.
zero time: The reference time for a seismic trace, with
respect to which arrival times are measured.
zeta potential: 共zā’ t⳵兲 Adsorption potential, the potential
drop across the diffuse layer in an electrolyte, which
consists of a group of relatively mobile ions at the
interface between a solid and a liquid. See adsorption.
Zietz-Andreasen method: 共zētz’ an drā’ s⳵n兲 A magnetic
interpretation method; see Zietz and Andreasen 共1967兲.
zig-zag: A 3D acquisition geometry where the source lines
zig-zag between the receiver lines.
zipper: An overlap in a 3D survey that causes either
source locations to be repeated into a new set of
receiver positions or receiver positions to be reoccupied
for a new set of source locations.
Zoeppritz’s equations: 共zō’ pritz兲 Equations that express
the partition of energy when a plane wave impinges on
an acoustic-impedance contrast. In the general case for
an interface between two solids when the incident angle
is not zero, four waves are generated: reflected P-wave
and S-wave and transmitted P-wave and S-wave. The
partition of energy among these is found from four
boundary conditions which require continuity of nor-
mal and tangential displacement and stress. Using the
symbols given in Figure S-12, Snell’s law states:
sin ␪ P1 sin ␪ S1 sin ␪ P2 sin ␪ S2
⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ;
V P1 V S1 V P2 V S2
this defines all angles. For an incident plane P-wave of
unity amplitude, the continuity conditions yield the four
Zoeppritz equations shown in Figure Z-1.
Figure Z-1 also shows the variation of energy with
angle for several sets of parameters. Beyond the critical
angles for P- and S-waves, the respective refracted
waves vanish. The increase in reflection energy near the
critical angle is sometimes referred to as the wide-
angle phenomenon and is sometimes exploited in seis-
mic surveying. The same relationships in terms of
potentials are called Knott’s equations. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 73–75兲. Because no provision was made
in the equation’s derivation for the head waves, these
equations do not give head-wave amplitudes or correct
values beyond the critical angle.
zonation of a reservoir: Vertical permeability differences
often subdivide a producing zone into subzones that
may produce somewhat independently. The subzones
zone chart 401 z-transform

冏 冏冏 冏 冏 冏
FIG. Z-1. The Zoeppritz equations for an incident plane P-wave of unity amplitude are:
cos ␪ P1 ⫺sin ␪ S1 cos ␪ P2 sin ␪ S2 A cos ␪ P1
sin ␪ P1 cos ␪ S1 ⫺sin ␪ P2 cos ␪ S2 B ⫺sin ␪ S1
⫽
Z 1 cos2 ␪ S1 ⫺W 1 sin ␪ S1 ⫺Z 2 cos 2 ␪ S2 ⫺W 2 sin 2 ␪ S2 C ⫺Z 1 cos 2 ␪ S1
共 V S1 /V P1 兲 W 1 sin 2 ␪ P1 W 1 cos 2 ␪ S1 共 V S2 /V P2 兲 W 2 sin 2 ␪ P2 ⫺W 2 cos 2 ␪ S2 D 共 V S1 /V P1 兲 W 1 sin 2 ␪ P1

where Z i ⫽ ␳ i V Pi, W i ⫽ ␳ i V Si, and A,B,C,D are respectively the amplitudes of the reflected P- and S-waves and the
transmitted P- and S-waves. However, their derivation does not consider head waves and hence they do not yield
reliable values at and beyond the critical angle. (a) Energy fractions of reflected P-waves RP, reflected S-waves RS,
transmitted P-waves TP, and transmitted S-waves TS for a P-wave velocity ratio of 0.5, density ratio 0.8, Poisson’s ratio
of 0.3 in the upper medium and 0.25 in the lower. (b) Similar to (a) except for P-wave velocity ratio of 2.0 and density
ratio of 0.5. (c) Energy fraction for reflected P-waves as a function of P-wave velocity ratio; no density contrast and
Poisson’s ratios are 0.25. (From Denham and Palmeira, 1984.) (d) Energy fractions for reflected P-waves as a function
of density ratio; P-wave velocity contrast 1.5, Poisson’s ratio 0.25. (From Tooley et al., 1965.)

共and perhaps the entire reservoir兲 are often beyond
seismic resolution.
zone chart: A template for making terrain correction or
isostatic corrections to gravity data. A zone chart 共Fig-
ure Z-2兲 can be laid over a topographic map with its
center at the station being corrected and the difference
in mean absolute elevation between each zone and the
station’s elevation tabulated without regard for sign
共because the correction is always positive regardless of
whether zones are higher or lower than the station
elevation兲 to determine the terrain correction.
zoom: To enlarge or reduce. An interactive graphics term
for increasing or decreasing the magnification of a
display. Derived from the photographic term. See Fig-
ure D-24.
z-plane: A representation of the z-transform polynomial
associated with a waveform in sampled form; see
z-transform and Figure Z-3.
ZSR: Zero Source-Receiver distance; zero offset.
z-transform: A transform useful for representing time
series and calculating the effects of various operations.
If the sample values of a wavelet at successive times
are: x t ⫽[x 0 ,x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 ,...,x n ], then the z-transform of
the wavelet is
x 共 z 兲 ⫽x 0 ⫹x 1 z⫹x 2 z 2 ⫹x 3 z 3 ⫹...⫹x n z n .
The z-transform may be thought of as z⫽e ⫺i ␻ t , where
␻ ⫽angular frequency; this allows one to relate it to the
Fourier transform. The z-transform technique is an easy
way of converting from the time domain into a form
which can be treated as in the frequency domain. Con-
z-transform 402 z-transform

FIG. Z-2. Zone chart for gravity terrain corrections. (From

Nettleton, 1940, 146.)

