Review of Related Literature

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

The second chapter is about review of literature. In this part of the study, concept of perception,
assessment methods, students’ perceptions of assessments, differences in perceptions of
assessments, relationship between students’ perceptions ofassessments and academic
achievement, study behaviour of students, the relationship between study behaviour and
academic achievement, differences in study behaviour, the relationship betweenperceptions of
assessments and study behaviour, academic of achievement and conceptual framework of the
study are included. 2.1 The Concept of Perception In a matter of fact that the word "perceptions"
is frequently used in daily life and in literature, it may be assumed that everyone knows what it is
and unnecessary to define it. However, perception is complex and its meaning depends on
context. For example, some authors appeared to consider attitudes and perceptions to be different
concepts by using the conjunction "and" between them (Greenfield, 1997). Peterson and Yaakobi
(1979) defined "perceptions of behaviour" as "how a person sees him/herself, the behaviour of
others, or a fictitious ideal" (p. 433). Barman (1999) used "views" and "perceptions"
interchangeably. Yager and Yager (1985), in their article “Changes in Perceptions of Science for
Third, Seventh, and Eleventh Grade Students”, identified four affective categories of perceptions
of science: (1) views of science teachers, (2) views of science classes, (3) views concerning the
usefulness of science study, and (4) views of what it is like to be a scientist. In the same article,
Yager and Yager appeared to interchangeably use the term perception, view, observation,
feeling, or believe. 17 There seems to be some agreement that perception is synonymous with a
view (Yager & Yager, 1985; Bruno, 2002). In spite of the distinction that can be made between
the term perception and attitude, this study used perception as a more general term to be
inclusive of attitude, views, beliefs, and opinions. Therefore, with regard to this study, perception
is considered as the attitude or point of view or opinion of a person about the world and the
things around us. The process of perception consists of three stages: selection, organization and
interpretation (Bruno, 2002; Parameswaran & Beena, 2006). We select information, to which we
attend through our sense organs (Sight, sound, smells, taste, and touch). We mentally arrange the
information so we can understand or make sense out of the information. Our interpretation is
subjective and based on our values, needs, beliefs, experiences, expectations, involvement, self-
concept, and other personal factors. Interpretation of information is based on past experience,
new situation and other’s opinions (Bruno, 2002; Parameswaran & Beena, 2006). This indicates
that our perception is not constant. Perceptions are usually changing, biased, coloured, or
distorted by our unique set of experiences. Thus, perceptions are our personal interpretations of
the real world. Perception is influenced by internal and external factors. One of the central
assumptions of the constructivist approach to perception is that perception is not determined
entirely by external stimuli. As a consequence, it is assumed that emotional and motivational
states, together with expectation and culture, may influence people’s perceptual hypotheses and
thus their visual perception (Hamachek, 1995). 18 According to Quick and Nelson (1997), the
three major characteristics that influence our perception of other people or object are: the
perceiver, the perceived object and the situation. a) The Perceiver: When an individual looks at
the target and attempts to interpret what he/she sees. Such interpretation is heavily influenced by
personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The characteristics of perceiver include
person’s needs, past experience, habits, personality, values, attitudes etc. b) The Perceived
object: Characteristics of the target, which has been, observed also affects the individual’s
perception. The physical attributes, appearance and behaviour of other persons in the situation
also influences the perception. Physical attributes of the person means age, height, weight,
gender etc. Loud people are easily noticeable in a group in comparison to the quiet ones. Motion,
sound, size and other attributes of a target also affect the perception of an individual. An object
which is perceived is not observed in isolation, the relationship of a target with its background
also influences perception. Person, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be
grouped together. The greater the similarity, the greater is the probability that we will tend to
perceive them as a common group. c) The Situation: The physical, social and organizational
settings of the situation also influence individual’s perception. The situation in which we see
objects or events is important. The elements in the surrounding environment influence our
perception. For example: hearing a subordinate calling his/her boss by his/her 19 name may be
perceived quite differently when observed in an office as opposed toan evening social reception.
In a nutshell, the following figure represents the three major factors that influence our perception
of stimuli. Perception Figure 1: Model of Social Perception (Quick and Nelson, 1997) 2.2
Assessment Methods Assessment is one of the crucial components of instructions. It has been
interchangeable used with evaluation and/or measurement (Kizlik, 2012). Assessment is a broad
term defined as the process of gathering, synthesizing, interpreting, and using The Target
Behaviour Appearance Background Motion Sound Size The Perceiver Need
Attitude Value Experience Personality Interest Expectation s The Situation
Physical Setting Social Setting Organization Setting 20 qualitative and/or quantitative
information to make educational decisions about the learning of students (McMillan, 1997;
Nitko, 2001; Brookhart, 2004). Measurement refers to the systematic determination of outcomes
or characteristics by means of some sort of assessment device. It is a systematic process of
obtaining the quantified degree to which a trait or an attribute is present in an individual or an
object. In other words, it is a systematic assignment of numerical values or figures to a trait or an
attribute in a person or to an object. Evaluation is the process of judgement of the quality of
something on the basis of established criteria and assigning value to represent that quality. It is
an orderly process whereby a judgement is made about the skill, values and behaviour of a
student according to a prescribed standard (Brookhart, 2004; Kizlik, 2012). Assessment as the
instructional process requires collecting relevant information (qualitative and quantitative) on
student learning (knowledge, skills, competencies, and values). The information obtained help to
inform students and concerned bodies (administrators and parents) about their progress. In
addition, it serves teachers and administrators to make reasonable instructional decisions, setting
grades and developing adequate advisory and educational programs (Yildirim, 2004).
Assessment, as part of the learning process, focuses on three individual domains: cognitive,
psychomotor and affective (Bloom 1984). The cognitive domain of an individual contains
intellectual activities such as problem solving, analyzing, comparing, evaluating, memorizing,
applying, and critical thinking (Bloom, 1984). Cognitive assessment is an effective approach that
analyses understanding of concepts, critical 21 thinking, and academic standards. The
psychomotor domain comprises both students' physical and operational activities. Laboratory
experiments are a good example of assessment of the psychomotor domain (Bloom, 1984). The
affective domain assessments involve measuring individual perceptions, feelings, attitudes,
values, and emotions. Some studies on the affective domain of an individual have suggested that
attempting to raise students' scores by over focusing on standardized tests might smash their
creativity, discovery, and problem solving skills (Bol, Nunnery, Stephensor, & O’Connell,
1998). Affective assessment studies report that teachers' implementation of traditional classroom
assessment practices may dull students' creativity and motivation in the classroom (Bloom,
1984). For that matter, assessments influence students' perceptions of learning as well as their
self-efficacy as learners (Crooks, 1988). There are many ways to categorize assessment methods.
