HOLE DEVIATIONS IN

MINING OPERATIONS:
Types, Sources and Effects
By Sam Kangwa
School of Technology, Copperbelt University

Prof. Thomson Sinkala

School of Mines, Univer sity of Zambia

Photo by Corry Goumans

ABSTRACT
There are three basic types of hole deviations in long hole
drilling, namel y collar ing, alignment and tr ajector y deviations.
In mining, the accur acy in drilling has a significant effect on
the efficac y and economy of mining oper ations. This ar ticle
describes the types, sour ces and effects of hole deviations in
mining oper ations. The article further demonstrates the eco-
nomic consequences due to hole deviations.
INTRODUCTION
Precision in mining engineering, compared to other
engineering industries, lags behind resulting in high
operational costs in areas such as development, stoping,
transportation, mineral dressing and services. Reasons
for this range from the type of mining environment to
limitations in technology.

Copyright © 2004 International Society of Explosives Engineers

The Journal of Explosives Engineering - Vol 20 No 3 1 of 7
 Figur e 1. Diag rammatic re presentation of collaring (dc),
alignment (da) and tr ajector y (dt) deviations [After Sinkala,
1989].

In hard rock min- control build-ups and hang-ups. Hole deviations, there-
ing, drilling and blast- fore, can lead to poor mining economy.
ing still remains the
main method of frag- TYPES AND SOURCES OF HOLE DEVIATIONS
menting rock, and From literature survey, different investigators have
extra costs are classified the types and sources of hole deviations differ-
incurred partly as a ently [Lindvall, 1983; Medda, 1983 and Walker, 1997]. In
result of conse- this article, hole deviations in long hole drilling have
quences associated been classified in three main types, namely; collaring,
with hole deviations. alignment and trajectory deviations, as illustrated in
A drill hole is con- Figure 1.
sidered to have devi-
ated if it has not (i) Hole Collar Position Deviation
been collared at the Collaring deviation is a lateral displacement of a hole
intended point, (ii) from its planned starting point. It is therefore a constant
followed the designed for any hole length. In general, it should not exceed one
path and/or (iii) termi- bit diameter [Tamrock, 1984]. Thus dc ≤ D, where D = bit
nated at the intended diameter.
destination. The sources of collaring deviation include topography
The accuracy in of drilling area, poor set-up and positioning of drilling rig
Photo 1.An example of tr ajector y drilling has a signifi- and inability of a drill rig to hold the feed beam and main
deviation (Photo by T. Sinkala, cant effect on the
Sweden)
boom in a constant rigid position. This is especially
results of mining oper- important with old drills with worn pins and bushing.
ations, and is one of
the major factors influencing mining operational econo- Hole Alignment Deviation
my. For example, poor drilling can drastically alter blast Hole deviation due to alignment (da) arises from inac-
geometries in terms of burden and spacing, especially curacies in setting the feed on which a rock drill is
at the toes of the holes leading to poor blasting, which mounted, in a planned direction. It is obvious from
subsequently affects fragmentation. Fragmentation will Figures 1 and 2 that the deviation increases linearly with
in turn affect loading, hauling, crushing, hoisting and an increase in hole length. Causes of alignment devia-
mineral dressing costs. Hole deviations can also result tions include instability of drilling rigs, lack of precision
in extra drilling in an attempt to correct a burden, or in positioning drill equipment, tools/techniques used to

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The Journal of Explosives Engineering - Vol 20 No 3 2 of 7
 Figur e 2.A general comparison of deviations [After Sinkala, 1989].

align a feed beam, the topography at collaring point, and C. Equipment

drilling operator’s experience and care. - drilling machine and type
- drill rods
Hole Trajectory Deviation - bits
Both quantitative and qualitative experiences have - stabilizers (centralizers)
shown that some power law generally describes trajec- - couplings
tory deviation with an increase in hole length. While col- - worn components of drill rig
laring and alignment deviation errors arise outside drill
holes during the drill equipment set-up and start of col- D. Rock properties:
laring process, trajectory-based errors occur during the - rock structure
drilling process (i.e. this deviation occurs inside drill - rock hardness
holes). An example of trajectory deviation is shown in - interval between foliations or unidirectional joints
Photo 1. - degree of cohesion between foliations or joint
boundaries.
According to Sinkala [1986], of all the holes studied in - variation of properties within the rock mass
road cuts and open pits in Sweden, Norway and Finland,
81% showed trajectory deviation (dt) to be greater than Apart from rock-based sources [Sinkala, 1988], an
alignment deviation (da). 61% of rock faces had 70% of operator or machine designer directly or indirectly con-
holes with dt > da while 47% of rock faces had all holes tributes to deviations through drilling parameters and/or
in the faces with dt > da. Therefore, trajectory deviation equipment. For instance (i) an operator may apply an
(dt), is a more serious problem than unnecessarily large thrust, which could cause devia-
collaring and alignment deviations, as illustrated in tions, (ii) a machine designer might apply inappropriate
Figure 2. tolerances on drilling equipment which might be mis-
used by an operator.
Essentially, there are four source categories of factors Since alignment and collaring deviations are caused
contributing to trajectory deviation, thus: outside of holes, they are easier to investigate and
A. Hole design understand [Karlsson 1983; Engvall 1984; Sinkala and
- hole inclination Granholm 1987]. On the other hand it is very difficult to
- hole diameter study those sources of trajectory deviation arising inside
- hole length drill holes. Previous studies [Brown et al. 1981; Almgren
1981; Sinkala 1986; Medda et al. 1983] have also shown
B. Drill parameters that this deviation is also the most difficult to under-
- thrust stand.
- percussion
- rotation EFFECTS OF HOLE DEVIATIONS
- flushing velocities (and medium) In stope drilling, for example, inaccurate holes have
a very negative effect on stope performance and affect
stoping economy, due to any, or all, of the following:

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The Journal of Explosives Engineering - Vol 20 No 3 3 of 7
Figur e 3. Extra activities, inputs and consequent costs due to eff ects
of hole deviations on mining operations [After Kangw a, 2000].