volution can be accomplished by merely multiplying

the z-transforms of the waveforms being convolved,
and the inverse of a filter can be found by finding the
reciprocal of the filter’s z-transform. The z-transform
polynomial can be factored and expressed as the prod-
uct of doublets of the form:
f 共 z 兲 ⫽ 共 z⫺a 兲共 z⫺b 兲共 z⫺c 兲 ... 共 z⫺n 兲 .
The magnitudes of the roots or zeros for which this
expression vanishes, i.e., z⫽a, z⫽b, etc. 共which may
be complex兲, indicate whether the doublets are mini-
mum or maximum phase. Values greater than unity are
said to ‘‘lie outside the unit circle;’’ see Figure Z-3. If
all the roots lie outside the unit circle, the function is
minimum phase; if all are inside, it is maximum
phase. Values for which an expression becomes infinite
关such as r in 1/(z⫺r) 兴 are called poles or singulari-
ties. Filters are sometimes designed in the z-plane. See
Robinson and Treitel 共1964兲 and Sheriff and Geldart
FIG. Z-3. z-plane. (a) The wavelet (10, ⫺2, ⫺1, 2, 1) has
the z-transform 10⫺2z⫺z 2 ⫹2z 3 ⫹z 4 , which may be
factored (2⫹j⫹z)(2⫺j⫹z)(⫺1⫺j⫹z)(⫺1⫹j⫹z), which
has the roots (⫺2⫺j), (⫺2⫹j), (1⫺j), (1⫹j). (b) A plot
of these roots in the z-plane is shown. Since all roots lie
outside a circle of radiu 1 (the unit circle), the wavelet is
minimum phase.
共1995, 292, 549–550兲. Sometimes the opposite conven-
tion is used, i.e., successive sample values are multi-
plied by successively higher negative powers of z and
then the criteria for minimum and maximum phase with
respect to the unit circle is reversed.
Acknowledgments
I greatly appreciate the help that many people have given me in efforts to make this work useful.
I have tried to keep a record of those who helped but undoubtedly I have missed some and I
apologize to them. I have borrowed many potential-field definitions from IGC 共1996兲 and Goussev
and Peirce 共1999兲. I especially wish to acknowledge the huge contributions by Dan Ebrom and Bob
Bruce and my colleagues at the University of Houston. And I again thank my wife Margaret for her
advice and support.
I have merged the names of contributors with those of the preceding editions on which this
edition is built. A number of the names are repeats and I very much appreciate their continuing
help. A number of the names are also of those who are no longer with us and we are thus reminded
of how much we owe them for their contributions to geophysics.

Aina, Adebayo Butler, John Dobrin, Milton

Al-Chalabi, M. Bybee, Halbert H. Domenico, Norman
Alexander, Mike Carlile, R. E. Donovan, Mike T.
Ahmad, F. I. Calvert, Andrew J. Doo, Jung Jim
Aldridge, David F. Carmichael, R. S. Dragoset, Bill
Allingham, John W. Castellussi, George Duffy, John
Anderson, Brian Cavers, D. A. Eaton, Perry
Antonelli, Philip D. Chambers, Richard L. Ebrom, Dan
Asten, Michael Chapin, David Edelmann, H. A. K.
Astern, M. W. Chen, Quincy Eggers, Dwight E.
Ballantyne, Edwin J. Chen, Thomas C. Eisner, Elmer
Bancroft, John C. Cherepovski, Anatoly Eppert, Herb
Barasch, Linda S. Christensen, A. D. Evans, Randy L.
Barnes, Art Cidinsky, Karel Ferderer, Robert J.
Barnes, Barbara S. Claerbout, Jon F. Finklea, E. E.
Barnett, Wayne S. Clarj, C. M. Frazier, S. B.
Barr, Fred Claude, Ph. Frost, Noel
Bean, R. J. Corbett, J. D. Gajkowski, Wynn
Bexdam, Sanbdor Correa, Gus Galbraith, James N.
Bhattacharya, B. B. Cox, Mike Gardner, G. H. F.
Bird, Dale Crampin, Stuart Gardner, L. W.
Boerner, David Cressman, Ken S. Geldart, Lloyd P.
Bowers, Glenn Daniel, D. B. Georgi, Daniel
Braunstein, Jules Daniels, Jeffrey Ghiselin, Richard G.
Bremner, Doug Davis, Bob Goetz, J. F.
Brown, Alistair R. Davenport, G. Clark Goldstein, Norman E.
Brown, R. James Dellinger, Joe Goussev, Serguei
Bruce, Bob Denham, Leslie R. Green, Ronald
Bullock, S. J. Dewan, John T. Hadsell, Frank
Burg, Kenneth E. Diggons, Bill Hall, Stuart A.
Burns, G. W. Dix, C. H. Hansen, Rochard
Butler, Butch Dobecki, T. L. Hann, John
Hardage, Bob Mueller, John F. Smith, Richard
Harrell, Ron Murray, D. RB. Sodbinow, Manny
Henry, Steve Musgrave, A. W. Sondergeld, Carl
Hertzler, Jim Myung, John L. Soonawala, N. M.
Hilche, D. W. Neccioglu, Altan Souza, Jairo M.
Hinze, W. J. Nelson, H. Roice Spies, Brian R.
Holderman, Timothy G. Nelson, John C. Steenland, Melson C.
Holzman, Mark Nettleton, L. L. Steeples, Don W.
Houpe, Mark W. Norris, Mike Stephens, Steve
Iverson, William P. Norris, Roger A. Strack, Kurt M.
Johnson, Glenda E. Olhoeft, Gary R. Sumner, John R.
Keller, G. Randy Oliveira Duarte, Osvaldo de Suto, Koya
Keller, George V. Oxley, Dave Swanson, Harold
Kellogg, W. C. Pankonien, Laura J. Tahseen, M.
Kennedy, David Parker, G. E. Taxil, Paul H.
Kirkpatrick, Richard L. Parish, John Taylor, Howard L.
Koerner, H. J. Paulsson, Bjorn N. P. Thayer, Richard E.
LaFehr, Thomas R.
Payne, Layton N. Thomsen, Leon
Laing, Bill
Peirce, John Todd, Raymond C.
Lankston, Robert W.
Pickett, George R. Tudor, Don
Levin, Franklyn K.
Porter, Mark Uren, Norm
Levin, Stewart
Liggio, Ann Powers, Michael H. Valenta, W. T.
Lindseth, Roy O. Prieto, Corine Valusek, Jay E.
Liner, Chris Racer, C. W. Van Melle, F. A.
Lines, Larry R. Ranto, K. Vozoff, Keeva
Long, James A. Regan, Robert D. Walker, Terry
Loucks, Keith W. Reid, Alan B. Wallberg, Jeanne S.
Lowman, Paul Resnick, Jeff Walstrom, J. E.
Lowry, Allan Robertson, James D. Ward, Stanley H.
Luzela, R. C. Robertson, R. A. Watson, Kenneth
Lynch, Bill Rowe, Jeffrey D. Watts, M. D.
Macnae, Jim Ross, Christopher West, Robert E.
Mahrer, Ken Savit, Carl H. Weyand, Jack C.
Mallick, Brian C. Schoenberger, Michael Wiggins, Wendell
Marfurt, Kurt Sedov, Boris Winney, Randy A.
Marks, Karen Segesman, F. Winterstein, Don
Mayne, W. Harry Sheriff, Margaret S. Wolfgram, Pater
McCarley, L. A. Sheriff, Richard K. Woller, Kevin L.
McCormack, H. Robert Siegfried, Bob Wuenschel, Paul
McDonald, John A. Sigal, Richard Yorston, Howard J.
McNaughton, Neil Simpson, Anne Yungul, Sulhi H.
Meinardus, Hans A. Singleton, Al Zeitz, Isidore
Monk, Dave Slavin, Mathew Zhou, Hau Wei
Morgan, James G. Smith, Christopher Zinzer, David
Appendix A: SI Units