According to Brookhart (2004) there are five types of assessments: Paper-pencil assessment,
performance assessment, oral assessment, portfolios and self-peer assessment. Paper–pencil
assessment is the most commonly used assessment method in higher education courses
(Brookhart, 2004), and it refers to multiple choice, true-false, matching, fill-in-the blank and
short answers. A paper-pencil test is usually given in one setting (sit in for an examination). Each
of these item formats has some advantages and disadvantages. The advantages and disadvantages
are related to instructional objective of cognitive levels, time in a unit study, objectivity,
subjectivity, wording and students’ belief in the adequacy for assessing their real performance
and skills (Yildirim, 2004). 22 Performance assessment is used to judge and observe a process
(how a student does something) or a product (student-created work) like term papers, academic
or technical projects, oral reports, and group presentation. Performance assessment is evaluated
using model answers, a rubric, a checklist or some type of scale. This type of evaluation gives
the reader more latitudes than the typical dichotomous (right-wrong) answer in providing
feedback for students. Performance assessment may involve students in constructing the grading
process. It gives the students latitude in how to respond to the items, because there is no single
correct answer or best answer (Crooks, 1988). Oral/personal communication is the common use
of formative assessment during instruction. When the instructor asks the students the questions in
class, Magin and Helmore (2001) believed that it could be used in both formative and summative
assessments. The oral/personal communication assessment method uses the students’ verbal
responses to the assessment task and it could be combined with written responses; and in order to
get higher benefits from oral assessment, it should be well organized (Joughin, 1998). The oral
and personal assessment methods have many forms: questions and answers in the classroom,
conferences with students, students’ contribution during the instruction, oral tests, and journals
(Brookhart, 2004). Portfolios are a systematic collection of student work over time, often with
accompanying students’ reflections. Student portfolios may be used in any discipline, fitting the
needs of many different learning outcomes (White, 2004). They are learning tools as well as
assessment tools (Taylor, Thomas, & Sage, 1999). It is a type of performance assessment that
provides a picture or tells a story about students’ learning. It depends on the idea that collecting
information about student work throughout a long 23 term is a good way to show how students
are progressing. It helps teachers, parents and learners to know what students know and can do
outside of paper-pencil tests, classdiscussions, and other performance measures (White, 2004).
The portfolio can easily be integrated with instruction. It shows what students can do, encourages
students what to become reflective learners, provides an effective way to communicate with
parents, and increases students’ motivation (Linn & Gronlund, 2000). It teaches students how to
be long-life learners (Taylor, Thomas, & Sage, 1999). Also portfolios could be used as
summative assessment, formative assessment, selection, promotion, reflective learning, and
professional development (Smith & Tellema, 2003). Peer and self-assessment is a method of
providing feedback. Self and peer assessment are the methods that are rarely used in higher
education. Student selfassessment is a cognitive strategy where the focus is on learning rather
than simply the measurement of learning outcomes, because it helps the students to generate
about their thinking. Self- assessment involves students to evaluate their own learning and think
about the way they have thought through the process, which is called metacognition that refers to
a higher order thinking that involves active control over the thinking processes involved in
learning (Falchicov, 2005). This encourages them deep approaches to learning, provide more
active engagement, and increase competence, motivation, confidence and control over their
learning (Klenowski, 1996). Using self and peer assessment require good preparations,
monitoring and follow up on the part of the instructor. 24 Pertinent to the present study,
assessment methods can be categorized into traditional and alternative methods based on the
extent to which they simulate performance in the real world (i.e., realism of assessment tasks),
the extent to which they measure higher learning outcomes and requires demonstration of
multiple skills (i.e., complexity of tasks), the amount of time needed for the assessment, and the
amount of judgment involved in scoring. Traditional assessments such as multiple-choice, true-
false, matching, completion, and short-answer items are often lower in realism and complexity of
the tasks assessed, but require little time to administer and can be scored quickly and objectively.
Alternative assessments such as portfolios, student self-assessment, observations, and other
performance-based assessments are higher in both realism and complexity of the tasks assessed,
but require large amount of time to use, and that scoring is judgmental and less objective than
traditional assessments (Gronlund, 2006). Debates regarding students’ assessment methods have
always been top agendas in many educational forums. Some educators advocate for the use of
traditional forms of assessments and others advocate for contemporary views of assessments
such as portfolios, journal critiques, and research essays. Those who support traditional forms of
assessment believe that such tests are more focused on improving the cognitive side of
instruction, i.e. the skills and knowledge that students are expected to develop within a short
period of time, are based on fair grading practices, have higher content coverage (Linn, Baker, &
Dunbar, 1991; Segers & Dochy, 2001). Those who support the use of alternative assessments
argued that traditional forms of assessment (multiple-choice and true-false) test facts and skills in
isolation and seldom require students to apply what they know and can do in real-life 25
situations. They also indicate that traditional forms of assessments do not match the emerging
content standards. They argued that over-reliance on this type of assessment often leads to
instruction that stresses basic knowledge and skills. On the other hand, if teachers want to
measure students’ ability to engage in some form of debate, write a poem, tune an engine, use a
microscope, or prepare a meal, authentic assessment (a form of alternative assessments) are the
only ones that can measure such skills rather than traditional forms of assessments (Reynolds,
Livingston, & Willson, 2009). The road from theory to practice seems to be a rocky one, as both
assessment forms have acceptable qualities and in particular traditional forms of assessments
cover an acceptable range of curricular content in indicating high levels of content and construct
validity. Just like other forms of assessments, traditional tests are also focused on improving the
cognitive side of instruction, i.e. the skills and knowledge that students are expected to develop
within a short period of time (Segersand & Dochy, 2001). Even though alternative assessments
are still in their infancy stage; there is an emerging body of literature that indicates their benefits
in teaching and learning (Hargreaves, Earl, & Schmidt, 2002). Furthermore, the traditional
assessments feature close-ended test items while alternative assessments feature performance
based assessments (Brookhart, 1997). Alternative assessment is used to denote forms of
assessment which differ from the conventional assessment methods such as multiple-choice
testing and short answer questions, and continuous assessment via essays and scientific reports
(Sambell, McDowell, & Brown, 1997). Alternative assessment method is favoured over
traditional 26 assessment method for the reason that the former has motivational aspects of being
more authentic and challenging (McMillan & Workman, 1998). Although teachers are expected
to conduct classroom assessment practices that motivate students and increase their active
involvement in learning, a considerable amount of research, for example, McMillan, Myran, and
Workman (2002) have shown that teachers’ assessment practices are often not consistent with
the recommended practices. Related to this, some studies have attempted to reveal the students’
view of assessment methods. According to Struyven et al. (2005), students often reacted very
negatively to a traditional type of assessment. Students expressed the opinion that traditional
assessment methods had a severely detrimental effect on the learning process. Examinations had
little to do with the more challenging task of trying to make sense and understand their subject.
