Science & Technology PDF

2019
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

BHARATHIDASAN’S
GROUP 2 MAINS
bjhFg;g[ - ,u.rf;jpnty;
jl;lr;ru; gzp - tp$a;
ghujpjhrd;TNPSC gapw;rp ikak;, xkY}u;
RRB JE/TALUK SI / TN POLICE Weekend Class will Start from 10.02.2019
1. mqf;fU ciy vd;why; vd;d? mqf;fU ciyapd; Kf;fpag; gFjpfis
tpsf;Ff.
mqf;fU ciy
KGikahd fl;Lg;ghl;Lld; Toa jw;rhh;g[ila mqf;fUg;gpst[
bjhlh;tpid epfGk; mikg;g[.
mqf;fU ciyapd; Kf;fpa gFjpfs;
1. vhpbghUs;
2. jzpg;ghd;
3. fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; fHpfs;
4. Fsph;tpg;ghd;
5. epa{l;uhd; vjpbuhspg;ghd;
6. jLg;g[ ciwfs;
vhpbghUs;
 mqf;fU ciyapd; gpst[W bghUs; - gpst[Wk; Inrhnlhg;g[fs;
bfhz;l jdpkk;.
 gpst[W bghUl;fs; - .
 mYkpdpa rpypz;lhpy; jz;L totpy; gpst[Wk; bghUs; ghJfhg;ghf
itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,aw;ifapy; a[nudpak; Mft[k;/ Mft[k;
cs;sJ.
 brwpt{l;lg;gl;l a[nudpak; vdg;gLk;.
 kpf Fiwe;j mstpy; fpilf;fpd;wJ.
jzpg;ghd;
 epa{l;uhdpd; ntfj;ij Fiwf;f gad;gLk;.
 jzpg;ghd;fs; - fpuhigl;/ bghpypak;/ fdePh; .
 ey;y jzpg;ghd;fs; cah;e;j cUF epiya[k; Fiwe;j mq vz;qk;
bfhz;lit.
fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; fHpfs;
 bjhlh;tpid epfH;tij fl;Lg;gLj;j gad;gLk;.
 fHpfs; epa{l;uhid cl;ftUk; bghUl;fshy; Mdit.
 fHpfs; - fhl;kpak;/ nghuhd; my;yJ n]g;dpak;.
 fHpfs; vhpbghUspy; cl;js;sg;gLk; nghJ epa{l;uhl;fs;
cl;ftug;gl;L bjhlh;tpid epWj;jg;gLk;.
 fHpfs; vhpbghUspy; btsp ,Gf;fg;gLk;nghJ typikahf
bjhlhh;tpid epfGk;.
Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 1

Group II, IV&VAO 2019 Online Test Batch Will Start from 16.02.2019 (New & Old Books only)
Fsph;tpg;ghd;
 bjhlh;tpidapy; btg;gj;ij cl;ftug; gad;gLk;.
 Fsph;tpg;ghdhy; btspnaw;wg;gLk; btg;g Mw;wy; ePiu ePuhtpahf
khw;Wk;.
 ePuhtp lh;igd;fis RHyr; bra;tjhy; kpd;dhw;wy; cw;gj;jp
bra;ag;gLfpwJ.
 Fsph;tpg;ghd;fs; - rhjhuz ePh;/ fdePh;/ fhw;W/ fhh;gd; il Mf;i!L/
]Pypak; tha[/ jput nrhoak;.
 fdePh; Fsph;tpg;ghdhft[k;/ jzpg;ghdhft[k; gad;gLfpwJ.
 Fsph;tpg;ghd; cah;e;j cUFepiya[k; cah;e;j jd;btg;g Vw;g[j;
jpwDk; bfhz;lJ.
epa{l;luhd; vjpbuhspg;ghd;
 vhpbghUs;/ jzpg;ghd; ,tw;iwr; NH;e;Js;s mikg;g[.
 mqf;fU ciyapy; ,Ue;J btsptUk; epa{l;uhd;fis kPz;Lk;
ciyapDs; brYj;Jk;.
 epa{l;uhd;fspd; frpit Fiwf;f gad;gLk;.
jLg;g[ ciwfs;
 fjph;tPr;R btspg;gLtJ caphpdj;jpw;F mghafukhdJ.
 fjph;tPr;rpypUe;J ghJfhf;f mqf;fU ciyiar; Rw;wp fhhpa
Rth;fSk;/ 2 kPl;lhpypUe;J 2.5 kPl;lh; tiuapyhd joj;j fhd;fphPl; Rth;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
2. My;gh/ gPl;lh/ fhkh fjph;fspd; gz;g[fs; gw;wp Fwpg;gpLf.

My;gh fjphpd; gz;g[fs;
 ,U g[nuhl;lhd;fisa[k;/ ,U epa{l;uhd;fisa[k; bfhz;l ]Pypak;
mq.
 ,U myF neh; kpd;D}l;lk; cilaJ.
 kpf mjpf jpirntfj;Jld; neh;f;nfhl;oy; bry;Yk;.
 kpd; kw;Wk; fhe;j g[y';fshy; tpyf;fk; mila[k;.
 tha[f;fspd; tHpna bry;Yk; nghJ tha[f;fis kpFe;j madpahf;fk;
bra;fpd;wd.
 madpahf;Fk; jpwd; gPl;lh fjph;fistpl 100 kl';F mjpfk;. fhkhf;
fjph;fis tpl 1000 kl';F mjpfk;.

 xspg;glj;jfLfis ghjpf;Fk;.
 j';fk; nghd;w fdkhd jdpk';fshy; rpjwof;fg;gLk;.
 Jj;jehf ry;igL/ nghpak; gpshl;ondh raidL nghd;w bghUl;fspd;
kPJ tpGk;nghJ xsph;jiy Vw;gLj;Jk;.
 fjphpaf;fj; jdpkj;jpypUe;J xU My;gh fjph; btspahifapy; mjd;
epiwapy; 4 myFfSk;/ mjd; mq vz;zpy; 2 myFfSk; Fiwa[k;.
gPl;lh fjphpd; gz;g[fs;

 XuyF vjph; kpd;D}l;lKk;/ vyf;l;uhdpd; epiwiaa[k; bfhz;lJ.
 ,it vyf;l;uhd;fs;.
 \yk; xd;wpypUe;J btspg;gLk; gPl;lh Jfs;fs; 0.3 C Kjy; 0.99 C
tiuapyhd jpirntf';fisg; bgw;wpUf;Fk;.
 C= xspapd; jpirntfk;.
 kpd; kw;Wk; fhe;j g[y';fshy; tpyf;fk; mila[k;.
 Fiwe;j madpahf;Fk; jpwd; bfhz;lJ.
 bky;ypa cnyhfj; jfLfis CLUtpr; bry;yf; Toait.
 CLUt[j;jpwd; My;gh fjph;fis tpl mjpfk;.
 nghpak; gpshl;ondh raidL nghd;w bghUl;fspd; kPJ tpGk;nghJ
xsph;jiy Vw;gLj;Jk;.
 xU gPl;lh fjph; btspahifapy; mjd; jha; cl;fUtpy; mq vz;
xd;W cah;e;jpUf;Fk;. epiw vz;zpy; khw;wk; Vw;glhJ.
fhkh fjph;fspd; gz;g[fs;

 kpff; Fiwe;j miyePsk; bfhz;l kpd;fhe;j miyfs;.
 kpd; kw;Wk; fhe;j g[y';fshy; tpyf;fk; miltjpy;iy.
 xspapd; jpirntfj;jpy; bry;Yk;.
 madpahf;Fk; jpwd; kpff; Fiwt[.
 gPl;lh fjph;fis tpl mjpf CLUt[e;jpwd; bfhz;lJ.
 xsph;jiy Vw;gLj;Jk;.
 X fjph;fis nghd;W gof';fspy; tpspk;g[ tpist[fis Vw;gLj;Jk;.
 fhkhf;fjph; btsptUk; nghJ mjd; epiw vz;/ mq vz;zpy; ve;j
khw;wKk; Vw;glhJ.

3. kpd;dhw; gFj;jypd; ghunl tpjpfisf; TWf.
kpd;dhw; gFj;jy;
 kpd;gFspf; fiurypd; tHpna kpd;ndhl;lj;ij brYj;Jk;nghJ
kpd;gFspapd; madpfs; kpd;tha;fSf;F mUfpy; ntjpkhw;wk;
eilbgWfpwJ.
 kpd;ndhl;lk; brYj;Jtjd; fhuzkhf ntjptpid epfH;tJ kpd;dhw;
gFj;jy; vdg;gLk;.
 ghunl kpd;dhw;gFj;jy; gw;wpa ,uz;L tpjpfisf; Twpdhh;.
 kpd;thapy; cUthFk; tpisbghUs;fspd; mstpw;Fk; kpd;gFspapd;
tHpna brYj;jg;gLk; kpd;ndhl;lj;jpd; mstpw;Fk; cs;s bjhlh;ig
,t;tpjpfs; tpsf;Ffpd;wd.
ghunltpd; Kjy; tpjp

 kpd;dhw;gFj;jypd; nghJ kpd;thapy; btspg;gLk; bghUspd;
epiwahdJ kpd;gFspapd; tHpna brYj;jg;gLk; kpd;ndhl;lj;jpd;
mstpw;F neh;tpfpjj;jpypUf;Fk;.
 M bghUspd; epiwiaa[k;/ Q bkhj;j kpd;ndhl;lj;ija[k;/ I
kpd;D}l;lj;ija[k;/ t fhyj;ija[k; Fwpj;jhy; M=ZIt.
 ,';F Z vd;gJ xU khwpyp. ,J bghUspd; kpd; ntjpapay;
,izkhw;W vdg;gLfpwJ.
ghunltpd; ,uz;lhk; tpjp

 xnu kpd;ndhl;lg; gha;thy; btspnaWk; my;yJ fiua[k; bghUs;fspd;
epiwfs; mtw;wpd; kpd;ntjpapay; ,izkhw;W kjpg;g[fSf;F
neh;j;jftpypUf;Fk;.
4. hpf;lh; mstPL gw;wp Fwpg;bgGJf.

 hpf;lh; mstPL 1935 Mk; Mz;L rhh;y!; F. hpf;lh; vd;gtuhy;
cUthf;fg;gl;lJ.
 epyeLf;fj;ij msf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
 hpf;lh; mstpy; 0 - 9 tiu mst[fs; cs;sd.
 epyeLf;f miyfs; rP!;nkhfpuh~gpy; gjpthFk;.
Admission Opens for 2019
Weekend Classes Weekday Classes
RRB JE/TALUK SI / TN POLICE Group II, IV&VAO 2019
Weekend Class will Start from 10.02.2019 (Monday, Wednesday, Friday)
Time: 10:30 – 1:30

5. ,e;jpa mq Mw;wy; Jiwapd; bray;ghLfis Fwpj;J vGjf.
 bjhlf;fk; - 1954.
 jiyikaplk; - Kk;ig (kfuhuhZ;l;uh).
 ,e;jpa gpujkhpd; neuo fl;Lg;ghl;od; fPH; bray; gLfpwJ.
 mqrf;jp kpd;rhuk;/ bjhHpy;El;gk; kw;Wk; Muha;r;rpf;F
bghWg;ghdjhFk;.
 mqrf;jpf;F njitahd \yg;bghUl;fis bgWfpwJ.
 mqkpd; epiya';fis totikj;jy; kw;wk; fl;Ltpj;jy;.
6. IGCAR gw;wp Fwpg;g[ vGJf.

 Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research 1971 y; bjhlf;fk;.
 miktplk;- fy;ghf;fk; (jkpH;ehL).
 mGj;jg;gl;l fdePh; ciyfs; - 2 = 170 bkhfthl;.
 ntf <Diyfs; 2 - jput nrhoak; Fsp%l;o.
 fhkpdp Ma;t[ ciy - 1.
 Prototype Fast breeder Reactor - 1.
7. jput epiyapYs;s i]l;u$d; vt;thW vhpbghUshfg; gad;gLfpwJ

vd;gij tpsf;Ff.
 ePh;k i]l;u$d; xU rpwe;j uhf;bfl; vhpbghUs;.
 jput epiyapYs;s i]l;u$d; kw;w vhpbghUs;fis tpl mjpf
btg;gj;ij bfhLf;Fk;.
 i]l;u$d; fhw;wpYs;s Mf;!p$Dld; tpidg[hpjy; xU btg;gk;
bfhs;tpidahFk;.
 xU nkhy; ePh; cUthFk; nghJ 286 fpnyh $#y; btg;gk;
btspaplg;gLfpwJ.
 fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l NH;epiyapy; i]l;u$d; vhpjy; btoj;jy;
epfH;r;rpapd;wp eilbgWfpwJ.
 i]l;u$d; vhpa[k;nghJ fpl;lj;jl;l 2800 btg;gepiy tiu btg;gk;
caUfpd;wJ.
 thD}h;jpfspy; cs;s Kf;fpa \d;W vd;$pd;fspy; jput i]l;u$d;
vhpbghUshf gad;gLfpwJ.
 i]l;u$d; fhw;wpy; vhpa[k; nghJ ePh; cUthfpwJ.
 gok vhpbghUl;fis tpl i]l;u$id vhpg;gJ rpwe;jJ.

 ,J rhjfkhd khR Vw;gLj;jhj vhpbghUs;.

 gpw Mw;wy; \y';fspypUe;J bgwg;gLfpwJ.
8. !;bey; xsptpyfy; tpjpiaf; TWf.

 gLnfhzj;jpd; ird; kjpg;gpw;Fk;/ tpyF nfhzj;jpd; ird;
kjpg;gpw;Fk; cs;s jft[ khwpyp.
 khwpypahdJ fz;zho ghsj;jpd; xsptpyfy; vz; vdg;gLk;.
9. mrpl;oyPdpd; gad;fisj; jUf.

 cnyhf';fis xl;Ltjw;F gad;gLk; Mf;!p-mrpl;oyPd;
xspr;Rliug; bgw gad;gLfpwJ.
 ghyptpidy; mrpnll; kw;Wk; braw;if ug;gh; Mfpait jahhpj;jypy;
mrpl;oyPd; Jtf;fg; bghUshf gad;gLfpwJ.
 bjhHpw;rhiyapy; Kf;fpa nrh;k';fshd mrpl;lhy;oi]L/ mrpl;of;
mkpyk;/ mrpl;nlhd;/ vj;jdhy; kw;Wk; bgd;rPd; jahhpj;jypy; Jtf;fg;
bghUshfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
10. <j;jPdpd; (vj;jpyPd;) gad;fisf; TWf.

 gH';fis gGf;f itf;f.
 ghypjPd;/ ghyp g[buhypg;gyPd; kw;Wk; PVC jahhpf;f.
 vj;jpyPd; il FnshiuL/ braw;if ug;guhd jnahf;fhy; jahhpf;f.
 vj;jpyPd; il FnshiuL <j;jPdpypUe;J bgwg;gLfpwJ.
 fpisf;fhy; jahhpj;jypy; gad;gLfpwJ.
11. gygofspd; VnjDk; Ie;J gad;fis tpsf;Ff.

ghypjPd;
 kpd; flj;jhg; bghUs;fs;.
 tPl;L cgnahfg; bghUs;fs;.
 nrhjid rhiy bghUl;fs;.
ghyp!;ilhPd;
 kpd; flj;jh bghUl;fs;.
 tPl;L cgnahfg; bghUl;fs;.
ngf;iyl;
 kpd;rhjd Rtpl;Rfs;.
 mhpkhd';fs; jLf;Fk; bghUl;fs;.

blhpyPd;
 bjhFg;g[ ,iHfs; jahhpf;f.
 ghJfhg;g[ gl;ilfs; jahhpf;f.
 lah;fs;.
ieyhd; - 66
 fapWfs;.
 kPd;gpo tiyfs;.
 bjhFg;g[ ,iHfs;.
12. ghh;it vd;gjd; bghUs; vd;d? ghh;it Fiwghl;oid tpthpf;ft[k;.

ghh;it
 g[yg;glf; Toa xspapy; mUfpy; kw;Wk; bjhiytpypUf;Fk;
bghUl;fis fz;iz ve;j tpj mGj;jj;jpw;Fk; Mshf;fhky;
bjspthf ghh;g;gJ.
 fhh;dpah - xsp CLUt[k; gFjp.
 byd;!; xspia Ftpf;f.
 ghh;it euk;g[ - gpk;gj;ij neuhff; fhz.
bul;odh
 jz;L bry;fs; - k';fpa xspapy; bghUisf; fhz.
 Tk;g[ bry;fs; - epw';fis gphpj;jwpa.
FiwghLfs;
fpl;lg;ghh;it (iknahgpah)
 tpHpj;jpiuf;F Kd;dhy; gpk;gk; njhd;Wk;.
 rhp bra;a FHp byd;!; gad;gLfpwJ.
J}ug;ghh;it (i]gh;bkl;nuhgpah)
 tpHpj;jpiuf;F gpd;dhy; gpk;gk; njhd;Wk;.
 rhp bra;a Ftp byd;!; gad;gLfpwJ.
M!;of; nkl;ork;
 fpl;l kw;Wk; J}ug;ghh;it FiwhgL.
 rhp bra;a ,U Ftpaf; fz;zho gad;gLfpwJ.

gpu!;ignahgpah
 40 tajpw;F nky;.
 fhh;dpah fodkhf khwptpLk;.
fz;g[iu
fz;zpy; g[uj mLf;F cUthjy;
FSf;nfhkh
fz;zpd; xj;j ehs';fs; rpijtiljy;.
13. Inrhghh;/ Inrhnlhd; gw;wp tpthp.

Inrhghh;
 xj;j epiw vz;iza[k;/ khWgl;l mq vz;iza[k; bfhz;l
btt;ntW jdpkj;jpd; mqf;fs;.
 v.fh. ₈O¹⁶/ ₇N¹⁶.
 ,it btt;ntW jdpkkhjyhy; mtw;wpd; ,aw;gapy; kw;Wk; ntjpg;
gz;g[fs; khWgl;L mika[k;.
Inrhnlhd;fs;
 xj;j epa{l;uhd; vz;zpf;ifa[k;/ ntWgl;l mq vz;fisa[k;/ ntWgl;l
epiw vz;fisa[k; bfhz;l btt;ntW jdpkj;jpd; mqf;fs;.
 v.fh. ₆C¹⁴/ ₈N¹⁶.
14. mrpl;nlhdpd; gad;fs; ahit?

 Fnshnuh~ghk;/ mnanlh~ghk; kw;Wk; ry;~nghdhy; Mfpait jahhpf;f.
 tz;zg; g{r;RfSf;Fk;/ bkUbfz;bza;f;Fk; fiug;ghdhf.
 ,ug;gh; jahhpf;f.
 braw;ifj; njhy; jahhpf;f.
 kjpg;g[s;s cgfuz';fspd; ghf';fis Rj;jk; bra;at[k;/ cyu
itf;ft[k;.
 efr;rhak; ePf;f.
15. mqf;fU gpst[ kw;Wk; mqf;fU ,izt[ tpidfis ntWgLj;Jf.

mqf;fU gpst[
 1939 y; b$h;kd; ehl;od; Ml;blh]hd; kw;Wk; !;l;uh!;khd; Mfpnahh;
a[nudpak; mqf;fUthdJ epa{l;uhidf; bfhz;L jhf;fg;gLk;nghJ

,J xg;gplf;Toa epiwfs; bfhz;l mqf;fUf;fhshf ciltJld;
Mw;wYk; btspg;gLtijf; fz;Lgpoj;jdh;.
 fdkhd jdpkj;jpd; mqf;fU ,U Jz;Lfshf ciltJld; kpf
mjpfkhd Mw;wYk; btspg;gLk; epfH;t[ mqf;fU gpst[ vdg;gLk;.
 mqf;fU gpstpd; nghJ epa{l;uhd;fSk; btspg;gLk;.
 mqf;fUtpd; gpstpw;fhd tpidfs; gpd;tUkhW
₀n¹ ₅₆Ba¹⁴¹ + ₃₆Kr⁹² + 3 ₀n¹ + Q
mqf;fU ,izt[
 ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F nkw;gl;l ,nyrhd mqf;fUf;fs; ,ize;J
xU fdkhd mqf;fUit cUthf;Fk; epfH;t[.
 tpidapy; cUthFk; mqf;fUtpd; epiw mJ cUthff; fhuzkhd
nyrhd mqf;fUf;fspd; bkhj;j epiwiatplf; Fiwthfnt mika[k;.
 ,e;j epiw khWghL Mw;wyhf khw;wg;gLfpwJ.
 mqf;fU ,izt[ 10 ⁷ K mstpyhd kpf cah;e;j btg;gepiyapy;
kl;Lnk eilbgWk;.
 ,e;j mstpyhd cah; btg;gepiyapy; kl;Lnk mqf;fUf;fs;
j';fSf;fpilna cs;s tpul;L tpiria rkhspf;f Koa[k;.
 mqf;fU ,iztpw;F Kd; ,nyrhd mqf;fUf;fspd;
btg;gepiyia gy kpy;ypad; ofphpf;F cah;j;j ntz;Lk;.
 mqf;fU ,izt[ tpidfs; btg;g mqf;fU tpidfs; vdg;gLk;.
i]l;u$d; Fz;L
 i]l;u$d; Fz;L - mqf;fU ,izt[j; jj;Jtk;.
 ,nyrhd mqf;fUf;fspd; ,izt[ \yk; Vuhskhd Mw;wiy
btspg;gLj;Jk; btof;Fk; mikg;g[.
 mqf;fU ,iztpw;F njitahd btg;gepiy mqf;fU gpst[
tpidapd; \yk; bgwg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Kjypy; mqFz;L xd;iw btof;fr; bra;J btg;gepiy 50 kpy;ypad;
ofphpf;F cah;j;jg;gLfpwJ.
 mqFz;L btog;g[f;F mUfpy; jFe;j mst[ oa{l;uhDk;/ ohpl;lhDk;
itf;fg;gl;oUf;Fk;. rhjfkhd btg;gepiy/ fl;Lg;ghlw;w mqf;fU
,izt[ epfH;it njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ.
 ,jd; fhuzkhf Vuhskhd btg;g Mw;wy; btspg;gLk;.
 i]l;u$d; Fz;oy; cUthFk; mqf;fU tpid gpd;tUkhW
₁H³ + ₁H² ₂He⁴ + ₀n¹ + Mw;wy;

16. vj;jpy; My;f]hypd; VnjDk; 4 gad;fis TWf.
 tz;zg;g{r;Rfs;/ vz;bza;r;rha';fs;/ gpj;jis bkUFfs;/ kUe;Jfs;
jahhpj;jy;.
 <j;jh; Fnshnuh~ghh;k;/ mnahnlh~ghh;k; nghd;w fhpk nrh;k';fisj;
jahhpj;jy;.
 fha';fisa[k; kUj;Jtkidfs;/ kUe;jf';fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
Crpfis neha;f;fpUkpapypUe;J ghJfhf;Fk; er;Rj;jil.
 vj;jdhy; My;f]hy; Foghd';fspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 bkj;jpy; My;f]hy; fye;j rhuhak; rhuha tpsf;Ffspy;/ gad;gLfpwJ.
 cs;bshp ,ae;jpu';fspy; Mw;wy; My;f]hyhf ,ae;jpu Mw;wiy
cUthf;f My;f]hy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 Mw;wy; My;f]hy; vd;gJ 25 rjtPjk; jdp My;f]hy; kw;Wk; 75 rjtPjk;
bgl;nuhy; fye;j fyit. nkhl;lhh; thfd';fSf;F ,J cfe;j
vhpbghUshFk;.
17. jdp Cry; tpjpia tiuaWf;ft[k;.

 jdp Crypd; miyt[neuk; Cry; Fz;L bra;ag;gl;Ls;s bghUisnah
my;yJ Fz;od; epiw kw;Wk; cUtj;ijnah bghWj;jJ my;y.
 miyt[ neuk; Crypd; tPr;irg; bghWj;jjy;y.
 miyt[ neuk; jdp Crypd; ePsj;jpd; ,Uko \yj;jpw;F neh;j;jftpy;
cs;sJ.
 miyt[neuk; g[tpaPh;g;g[ KLf;fj;jpd; ,Uko \yj;jpw;F vjph;j;jftpy;
cs;sJ.
√ (K jft[ khwpyp)
 Ma;tpd; \yk; K kjpg;g[ vdf; fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.
 jdp Crypd; miyt[ neuj;jpw;fhd tha;g;ghL - √

18. epiyk tpjpia tiuaWf;ft[k;.
 xU bghUs; jhdhfnt jd; Xa;t[ epiyianah my;yJ neh;nfhl;oy;
mike;j rPuhd ,af;f epiyianah khw;wpf; bfhs;s ,ayhj
jd;ikia epiykk; vd;fpnwhk;.
 epa{l;ldpd; Kjy;tpjp epiyk tpjp vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.