‘‘SI’’ is an abbreviation for Le Système International d’Unités, an international system of units

adopted by many national and international authorities, associations, professional societies, and agencies.
SI is closely related to but not identical with the former cgs, mks, and mksa systems of metric units.
Official information, development history, and more detail on SI can be found in Bureau of Standards
Special Publication 330 共1974兲 and in the SEG Subcommittee on Metrification 共1981兲 publication.
SI is based on seven base units listed in Table 1 and two supplementary units 共the last two兲.
SI derived units are formed by combining the base and supplementary units. Some of the derived
units are listed in Table 2.
Table 3 shows how larger or smaller units can be made by adding prefixes. When prefixes are used,
the first syllable is accented. Note that k and M stand for 10 3 and 10 6 , whereas M and MM 共or m and
mm兲 are sometimes used in the oil industry for designating thousands and millions 共of gas volumes兲.
Prefixes are raised to the power of the unit employed; for example, km3 means cubic kilometers, not
thousands of cubic meters. Prefixes are not compounded 共GW rather than kMW兲.
SEG allows the forms in Table 4 in addition to those in Tables 1 to 3.
Table 5 relates cgs electromagnetic and electrostatic units to SI units; see also Figure E-8. Figure M-1
relates cgs and SI magnetic units.

Rules about writing units

Symbols are written in Roman 共not italics兲 type. They are never pluralized.
Unit names, including prefixes, are not capitalized except at the beginning of a sentence or in titles.
Unit names are pluralized in the usual manner, as 100 meters, 70 henries, except for lux, hertz, and
siemens. Fractional values require the singular form.
Periods are not used after symbols, that is, symbols are not abbreviations.
Symbols are lower case except when named for a person 共exception: L for liter兲.
A space separates a numerical value and the unit symbol 共except for °C兲; thus, 10 m, 0.112 s,
1.5 g/cm3, 20°C. A hyphen separates value and symbol when used as an adjective; thus, 35-mm film. No
space separates a prefix and the symbol; thus, ms for milliseconds, kW for kilowatt.
The symbols ‘‘/’’ or ‘‘.’’ are used to indicate the compounding of symbols 共for example, km/s or N.m
for kilometers per second and newton-meter兲, but are not used when units are written out. Where
symbols are compounded, parentheses should be used to avoid ambiguity, as W/共m.k兲. ‘‘P’’ is not
acceptable as an abbreviation for ‘‘per.’’ ‘‘Per’’ should not be compounded; thus, ‘‘meters per second
squared,’’ not ‘‘meters per second per second.’’ Use ⫻ rather than • for products of numbers; thus
6.2⫻5, not 6.2.5. A space should be used on each side of symbols for multiplication, addition, subtrac-
tion, convolution 共⫻, ⫹, ⫺, *兲 and for the division symbol ⫼ but not for /.
Numbers with many decimal places should be grouped by threes separated by a space rather than by
a comma 共which Europeans read as a decimal point兲; thus, 4 720 525 or 0.528 75. For numbers smaller
than one, a zero should be shown in the units place. A space is not necessary for four-digit numbers.

403
Appendix A 404

Table 1. SI base and supplementary units.

Quantity SI unit symbol
Length meter or metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
Note that the kilogram is not a unit of force (weight). The
word ‘‘weight’’ is often ambiguous and its use should be
avoided. The temperature unit kelvin is not ‘‘degree kelvin.’’

‘‘Squared’’ or ‘‘cubed’’ should follow unit names except for areas and volumes; thus, meter per second
squared, square meter, watt per cubic meter.
The spellings ‘‘metre’’ and ‘‘litre’’ are preferred but ‘‘meter’’ and ‘‘liter’’ are the official U.S. forms
of spelling. The use of liter as a cubic decimeter is discouraged.