Furthermore, Sambell et al. (1997) reported that students perceived traditional assessment tasks
as arbitrary and irrelevant. It was found to be assumed as something they have to, a necessary
evil that allowed them to accumulate marks. The accompanying activities are described in terms
of routine, dull artificial behaviour. Traditional assessment is believed to be inappropriate as a
measure, because it appeared, simply to measure memory, or in case of essay- writing tasks, to
measure one's ability to marshal list of facts and details. By contrast, students considered
alternative assessment as one that enables, rather than pollute the quality of learning. They
considered alternative assessment as that which channelled their efforts into trying to understand,
rather than simply memorized or routinely documented, the material being studied (Sambell et
al., 1997). Alternative 27 assessment was believed to be fairer, because by contrast, it appeared
to measure qualities, skills and competencies which would be valuable in contexts other than the
immediate context of assessment. Alternative assessment attempt to produce an activity which
would simulate a real life context, so students would clearly perceive the relevance of their
academic work to the broader situations outside the academic world. This strategy was effective
and the students highly valued these more authentic ways of working. Alternative assessment
enabled students to show the extent of their learning and allowed them to articulate more
effectively what they had digested throughout the learning program (Sambell et al. 1997).
Goubeaud and Yan (2004) studied students' views of assessment methods in higher education,
using data collected by the National Centre for Educational statistics, U.S. Department of
Education from a sample of 31,354 higher education faculties, including about 524 teacher
educators. The dataset contains information related to faculty teaching methods, assessment and
grading practices. The study showed that 54.8% of the faculty members used multiple-choice
examinations sometimes or all the time, 57.4% used essay examinations sometimes or all the
time, 55% used short answer, 53.6% used the term/research paper, 35.8% employed peer
assessment and 31.4% of them used multiple drafts of written work. According to this study, the
most commonly used assessments in higher education were essay exams, short answer exams,
and multiple choice examinations and the least used were peer assessment and multiple drafts of
written work. Almost all of the studies indicated above reveal students' perceptions of a specific
method of assessment. However, it is difficult to access empirical studies in the 28 classroom
assessment literature that show how the implementation of classroom assessment of a given
institution influenced students’ perceptions of assessment practices. In addition, there are very
few studies that addressed the relationship among the students’ perceptions of assessments, study
behaviour and academic achievements. The problem is worth even when it refers to higher
education, especially, African countries like Ethiopia. Thus, it becomes important to examine the
perceptions of assessment practices and study behaviour of students as related to their academic
achievement in Ethiopian universities. To this end, the assessment methods that Wollega
University has been implementing and the differences in implementing those methods in several
fields of specialization were examined. 2.3 Students’ Perceptions of Course Assessments
Students’ perception of course assessment is defined as the students’ acts of viewing the course
assessment or their attitude to assessment (van de Watering et al., 2006). Dorman and Knightley
(2006) described the students’ perceptions of assessments as the views that students hold about
most aspects of school life such as how they are assessed. Dorman and Knightley (2006) and
Dhindsa et al. (2007) indicated that students tend to work and study well on courses they
perceive the relationship between learning and assessment tasks, view the relevance of
assessment to real-life situations, have a say in their assessments and expect some form of
feedback. Furthermore, (Cavanagh et al 2005) noted that the involvement of students in
assessments is as important as to add value to learning. Because, the way students view the
assessment tasks influence the way they behave and persist to study (Scouller, 1998; Cardoso,
Santiago & Sarrico, 2012). 29 Similarly, the ways students experience and the amount of
attention they give for their study correlate to their academic achievement (Scouller, 1998). It is
generally acknowledged that assessment plays a crucial role in the learning process and, student
learning is guided by the ways in which the learning is assessed (Gulikers et al., 2006). The way
students prepare themselves for an assessment depends on how they perceive the assessment
(before, during and after the assessment), and these effects can have either positive or negative
influences on learning and on their academic achievement (Boud, 1990). Gao (2012) examined
high school students’ perceptions of mathematics classroom assessments, 248 students provided
responses to a Student Perceptions of Assessment Questionnaire (SPAQ). Chi-square was used
to test the data. Results reveal that students felt a strong congruence between mathematics
assessment, planned learning and adequate transparency regarding the purpose and forms of the
assessment, inadequate authenticity in assessment tasks, and had little or no say in the
assessment planning process. There was a high variance in the questions regarding
accommodation of student diversity. A gender difference was observed in assessment
authenticity and transparency. Cakan (2011) examined the cross-cultural validation of the
Perceptions of Assessment Task Inventory (PATI) developed by Dorman and Knightley (2006)
with Turkish undergraduate students. The study aimed to validate the scale for Turkish
undergraduate students and to reveal validity and reliability of the scale. The result of the study
depicted that the PATI can be described as having five factors: student consultation, awareness,
congruence with planned learning, diversity and transparency. 30 The original 35 items were
reduced to 18 items for the suggested reasons of cultural and assessment practices differences
between England and Turkish. It was further suggested that the modification made to some items
in order to match it to college level might contribute to the differences. The reliability and
validity of the 18 items found to be adequate to use the scale in measuring the students’ attitude
of assessment tasks in the general curriculum area. Birenbaum and Feldman (1998) examined the
relationship between the students' learning patterns and their attitudes towards open-ended (OE)
and multiple choice (MC) examinations, among students in higher education. The results
revealed two patterns of relationships between the learning-related variables and the assessment
of attitudes. Students with good learning skills, who have high confidence in their academic
ability, tend to prefer the constructed response type of assessment over the multiple choice type.