19. ryit nrhlhtpd; gad;fs; ahit?
 fhfpjk;/ nrhg;g[/ Jzp/ tz;zg;g{r;Rfs; jahhpf;f.
 Jzp Jitf;ft[k; tPl;L gad;ghl;ow;F J}a;ikahf;fpahf.
 gz;gwp kw;Wk; gUkdwp gFg;gha;tpy; Kf;fpa Ma;t[f;Tl fhuzpahf.
 fod ePiu bkd;dPuhf khw;w.
20. rikay; nrhlhtpd; gad;fs; ahit?

 rikay; nrhlh vd;gJ nrhoak; i]l;u$d; fhh;gndl; (nrhoak; ig
fhh;gndl;) MFk;.
 rikay; nrhlh buhl;o nrhlh jahhpf;f.
 buhl;o nrhlh vd;gJ nrhoak; ig fhh;gndl;Lk; lhh;lhhpf; mkpyKk;
bfhz;l fyit.
 buhl;o nrhlh czt[g; bghUspid bkd;ikg;gLj;jt[k; Fsph;
ghd';fspy; fhw;W}l;lk; bra;at[k; gad;gLfpwJ.
 jPaizf;Fk; rhjd';fspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 ,J fhuj;jd;ika[ilajhf ,Ug;gjhy; tapw;wpy; Vw;gLk;
mkpyj;jd;ikia Fiwf;f cjt[fpwJ.
 Ma;t[f; Tl';fspy; xU Kf;fpa fhuzpahf cs;sJ.
 Jzp/ njhy; gjdpLjy;/ fhfpjk; kw;Wk; gP';fhd; rhkhd;fs; jahhpf;Fk;
bjhHpw;rhiyfspy; Kf;fpa ntjpg;bghUshf gad;gLfpwJ.
21. cg;g[fspd; gy;ntW gad;fis tpsf;ft[k;.

cg;g[fs; gpd;tUk; Jiwfspy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 md;whl thH;tpy;
 tptrhaj; Jiw
 kUj;Jtj; Jiw
 g[ifg;glj;bjhHpy;
 bjhHpy;Jiw
md;whl thH;tpy; gad;fs;

 nrhoak; FnshiuL czt[g; bghUl;fs; jahh; bra;a.
 CWfha;/ kPd;/ ,iwr;rp/ fha;fwp nghd;wit bflhky; ghJfhf;f.
 buhl;onrhlh - buhl;o kw;Wk; nff;Ffs; jahhpf;f.
 ryitr; nrhlh Jzpfis ryit bra;a.

 ryitj;J}s; Jzpfs; kw;Wk; jz;zPiu Rj;jk; bra;a.

 fhy;rpak; fhh;gndl; Rz;zhk;g[f;fl;o bra;a.
 bghl;lhZ; gofhuk; ePhpy; cs;s khRf;fis tpiuthf tPH;goar;
bra;J ePiuj; J}a;ikahf;FfpwJ.
 nrhoak; bgd;nrhnal; czt[ bflhky; ghJfhf;Fk; bghUshf
gad;gLfpwJ.
 rpy;th; iel;nul; Kor;rhak; jahhpf;f.
tptrhaj; Jiwapy; gad;fs;

 fhg;gh; ry;ngl;Lk; Rz;zhk;g[ ePUk; nrh;e;j fyit (nghh;nlhf;
fyit) - g{|;irf;bfhy;yp.
 mk;nkhdpak; FnshiuL/ mk;nkhdpak; ry;ngl;/ fhy;rpak; Ng;gh;
gh!;ngl; - cu';fs;.
 NPK (iel;u$d; - gh!;gu!; - bghl;lhrpak;) tif cu';fspy;
mk;nkhdpak; iel;nul;/ mk;nkhdpak; ry;ngl;/ mk;nkhdpak;
gh!;ngl;/ bghl;lhrpak; FnshiuL cg;g[fs; cs;sd.
 fhg;gh; ry;ngl; cg;g[ - g{r;rpf; bfhy;yp.
 iel;lh; (bghl;lhrpak; iel;nul;) - cuk;.
kUj;Jtj;jpy; gad;fs;
 ghhp!; rhe;J - vYk;g[ Kwpt[ rpfpr;ir.
 vg;rk; cg;g[ kyr;rpf;fiyj; jPh;f;Fk; kUe;J.
 KfUk; cg;g[ - rypj;bjhy;iyapypUe;J tpLbgw.
 buhl;or;nrhlh tapw;wpy; mkpyj;jd;ikiaf; Fiwf;Fk; Md;lhrpl;
kUe;Jfs; jahhpf;f.
g[ifg;glj; Jiwapy; gad;fs;

rpy;th;/ iel;nul;/ rpy;th; g[nuhikL/ nrhoak; jnah ry;ngl;
(i]g;ngh) Mfpait g[ifg;glj; bjhHpy; gad;gLfpwJ.
bjhHpy; Jiwapy; gad;fs;

 bghl;lhrpak; iel;nul; gl;lhRfs; jahhpf;f.
 nrhoak; iel;nul; Jg;ghf;fpj; J}s; kw;Wk; gl;lhRfs; jahhpf;f.
 bghl;lhZ; gofhuk; njhy; gjdpLjypYk; fhfpj';fspd; juj;ij
cah;j;jt[k; epw\d;wpahf gad;gLfpwJ.

 fhg;gh; ry;ngl; cg;g[ g{|;ir bgl;oj; bjhHpw;rhiyapy;

gad;gLfpwJ.
 fhg;gh; ry;ngl; - rhaj;bjhHpy;/ mr;Rj; bjhHpy;/ Kyhk;g{Rjy;.
22. mYkpdpaj;jpd; gad;fs; ahit?

 ,J xU rpwe;j btg;gf; flj;jp.
 mhpkhdk; miltjpy;iy.
 tPl;L cgnahfg; ghj;jpu';fs;/ RLePh;f;fyd; jahhpf;f.
 xU rpwe;j kpd; flj;jpahjyhy; mJ kpd; fk;gpfs; jahhpf;f.
 mYkpdpaj; jfLfs; kUe;J kw;Wk; czt[g; bghUl;fis \og;
ghJfhf;f.
 thD}h;jpapd; ghf';fs;/ ngUe;Jfs;/ fhh;fs; jahhpf;f.
 JUg;gpof;fhj tz;zg;g{r;Rfs; kw;Wk; btokUe;Jfs; jahhpf;f.
 gpujpgypf;Fk; bjhiynehf;fpfspy; gsgsg;ghd mYkpdpak; Jfs;fs;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
23. i]l;u$dpd; gad;fs; ahit?

 gy bjhHpw;riy ntjpr; nrh;k';fs; jahhpf;f.
 bjhFg;g[ Kiwapy; mnkhdpah jahhpf;f.
 mnkhdpah cu';fs;/ iel;hpf; mkpyk; kw;Wk; btokUe;J jahhpf;f.
 bkj;jdhy; mjpf mstpy; jahhpf;f.
 ePh;k i]l;u$d; uhf;bfl;oy; vhpbghUshf.
 i]l;u$d; mjpf fnyhhp kjpg;igg; bgw;Ws;sJ.
 kw;w vhpbghUl;fis fhl;oYk; mjpf Mw;wiyj; jUfpd;wJ
 ve;jtpj khira[k; Vw;gLj;Jtjpy;iy.
 i]l;u$d; Mf;!p$Dld; nrh;e;J ePiuj; jUfpd;wJ.
 cnyhf';fis cUf;fp ,izf;f.
 jhtu vz;bza; i]l;u$ndw;wk; bra;a gad;gLfpwJ.
24. mq Mw;wypd; ed;ik jPikfs; gw;wp vGJf.

ed;ikfs;
 mdy;kpd; epiya';fis tpl mqkpd; epiya';fs; mjpf
ed;ikfis mspf;fpd;wd.

 mq Mw;wy; epiya';fs; fhh;gd; - il- Mf;i!L/ ry;gh;

Mf;i!Lfs; nghd;w tha[f;fis btspnaw;Wtjpy;iy.
 tspkz;lyj;ij khRgLj;Jtjpy;iy.
 g[ijtot vhpbghUs; KGtJk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l gpwFk;
mqf;fUtpid vhpbghUshd a[nudpak; jPh;e;J tpLtjpy;iy.
 mq ciyfs; bray;gl njitahd Mw;wiy mt;t[iyfns
jahhpj;Jf;bfhs;Sk;. ,J cw;gj;jp ciyfs; vdg;gLk;.
 fg;gy;fs;/ ePh;KH;fp fg;gy;fis ,af;f njitahd Mw;wiy
mspf;fpd;wd.
 nuonah Inrhnlhg;g[fisa[k; kUj;Jt Jiwf;Fk; mqf;fU Muha;r;rp
gad;ghLfSf;Fk; njitahd epa{l;uhd; fw;iwfis mqf;f U
ciyfs; cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
jPikfs;
 My;gh/ gPl;lh/ fhkhf; fjph;tPr;Rfs; midj;Jk; madpahf;Fk;
fjph;tPr;Rfns MFk;.
 mqf;fspd; tHpna gha[k; ,f;fjph;tPr;Rfs; mqf;fspypUe;J
vyf;l;uhd;fis btspnaw;Wfpd;wd.
 ,J caph;bry;fspy; \yf;TWfspd; mikg;gpYk; bray;ghl;oYk;
khw;wj;ij tpistpf;fpd;wd.
 cly; cWg;g[fs; mjpf mst[ fjph;tPr;Rf;F cl;gLkhdhy;
\yf;TWfs; ghjpg;gilfpd;wd.
 kdpjDf;F neha; Vw;gl fhuzkhf cs;sJ.
 mqf;fU ciy fl;Lg;ghod;wp ,a';Fkhdhy; mjpf mst[ fjph;tPr;R
btspg;gLk;.
 brh;ndhgpy; (uZ;ah) mqciy tpgj;J - 1986.
 fjph;tPr;rpd; myF uhz;l;$d; MFk;. xU fpnyhfpuhk; fhw;wpy; 1.61 1015
madp ,izfis cz;lhf;f Toa fjph;tPr;R XuyF uhz;l;$d; MFk;.
 mq Mw;wy; epiya';fspYk;/ Ru';f';fspYk;/ X fjph; Ma;tfj;jpYk;
gzpg[hpgth;fs; nghl;nlh gPyk; ml;ilfis fz;og;ghf mzpa
ntz;Lk;.
Time: 10:30 – 1:30

25. fjphpaf;f Inrhnlhg;g[fspd; gad;fs; ahit?