Table 2. SI derived units.

Quantity Derived unit, symbol Quantity Derived unit, symbol
Absorbed dose gray, Gy⫽J/kg Luminous flux lumen, lm⫽cd.sr
Acceleration meters per second Magnetizing force ampere per meter,
squared, m/s2 A/m
Activity (of radionuclides) becquerel, Bq⫽l/s Magnetic flux weber, Wb⫽V.s
Angular acceleration radian per second Magnetic flux density tesla, T⫽Wb/m2
squared, rad/s2 Potential difference volt, V⫽W/A
Angular velocity radian per second, Power watt, W⫽J/s
rad/s Pressure pascal, Pa⫽N/m2
Area square meter, m2 Quantity of electricity coulomb, C⫽A.s
Density kilogram per cubic Quantity of heat joule, J⫽N.m
meter, kg/m3 Radiant flux watt, W⫽J/s
Electric capacitance farad, F⫽A.s/V Radiant intensity watt per steradian,
⫽C/V W/sr
Electric charge coulomb, C⫽A/s Specific heat capacity joule per kilogram kel-
Electrical conductance siemens, S⫽A/V vin, J/kg.K
Electric field strength volt per meter, V/m Stress pascal, Pa⫽N/m2
Electric inductance henry, H⫽V.s/A⫽ Thermal conductivity watt per meter kelvin,
Wb/A W/m.K
Electric potential volt, V⫽W/A Torque newton meter (not
Electric resistance ohm, ⏲⫽V/A joule)
Electromotive force volt, V⫽W/A Velocity meter per second, m/s
Energy joule, J⫽N.m Viscosity, dynamic pascal second, Pa.s
Entropy joule per kelvin, J/K Viscosity, kinematic square meter per sec-
Force newton, N⫽kg.m/s2 ond, m2/s
Frequency hertz, Hz⫽l/s Voltage volt, V⫽W/A
Illiminance lux, lx⫽lm/m2 Volume cubic meter, m3
Luminance candela per square Wavenumber per meter, l/m
meter, cd/m2 Work joule, J⫽N.m
 405 Appendix A

Table 3. SI prefixes Table 4. Additional units allowed by SEG

Prefix, Quantity Unit and equivalence
Multiplier symbol
Acceleration milligal, mGal⫽10 ⫺5 m/s2
24 yotta, Y
10 Angular velocity revolutions per minute,
10 21 zetta, Z rad/2␲ min, revolutions
10 18 exa, E per second, rad/2␲ s
10 15 peta, P Area hectare, ha⫽10 4 m2
10 12 tera, T Calorific value kilowatt hour per kilogram
Energy kilowatt hour,
10 9 giga, G
kw.h⫽(1/3600)J
10 6 mega, M
Energy unit electron volt, eV
10 3 kilo, k Length centimeter, cm⫽10 ⫺2 m
10 2 hecto, h Magnetic flux density gamma⫽nT
10 deka, da Mass tonne⫽10 3 kg
10 ⫺1 deci, d Plane angle degree⫽0.017 453 29 rad
10 ⫺2 centi, c Pressure bar⫽100 kPa
10 ⫺3 milli, m Temperature degree Celsius,
10 ⫺6 micro, ␮ °C⫽K⫺273.15
10 ⫺9 nano, n Time minute, min⫽60 s
10 ⫺12 pico, p hour h⫽3600 s
10 ⫺15 femto, f day, d
10 ⫺18 atto, a year, a
10 ⫺21 zepto, z Volume liter or litre, L⫽dm3
hectare meter,
10 ⫺24 yocto, y
ha.m⫽10 4 m3
When prefixes are used, the first syllable is Yield liter/tonne
accented.

Note that ‘‘degree’’ in ‘‘degree Celsius’’ is lower case. ‘‘Centigrade’’ is now obsolete. The symbol °
to indicate degree is not used when temperature is expressed in kelvin.

Table 5. SI equivalents of cgs units

Quantity SI unit cgs-emu cgs-esu
Length meter ⫽10 centimeter
2

Mass kilogram ⫽10 3 gram

Force newton ⫽10 5 dyne
Energy (work) joule ⫽10 7 erg
Current ampere ⫽10 ⫺1 abampere ⫽ 3⫻10 9 statampere
Charge coulomb ⫽10 ⫺1 abcoulomb ⫽ 3⫻10 9 statcoulomb
Electrical potential volt ⫽10 8 abvolt ⫽ (1/300) statvolt
Resistance ohm ⫽10 9 abohm ⫽ (9⫻10 11 ) ⫺1 statohm
Capacitance farad ⫽10 ⫺9 abfarad ⫽ 9⫻10 11 statfarad
Magnetic flux density tesla ⫽10 4 gauss
Magnetic flux weber ⫽10 8 maxwell
Magnetizing force ampere turn/m ⫽4 ␲ ⫻10 3 oersted
Inductance henry ⫽10 9 abhenry
For some of the above units, magnitude depends on the speed of light, here taken as 3⫻10 8 m/s (actually
2.997 9246⫻10 8 m/s).
Appendix B: Greek Alphabet and Hindi Numerals