Perversely, students with poor learning skills, who tend to have low confidence in their academic
ability, prefer the choice to the constructed-response type of assessment. Another pattern shows
that low test anxiety measures were related to positive attitudes towards the OE format. Students
with high test anxiety have more unfavourable attitudes towards the OE format and have a
preference for the choice-response type. Because it is assumed that it puts fewer requirements on
their information processing capacity during the testing situation to that some capacity is
occupied by worries and testirrelevant thoughts (Hembree, 1988). 31 In addition, a study result
also indicated gender differences, with males having more favourable attitudes towards the
choice response format than females (Birenbaum & Feldman, 1998). The gender difference was
attributed to a personality dimension of risk- taking, with females being more reluctant than
males to guess at MC questions andbeing more likely to leave items blank ( Ben-Shakhar &
Sinai, 1991). Zeidner (1987) found that multiple choice type exams are generally perceived more
favourably than essay type items along most dimensions of the inventory (i.e. perceived
difficulty, anxiety, complexity, success expectancy, feeling at ease), by both boys and girls. The
small differences between the formats were evidenced on the dimensions of trickiness, perceived
interests, and perceived value. Furthermore, it was found that students perceive essay type
examinations to be somewhat more appropriate than multiple choice exams for the purpose of
reflecting one's knowledge in the subject matter tested (Zeidner, 1987). Moreover, Zeidner and
Bensoussan (1988) designed a research that aimed to compare students' attitudes towards oral
versus written English language test and examine the nature of the relationship between students'
affective dispositions toward language tests and level of test performance. The study was based
on a sample of 170 students at Haifa University enrolled in the advanced reading course of
English as a foreign language. Students responded to an examinee feedback inventory
specifically designed to gauge their perceptions of key variables related to mode of test
presentation (oral vs. written examinations). In addition, background information was collected
on students' gender, sociolinguistic background, father's education, the university psychometric
entrance examination (including the English proficiency test score) and the 32 average grade in
the department of the study. On the whole, students preferred written over oral tests and rated the
former more favourably along a variety of dimensions. Written tests were perceived to be more
pleasant. A considerable number of studies have investigated the role of perceptions of
assessment in learning processes. For example, Scouller (1998) investigated students’
perceptions of a multiple choice question examination, consisting mostly of reproductionoriented
questions, to examine the students’ abilities to recall information, their general orientation
towards their studies and their study strategies. The result of the study revealed that some
students perceived that the examination as assessing higher order thinking skills. As a result
these students used deep study strategies to prepare for the examination. On the other hand, the
researchers concluded that students with a surface orientation may have an incorrect perception
of the concept of understanding, cannot make a proper distinction between understanding and
reproduction, and therefore have an incorrect perception of what is being assessed (Scouller,
1998). It was also reported that there were relationships between preferences of assessment
types, perceptions of assessments and performance outcomes (Scouller, 1998). Students who
preferred multiple choice question examinations perceived that assessments (actually assessing
lower levels of cognitive processing) to be more likely to assess higher levels of cognitive
processing than students who preferred essays. Poorer performance, either on the multiple choice
questions or on the essays, was related to the use of an unsuitable study approach due to an
incorrect perception of the assessment. Better performance on the essays (actually assessing
higher levels of cognitive 33 processing) was positively related to a perception of essays as
assessing higher levels of cognitive processing and to the use of a suitable study approach (i.e.
Deep approach). On the study titled “Student Assessment in High School Social-Studies Courses
in Turkey: Teachers' and Students' Perceptions”, Yildirim (2004) reported that short-answer tests
were most frequently used to assess student performance, followed by oral tests. Multiple-choice
and essay tests were also occasionally employed. While teachers tended to be satisfied with such
assessment strategies, students did not find that tests adequate for assessing their real
performance in social-studies courses (Yildirim, 2004). MacLellan (2001) conducted a study that
measured the differing perception of tutors and students at a higher education level. The finding
of the study indicated that there was a significant difference of perceptions between the two
groups. In specific, students perceived that a frequent purpose of the assessment was to make a
summative judgement in the form of grading or ranking student performance. Furthermore,
(Maclellan, 2001 & Cavanagh et al 2005) contend that the assessment strategy of a particular
course has a major impact on student activity. It influences the approach students adopt towards
their learning, how much time they spend on their studies, how widely they study the curriculum,
and whether they grasp the key concepts of the subject. There is also an evidence of a significant,
negative ‘backwash’ effect (Biggs & Tang, 2007) on student learning and achievement of poorly
conceived assessment strategies. Therefore, teachers who neglect paying attention to their
assessment practices cannot coordinate students’ effort to enhance their academic performance.
34 Mok (2010) conducted a case study that investigated students’ perceptions of the
implementation of peer assessment in English speaking classes at junior secondary level.
Interview and classroom observation were employed to gather data for the research from two
male and two female students. The finding of the study revealed that although the four student
participants could see important benefits of peer assessment, such as facilitating student’s
thinking development, and they hoped to take the assessment seriously, they felt inadequate
about the implementation of the new assessment in their junior secondary English speaking
classes. Alkharusi (2008) planned to examine the relationship between the teachers' assessment
practices and students’ perceptions of the classroom assessment environment. In the study, 1636
students and 83 teachers participated. The result indicated that students’ perceptions of the
assessment environment were shaped by student characteristics such as self-efficacy, class
contextual features, aggregate perceived assessment environment and self-efficacy levels of the
class, and teacher’s teaching experience and assessment practices. An exploratory study of
students’ perceptions of the consequential validity of assessment (the effects of assessment on
learning and teaching) was explored through a qualitative study by Sambell et al. (1997). The
investigation employed a case study method that took about two and half years to complete the
study. The result of the study indicated that students often reacted negatively to traditional
assessment. Many students expressed the opinion that traditional assessment methods had a
severely detrimental effect on the learning process. Examinations had little to do with the more
challenging task of trying to make sense and understand their subject. In contrast, when students
35 considered new forms of assessment, their views of the educational worth of assessment
changed, often quite dramatically. Alternative assessment was perceived to enable, rather than
pollute, the quality of learning achieved. Many made the point that for alternative assessment
they were channelling their efforts into trying to understand, rather than simply memorize or
routinely document the material being studied (Sambell et al., 1997). It is believed that
assessment has an overwhelming influence on what, how and how much students study.