 xU jdpkk; ntbwhU jdpkkhf braw;if fjphpaf;f Kiwapy;
khw;wg;gLjYf;F J}z;lg;gl;l fjphpaf;fk; my;yJ braw;iff;
fjphpaf;fk; vdg;gLk;.
 J}z;lg;gl;l fjph; ,af;fj; jdpk';fs; braw;if fjphpaf;f
Inrhnlhg;g[fs; vdg;gLk;.
 fjphpaf;f Inrhnlhg;g[fs; bfhz;L neha;fisf; Fzg;gLj;Jjy;
fjphpaf;fr; rpfpr;ir vdg;gLk;.
kUj;Jtg; gad;fs;
 fjphpaf;f nfhghy;l; Co - 60/ U - 238 Mfpait g[w;Wneha; kw;Wk;
fl;ofisf; Fzg;gLj;Jk; rpfpr;irapy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 fjphpaf;f mnahod; ijuha;L g[w;Wneha; rpfpr;irf;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
 gh!;gu!; P-32 my;yJ !;l;uhd;rpak; - 90 Mfpait njhy; g[w;Wnehiaf;
Fzg;gLj;Jk;.
 kUj;Jtf; fUtpfspy; cs;s fpUkpfis ePf;f fjph;tPr;Rg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
 ohpl;oak; fhh;gd; - 14 nghd;wit caphpay; \yf;TWfisf; fz;lwpag;
gad;gLfpwJ.
 fjphpaf;fj;jd;ika[s;s mah;d; Fe- 59 I gad;gLj;jp ,uj;jr;nrhif
nehiaf; Fzgg;Lj;jyhk;.
tptrhag; gad;fs;
 fjphpaf;f gh!;gu!; (P-32) cu';fSld; nrh;f;fg;gl;L tsUk; jhtu';fs;
cuj;ij vt;tst[ fpufpj;Jf; bfhs;fpwJ vd;gij mwpa.
 nuonah Inrhnlhg;gpypUe;J btsptUk; fjphpaf;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp
cah; tpisr;ry; jUk; g[jpa uf bey;/ nfhJik Mfpait cUthf;f.
mwptpay; gad;fs;
 mq cl;fUtpd; mikg;g[ kw;Wk; gz;ig mwpa.
 bghUs;fspd; mikg;g[ tha;g;ghl;il fz;lwpa.
 fjphpaf;f mnahoidg; gad;gLj;jp fiury;fspy; j';fp ,Uf;Fk; kpfr;
rpwpa mst[ rpy;th; frLfisa[k; fz;Lgpof;fyhk;.

 fjphpaf;f Inrhnlhg;g[fs; ntjptpidfspd; Rtlwp jdpk';fshfg;

gad;gLfpwJ.
 epa{l;uhd; fpsh;t[ Ma;t[ \yk; Mh;brdpf; er;Rj; jd;ikiaf;
fz;lwptjpy; fjphpaf;f Inrhnlhg;g[fs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
bjhHpw;rhiy gad;fs;
 nuonah Inrhnlhg;g[fs; - FHha;fspy; Vw;gLk; frptpidf; fz;lwpa.
 fhkhf; fjph; - cnyhf';fspd; jokd; kw;Wk; jhspd; jokd; mwpa.
 My;gh/ gPl;lh fjph;fs; - Miyfspy; epug;gg;gl;Ls;s bfhs;fydpy;
bghUs;fspd; epuk;gpa mstpidf; fhl;lg;gad;gLfpwJ.
 Rtlwp Inrhnlhg;g[ - cat[ vz;bzapd; jpwid mwpa.
bjhy;bghUs; Ma;tpy; gad;fs;

 C- 14 Inrhnlhg;g[ - bjhy;bghUs; kw;Wk; gHk; bghUspd; taij mwpa.
 fjphpaf;f fhh;gdpd; miu Ma[s; fhyk; 5730 Mz;Lfs;.
 fjphpaf;f fhh;gd; - ghiwfs; kw;Wk; got';fspd; tajpid mwpa.
 nuonah njjpapLjy; Kiwapy; tpz;fw;fs; epytpy; cs;s ghiwfs;
Mfpatw;wpd; taJ fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ.
czt[j;Jiw gad;fs;
 fhkhf;fjph; tPr;R - ghf;Ohpait mHpf;f.
 cztpy; er;Rj;jd;ikia cUthf;Fk; rhy;nkhbdy;yh/ f;sh!;l;hpak;
nghd;w ghf;Ohpahf;fis mHpf;f.
26. kpd;fhe;j miyfspd; gz;g[fs; kw;Wk; mjd; tiffs; gw;wp

tpthpj;bjGJf.
 vy;yh kpd;fhe;j miyfSk; fhw;wpnyh my;yJ btw;wplj;jpnyh xnu
jpirntfj;jpy; gut[fpd;wd.
 kpd;fhe;j miyfs; gut ve;jbthU gUg;bghUs; ClfKk;
njitapy;iy.
 midj;J kpd;fhe;j miyfSk; FWf;fiyfs;.
 kpd;D}l;lk; ,y;iy.
 miyfspd; mog;gil gz;g[fshd vjpbuhspj;jy;/ tpyfy;/ FWf;fPl;L
tpist[ nghd;wtw;wpw;F cl;gLfpd;wd.
 Xhplj;jpypUe;J kw;bwhU ,lj;jpw;F Mw;wiyf; flj;Jfpd;wd.

 kpd;fhe;j miyfs; gUg;bghUl;fshy; ckpHg;glt[k; cl;ftug;glt[k;

bra;ayhk;.
kpd;fhe;j miyfspd; tiffs;
 fhkhf; fjph;fs;
 X - fjph;fs;
 g[wCjhf; fjph;fs;
 fz;qWf; fjph;fs;
 mfr;rptg;g[f; fjph;fs;
 ikf;nuh miyfs;
 nuonah miyfs;
X - fjph;fs;
 1895 y; b$h;kdpia nrh;e;j tpy;b]k; uhz;l;$d; vd;guhy;
fz;Lgpof;fg;gl;lJ.
 tha[f;fspd; tHpna kpd;nghf;F gw;wp Muha[k; nghJ X - fjph;fis
fz;Lgpoj;jhh;.
 tpiue;J bry;Yk; vyf;l;uhd; fw;iw xU cnyhf ,yf;fpd; kPJ
nkhJk; nghJ X - fjph;fs; njhd;Wfpd;wd vdf; fz;Lgpoj;jhh;.
 X - fjph;fs; 0.5 Kjy;10 tiuapyhd Fiwe;j miyePsk; bfhz;l
kpd;fhe;j miyfshFk;.
 X - fjph;fs; ,uz;L tifg;gLk;. mit
 bkd; X - fjph;fs;
 td; X - fjph;fs;
bkd; X - fjph;fs;
 4 my;yJ mij tplmjpf miyePsk; bfhz;l X fjph;fspd;
mjph;btz; Fiwt[.
 Mw;wy; kw;Wk; CLUt[k; jpwd; Fiwt[.
 Xust[ Fiwe;j kpd;dGj;jj;jpy; njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk;.
td; X fjph;fs;
 1 miyePsk; bfhz;l X fjph;fspd; mjph;btz; mjpfk;.
 Mw;wy; kw;Wk; CLUt[k; jpwd; mjpfk;.

 Xust[ cah;e;j kpd;dGj;j ntWghL fhuzkhf

njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 kpd;dpiHf;Fk;/ ,yf;fpw;Fk; cs;s kpd;dGj;j ntWghl;oidg;
bghWj;J vyf;l;uhd;fspd; ,af;f Mw;wy; khWgLk;. ,k;kjpg;gpid
bghWj;J X fjph;fspd; miyePsk; mika[k;.
X fjph;fspd; gz;g[fs;
 X fjph;fs; kpff; Fiwe;j miyePsk; bfhz;l kpd;fhe;j miyfs;.
 fz;qf;Fg; g[yg;glhj ,f;fjph;fs; neh;f;nfhl;oy; xspapd;
jpirntfj;jpy; bry;Yk;.
 kpd;D}l;;lkw;wit vd;gjhy; kpd;g[yk; kw;Wk; fhe;jg;g[yj;jhy;
tpyf;fkilahJ.
 tha[f;fis madpahf;Ffpd;wd.
 g[ifg;glj;jfLfis ghjpf;fpd;wd.
 xspahy; CLUt ,ayhj bghUs;fis ,f;fjph;fs; CLUt[k;.
 rpy cnyhfg; bghUs;fspd; kPJ X fjph;fs; gLk;nghJ mit
vyf;l;uhd;fis btspnaw;Wfpd;wd.
 X fjph;fs; capUs;s jpRf;fis mHpf;fty;yit.
 kdpj clypy; X fjph;fs; tpGe;jhy; njhy; rpte;J tpLk;. ,J ,uj;j
bts;is mqf;fis mHpf;Fk;.
 gSthd cnyhfk; kw;Wk; vYk;g[fspd; tHpna CLUt[tJ ,y;iy.
gad;fs;
kUj;Jtg; gad;fs;
 vYk;g[ Kwpt[/ fl;ofs;/ kdpj clypy; Jg;ghf;fp Fz;L nghd;w
njitaw;w bghUs;fs; ,Ug;gij fz;lwpa.
 fhrnehiaf; fz;lwpat[k;/ rpWePufk;/ gpj;jg;igapy; cs;s fy;
,tw;iwf; fz;lwpa.
 gytpj njhy; neha;fs;/ capUf;F Mgj;J tpistpf;Fk; rPH;g;g[z;/
g[w;Wneha; kw;Wk; fl;ofs; Mfpatw;iw jFe;j juk;tha;e;j X
fjph;fis bfhz;L Fzg;gLj;jyhk;.
 clypy; cs;gFjpapy; ,Uf;ff;Toa fl;ofis td; X fjph;fisf;
bfhz;L mHpf;fyhk;.
bjhHpy;Jiwg; gad;fs;

 bghUl;fspd; cl;gFjpapy; cs;s Fiwfs;/ btog;g[fs;

Mfpatw;iw mwpa.
 gw;w itg;g[fs;/ kpd;fhg;g[g; g{r;Rfspd; jd;ik ,tw;wpd; jd;ikia
nrhjid bra;a.
 cnyhff; fyit kw;Wk; fyg;g[g; bghUs;fspd; mikg;gpid mwpa.
 ug;gh;/ bry;Ynyh!;/ gpsh!;of; ,iH nghd;wtw;wpd; mikg;gpid
Muha.
mwptpay; Muha;r;rpapy; gad;fs;

 gofj; jpz;k';fs; kw;Wk; cnyhff; fyitfspd; mikg;gpid
Muha.
 ntjpapay; jdpk';fisf; fz;lwpat[k;/ mtw;wpd; mq vz;fis
fzf;fpl.
 rpf;fyhd \yf;Twpd; mikg;gpid X fjph; tpspk;g[ tpist[ \yk;
mwpayhk;.
jltpay; Jiw gad;fs;

 X fjph; nrhjidf;F cl;gLj;jp eiffis tpG';fp flj;jp
tUgth;fis fz;Lgpof;fyhk;.
 bgl;ofspy; kiwe;J flj;jp tug;gLk; j';fk;/ f|;rh/
btog;bghUs;fis fz;gpof;f.
 fs;s %gha; nehl;Lfis fz;Lgpof;f.
 nghyp gj;jpu';fs; jahhpj;jiy fz;Lgpof;f.
mfr;rptg;g[f; fjph;fs;
 rptg;g[ epw xspapd; miyePsj;ij tpl rw;W mjpf miyePsk;
bfhz;l kpd;fhe;j miyfs;.
 btg;gkhd bghUs;fspypUe;J mfr;rptg;g[ fjph;fs;
btspg;gLfpd;wd.
 mfr;rptg;g[ fjph;fspd; ,aw;if \yk; Nhpad;.
 kdpj cly; 1/10 kp.kP Kjy; 1/100 kp.kP mstpyhd miyePsk;
bfhz;l mfr;rptg;g[f; fjph;tPr;ir btspapLfpwJ.
 rpytif ghk;g[fs; rpwg;g[ cWg;g[fs; \yk; mfr;rptg;g[ fjph;tPr;rpd;
btg;gg;gLj;Jk; jd;ikia ed;F czuf;Toait.