406
Appendix C: Symbols Used in Geophysical
Exploration

The following symbols are recommended for publications of the SEG. Additional symbols used in
well logging and mathematics are listed in Appendices D and E. Symbols are generally bold face when
they indicate vector quantities.
a Apparent 共as a subscript兲; velocity gradient with depth; year.
A Area.
AMT Audiomagnetotelluric.
bÕB Magnetic induction in time/frequency domain.
c Velocity 共of light兲; seismic velocity.
C Capacitance⫽Q/V.
dÕD Electric displacement in time/frequency domain.
ds Depth of source/shot.
e Base of natural logarithms.
E Young’s modulus; elevation; voltage 共EMF兲.
eÕE Electric field strength in time/frequency domain.
EM Electromagnetic.
F Magnetic vector potential.
f,F Frequency; fair 共reliable but with less accuracy/certainty than desirable兲; function.
FE Frequency effect.
FEM Frequency-domain electromagnetic.
g Acceleration of gravity.
G Conductance.
G, G Scalar/tensor Green’s function.
h Thickness.
hÕH Magnetic field strength in time/frequency domain.
I Current 共scalar兲.
I Intensity of magnetization 共a vector兲; current vector.
i,j (⫺1) 1/2 .
i, j, k Unit vectors in the x-, y-, z-direction.
IP Induced electric polarization.
J Free charge current density 共a vector兲.
k Bulk modulus; susceptibility.
Ke Relative dielectric permittivity [k e ⫽1(4 ␲ ⑀ 0 )].
Km Relative magnetic permeability [k m ⫽( ␮ 0 /4 ␲ )].
L Inductance; area over a decay curve; length.
m Volume chargeability.
M Mutual inductance, integral chargeability.
m, M Magnetic polarization in time/frequency domain.
MF Metal factor.
MIP Magnetic induced electric polarization.
MMR Magnetometric resistivity.
MT Magnetotelluric.
n Unit normal vector.
n Index of refraction.
p Raypath parameter; pressure.
P Polarization; dipole moment/volume; poor 共probably reliable with poor accuracy兲; pressure.
PFE Percent frequency effect.
407
Appendix C 408

P, P Magnetic polarization in time/frequency domain.

q Charge.
Q Heat-flow rate.
r Position vector.
r Radial distance.
R Resistance; reflectivity 共reflection coefficient兲; radius.
s Laplace transform variable.
S Admittance⫽1/Z; surface.
t Time; traveltime.
T Period; temperature; age.
TEM Time-domain electromagnetic.
ux , uy , uz Unit vectors in Cartesian coordinates 共or i, j, k兲.
u␳ , u␪ , uz Unit vectors in cylindrical coordinates.
ur , u␪ , u␾ Unit vectors in spherical coordinates.
U Group velocity; magnetic scalar potential.
v, V Velocity; phase velocity; volume
V Voltage; electric or gravity scalar potential.
vp,VP Very poor 共in both reliability and accuracy兲.
wx Weathering.
x Offset distance; distance.
X Reactance; X C ⫽1/(2 ␲ v C); X L ⫽2 ␲ v L.
y Admittance.
z Depth
zn Time delay of n units.
Z Impedance.

␣ alpha P-wave velocity; proportional to; attenuation factor 共seismology兲,

propagation constant 共electromagnetic兲, phase
constant; ␣-particles.
␤ beta S-wave velocity, ␤-particles, attenuation constant 共electromagnetic兲.
␥ gamma Skewness; gyromagnetic ratio; unit of magnetic field strength;
phase angle; gravitational constant; gamma ray.
␦ delta Impulse ( ␦ (t) or ␦ t 兲; logarithmic decrement; skin depth; depth
of penetration.
tan ␦, tan ␦m, tan ␦em Dielectric, magnetic, electromagnetic loss tangent.
⌬ Delta Difference; dilatation; skin depth or attenuation length.
⑀ epsilon Permittivity; eccentricity.
␩ eta Overvoltage; absorption coefficient.
␪ theta Angle; induction number.
␪c Theta Critical angle.
␬ kappa 2␲ (wavenumber)⫽2 ␲ /␭.
␭ lambda Wavelength; coefficient of anisotropy; Lamé’s constant.
␮ mu Magnetic permeability⫽B/H; micro; Lamé’s shear modulus;
damping factor, attenuation constant 共radiometric兲; viscosity.
␰ xi Dip.
␳ rho Density; electric resistivity; radius of curvature; radial distance,
charge density.
␴ sigma Poisson’s ratio; electrical conductivity; standard deviation;
stress.
␶ tau Time delay; damping factor.
 409 Appendix C

␾ phi Porosity; flux; correlation function; latitude.

␹ chi Magnetic susceptibility.
␺ psi Wave function.
␻ omega Angular frequency.
⍀ Omega Ohm.
ⵜ Del. Gradient operator 共a vector兲.
* Convolution operator.
Appendix D: Symbols Used in Well Logging
Many of these symbols are used as subscripts.
a Activity, air, apparent, atmospheric
A Area, areal, atomic weight
b Bubble point, bulk, burned
B Background
c Capillary, casing 共pressure兲, contact, conversion, compressibility, corrected, critical, electro-
chemical
C Concentration, conductivity, salinity concentration, specific heat
CEC Cation exchange capacity
d Depletion, dew point, diameter, differential separation, dip, displaced, drainage
D Deliverability, depth, diffusion coefficient, displacement
e Effective, electronic charge, equivalent, external boundary conditions, extrapolated, influx rate,
natural logarithm base
E Elastic 共Young’s兲 modulus, electric field strength, energy, environmental factor 共NMR兲
f Coefficient of friction, fluid, formation, fraction, frequency, fugacity
F Force, formation resistivity factor⫽Ro/Rw, free
FFI Free fluid index
g gradient, gas, gravitational acceleration
⌬g Gravity anomaly
G Geometric factor, geothermal gradient, gravitational constant
h Hole, hydraulic head 共pressure兲, hydrocarbons, thermal heat, thickness
H Enthalpy, entropy, hard window, magnetic field strength
i Index, initial, injected, injection rate, invaded zone, irreducible, 公⫺1
I Electric current, injectivity, invasion
j Index, 公⫺1
J Count rate, electric current density
k Electrokinetic, index, permeability, propagation factor, thermal conductivity, wavenumber
K Bulk modulus
l Distance, length
⌬l Distance between measurements
L Length, liquid, lithology factor, spacing
m Cementation exponent, index, magnetic moment, mass, mean, mud
ma Solid matrix
mc Mud cake
mf Mud filtrate
M Fluid injection rate, magnetization, mass, mobility ratio, molecular weight
n Index, net, number, saturation exponent
N Nitrogen, noise, number
o Oil
O2 Oxygen
p Cumulative produced, particle, pore, production time
P Polarization charge, pressure, probability
⌬P Pressure difference, pressure drop
q Electrical charge, flow rate,
Q Flow rate, heat flux, Koeningsberger ratio, quality factor
r Distance, radial distance, reduced, relative, residual, resistance
R Gas constant, radius, recovery, reflection coefficient, reservoir, resistivity
s Skin, solid, solution, specific, surrounding formation, swept region
410
 411 Appendix D