However, as indicated earlier, there are very few research evidences regarding students’
perceptions of assessments practices (Cowie, 2005; Brookhart, 1999). Most of the research
findings so far discussed focussed on the students' perceptions of assessment methods; for
instance, the perception of multiple choice and essay. Such findings could not indicate the
general views of students of different course assessments. Thus, in the present study, the student
perceptions’ of course assessments and their study behaviour were investigated. 2.4 Differences
in Perceptions of Course Assessments Students’ perceptions of course assessments were found to
vary with the students’ background. For example, for a research question “How do the
perceptions of assessment of students from various groups, classified based on gender, grade and
race?” Dhidsa et al. (2007, p. 1263) reported a comparable perception of assessment between
male and female students on the SPAQ dimensions of Assessment with Applied Learning
(AUA), the Transparency in Assessment (TIA) and the Diversity in Assessment (DIA). They
reported significant differences in perception of CPL and Student Consultation in Assessment
(SCA) between male and female students. Similarly, they indicated 36 significant differences in
perceptions of assessment between grades of students on dimensions of SPAQ for CLP and TIA,
and comparable differences in other dimensions. Regarding race differences in perception of
assessment, it was reported that there were differences in perceptions of assessment among races
in that Chinese students perceived weak link between assessment and planned learning than
Malay and other students. On the development and the determination of data-metric properties of
a scale measuring students' perceptions of the classroom assessment environment, Alkharusi
(2010) contrasted the mean scores of males and females on perceptions of the classroom
assessment environment. Results indicated that there were statistically significant differences
between males' and females' perceptions of the classroom assessment environment in that
females perceived their classroom assessment environment as being learning-oriented than
males. Also, there were statistically significant differences between males' and females'
perceptions of the classroom assessment environment as being performance oriented in that
males tended to perceive their classroom assessment environment as being performance-oriented
than females. Students' perception of continuous assessment as a precursor of academic
performance among junior secondary school students in Ogun state was undertaken by Adekola
(2004). The result indicated that there was a significant difference between the perceptions of
students from highly educated parents and those from low education homes in continuous
assessment as a sign to academic performance; there was a significant difference between male
and female students in perception of continuous assessment while there was no significant
difference between urban and rural students. 37 In the investigation carried out on the
development, validation and application of students’ perceptions of assessment questionnaire,
Koul and Fisher (2006) indicated nonsignificant differences of male and female students in their
perception of assessments. On the other hand, they reported significant differences in perceptions
of assessment among students with regard to their year of study. In the study that aimed to
examine students’ perceptions of mathematics assessment, Gao (2012) reported a gender
difference in assessment of authenticity and transparency. The possible suggestion forwarded for
the significant differences of gender in perception of assessment was related to cultural and
educational orientation of the students. Cakan (2011) designed to study “students’ perceptions of
course assessment”. The aim of the study was to examine the students’ attitude of assessment
tasks in conjunction with programs (10 programs), gender and year level differences. The result
of the study indicated that male students were found to have a more positive attitude towards the
assessment task than the female students. In addition, while students in Music program,
Computer Education and Educational Technology were found to reveal significant differences in
attitude towards assessment tasks, the remaining programs were found to be comparable in
attitudes towards assessment tasks. Contrary to the gender and program differences observed,
students from different year of study demonstrated similar thoughts regarding assessment tasks.
The foregoing studies reveal both significant and on-significant differences in perception of
assessment practices. Thus, the present investigation aims at examining 38 students’ perception
of assessment including their study behaviour and academic achievement. 2.5 Relationship
between Students’ Perceptions of Course Assessments and Academic Achievement Numerous
studies, both qualitative and quantitative indicated that classroom assessment practices have a
tremendous impact on student achievement (Brookhart, 1997; Crooks, 1998; Scoull, 1998;
Wiliam et al. 2004; Watering et al, 2008). Brookhart (1997) developed a framework that
measures classroom assessment and student achievement. Significant relationships were found
between perceptions of task, selfefficacy, effort, and achievement. Another study demonstrated
that the use of classroom assessment strategies were not only increased student achievement, but
also students’ self-perceptions about learning (Brookhart & DeVoge, 1999). Udoukpong and
Okon (2012) explored the extent to which students’ academic performance in Junior Secondary
Certificate Examination (JSCE) in social studies were differentiated by their perception of
teachers’ formative evaluation practices. A sample of 300 Junior Secondary Three (JS-3)
students was surveyed. The subjects responded to the questionnaire on teachers’ formative
evaluation practices while their academic performance was determined by their scores in social
studies in JSCE. Students’ academic performance in social studies differed significantly on the
basis of their perceptions of teachers’ formative evaluation practices. Students who perceived
their teachers’ formative evaluation practices as “enhancing to learning” (positive), performed 39
better than their counterparts who viewed the same assessment as “not enhancing to learning”
(negative). Crooks (1988) reviewed specific fields of research that focused on the relationship
between classroom assessment practices and student outcomes. The conclusion of the review
indicated that classroom assessment had powerful direct and indirect impacts on student learning
and academic achievement. According to the review, assessment influenced the academic self
judgement and motivation of the students in learning. Crooks also indicated that the grades
students achieved not served the formative but the summative effect. The review suggested to
more emphasize the formative function of assessment and to provide feedback that focuses on
specific and relevant tasks on a regular base. Wiliam, Lee, and Black (2004) conducted a study
that related to classroom assessment and student achievement. The participants attended a
teacher training program. The research aimed to determine if increased classroom assessment
strategies improve student achievement. To investigate the impact of assessment strategy, the
researchers established a training program for the duration of six months for 24 teachers to
explore and plan classroom assessments. The teachers put the plans into action with selected
classes. Then, the result of the study indicated improvements in grade that were approximately
equivalent to half of previous grade of each student and per a subject. Watering et al. (2008)
conducted a study that examined the effects of students’ actual preferences and perceptions of
assessment of the performances of the participants when the different cognitive levels of
assessment formats were used. Contrary to what so 40 far discussed, no relationship was found
between students’ perceptions of assessment and their assessment scores. The reason for the
finding to stand against to other results may be related to the instrument that these researchers
used to explore the perception of assessment as it was about the preference of assessment in its
origin. Browna and Hirschfeld (2008) carried out a study on “Students’ Conceptions of
Assessment: Links to Outcomes”. They focused on four major areas: “assessment makes
students accountable, assessment makes schools accountable, assessment is enjoyable, and
assessment is ignored.” The research result revealed that the concept which says assessment
makes students accountable was correlated positively to academic achievement while the
remaining three conceptions (i.e., assessment makes schools accountable, assessment is
enjoyable, and assessment is ignored) were negatively correlated to academic achievement.
There was a focus to determine the perception of examination malpractice and academic
performance in primary science among grade six in Nigeria (CorneliusUkpepi1 & Enukoha,
2012). Data were collected from 1818 primary pupils. The study indicated a significant negative
relationship between pupils’ perception of examination malpractice and academic performance.