mfr;rptg;g[f; fjph;fspd; gad;fs;
 fhw;W/ mlh;e;j \Lgdp Mfpatw;why; mfr; rptg;g[ fjph;fs;
cl;ftug;gLtjpy;iy.
 fz;qW xsp CLUt ,ayhj fhw;W/ mlh;e;j \L:gdp ,tw;iwf;
fle;J glk; vLf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
 ,uj;jf; FHha;fis tphptilar; bra;J ,uj;j Xl;lj;ij
mjpfg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
 ,ad; kUj;Jt Kiwapy; jirfspYk;/ vYk;g[ ,izg;g[fspYk;
Vw;gLk; typia ePf;f gad;gLfpd;wd.
 \yf;TWfspd; totikg;ig gw;wp mwpa gad;gLfpd;wd.
 g[jpjhf mof;fg;gl;l th;z';fisa[k;/ gsgsg;ghd g{r;R
gug;g[fisa[k; Fiwe;j neuj;jpy; fhaitf;fg; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 mfr;rptg;g[ tpsf;Ffs; ,uhqt thfd';fspy; bghUj;jg;gl;L
,uz;lhk; cyfg; nghhpd; nghJ ,ut[ neu';fspYk;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.
 mfr;rptg;g[f; fjph;fs; g[tpapd; braw;iff;nfhs; gl';fs;/ thdpiy
Kd;dwptpg;g[f;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 neha; tha;g;gl;l gaph;fis fz;lwpa.
 mfr;rptg;g[ fjph;tPr;ir ePh;g;gug;g[fs; cl;ftUfpd;wd. vdnt
braw;iff;nfhs; gl';fspy; VhpfSk;/ MWfSk; fUg;g[ epwkhfj;
njhd;Wk;.
 mfr;rptg;g[ fjph;tPr;rpd; \yk; g[tpapd; ePh; \y';fis fz;lwpayhk;.
27. nyrh; xspapd; gz;g[fs; kw;Wk; gad;fis vGJf.

gz;g[fs;
 rhjhuz xsp\yk; xd;W btspapLk; xsp Xhpay;gw;wJ.
 btt;ntW mqf;fs; btt;ntW fl;l';fspy; xspia ckpGk;.
 FWf;fPl;L tpistpw;F Xhpay; \y';fs; kpf mtrpak;.
 ,uz;L jdpg;gl;l \y';fs; Xhpay; \y';fshf bray;glhJ.
 nrhjidfSf;F xU xsp \yj;jpypUe;J ,uz;L Xhpay;
\y';fisg; bgwyhk;.
 rkPgfhykhf KGikahd Xhpay; gz;gpidf; bfhz;l \y';fs;
cz;lhf;fg;gl;ld.

nyrhpd; rpwg;gpay;g[fs;
 xw;iw epw xspiaf; bfhz;lJ.
 Xhpay;g[ jd;ika[ilaJ. vy;yh miyfSk; xnu fl;lj;jpy;
,Uf;Fk;.
 tphpe;J bry;yhJ.
 mjpfr; brwpt[ bfhz;lJ.
nyrhpd; tiffs;
 %gp nyrh;.
 ]Pypak; - epahd; nyrh;.
gad;fs;
bjhHpy;Jiwg; gad;fs;
 ituk; kw;Wk; fodkhd joj;j jfLfspy; kpf Ez;zpa Jisapl.
 fodkhd cnyhf';fspd; joj;j jfLfis btl;lt[k;/ gw;w
itg;gjw;F.
 kpd;dq Rw;WfspYk;/ Fiwf;flj;jp Rw;WfspYk; njitaw;w
bghUl;fis Mtpahf;f.
 bghUs;fspd; juj;ij nrhjpf;f cjt[k;.
kUj;Jtj;Jiw gad;fs;
 kpf Ez;zpa mWit rpfpr;irfis bra;tjw;F.
 rpWePuff; fy;/ fl;ofs; Mfpatw;iw mfw;wt[k;/ \is mWit
rpfpr;ir/ fz; tpHpj;jpiu ePf;Fjy; nghd;wtw;wpy; Ez;zpa ,uj;jf;
FHha;fis btl;lt[k; xl;lt[k;.
 czt[g; ghij cs;nehf;fpfspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 kdpj kw;Wk; kpUfg; g[w;Wneha; rpfpr;irf;F.
mwptpay; kw;Wk; bghwpapay; gad;fs;

 nuonah/ bjhiyf;fhl;rp/ bjhiyngrpfspy; gy bra;jpfis xnu
neuj;jpy; mDg;g[tjw;F.
 xspapay; ,iH bra;jp bjhlh;gpy; Fiwf;flj;jpahf gad;gLfpwJ.
 ikf;nuh miy bra;jp bjhlh;gpy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 g[tp Jizf; nfhs;fs; kw;Wk; uhf;bfl; Jiwfspy; bjhlh;g[ bfhs;s.
 ,yf;F cs;s bjhiyit Jy;ypakhf fz;lwpa.

 g[tpf;Fk; epytpw;Fk; cs;s bjhiyit fzf;fpl.

 ,uhkd; epwkhiyapaypy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 n]hnyhfpuhgp vd;w Kg;ghpkhzf; fiyapy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 nulhiug; nghd;W bghUs; cs;s bjhiyt[/ jpirntfk;/ mst[
kw;Wk; jpir Mfpatw;iw vjpbuhspj;j irifia bfhz;L
Jy;ypakhf mwpayhk;.
28. Ftp kw;Wk; FHp byd;rpd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

Ftp byd;rpd; gad;fs;
 Ftp byd;Rfs; cUg;bgUf;fpfshf gad;gLfpwJ.
 fofhuk; jahhpg;gth; fofhuj;jpy; Ez;zpa ghf';fisf; fhz
cUg;bgUf;fpahf.
 rpwpa xspg[Fk; glj;jhspy; cs;s cUtj;ij jpiuapy; bghpa
gpk;gkhfpj; njhw;Wtpg;gjw;F xspg;gl tPH;j;jpfspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 g[tpapay; bjhiynehf;fpfspy; bghUsUF byd;rhy;
njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk; jiyfPHhd gpk;gj;ij neuhf;f.
 J}ug;ghh;it vd;Dk; ghh;itf; Fiwghl;il rhp bra;a.
 bjhiynehf;fpapy; mjpf bjhiytpYs;s bghUs;fspd; rpwpa
jiyfPHhd gpk;gj;ij mjd; Ftpaj; jsj;jpy; njhw;Wtpf;f bghUsUF
byd;rhfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
FHp byd;rpd; gad;fs;

 fpl;lg;ghh;it Fiwghl;il rhpbra;a.
 fypypnah bjhiynehf;fpfspy; fz; byd;rhf gad;gLfpwJ.
29. FHp kw;Wk; Ftp Moapd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

FHp Moapd; gad;fs;
 if tpsf;Ffs;/ bjU tpsf;Ffs;/ thfd';fspd; Kfg;g[ tpsf;Ffs;
Mfpatw;wpy; brwpt[ kpf;f ,izf; fjph;fis bgWtjw;F.
 Kfj;jpd; bghpjhf;fg;gl;l njhw;wj;ijf; fhl;Lk; rtuf; fz;zhoahf.
 gy; kUj;Jth;fs; nehahspfSila gw;fspd; cUg;bgUf;fg;gl;l
njhw;wj;ijf; fhz.
 Nhpa mLg;g[fspy; xspia Ftpj;J btg;gij cUthf;f.

Ftp Moapd; gad;fs;
 thfd';fspd; gf;fthl;oy; bghUj;jg;gl;L gpd;dhy; tUk;
thfd';fisg; ghh;g;gjw;fhd fz;zhoahf.
 bghUspd; neuhd gpk;gj;ij cUthf;f
 bghUspd; KG cUtj;ija[k; ghh;f;f.
30. byd;rpd jpwd; tiuaW.

 byd;rpd; Ftpaj; bjhiytpd; jiyfPH; kjpg;g[. ,jd; myF
ilahg;lh;.
 xU kPl;lh; Ftpaj; bjhiyt[ cila byd;rpd; jpwd; xU ilahg;glh;.
 Ftpf;Fk; byd;rpd; jpwd; neh;f;FwpapYk; tphpf;Fk; byd;rpd; jpwd;
vjph;f;fFwpapYk; Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
31. n]hnyhfpuhgp tiuaW.

 xU fhkpuhtpy; g[ifg;glk; vLf;Fk; nghJ Kg;ghpkhzg; bghUspd;
,Ughpkhz gpk;gk; fpilf;Fk;.
 bghUspd; Kg;ghpkhz njhw;wj;jpid n]hnyhfpuhgp Kiwapy;
bgwyhk;.
 rhjhuz g[ifg;glj;jpy; xsp miyapd; tPr;R g[ifg;glr; RUspy;
gjpa[k;.
 n]hnyhfpuhgp Kiwapy; xspapd; tPr;R/ fl;lepiy Mfpa ,uz;Lk;
glr; RUspy; gjpf;fg;gLk;.
 ,t;thW bgwg;gLk; glk; n]hnyhfpuhk; vdg;gLk;.
32. khRghL tiuaW kw;Wk; khRghl;od; tiffs; ahit?

ehk; thGk; ,lj;jpd; ,aw;gpay;/ ntjpapay; kw;Wk; caphpay; gz;g[fspy;
Vw;gLk; tpUk;gj;jfhj caph;fSf;F jP';F tpistpf;Fk; khw;wk; khR
vdg;gLk;.
khRghL ,aw;ifahfnth my;yJ kdpjdpd; bray;ghLfshy;
Vw;gLfpd;wd.
tiffs;
 fhw;W khRghL
 ePu; khRghL
 epy khRghL
 xyp khRghL

33. fhw;W khRghL gw;wp tphpthf vGJf.
 ,aw;ifapy; ekf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; fhw;wpd; jd;ik khWjy; fhw;W
khRghL.
 tha[f;fSk;/ Ez;Jfs;fSk; ,jw;f fhuzk;.
fhw;iw khRgLj;Jk; fhuzpfs;

,aw;if fhuzpfs;
 vhpkiy btog;ghy; fhw;wpy; gut[k; rhk;gy; kw;Wk; fe;jf tha[f;fs;.
 fhl;Lj; jP Vw;gLk; nghJ fhh;gd; il Mf;i!L nghd;w tha[f;fs;
fhw;iw khRgLj;Jfpd;wd.
braw;if fhuzpfs;
 nkhl;lhh; thfdg;g[if.
 bjhHpw;rhiyapy; ,Ue;J btspnaWk; g[if.
 mdy; kpd; epiya';fspy; ,Ue;J btspnaWk; Jfs;fs;.
fhw;wpid khRgLj;Jk; bghUl;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tpist[fs;

 Jfs;fs;
 fhw;wpy; kpje;J bfhz;oUf;Fk; rpW Jfs; totpyhd fhp/ J}R/
g{r;rpf;bfhy;ypfs;/ jhtu';fspd; kfue;jj;Jfs;fs;/ !;nghh;fs;
kw;Wk; Ez;qaphpfs;.
 Ez;Jfs;fshy; Vw;gLk; khR kdpjh;fSf;F Rthr kz;ly
nfhshWfshd M!;j;Jkh/ EiuaPuy; neha;fs;/ jPuhj khh;g[r;rsp
nghd;wtw;iw Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
 fhh;gd; il Mf;i!L
 g[ijgok vhpg;bghUl;fs; rhpahf vhpf;fg;glhjJ.
 nkhl;lhh; thfdg; g[if.
 Co - tpy';Ffspd; ,uj;jj;jpy; cs;s ]PnkhFnshgpDld; nrh;e;J
fhh;ghf;!p ]PnkhFnshgpdhf khwp ,uj;jj;jpd; Mf;rp$id vLj;Jr;
bry;Yk; jpwid Fiwj;J kuzj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;.
 i]l;nuh fhh;gd;fs;
 epyf;fhp kw;Wk; bgl;nuhypa bghUl;fis vhpg;gjhy;.
 ePh; epiwe;j tay;btspfs;/ rJg;g[ epy';fs; nghd;w ,l';fspy;
cs;s kz;zpy; fhzg;gLk; Ez;qaphpfs; btspapLfpd;wd.