S Rate of energy generation, saturation, semblance, sift window, source, surface area
SP Spontaneous or self potential
SSP Static SP
t Bed thickness, decay time, gross, time, true, total
⌬t Transit time
T Period, temperature, thickness, torque, total thickness, transmissivity
T1 NMR longitudinal relaxation time
T2 NMR transverse relaxation time
TOC Total organic carbon
u Displacement, flux, flow rate
U Group velocity, internal energy
v Specific volume, vaporization, velocity
V Electrical potential difference 共voltage兲, volume
w Water, weight fraction, width
wg Wet gas
ws Well static conditions
W Initial water in place, weighting factor, work
xo Flushed zone
Y Yield
z Depth
Z Atomic number, acoustic impedance, electrical impedance

␣ Angle, attenuation coefficient, disassociation factor, pore aspect ratio, SP reduction factor
␤ Thermal expansion coefficient
␥ Coefficient of thermal conductivity. ␥-ray response, dipmeter pad rotation, gyromagnetic ratio,
specific gravity
⌫ Free-air gradient
␦ Displacement ratio, Kronecker delta function, skin depth
⌬ Diffusion effect, dilitation
␧ Hydraulic diffusivity, dielectric permittivity, strain
␨ Displacement
␩ Viscosity
⌰ Acoustic transit time per unit length, induction number
␪ Azimuth angle, incidence/reflection/refraction angle, phase shift, rotation
␬ Dielectric constant 共dielectric permittivity, thermal diffusivity兲
␭ Decay constant, anisotropy, mean free path, Lamé constant, mobility, wavelength
⌳ Grain size parameter, ratio of pore surface area to volume
␮ Attenuation coefficient, magnetic permeability, shear modulus, viscosity
␯ Ionic mobility, Poisson’s ratio
␰ Logarithmic energy decrement
␳ Density, radial distance
␴ Capture cross section, mass per unit length, scattering cross section, stress, surface tension
⌺ Macroscopic cross section
␶ Dead time, half-life, time constant, time delay, tortuosity
␾ angle, borehole inclination, phase shift, porosity, sonde tilt
⌽ Neutron flux
⌽ xy Cross correlation
X Magnetic susceptibility
␺ Angle, flux, solution to wave equation
⌿ Potential
␻ Angular frequency
Appendix E: Mathematical Symbols

Bold face 再 Vectors V

Matrices A

Superscripts 再 Powers as a n , sinn x⫽ 共 sin x 兲 n

Inverse functions as sin⫺1 x⫽arc sin x
Order of differentiation as x ⬘ ⫽dx/dt; x ⬙ ⫽d 2 x/dt 2

Subscripts Position in a sequence, set, or matrix as 冐 a 11

a 21
a 12
a 22
冐
Parentheses 再 Aggregation as 共 a⫹b 兲

再
Argument of a function f 共 t 兲
Absolute value, modulus, magnitude of vector
Vertical
bars Determinant 冏
a 11 a 12
a 21 a 22
冏
and sometimes matrices
a 11
a 21
冏 冏
a 12
a 22
Evaluated at f 共 x 兲 兩 a ⫽ f 共 a 兲

Double bars Matrix 储 a i j 储 ⫽ 冐 a 11

a 11
a 12
a 21
冐
Brackets Ordered set 关x, y, z兴 or 关g 1 , g 2 , g 3 , ¯兴
Superscript line Mean; complex conjugate
⫽ Equal to
⫽ Not equal to
⬇ Approximately equal to
⬎ Greater than
⬍ Smaller than
⭓ Greater than or equal to
⭐ Smaller than or equal to
⫹ Plus
⫺ Minus
⫾, ⫿ Plus or minus, minus or plus
艛 Union
艚 Intersection
傻 Contains; implies
→ Approaches
↔ Transforms to 共either way兲. Symbols are often indicated in lower case in the
time 共or space兲 domain and their transform in capital letters in the frequency 共or
wavenumber兲 domain.
/ Division, as 1/2
* Convolved with
As superscript: complex conjugate, also indicated by superscript bar: z̄
... And so forth as a 0 , a 1 ,...,a n
! Factorial, as 4!⫽4⫻3⫻2⫻1⫽24
兰 ab Integral from a to b
养 Line integral around a closed loop
⬁ Infinity
⌬ Difference; sizeable increment
ⵜ Del 共a vector兲⫽i ⳵ / ⳵ x ⫹ j ⳵ / ⳵ y ⫹ K ⳵ / ⳵ z:
ⵜ2 Laplacian
␦ Very small increment