One may well understand about the relationship between perception of assessment and the
resulting outcome of students from what Stiggins (2007) strongly noted. According to Stiggins
since the purpose of assessment is to rank students according to their achievement, students have
experienced the sense of winning and losing when it comes to assessment. Consequently,
Stiggins (2007) suggested that students, who win at 41 assessment, feel successful and
empowered to take action, and are therefore more likely to seek challenges, take initiative, and
practice with enthusiasm. On other hand, students who lose at assessment feel failure and
hopelessness, and are therefore more likely to seek what is easy and become confused about
what to practice. The reviews so far presented reveal the existence of the relationships between
perception of assessments and academic achievements. Similarly, this study intends to examine
the extent to which the two variables relate to each other in Ethiopian context where there are
social, cultural, and educational experience differences are evident. 2.6 Study Behaviour Bliss
and Mueller (1987) attempted to indicate the relationship between the use of appropriate study
behaviours and academic achievement in the investigation of the measurement of study
behaviours. Bliss and Mueller note that there is often some confusion between the terms “study
skills” and “study behaviours”. They indicated that study skills are the potentials for action while
study behaviours are the observed actions. A student may have all the skills required, that is he
or she may be able to take good notes in class (possession of study skill) but simply sits in class
scribbling (the lack of study behaviour). The result of the study indicated that college students
who were placed in college preparatory courses often do no demonstrate appropriate study
behaviours. Based on the result obtained, they recommended that activities that teach study
behaviours such as time management, note taking, and examination taking techniques should be
given to students. In addition they forwarded that a strong counselling 42 components focussing
on students’ feelings of self worth and competence would bAs indicated in Bliss, Vinay, and
Koeninger, (1996), in 1982, Mueller and Gibson developed the first form of the Study Behaviour
Inventory (SBI). According to Bliss et al. (1996), this instrument was inspired by the work done
by Wren who for the first time developed Study Habits Inventory in 1941 and Brown and
Holtzman, who also developed Study Habits and Attitudes in 1966. In addition, Bliss et al.
indicated that the Study Behaviour Inventory, Form C was developed in which the number of
items related to test anxiety and coping behaviour were expanded by Muller and Gibson in 1983.
The most recent version of the Study Behaviour Inventory (Form D) was developed by Bliss and
Mueller in 1986. On the validation of the Study Behaviour Inventory Bliss and Mueller (1986,
1993) reported three underlying factors of the inventory. These were the feelings of academic-
efficacy, management of time for short-term routine, recurring tasks and management of long-
term specific, nonrecurring tasks. According to Bandura (1977) and Bliss and Mueller (1986,
1993), academic self-efficacy refers to learners’ beliefs about their capabilities to accomplish
academic tasks and activities. Similarly, Zimmerman (1998, 2000a, 2008) described academic
self-efficacy as personal judgements of one's capabilities to organize and execute courses of
action to attain designated types of educational performances. Time management refers to how
well individuals are able to utilize and allocate time appropriately, which in turn, affects the
accomplishment of their personal goals (Ogonor & Nwadiani, 2006). Effective time 43
management generally is positively related to students’ performance; that is, students who are
better at planning and managing their time are more likely to have higher achievement than
students who poorly manage time (Bliss & Mueller, 1993; Eilam & Aharon, 2003; Ogonor &
Nwadiani, 2006). On the other hand, research results suggest that unproductive study behaviours
can lead to low performance to academic withdrawal (Goldfinch & Hughes, 2007). Specifically,
students with low academic self-efficacy are likely to avoid difficult tasks, lack persistence and
easily give up when facing obstacles while studying (Pajares, 2008). Those who manage time
poorly are unable to allocate their time reasonably, not pace their study appropriately, and often
cram for classes until the last minute. Poor time management tends to yield unsatisfactory
academic performance (Balduf, 2009). For that matter, study behaviours play a key role in
students' academic outcomes. A study was conducted at American River College and
Sacramento City College in California. A total of 1,441 students registered in English and
Psychology classes participated in a study to determine the correlation values among the
variables of test anxiety and study behaviour, taking into consideration age, gender, and
ethnicity. The Study behaviour Inventory form D (SBI-D) and the Sarason’s Test Anxiety Scale
(TAS) were administered. The result of the study revealed that the best predictor of higher levels
of test anxiety was lower levels of study behaviour skills (Rasor & Rasor, 1998). Kuhn (1988)
administered the Study Behaviour Inventory-Form D to 74 science students at Wilson Country
Technical College in North Carolina to assess study skills and habits. The study showed that a
number of students had difficulty with time management 44 and keeping up-to-date with
assignments. In addition, difficulty with reading, note-taking skills and test anxiety were also
noted. A study that aimed to identify the study behaviours of 322 Spanish-speaking students was
conducted at Miami Dade College. The study used the El lnventario de Comportamiento de
Estudio (ICE) instrument developed by Bliss, Vinay, and Koenigner (1996). The instrument was
the Spanish version of the SBI-D. The result of the study showed that academic self-efficacy was
the factor that accounted for the most variance. In addition, it was reported that students with
high self-efficacy more concerned than students with low self-efficacy in long-term study
behaviours and with the need to manage time over the long run (Bliss & Sandiford, 2004). As
presented earlier, perceptions of assessments influence the way students approach studying. The
way students think about learning and studying, influence the way they tackle assignment tasks
and their academic performances. In other way of expression, the learner’s experiences of
evaluation and assessment determine the way in which they approach to learning (Struyven et al.,
2005). Hence it becomes clear that assessment and assessment related issues for example,
students’ perceptions have direct association with students approach to learning/study behaviour.