 kPj;njd; nghd;w i]l;nuh fhh;gd;fs; fhw;W khRgLjYf;Fk;/g[tp
btg;gkakhjYf;Fk; fhuzkhfpd;wd.
 Co
 midj;J tpj vhpg;bghUl;fSk; vhpf;fg;gLjy;.
 gRik ,y;y tha[f;fspy; Co Kjd;ikahd tha[.
 g[tp kz;lyj;jpy; gpujpgypf;Fk; btg;gj;ij jd;Ds; cl;fth;e;J
bfhs;tjhy; fhw;wpd; btg;gk; mjpfhpj;J g[tp btg;gkakhjYf;F
fhh;gd; il Mf;i!L fhuzkhfpwJ.
 So
 vz;bza; Rj;jpfhpg;g[ epiya';fspypUe;J fe;jfk; fye;j
jhJf;fis tWf;Fk; nghJ So cUthfpwJ.
 jhtuj;jpd; gr;iraj;ij ,Hf;f bra;tnjhL jhtuj;jpRf;fspd;
mHptpw;Fk; fhuzkhfpwJ.
 kiHePhpy; fiue;J mkpy kiH Vw;gLfpwJ.
 kdpjhpy; M!;j;Jkh nghd;w EiuaPuy; nfhshWfis cz;lhf;Fk;.
 iel;u$d; Mf;i!L
 nghf;Ftuj;J behpry; kpFe;j gFjpfspy; fhw;W brk;gGg;g[ epwkhf
fhuzkhd tha[.
 iel;u$d; nkhdhf;i!L/ No₂, N₂O nghd;w tha[f;fs; kiHePhpy;
fiutjhy; mkpy kiH Vw;gLk;.
 mkpyk; kw;Wk; cuj;bjhHpw;rhiyfspy; ,Ue;J bgUkstpy;
btspnaw;wg;gLfpwJ.
 ,jak; kw;Wk; EiuaPuy; ghjpg;g[fis Vw;gLj;Jk;.
fhw;W khRghl;od; tpist[fs;

 g[tpia xl;oa tspkz;ly gFjpapy; gdpg[if kz;lyk; Vw;gLjy;.
 Rw;Wg;g[wj;jpd; bjspthd ghh;it ghjpf;fg;gLjy;.
 Nhpa xspf;fjph;fs;/ i]l;nuhfhh;gd;/ iel;u$d; Mf;i!Lfs;
Mfpatw;wpy; Vw;gLk; ,urhaz khw;w';fs; jhtuj;jpd; gr;iraj;ij
mspj;J/ xspr;nrh;f;ifapd; mst[ kw;Wk; tsh;r;rp tPjj;ij Fiwf;fpwJ.
 khRs;s fhw;wpid Rthrpg;gjd; \yk; kdpjh;fSf;F Rthr kz;lyk;
bjhlh;ghd FiwghLfSk;/ fz;fs; kw;Wk; bjhz;ilapy; jh';f
Koahj mstpw;F vhpr;ry; Vw;gLk;.
34. gRik ,y;y tha[f;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

 gRik ,y;yk; vd;gJ mjpf btg;gepiyapy; tsUk; jpwDila

gRik jhtu';fspd; tsh;g;g[f;fhf fz;zhoahy; cUthf;fg;gLk; tPL
nghd;w mikg;g[.
 CFC
 HFC
 Co₂
 iel;u$d; Mf;i!Lfs;
 kPj;njd;
 g[tpapd; ruhrhp btg;gepiyia cah;j;jp g[tp btg;gkakhjYf;F
fhuzkhfpwJ.
 brd;id nghd;w bjhHpy; efu';fs; kw;Wk; nghf;Ftuj;J behpry; kpFe;j
efu';fspy; ,t;tha[f;fspd; mst[ mjpfkhf fhzg;gLtjhy;
nfhilf;fhy';fspy; btg;g efu jPt[fs; cUthfpd;wd.
 gRikaf tha[f;fspy; Co₂ kl;Lk; 31 rjtPj mstpw;F fhzg;gLfpwJ.
35. g[tp btg;gkhjypd; tpist[fs; gw;wp vGJf.

 g[tpapypUe;J vjph;xspf;fg;gLk; btg;gj;jpid fhw;wpy; cs;s
gRikaf tha[f;fs; cl;fth;e;J bfhs;tjhy; btg;gk;
btspnaw;wg;glhky; NHypy; cs;s fhw;wpd; btg;gk; ,ay;g[ epiyia
tpl mjpfhpj;J ,Uf;Fk;.
 btg;g cah;t[ fhuzkhf JUtg;gFjpapy; cs;s gdpf;fl;ofs; cUfp
fly;kl;lk; cah;jy;.
 fly;ePh; kl;lk; cah;thy; fiunahu';fspy; cs;s gy ehLfs; ePhpy;
KH;Fk;.
 g[tpapd; fhyepiyapy; mrhjhuz khw;wk;.
 ghiytdk; cUthjy;/ JUtj;ij fhLfs; tyir nghjy;.
 gaph;tiffspy; khWghL.
 ,iya[jph;fhLfs; tuz;L nghFk;.
 vy;epndh tpist[ Vw;gLk;.
 knyhpah/ bl';F kw;Wk; ePuhy; gut[k; neha;fs; btg;gk; mjpfkhd
gFjpapy; bgUkst[ gut[jy;.
 bgl;nuhypa bghUl;fspd; gad;ghl;il Fiwg;gjd; \yKk;
tdg;gug;ig mjpfhpg;gjd; \yKk; g[Jg;gpf;fj;jf;f Mw;wy; ts';fis
gad;gLj;Jtjd; \yk; g[tp btg;gj;ij Fiwf;fyhk;.

36. Xnrhd; glyr; rPh;nfL kw;Wk; mjd; tpist[fs; gw;wp vGJf.

 tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s !;ul;nlh!;gpaupy; fhzg;gLk; Xnrhd; glyk;
Nhpadpy; ,Ue;J btspnaWk; jP';F tpistpf;Fk;
g[wCjhf;fjph;fis tofl;o caph;fisf; fhf;fpwJ.
 kdpjdpd; bray;ghLfs; Xnrhd; glyj;ij bky;ypajhf khw;WfpwJ.
 !;ul;nlh!;gpah; mLf;fpy; Xnrhd; mst[ Fiwtij Xnrhd; glyr;
rpijt[ vd;fpnwhk;.
 Xnrhid ghjpf;fFk; bghUl;fs; - CFC, HFC, ]hnyhd;fs; (Fnshhpd;/
g[nuhkpd; Tl;Lg;bghUl;fs;)/ iel;u$d; Mf;i!Lfs;/ bkj;jpy;
g[nuhikL.
tpist[fs;
 kdpjDf;F njhy; g[w;Wneha;.
 fz;g[iu/ nfl;uhf;l; Mfpait Vw;gLjy;.
 jhtu';fspd; tpisr;ry; ghjpj;J cw;gj;jp Fiwjy;.
 g[w Cjh fjph;fspd; jhf;fj;jhy; jhtu kpjit caph;fspd; mHpt[.
 gpsh';ld;fs; Fiwtjhy; flypy; kPd;tsk; Fiwa[k;.
37. ePh; khRghLtjw;fhd fhuzpfs; mjd; tpist[fs; kw;Wk; jLf;Fk;

tHpKiwfs; gw;wp vGJf.
tpUk;gj;jfhj bghUl;fspd; nrh;f;ifahy; ePhpy; Vw;gLk; ,aw;gpay;/
ntjpapay; khw;w';fspdhy; ePiu gad;gLj;j Koahj epiy Vw;gLjy;.
ePh; khriljYf;fhd fhuzpfs;

 bjhHpw;rhiy fHpt[fs; - bjhHpw;rhiyfspy; ,Ue;J btsptUk;
Rj;jpfhpf;fg;glhj fHpt[fs;/ fduf bjhHpyf';fspy; ,Ue;J
btsptUk; Mh;rdpf;/ fhl;kpak;/ Fnuhkpak;/ ghjurk;/ Jj;jehfk;/
epf;fy; nghd;wit MW/ Vhp/ Fs';fspy; fyf;fpd;wd.
 bjhHpw;rhiyfspypUe;J ,ae;jpu';fis Fsph;tpg;gjw;F
gad;gLj;jg;gl;L btspnaw;wg;gLk; mjpf btg;gepiy cila ePh;
 tptrhaj;jpy; gad;gLk; g{r;rpf;bfhy;ypfs;/ ,uhrhaz cu';fs;.

 vz;bza; fg;gy;fs; kw;Wk; vz;bza; fpzWfspy; Vw;gLk;

frpt[fs;.
tpist[fs;
 tPLfspypUe;J btspnaw;wg;gLk; rhf;filf; fHpt[fs;/
ePh;epiyfspy; fyg;gjpdhy; ePhpy; Cl;lr;rj;J mst[ mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
,jid kpifa{l;lg;gl;l gh!;ngl; brwpthf;fk; vd;fpnwhk;.
 DDT fye;j ePhpdhy; gwitfspy; Kl;il cw;gj;jpapd; nghJ
fhy;rpak; fhh;gndl; jilr;bra;ag;gl;L njhy; Kl;il cUthfp
vspjpy; cilfpd;wJ.
 ,uhrhazf; fHpt[fshy; ePhpy; Mf;!p$d; mst[ Fiwe;J caphpfs;
,wf;Fk; epiyahd a{l;hpgpnfrd; Vw;gLfpwJ.
 fhyuh/ ilg;gha;L/ k|;rs; fhkhiy/ mkPgpah!p!;/ ,l;lha; -,l;lha;
Fnshnuhrp!; nghd;w neha;fs; mjpfstpy; njhd;Wfpd;wd.
jLf;Fk; Kiwfs;
 fHpt[ePiu ePh; epiyfspy; tpLtjw;F Kd;g[ Rj;jpfhpg;g[ epiya';fspy;
\yk; Rj;jpfhpj;jy;.
 g{r;rpf;bfhy;yp/ fisf;bfhy;ypfs;/ urhaz cug;gad;ghl;il
fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy;.
 ntshz; epy';fspy; jP';Faphpfspd; bgUf;fj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;j
caphpay; fl;Lg;ghl;il nkw;bfhs;Sjy;.
 rl;lg;goahd eltof;iffs;.
 kf;fspilna ePh; khRg;gLj;jiyg; gw;wpa[k;/ J}a;ikahd ePhpd;
mtrpak; gw;wpa[k; tpHpg;g[zh;it Vw;gLj;Jjy;.
38. epykhRghL kw;Wk; mjid fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs; gw;wp vGJf.

fhuzpfs;
 ntshz;ikapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,uhrhaz bghUl;fs;.
 Ru';fj;bjhHpy;.
 efukakhf;fk;.
 fd cnyhf fHpt[fs;.
 er;Rj;jd;ik tha;e;j kUj;Jtf; fHpt[fs;.
 mq ciyapypUe;J btspnaWk; fjph;tPr;R jd;ik bfhz;l
fHpt[fs;.