412
 413 Appendix E

⳵ Partial derivative, ⳵ f (x,y)/ ⳵ x

兺 Sum, as 兺 i⫽1
3
a i ⫽a 1 ⫹a 2 ⫹a 3 ; 兺 ⫽ sum of all appropriate elements
⌸ Product, as ⌸ i⫽1
3
a i ⫽a 1 a 2 a 3
␾ xy ( ␶ ) Correlation of x with y as function of time shift ␶
␴ Standard deviation
␻ Angular velocity 共frequency兲
abs Absolute
arc Inverse, as arc sin x⫽sin⫺1 x⫽angle whose sine is x
arg Argument of
av Average; also indicated by a superscript bar: V̄
cis ␪ Cos␪ ⫹i sin ␪
d Differential
det Determinant
div Divergence 2
erf Error function, as erf(x)⫽2/公␲ 兰 x0 e ⫺ v d v
erfc Complementary error function ⫽1⫺ erf
exp Exponential function, as exp[x]⫽ex
Im Imaginary part of
lim Limit; lim ⫽limit as a approaches ⬁
a→⬁
ln Natural logarithm⫽loge 共log to the base e兲
max Maximum
P[E] Probability of E
P[E艚F] Probability of both E and F
P[E/F] Probability of E given F
Re Real part of
rms Root-mean-square
sgn Sign of as sgn共x兲⫽⫹1 if x ⬎ 0, ⫺1 if x ⬍ 0

Cylindrical functions of order ␯ and argument x

General Z ␯ (x)
Bessel function of first kind J ␯ (x)
Bessel function of second kind N ␯ (x)
Modified Bessel function of second kind K ␯ (x)
Hankel function of first kind H (1)
␯ (x)
Hankel function of second kind H (2) ␯ (x)
Spherical function of order ␯ and argument x

z ␯共 x 兲 ⫽ 冉 冊
␲
2x
1/2
Z ␯ ⫹1/2 共 x 兲

j ␯ 共 x 兲 ;n ␯ 共 x 兲 ;i gn 共 x 兲 ;k gn 共 x 兲 ;h 共␯1 兲 共 x 兲 ;k 共␯2 兲 共 x 兲
Gamma function ⌫(x)
Struve function H ␯ (x)
Modified Struve function L ␯ (x)
Error function erf(x)
Complementary error function erfc(x)
Legendre functions P ␯ (x)
Associated Legendre functions P m␯ (x)
Appendix E 414

Fourier transform pair f 共 t 兲 ⫽

1
2␲ 冕 ⬁

⫺⬁
冕
F 共 ␻ 兲 e i ␻ t d ␻ ↔F 共 ␻ 兲 ⫽
⬁

⫺⬁
f 共 t 兲 e ⫺i ␻ t dt

Laplace transform F 共 s 兲 ⫽L 兵 f 共 t 兲 其 ⫽ 冕 ⬁

0
f 共 t 兲 e ⫺st dt

Hilbert transform pair Im兵 f 共 ␻ 兲 其 ⫽

1
␲冕 ⬁

⬁
Re共 ␣ 兲
␻⫺␣
d ␣ ↔ Re兵 f 共 ␻ 兲 其 ⫽
⫺1
␲ 冕 ⬁
⬁ Im共 ␣ 兲
␻⫺␣
d␣

Hankel transform pair f m 共 ␳ 兲 ⫽ 冕 0

⬁
F m 共 ␭ 兲 J m 共 ␭ ␳ 兲 ␭d␭ ↔ F m 共 ␭ 兲 ⫽ 冕 0
⬁
f m共 ␳ 兲 J m共 ␭ ␳ 兲 ␳ d ␳

For definitions of functions and related matters, refer to Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A., 1972,
Handbook of mathematical functions: Dover Publications, Inc.
Appendix F: Map and Rock Symbols

Special symbols for ages:

TR Triassic –C Cambrian P –C Precambrian

415
Appendix G: Abbreviations of Organizations

AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science

AAPG American Association of Petroleum Geologists, publishers of the Bulletin of the AAPG
AEG Association of Engineering Geologists
AGI American Geological Institute
AGL Allied Geophysical Laboratories of University of Houston
AGU American Geophysical Union
AIMME American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers
AIP American Institute of Physics
AIPG American Institute of Professional Geologists
AMS American Mathematical Society
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API American Petroleum Institute
ASEG Australian SEG
BIRPS British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndicate
BLM Bureau of Land Management
CSEG Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists
DOD U.S. Department of Defense
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
EAGE European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers, formerly EAEG, publishers of
Geophysical Prospecting and First Break.
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
GSA Geological Society of America
IAGC International Association of Geophysical Contractors
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.
IFP Institut Français du Petrole
IUGG International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
KEGS Canadian Exploration Geophysical Society
MMS U.S. Minerals Management Service
NOAA U.S. National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
OTC Offshore Technology Conference
SEG Society of Exploration Geophysicists, publishers of GEOPHYSICS and
THE LEADING EDGE.
SEGE Society of Economic Geologists
SEPM Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists
SIPES Society of Independent Professional Earth Scientists
SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
UKOOA United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association
USGS United States Geological Survey