2.7 Relationship between Study Behaviour and Academic Achievement It would be reasonable
to expect that the student who studies more effectively will have higher grades than the student
who studies less effectively. Research has shown that study behaviours account for more
variance in measures of learning achievement than do high school grades and class ranking
(Bliss & Mueller, 1993). Researchers have linked 45 good study habits to passing grades for both
high school and college students. Students who have good study habits are more likely to pass
their courses and persist in college while students who have poor study habits more often fail in
courses and subsequently drop out of colleges (Ramist, 1981). Bailey and Onwuegbuzie (2001)
explored study strategies of students. The purpose of the study was to determine which study
habits distinguish successful from unsuccessful foreign language learners. Participants were 219
college students from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds, enrolled in either in Spanish,
French, German or Japanese classes. The participants were required to complete the Study
Habits Inventory (SHI). The result of study shows that compared to the high-performing
counterparts, students with the lowest levels of foreign language performance reported that they
frequently included a lot of irrelevant or unimportant information in their notes; when they had
difficulty with their assignments, they did not seek help from their instructor; they put their
lecture notes away after taking the test and never consult them again; they have to be in the mood
before attempting to study; they have a tendency to daydream when they were trying to study;
and they did not look up in a dictionary for new words. Lammers, Onwuegbuzie, and Slate
(2001) examined the college students' predominant study skill strengths and weaknesses. The
participants were 336 students. The participants required to complete SHI. Multiple regression
analysis indicated that SHI score and hours spent working were significant predictors of GPA,
combining to explain 18% of the total variance. The SHI score explained 13.2% of the variance
in GPA, and hours working explained an additional 4.8% of the variance. The model 46
indicated that the better the study skills students employed, the higher GPA they achieved. Study
strategies of college students were also examined by Okpala, Okpala, and Ellis (2000). Students’
study strategies were assessed using a three-question survey that addressed (a) avoiding friends
when studying, (b) studying the main points and (c) following a study routine. Results showed
that the study strategies students used were significant in explaining the course grade for all
students. Above-average and belowaverage students’ study strategies and academic efficacy
were positively associated with course grade. The authors suggested that students possibly
achieve better grades if they develop appropriate study strategies and have a high degree of
behavioural confidence, not by simply increasing their study time. In addition, Weinstein’s
(1996) study has shown that students at the University of Texas, who had taken the course that
addresses identified study strategy weaknesses, registered more positive outcomes. That course
was considered to be effective in helping the students raise their grade point averages. Students
who academically gain success were more likely to stay in school and to progress to higher
academic levels. An appraisal of scores on study methods inventories conducted by Thompson
(1977) looked at the environmental difference between high school and college and the need for
independent study for students to excel academically. It was concluded that students who had
appropriate study habits succeeded and adapted to college’s academic norms and requirements
than students who lacked good study habits. Also students with good study habits were found to
be more self-reliant and academically oriented. 47 Another study that correlated academic
achievement with study behaviour was performed by Stewart (1984). The study focused on
investigating study skills including the length of time spent in the study by 50 college
undergraduate Educational Psychology students. A questionnaire was given to the students to
identify their study habits prior to each class examination. Results showed that total hours of
study and type of study behaviour strategies employed were positively related to students’
grades. The earlier study that specifically examined study skills and mathematics achievement
among 46 first-year mathematics students also revealed that the distribution and length of study
time was a factor of considerable importance in mathematics achievement (Poulsen, 1975).
Another study depicted that study habits including time management were documented as the
major problem facing beginning college students (Olani, 2009). Ning and Downing (2010)
carried out a study to explore the reciprocal relationship between learning experiences and study
behaviours to examine the relative impact of learning experiences and study behaviours on
university students’ academic performance. The participants were 396 undergraduate students
from Hong Kong. Students learning experiences and study behaviours were measured by Course
Experience Questionnaire and Study Strategy Inventory respectively. Primary data were
collected by pre-test and post technique with a time gap of 12 months. Students’ cumulative
grade point averages and A-level scores were obtained from institutional records. The findings
depicted that both learning experiences and study behaviours were found to be significant in
influencing reciprocally each other. Moreover, the learning 48 experience (β = .29) and study
behaviour (β = .36) were significantly predicted the academic performance of students with the
more contribution of the study behaviour. Prus, Hatcher, Hope, and Grabiel (1995) used the
Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) to predict the first-year success of college
students. The correlations showed that LASSI scales were significantly correlated with GPA,
including the attitude, motivation, time management, concentration, study aids, self testing, and
test strategies scales. In the analysis of multiple regression, college GPA was the dependent
variable. The ten LASSI scores accounted for 12% of the variance in college GPA and only the
motivation scale was significant. Correlation showed that retention was significantly related to
LASSI scales, including the motivation, concentration, and self testing scales. All of these
relationships were weak. On the LASSI all scales except anxiety, information processing, and
selecting main ideas were found to be significantly correlated with freshman GPA. However,
most of the correlations were weak. The ten LASSI scales and the five background variables
accounted for 9% of the variance in retention, and the model including both the LASSI and
background variables accounted for 8% of the variance in retention. The only LASSI scale with a
significant correlation with GPA for AfricanAmerican students were the self testing scale while
significant correlations were found between seven LASSI scales and GPA for White students.
All but one (study aids) of the

Rrl-----2

As indicated in Bliss, Vinay, and Koeninger, (1996), in 1982, Mueller and Gibson developed the
first form of the Study Behaviour Inventory (SBI). According to Bliss et al. (1996), this
instrument was inspired by the work done by Wren who for the first time developed Study
Habits Inventory in 1941 and Brown and Holtzman, who also developed Study Habits and
Attitudes in 1966. In addition, Bliss et al. indicated that the Study Behaviour Inventory, Form C
was developed in which the number of items related to test anxiety and coping behaviour were
expanded by Muller and Gibson in 1983. The most recent version of the Study Behaviour
Inventory (Form D) was developed by Bliss and Mueller in 1986. On the validation of the Study
Behaviour Inventory Bliss and Mueller (1986, 1993) reported three underlying factors of the
inventory. These were the feelings of academic-efficacy, management of time for short-term
routine, recurring tasks and management of long-term specific, nonrecurring tasks. According to
Bandura (1977) and Bliss and Mueller (1986, 1993), academic self-efficacy refers to learners’
beliefs about their capabilities to accomplish academic tasks and activities. Similarly,
Zimmerman (1998, 2000a, 2008) described academic self-efficacy as personal judgements of
one's capabilities to organize and execute courses of action to attain designated types of
educational performances. Time management refers to how well individuals are able to utilize
and allocate time appropriately, which in turn, affects the accomplishment of their personal goals
(Ogonor & Nwadiani, 2006). Effective time 43 management generally is positively related to
students’ performance; that is, students who are better at planning and managing their time are
more likely to have higher achievement than students who poorly manage time (Bliss & Mueller,
1993; Eilam & Aharon, 2003; Ogonor & Nwadiani, 2006). On the other hand, research results
suggest that unproductive study behaviours can lead to low performance to academic withdrawal
(Goldfinch & Hughes, 2007). Specifically, students with low academic self-efficacy are likely to
avoid difficult tasks, lack persistence and easily give up when facing obstacles while studying
(Pajares, 2008). Those who manage time poorly are unable to allocate their time reasonably, not
pace their study appropriately, and often cram for classes until the last minute. Poor time
management tends to yield unsatisfactory academic performance (Balduf, 2009). For that matter,
study behaviours play a key role in students' academic outcomes. A study was conducted at
American River College and Sacramento City College in California. A total of 1,441 students
registered in English and Psychology classes participated in a study to determine the correlation
values among the variables of test anxiety and study behaviour, taking into consideration age,
gender, and ethnicity. The Study behaviour Inventory form D (SBI-D) and the Sarason’s Test
Anxiety Scale (TAS) were administered. The result of the study revealed that the best predictor
of higher levels of test anxiety was lower levels of study behaviour skills (Rasor & Rasor, 1998).