 mdy; kpd; epiya';fspypUe;J btspnaw;wg;gLk; Ez; Jfs;

bfhz;l rhk;gy;Jfs;.
fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs;
 kf;Fk; kw;Wk; kf;fhj fHpt[fis gphpj;J mg;g[wg;gLj;Jjy;.
 gpsh!;of; kw;Wk; cnyhf';fis kWRHw;rp bra;jy;.
 Fg;igfis vhpf;Fk; nghJ khRghl;il Fiwf;Fk; eltof;iffis
nkw;bfhs;Sjy;.
 g[jpa kufd;Wfs; el;L kz; mhpkhdj;ij jLj;J kz;tsj;ij
nkk;gLj;jyhk;.
39. fjphpaf;f khRghl;od; tpist[fs; kw;Wk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs; gw;wp

vGJf.
nuoak;/ njhhpak;/ a[nudpak; nghd;w fjphpaf;f bghUl;fspd;
gad;ghl;lhy; fhw;W/ ePh;/ epyk; Mfpait khrilfpd;wd.
tpist[fs;
 fjphpaf;fk; caphpd';fspd; jpOh;khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
 !;l;uhd;rpak; 90 vYk;g[fspy; goe;J vYk;g[ g[w;Wnehia cz;lhf;Fk;.
 mnahod; 131 vYk;g[ k$;i$/ kz;zPuy;/ epzePh; Kor;R Mfpatw;iw
jhf;fp ,uj;j g[w;Wneha;f;F fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
 uZ;ahtpy; brh;ndhgpy; mq ciytpgj;jhy; (1986) jw;nghJk;
kf;fSf;F ijuha;L g[w;Wneha;fshy; ghjpg;g[ milfpd;wd.
jLf;Fk; Kiwfs;
 mqf;fU ciyapy; ,Ue;J fjphpaf;f bghUl;fs; btsptUtij
jLj;jy;.
 fjphpaf;f fHpt[fis ghJfhg;ghd Kiwfspy; mg;g[wg;gLj;Jjy;.
 mqkpd; epiya';fspy; tpgj;J epfHhjtz;zk; ghJfhg;g[ld;
mqf;fU ciyfis mikj;jy;.
 mqf;fU ciy bjhlh;ghd gzpahsUf;F jFe;j ghJfhg;gpid
cWjp bra;jy;.
 mqFz;L nrhjidfis fl;Lg;ghl;Lld; epfH;j;Jjy;.
40. xyp khRghl;ow;fhd fhuzpfs; gw;wp vGJf.

kdpjDf;Fk; gpw caphpfSf;Fk; jP';F tpistpf;fpd;w tpUk;gjfhj
mjpf xypahdJ xyp khRgLjy; my;yJ xyp ,iwr;ry; vdg;gLk;. 120
blrpgYf;F nkw;gl;l xypahdJ kdpjDf;F jP';F Vw;gLj;Jk;.
fhuzpfs;
 bjhHpw;rhiy ,ae;jpu';fs;.
 nkhl;lhh; thfd';fs;.
 uapy; kw;Wk; tpkhd';fshy; Vw;gLk; kpif xyp.
 xypg;bgUf;fp rhjd';fs;.
 fl;Lkhd ,ae;jpu';fs;.
 tPl;L cgnahfg; bghUl;fs;.
 mst[f;F kPwpa xypia Vw;gLj;Jk; gl;lhRfs;.
41. xyp khRghl;od; tpist[fs; kw;Wk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; tHpfis Fwpg;gpLf.

 mjpf mstpy; Vw;gLk; xypahdJ ,uj;j ehs';fis RU';f bra;J
,jaj;Jog;iga[k;/ Rthrj;ija[k; ghjpf;Fk;.
 jiytyp/ J}f;fkpd;ik/ vhpr;ry; nghd;wit Vw;gl;L kdpjdpd; Mf;fr;
bray;fis Fiwf;Fk;.
 130 blrpgYf;F nky; cz;lhFk; xypapdhy; brtpg;giw/ cl;brtp
Mfpait ghjpf;fg;gl;L jw;fhypf my;yJ epue;ju fhJ nfshj jd;ik
Vw;gLk;.
 xyp khRgLtjhy; gs;sp khzth;fSf;F fdtr;rpijt[ cz;lhFk;.
fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; tHpfs;
 rhiynahu';fspy; ku';fis tsh;j;jy;.
 ,ae;jpu';fisa[k;/ nkhl;lhh; thfd';fisa[k; Kiwahf
gGJghh;j;J gad;gLj;Jjy;.
 xypg; bgUf;fpfspd; gad;ghL/ gl;lhR btoj;jy; nghd;wtw;iw
fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; \yk; xyp khir Fiwf;fyhk;.
42. kPbahypapd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

nrhdhh; (SONAR - Sound Navigation and Ranging)
 flypDs; cs;s bghUs;fspd; jd;ikfis fz;lwpa.
 flypDs; cs;s bghUs;fspd; MHk; kw;Wk; jd;ikia mwpa.

 ePh; \H;fp fg;gy;/ kPd; Tl;lk;/ gdpkiyfs; Mfpatw;wpd; ,Ug;gplk;

kw;Wk; flypd; MHk;/ flyo jiuapd; mikg;g[/ fdpk';fs;
Mfpatw;iwf; fz;lwpayhk;.
bjhHpw;rhiy gad;fs;
 cnyhf thh;g;gpdhy; bra;ag;gl;l fUtpfis cilf;fhky;
mtw;wpd; gFjpapy; cs;s fPwy;fis fz;lwpa.
 fz;zho/ v~F nghd;wtw;iw Jisapl.
 mGf;fp ePf;fpj; jput';fspy; FkpH;fis cz;lhf;fp/ kUj;Jtf;
fUtp/ fofhuk; nghd;wtw;wpd; ,Lf;Ffspy; cs;s mGf;Ffis
ePf;f.
 mjph;t[fs; \yk; ,aw;gpay;/ ntjpapay; khw;w';fis Vw;gLj;j.
 bgapz;L kw;Wk; xspg;glj; jfLfis jahhpf;f.
 epHw;g;gl';fs;/ Kg;ghpkhz gpk;g';fis njhw;Wtpf;f.
kUj;Jtj; Jiwg; gad;fs;

 vf;!; fjph;fshy; fz;lwpa ,ayhj clypd; bkd;ikahd jpR
kw;Wk; cs;SWg;g[fis Ma;t[ bra;a.
 jhapd; fUtpy; tsUk; FHe;ijapd; tsh;r;rp epiyfisa[k;
Kiwahd tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; FiwghLfis fz;lwpa.
 vt;tpjkhd jPa tpist[fisa[k; Vw;gLj;Jtjpy;iy.
 \is/ ,jak;/ rpWePufk; nghd;w clYWg;g[fspd; bray;ghL/
,uj;j Xl;lk;/ nehapd; jd;ikfis kPbahyp bfhz;L lhg;sh;
tpistpd; \yk; fz;lwpayhk;.
 rpWePuff; fw;fis cilj;J btspnaw;w.
 g[w;Wnehiaf; Fzg;gLj;j.
 jirg;gpog;g[/ \l;Ltyp nghd;wtw;wpw;F rpfpr;ir mspf;f.
43. lhg;sh; tpisit tiuaWj;J mjd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

 1842 y; fpwp!;oad; lhg;sh; ,ul;il tpz;kPd;fspypUe;J tUk;
tz;z xspiag; gw;wpa Ma;tpd; \yk; fz;Lgpoj;jhh;.
 xyp\yj;jpw;Fk;/ nfl;gtUf;Fk; ,ilna Xh; rhh;gpaf;fk; ,Ug;gpd;
xypapd; RUjp my;yJ mjph;btz; khWtjhfj; njhd;Wk;.
,e;epfH;nt lhg;sh; tpist[ MFk;.

gad;fs;
 RADAR -Radio Detection and Ranging
 nulhh; fUtpfs; lhg;sh; tpist[ jj;Jtj;jpid gad;gLj;jp ePh;
\H;fp fg;gy;/ tpkhd';fspd; jpirntfj;ija[k; ,af;fj;ija[k;
fz;lwpa.
 thfdj;jpd; ntfj;ij mwpa.
 thD}h;jp cs;s cauk;/ ntfk;/ beU';Fk; bjhiyit fzf;fpl.
 btsthy;fs; kPbahypfspy; Vw;gLk; lhg;sh; ,lg;bgah;r;rpapd;
\yk; ,iuapd; bjhiyt[ kw;Wk; ,af;fj;ij mwpa.
44. ,aw;if ts';fis ghJfhf;f Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l rl;l';fisf; Fwpg;gpLf.

 ePh; khRjLg;g[ kw;Wk; fl;Lg;ghl;Lr; rl;lk; - 1974.
 fhw;W khRjLg;g[ kw;Wk; fl;Lg;ghl;Lr; rl;lk;- 1981.
 fhLfs; ghJfhg;g[r; rl;lk; - 1980.
 Rw;Wg;g[w NHy; ghJfhg;g[r; rl;lk; - 1986.
 nkhl;lhu; thfdr;rl;lk; - 1988.
45. Rw;Wr;NHy; ghJfhg;g[ ,af;f';fs; rpytw;iw gw;wp Fwpg;gpLf.

CPR Rw;Wr;NHy; fy;tp ikak; - brd;id
 Rw;Wr;NHy; eph;thf fy;tp mspj;jy;.
 Rw;Wr;NHy; bjhlh;ghd rl;l';fis cUthf;f Jizg[hpjy;.
 Rw;Wg;g[w rPh;nfL Fwpj;j tpHpg;g[zh;t[ mspj;jy;.
 g[Jg;gpf;fty;y Mw;wy; cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; mjd; Kd;ndw;wk;
bjhlh;ghd gzpfspy; <LgLjy;.
,aw;if Mu;tyu;fs; fHfk; - brd;id

 Rw;Wg;g[w RHy;gw;wpa tpHpg;g[zu;ita[k; mJ bjhlh;ghd
Mf;fg;g{h;tkhd rpe;jidfisa[k; kf;fspilna Vw;gLj;Jjy;.
 Rw;Wg;g[w rPh;nfL td';fspd; mHpt[ Mfpatw;iw Ma;e;J mwpe;J
mwpf;iffis rkh;g;gpj;jy;.
MSSRM-MS Rthkpehjd; Muha;r;rp epWtdk; - brd;id

 Jtf;fk; - 1998

 czt[g; gw;whf;Fiw/ flnyhu ghJfhg;g[/ caphp bjhHpy;El;gtpay;/

gy;Yaph; jd;ik Mfpa fhuzpfis ghJfhf;f Kidg;g[ld; bray;gLk;
epWtdk;.
mikjpg;gs;sj;jhf;F ,af;fk;
 nfushtpy; mike;Js;s gs;sj;jhf;F.
 ,jpy; cs;s tdg;gFjpfs;/ bjhHpy; Jiwapd; tsh;r;rpapd; fhuzkhf
mHpf;fg;gLtjw;F vjpuhf bray;gLfpwJ.
rpg;nfh ,af;fk;
 Re;ju;yhy; gFFzhthy; bjhl';fg;gl;lJ.
 tlfpHf;F ,kakiyapd; gRikkhwh tdg;gFjpfs; kw;Wk;
tdtpy';Ffis ghJfhf;f Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l ,af;fk;.
eh;kjh gr;nrh me;njhyd;

 bjhl';fpath; - nkjh gl;fu;.
 eh;kij ejpapy; bjhHpy; rhiy fHpt[fs; fyf;fg;gLjy;.
 ePh;kpd; jpl;l';fSf;F tdg;gFjpfs; mHpf;fg;gLtjw;F vjpuhf
bray;gLfpwJ.
mgpf;nfh ,af;fk;
nkw;F bjhlh;r;rp kiyapd; nkw;F rhptpy; cs;s tdg;gFjpfs;
mHpf;fg;gLjYf;F vjpuhf bray;gl;L tUfpwJ.
46. g[tpaplf; fz;lwpa[k; mikg;g[ gw;wp vGJf.

 cyf miktpl';fis fz;lwpa[k; mikg;g[ g[wbtsp rhh;e;j cyfshtpa
braw;iff;nfhs; tHpelj;Jk; bjhFjp MFk;.
 ,J miktplk;/ ntfk; kw;Wk; fhyk; Mfpatw;iwg; gw;wpa jfty;fis
vy;yh neuKk;/ vy;yh fhyepiyfspYk; jUfpd;wd.
 cyf miktpl';fs; fz;lwpa[k; 24 braw;if nfhs;fs; mbkhpf;f If;fpa
ehl;odhpd; ghJfhg;g[ gilapduhy; totikf;fg;gl;L 1973 Kjy;
,af;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wd.
 ,e;jpahtpy; Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System 2015-16.
 cyf miktpl';fs; fz;lwpa[k; bjhFjp rhh;e;J \d;W bgUk;gphpt[fs;
cs;sd. mitahtd.