416
Appendix H: Numerical Constants

␲ ⫽ 3.141 592 653 589 793 238 462

e ⫽ 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 360
Speed of light c ⫽ 2.997 92458 ⫻10 8 m/s
Absolute zero 0K ⫽ ⫺273.15 ° C
Gravitational constant ⫽ 6.672 590 ⫻10 ⫺11 N•m2 /kg2
Planck constant h ⫽ 6.626 0755 ⫻10 ⫺34 joule second
Boltzmann constant k ⫽ 1.380 658 ⫻10 ⫺23 joule/degree
Avogadro’s number ⫽ 6.022 1367 ⫻10 23 / mole
Gas constant R ⫽ 8.314 510 joule/mole degree
Volume of gas at STP ⫽ 22.414 liter/mole
Faraday ⫽ 96 485.309 coulomb/g equivalent
Electron volt eV ⫽ 1.602 177 33⫻10⫺19 joule
Electronic charge ⫽ 1.602 177 33 ⫻10 ⫺19 coulomb
Electron rest mass ⫽ 9.109 3897 ⫻10 ⫺31 kg
Atomic mass unit ⫽ 1.660 5402⫻10⫺27 kg
Proton mass ⫽ 1.672 6231 ⫻10 ⫺27 kg
Solar day ⫽ 86 400 s
Sidereal day ⫽ 86 164 s⫽23 hr 56 min 4.09 s
Earth’s magnetic field ⫽ 50 000 nT
Earth mass ⫽ 5.977 ⫻10 24 kg
Mass of atmosphere, oceans, lakes/rivers ⫽ 5.1352 ⫻10 18 kg, 1.35⫻10 21 kg, 5.0⫻10 17 kg
Earth mean density ⫽ 5.517 g/cm3
Earth polar moment of inertia ⫽ 8.0376 ⫻10 37 kg m2
Standard gravity ⫽ 9.806 65 m/s2 ⫽32.1937 ft/s2
Equatorial gravity ⫽ 9.780 32 m/s2
Equatorial radius ⫽ 6 378 139 m⫽3963.34 mile
Polar radius ⫽ 6.356 754 m⫽3949.99 mile
Flattening ⫽ 1/298.25
Surface area of earth, land ⫽ 5.10 ⫻10 14 m2, 1.489⫻10 14 m2
Mean height of continents, depth of oceans ⫽ 623 m, 3795 m
Earth’s core mean radius, mass ⫽ 3.47 ⫻10 6 m, 1.90⫻10 24 kg
Ratio sun mass to Earth mass ⫽ 3.329 ⫻10 5
Ratio Earth mass to moon mass ⫽ 81.303
Rotational velocity of Earth ⫽ 7.292 ⫻10 ⫺5 rad/s
Mean orbital velocity ⫽ 29.77 km/s
Earth perihelion, aphelion ⫽ January 3, July 4
Ecliptic obliquity ⫽ 23°26±
Near-surface temperature gradient ⫽ 20 to 30 K/km
Earth’s mean heat flow at surface ⫽ 50 mW/m2
Mean surface temperature ⫽ 288.15 K

See Physics Today, Aug 1991, p. 12–13

Normal atmospheric pressure ⫽ 1.013 25⫻105 Pa

Speed of sound in air ⫽ 3.3145 m/s

417
Appendix I: Geologic Time Scale

418
Appendix J: Prem Model for Spherically
Symmetric Earth

419
Appendix K: Conversion of Units

Each of the fractions below has the value of 1, i.e., numerator and denominator are equal. Hence
multiplying any dimension by one of the fractions 共and cancelling terms兲 does not change the value.

Circular measure
0.01745 radians 57.30 degrees 9.55 rev/minute
degree radian rad/s

Linear measure
0.3048 m 3.281 ft 1.609 km 0.6214 statute mile 1.852 km 1.1516 statute mile 60 nautical miles
ft m statute mile km nautical mile nautical mile degree at equator

2.54 cm 106 micron 1010 Angström 9.46 m 66 ft 100 link 6 ft 1 league

inch m m 10⫺15 light year chain chain fathom 3 statute miles

Velocity
1.689 ft/s 1.15157 mile/hour 0.5148 m/s 1.853 km/hour
knot knot knot knot

Area
1028 barn 640 acres 1 section 2.471 acre 2.590 km2 100 hectare 0.4042 hectare 258.7 hectare
m2 mile2 mile2 hectare mile2 km2 acre mile2

9 mi2 5760 acre

Gulf of Mexico 共GOM兲 block GOM block

Volume
3.785 liters 4.546 liters 7.4805 U.S. gallons 0.15899 m3 0.028 m3 159 liter
U.S. gallon British gallon ft3 U.S. bbl ft3 U.S. bbl

1 acre ft 7758 bbl 5.61 ft3 1 U.S. bbl 42 U.S. gallons 1233 m3
1233.5 m3 acre ft U.S. bbl 0.159 m3 U.S. bbl acre ft

Mass
2.2046 lb 0.4536 kg 1.120 short ton 1.102 short ton 0.9842 long ton
kg lb long ton metric tonne metric tonne

Pressure
1.01325 pascal 1 bar 29.92 inches of Hg 14.223 lb/inch2 1 cm of Hg
⫺5 5
10 atmosphere 10 pascal atmosphere 104 kg/m2 1333 pascal

14.7 psi 1 newton/m2 0.06895 bar 703.07 kg/m2 0.1333 kPa 16.018 kg/m3
atmosphere pascal lb/inch2 lb/inch2 torr lb/ft3

0.069 bar 6.895 kilopascal 0.01014 atm

psi psi kPa
420
 421 Appendix J

Normal hydrostatic pressure gradient

0.43–0.45 psi/ft 0.43–0.45 psi/ft
9.5–10.2 kPa/m 8.33– 8.65 ppg EMW

Work „Energy…
1055 joules 4186 joules 3600 joules 1.6020 joule 0.2930 watt/hour
BTU kilocalorie watt hour 1019 electron volt BTU
0.948 BTU 1.055 kilojoule 107 erg 0.06895 bar BTU in 6 MCF gas
kilojoule BTU joule lb/in2⫽psi BTU in U.S. bbl oil

Power
745.7 watts 0.001341 horsepower
horsepower watt

Other
3.7⫻1010 becquerel abamp 108 abvolt 299.79 volt 2.9979⫻109 statamp 1°F/ft 1°C/km
curie 10 amp volt statvolt amp 1.8°C/m 2.9°F/mile
mPa.s langley 16.018 kg/m3 41.86 mW/m2 1 neper 105 dyne 9.869⫻104␮m2
2 3 ⫺2 2
centipoise joule/m pound/ft 10 cal/m s⫽1 HFU 8.686 dB newton millidarcy
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