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 Figur e 4. (a).

Figur e 4 (b).

Figur e 4. Illustr ating the f ormation of (a) hang-ups and (b)

build-ups as a result of hole deviations [After Sinkala, 1989].

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The Journal of Explosives Engineering - Vol 20 No 3 5 of 7
1. Ore losses in situ
2. High dilution
3. Cumulative unbroken rock (build-ups) inside stopes
4. Poor rock fragmentation
5. Weakening of surrounding rock
6. Increased explosive consumption
7. Time wastage due to resulting hang-ups and build-
ups
8. Extra drilling to make up for the consequent build-
ups
9. Loss of man/machine hours in the chain of opera-
tions as a result of delays due to extra drilling and re-
blasting
10.Loss of drill rods and bits due to jamming
11.Extra primary crushing and milling, and
12.Extra mineral dressing activities.
Examples of consequences due to hole deviations in
the chain of mining operations, resulting in extra opera-
tional costs, are demonstrated in Figure 3 while Figure
4 illustrates some consequences of hole deviations.
Brief Discussion of Some Effects of Hole Deviations
The following are brief discussions of effects of hole
deviations:
1. Increased explosive consumption
Blasting of build-ups, hang-ups and large size rocks in
secondary blasting arising from unforeseen increased
burden increase the consumption of explosives.
2. Time wastage
Frequent breakdowns associated with handling rough
muck lowers the availability of ore handling equipment
and facilities as well as the utilization of man/machine
hours.
3. Extra drilling
Build-ups and blocked holes entail re-drilling of extra
holes. In the case of a blocked hole near which another
hole is usually drilled, the burden with the holes in the
adjacent ring is altered.
4. Accelerated wear of ore handling equipment
and facilities
The handling of poorly fragmented rock accelerates
wear of ore handling equipment, especially on the con-
tact surfaces. Accelerated wear reduces the life of the
equipment and ore handling facilities.
5. Delays in the chain of production operations
Re-drilling and blasting of build-ups as well as hang-ups
and large size rocks in secondary blasting interrupt the
chain of production operations and result in increased
cycle time. Sometimes, these delays can take days or
weeks to rectify, and are costly.
Copyright © 2004 International Society of Explosives Engineers
The Journal of Explosives Engineering - Vol 20 No 3
6. Ore dilution
Holes deviating into waste rock or low-grade ore below
cut off induce dilution. In some cases, tons of ore may
be left in the stope to avoid tramming of low grade
resulting from dilution. This may significantly lower the
recovery from the stope.
7. Ore loss
Excessive diluted broken ore is usually left in stopes
together with unbroken ore. The quantities involved
may be enormous especially where excessive dilution
occurs at the early stages of stope draw.
8. Loss of drill strings
Jamming of drill strings in drill holes due to hole devia-
tions is not uncommon in long-hole drilling. The drill
string, which here is defined as including drill rods, cou-
plings and bits, is often lost together with the jammed
hole. The lost drill string may involve some new com-
ponents and a significant length. The loss of drill strings
may also result in loss of production time due to
attempts to claim the drill strings.
9. Extra mineral dressing work
A mineral processing plant is designed to operate effi-
ciently for a certain range of ore grade and size. Highly
diluted rock requires more inputs to liberate the miner-
als from waste, and these inputs go to process unwant-
ed rock material. Larger fragments require more stages
of comminution than those within the designed size
range.
10. Poor stability of rock excavation and pillars
Over-break increases the dimensions of excavations and
reduces the sizes of pillars. The stress state induced by
over-break is often manifested by unstable excavations
and pillars especially at the abutments.
11. Reduced ventilation efficiency
The cross-sectional area of an airway affects the volume
flow rate. Over-break increases the cross-sectional area
of the airways and thus lowers the speed of air. More
energy to achieve the desired flow rate would be need-
ed.
12. Safety
Drilling and blasting of hang-ups, build-ups and large
rocks are hazardous operations. These operations have
in some cases resulted in fatal and serious injuries to
mining personnel. Minimizing hole deviations may
reduce some of these safety hazards.
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13. Others
In development, inaccurate drilling of cut holes and
perimeter holes results in poor advance and over-
break/under-break. Over-break may result in wrong spa-
tial positioning of development ends and re-designing
the wrongly positioned ends altogether. Induced insta-
bility of development openings, holing into dangerous
excavations or geological features, extra scaling down,
inefficient mine ventilation are some of the other effects
of hole deviations.
All these undesirable effects incur costs and require
rectification for efficient and cost-effective mining oper-
ations.
CONCLUSION
Hole deviations in mining operations are caused by
inaccurate collaring, alignment operations and inappro-
priate application of drilling parameters. The deviations
result in a negative effect on mining operations and give
rise to significant extra costs.
Mining industry and drilling equipment manufactur-
ers can work together to improve drilling accuracy to
reduce mining costs. On the other hand, blasting engi-
neers should investigate the possibilities of designing
blasting patterns based on the pattern of the actual
drilled holes rather than theoretical pattern. This advise
applies to every phase of mining where drilling and
blasting is employed.
Copyright © 2004 International Society of Explosives Engineers
The Journal of Explosives Engineering - Vol 20 No 3
REFERENCES
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