Kuhn (1988) administered the Study Behaviour Inventory-Form D to 74 science students at
Wilson Country Technical College in North Carolina to assess study skills and habits. The study
showed that a number of students had difficulty with time management 44 and keeping up-to-
date with assignments. In addition, difficulty with reading, note-taking skills and test anxiety
were also noted. A study that aimed to identify the study behaviours of 322 Spanish-speaking
students was conducted at Miami Dade College. The study used the El lnventario de
Comportamiento de Estudio (ICE) instrument developed by Bliss, Vinay, and Koenigner (1996).
The instrument was the Spanish version of the SBI-D. The result of the study showed that
academic self-efficacy was the factor that accounted for the most variance. In addition, it was
reported that students with high self-efficacy more concerned than students with low self-
efficacy in long-term study behaviours and with the need to manage time over the long run (Bliss
& Sandiford, 2004). As presented earlier, perceptions of assessments influence the way students
approach studying. The way students think about learning and studying, influence the way they
tackle assignment tasks and their academic performances. In other way of expression, the
learner’s experiences of evaluation and assessment determine the way in which they approach to
learning (Struyven et al., 2005). Hence it becomes clear that assessment and assessment related
issues for example, students’ perceptions have direct association with students approach to
learning/study behaviour. 2.7 Relationship between Study Behaviour and Academic
Achievement It would be reasonable to expect that the student who studies more effectively will
have higher grades than the student who studies less effectively. Research has shown that study
behaviours account for more variance in measures of learning achievement than do high school
grades and class ranking (Bliss & Mueller, 1993). Researchers have linked 45 good study habits
to passing grades for both high school and college students. Students who have good study habits
are more likely to pass their courses and persist in college while students who have poor study
habits more often fail in courses and subsequently drop out of colleges (Ramist, 1981). Bailey
and Onwuegbuzie (2001) explored study strategies of students. The purpose of the study was to
determine which study habits distinguish successful from unsuccessful foreign language learners.
Participants were 219 college students from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds, enrolled in
either in Spanish, French, German or Japanese classes. The participants were required to
complete the Study Habits Inventory (SHI). The result of study shows that compared to the high-
performing counterparts, students with the lowest levels of foreign language performance
reported that they frequently included a lot of irrelevant or unimportant information in their
notes; when they had difficulty with their assignments, they did not seek help from their
instructor; they put their lecture notes away after taking the test and never consult them again;
they have to be in the mood before attempting to study; they have a tendency to daydream when
they were trying to study; and they did not look up in a dictionary for new words. Lammers,
Onwuegbuzie, and Slate (2001) examined the college students' predominant study skill strengths
and weaknesses. The participants were 336 students. The participants required to complete SHI.
Multiple regression analysis indicated that SHI score and hours spent working were significant
predictors of GPA, combining to explain 18% of the total variance. The SHI score explained
13.2% of the variance in GPA, and hours working explained an additional 4.8% of the variance.
The model 46 indicated that the better the study skills students employed, the higher GPA they
achieved. Study strategies of college students were also examined by Okpala, Okpala, and Ellis
(2000). Students’ study strategies were assessed using a three-question survey that addressed (a)
avoiding friends when studying, (b) studying the main points and (c) following a study routine.
Results showed that the study strategies students used were significant in explaining the course
grade for all students. Above-average and belowaverage students’ study strategies and academic
efficacy were positively associated with course grade. The authors suggested that students
possibly achieve better grades if they develop appropriate study strategies and have a high degree
of behavioural confidence, not by simply increasing their study time. In addition, Weinstein’s
(1996) study has shown that students at the University of Texas, who had taken the course that
addresses identified study strategy weaknesses, registered more positive outcomes. That course
was considered to be effective in helping the students raise their grade point averages. Students
who academically gain success were more likely to stay in school and to progress to higher
academic levels. An appraisal of scores on study methods inventories conducted by Thompson
(1977) looked at the environmental difference between high school and college and the need for
independent study for students to excel academically. It was concluded that students who had
appropriate study habits succeeded and adapted to college’s academic norms and requirements
than students who lacked good study habits. Also students with good study habits were found to
be more self-reliant and academically oriented. 47 Another study that correlated academic
achievement with study behaviour was performed by Stewart (1984). The study focused on
investigating study skills including the length of time spent in the study by 50 college
undergraduate Educational Psychology students. A questionnaire was given to the students to
identify their study habits prior to each class examination. Results showed that total hours of
study and type of study behaviour strategies employed were positively related to students’
grades. The earlier study that specifically examined study skills and mathematics achievement
among 46 first-year mathematics students also revealed that the distribution and length of study
time was a factor of considerable importance in mathematics achievement (Poulsen, 1975).
Another study depicted that study habits including time management were documented as the
major problem facing beginning college students (Olani, 2009). Ning and Downing (2010)
carried out a study to explore the reciprocal relationship between learning experiences and study
behaviours to examine the relative impact of learning experiences and study behaviours on
university students’ academic performance. The participants were 396 undergraduate students
from Hong Kong. Students learning experiences and study behaviours were measured by Course
Experience Questionnaire and Study Strategy Inventory respectively. Primary data were
collected by pre-test and post technique with a time gap of 12 months. Students’ cumulative
grade point averages and A-level scores were obtained from institutional records. The findings
depicted that both learning experiences and study behaviours were found to be significant in
influencing reciprocally each other. Moreover, the learning 48 experience (β = .29) and study
behaviour (β = .36) were significantly predicted the academic performance of students with the
more contribution of the study behaviour. Prus, Hatcher, Hope, and Grabiel (1995) used the
Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) to predict the first-year success of college
students. The correlations showed that LASSI scales were significantly correlated with GPA,
including the attitude, motivation, time management, concentration, study aids, self testing, and
test strategies scales. In the analysis of multiple regression, college GPA was the dependent
variable. The ten LASSI scores accounted for 12% of the variance in college GPA and only the
motivation scale was significant. Correlation showed that retention was significantly related to
LASSI scales, including the motivation, concentration, and self testing scales. All of these
relationships were weak. On the LASSI all scales except anxiety, information processing, and
selecting main ideas were found to be significantly correlated with freshman GPA. However,
most of the correlations were weak. The ten LASSI scales and the five background variables
accounted for 9% of the variance in retention, and the model including both the LASSI and
background variables accounted for 8% of the variance in retention. The only LASSI scale with a
significant correlation with GPA for AfricanAmerican students were the self testing scale while
significant correlations were found between seven LASSI scales and GPA for White students.
All but one (study aids) of the