 gug;g[g;gphpt[
 fl;Lg;ghl;L gphpt[
 gad;gLj;Jnthh; gphpt[
gug;g[g; gphpt[
24 Kjy; 32 braw;ifnfhs;fis cs;slf;fpaJ. ,r;braw;ifnfhs;
g[tptyg; ghijapy; tyk; tUfpd;wd..
fl;Lg;ghl;Lg;gphpt[
Receiving centre, Alternating receiving centre - jiyik
fl;Lg;ghl;L jsk; g[s;sp tptu';fisa[k;/ nuonah re;njf';fisa[k; cyf
miktpl';fs; fz;lwpa[k; bjhFjp bgWthd;fSf;F mDg;gp
itf;fpd;wd.
gad;gLj;Jgth; gphpt[
,uhqtk;/ bghJkf;fs;/ th;j;jfk; kw;Wk; mwptpay;
fhuz';fSf;fhf cyf miktpl';fs; fz;lwpa[k; bjhFjp
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
gad;ghLfs;
 ,uhqtk;/ bghJkf;fSf;F gad;gLfpwJ.
 epy msit/ nkg; tiujy;/ fly;tHp nghf;Ftuj;J/ ifg;ngrp
 fly; ghJfhg;g[/ Vt[fiz/ njLjy; kw;wk; kPl;g[g; gzp/ vjphp ehl;L
uhqtk; nghd;wtw;iw mwpa.
 th;j;jfk;/ mwptpay;/ gad;ghLfs;/ ghijfs;/ nkw;ghh;it nghd;w
tptu';fspy; Kf;fpa fUtpahf.
 t';fp/ ifg;ngrp fl;Lg;ghl;L ika';fs;/ Mw;wy; fl;Lg;ghl;L
bjhFjpfs;/ tptrhapfs; Mfpnahuhy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
47. bjhiya[zh;jy; g[s;sp tptu';fspd; ed;ik jPikfis tpsf;Ff.

 bjhiya[zh;jy; xU mwptpay;.
 xU rhjdk; \yk; xU bghUs; gw;wpa gFjp epfH;t[fs; gw;wpa
jfty;fis me;j bghUs; gFjp kw;Wk; epfH;t[fis neuoahf
bjhlh;tg[ bfhs;shky; nrfhpf;Fk; fiy.
 FWfpa fhyj;jpy; ve;j xU bghUisa[k; neuoahf bjhlh;g[
bfhs;shky; mijg;gw;wpa tptu';fis nrfhpj;jy;.

ed;ikfs;
 braw;ifnfhs; gl';fs; epue;ju Mtzkhft[k; gy;ntW tiffspy;
gyDs;s jfty;fisa[k; jUfpd;wd.
 tphpe;j epyg;gug;gpy; gy;ntW bghUl;fspy; tl;lhu Ma;tpid
nkw;bfhs;st[k; kw;Wk; gy;ntW mk;r';fis milahsk; fhzt[k;
gad;gLfpwJ.
 Vhp/ Fsk;/ MW nghd;w ePh;epiyfs; gw;wpa[k; tptrhak; nghd;wtw;iw
fz;fhzpf;f.
 btt;ntW mstPLfs; kw;Wk; jPh;khd';fis vspjhf
ifafg;gLj;Jjy;.
 xU xw;iw bjhiya[zh;t[ glj;jhy; gy;ntW nehf;f';fs; kw;Wk;
gad;ghLfs; Fwpj;J jpwdha;jy; kw;Wk; tpsf;fk; bfhLf;f Koa[k;.
 bjhiya[zh;t[ jut[fis bfhz;L xU fzpdpia gad;gLj;jp
ntfkhf brayhf;f Koa[k;.
 bjhiya[zh;t[ jut[fs; FWf;fPL my;yhj kpd;fhe;j Mw;wiy
vjpbuhspf;fpwJ my;yJ epfH;t[fis ckpH;fpwJ.
 bjhiya[zh;t[ ve;j xU bghUs; my;yJ gFjpahYk; FWf;fPl;Lf;F
Mshtjpy;iy.
 gl';fs; ghpnrhjidf; Tlj;jpy; Ma;t[ bra;ag;gLtjhy; bgUkst[
fsg;gzpiaf; Fiwf;Fk;.
 tz;zg;g[ifg;gl';fs; xU xw;iw fw;iw glk; my;yJ thd;tHp
g[ifg;glj;ij tpl rpwe;j g[ifg;glj;ij mspf;Fk;.
 gue;j gFjpfspy; Vw;gLk; bts;sg;bgUf;F kw;Wk; fhl;Lj;jP
nghd;wtw;iw Jy;ypakhf fz;lwpe;J cldo kPl;g[ eltof;iffis
vLf;f.
 vspjpy; mqf Koahj gFjpfhd vhpkiy btog;g[/ miz cilg;g[
nghd;w nguHptpd; jPtpuk; Fwpj;J KGtJk; mwpa.
 bjhiya[zh;tpd; bjhHpy;El;g jut[fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLtJ
 epyk; gad;ghL kjpg;gPL.
 fhLfs; tsh;g;g[.
 g[tpapay; Ma;t[fs;.
 efu jpl;lkply;.
 nguHpt[ nkyhz;ik.

 kypthd kw;Wk; tpiuthd Kiwapy; epy Ma;t[fis bra;J

tphpthd epy tiugl';fis bfhLf;fpwJ.
jPikfs;
 rpwpa gFjpfspy; Fwpg;ghf xU Kiw kl;Lk; Ma;t[ bra;a bryt[
mjpfk;.
 gl';fis Ma;t[ bra;a rpwg;g[ gapw;rp njit.
 bghpa mst[ bghwpapay; gl';fis braw;ifnfhs; jut[fshy;
bfhLf;f Kotjpy;iy.
 g[ifg;gl';fs; khWfpd;w mk;r';fs; Fwpj;J Ma;t[ bra;a thd;tHpg;
g[ifg;gl';fs; vLf;f mjpf brythFk;.
 kdpj Kiwfshy; gpiHfs; Vw;glyhk;.
 rf;jp tha;e;j bjhiya[zh;t[ mikg;g[fs; nulhh;fs; kw;Wk; nyrh;fs;
nghd;wit btspapLk; kpd;fhe;j fjph;tPr;Rfs; bjhiya[zh;t[
gl';fs; kw;Wk; jut[fspy; CLUty; kw;Wk; ghjpg;g[fis
Vw;gLj;Jk;.
 bjhiya[zh;t[ fUtpfs; bgUk;ghYk; mstPLfs; my;yhj
jut[fisna jUfpd;wd.
 bjhiya[zh;t[ fUtpfs; jdpg;gl;l epfH;t[fis tifg;gLj;Jtjpy;
FHg;gp jtwhd Kot[fis mspf;fpd;wd.
 epfH;t[fSld; tUk; njitapy;yhj gl';fs; kw;Wk; mita[k;
fz;og;ghf fzf;fpy; nrh;j;Jf; bfhs;sg;gLjy;.
48. ,e;jpag;ghJfhg;g[ Muha;r;rp kw;Wk; tsh;r;rp epWtdk; gw;wp vGJf.

 DRDO vd;gJ Mrpahtpd; kpfg;bghpa Kd;dzp tpz;btspj; bjhHpy;
Jiw kw;Wk; Ma[j cw;gj;jp epWtd';fSs; xd;W.
 ,e;epWtdk; 1958 y; bjhl';fg;gl;lJ.
 bly;ypiaj; jiyikaplkhff; bfhz;L epWtg;gl;lJ.
 DRDO tpd; jiyth; ,e;jpa ghJfhg;g[j; Jiw mikr;rh;.
 ,e;jpah KGtjpYk; ,e;epWtdj;jpw;F 51 fpisfs; cs;sd.
 DRDO ghJfhg;igr; rhh;e;j vy;yh JiwfspYk; cs;sJ.
 DRDO ghJfhg;g[ mwptpay; epWtdk;/ ntW rpy bjhHpy;El;g
mikg;g[fis xU';fpizj;J cUthf;fg;gl;l xU mikg;ghFk;.
 DRDO tpd; tUlhe;jpu gl;$l; US lyhpy; 1.5 gpy;ypad; lhyh;.
 DRDO tpy; 7000 f;Fk; mjpfkhd tp|;|hdpfs; gzpahw;wp
tUfpd;wdh;.

 DRDO tpd; Kjy; Kf;fpaj; jpl;lk; 1960 y; epythd; Vt[fiz (Surface

to Air) vDk; ,z;onfh jpl;lkhFk;. Mdhy; rpy fhuz';fshy;
,z;onfh jpl;lk; iftplg;gl;lJ.
 gpd;dh; ,uz;lhtjhf bltpy; jpl;lk; Muk;gpf;fg;gl;lJ.
,j;jpl;lj;jpd; tpisthf gphpj;tp Vt[fizfs; jahhpf;fg;gl;ld.
 bltpy; jpl;lk; gpUj;tp VTfiz cUthf tHpbra;jJ. ,J
xU';fpize;j Tl;likg;g[f; fl;lisj; jhf;Ffizj; jpl;lj;ij
1980 y; bjhl';fpaJ.
 ,e;j xU';fpize;j Tl;likg;g[ fl;lis jhf;Ffizj; jpl;l';fs;
(IGMDP) \yk; 1980 Kjy; 2007 tiu fPH;f;fz;l Vt[fizfis
cUthf;fpaJ
1. ehf; Vt[fiz - nghh;fsj;jpy; nl';Ffis jhf;Fk; fl;lis
Vt[fiz.
2. gpUj;tp Vt[fiz - jsg;gPlkpUe;J jsg;gPlk; VFk; a[j;jfsr;
NH;r;rpj; jhf;Ffiz (Surface to Surface).
3. MfhZ; Vt[fiz - jsg;gPlj;jpy; ,Ue;J thdj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;
,yf;if jhf;Fk; ,ilj;J}u Vt[fiz (Surface to Air).
4. jphpNy; Vt[fiz - tpiutpy; vGe;J jsg;gPlj;jpy; ,Ue;J
thdj;jpy; jhf;Fk; Vt[fiz.
5. mf;dp Vt[fiz - vy;yhtw;iwa[k; tpl nguhw;wy; bfhz;l
,ilj;J}u Vt[fiz.
Vt[fizfs; ,uz;L tifg;gLk;. mit

xU Vt[fiz Race;J jpwDld; tHpfhl;L Ma[j Kiwapy;
bray;gLtjhFk;. ,J ,uz;L tifg;gLk;
 F%!; Vt[fizfs; (Cruise Missiles)

 F%!; Vt[fizfs; Muk;gj;jpy; Fiwe;j ntfj;Jld; g{kpapd;
nkw;gug;gpnyh my;yJ flypd; nkw;gug;gpnyh gazpf;fty;yJ.
 ,J nulhh; fz;fSf;F g[yg;glhjJ. xypia tpl mjpntfj;jpy;
bry;Yk;.
 ngy!;of; Vt[fizfs; (Ballastic Missiles)

 ngy!;of; Vt[fizfs; Race;J rf;jpa[ld; g{kpapd;
tspkz;lyk; jhz;o brd;W tpz;btspia mila[k;.

 gpd;dh; kPz;Lk; tspkz;lyj;jpw;Fs; EiHe;J kpf mjpf
btg;gj;Jld; jd;idj;jhnd mHpj;Jf; bfhs;Sk;.
 SRBM – Short Range Ballastic missile

 MRBM- Medium Range Ballastic Missile
 ICBM – Intercontinental Ballastic Missile
gphpj;tp 1
 epyj;jpypUe;J epyj;jpy; cs;s ,yf;if jhf;ff; ToaJ.

 ,J Ballastic Vt[fiz.
 Ma[jj; jpwd; 1000 fpnyhfpuhk;.
 1996 y; Kjd; Kjypy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
 jpl vhpbghUs; ,jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 150 fp.kP J}uk; tiu brd;W jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 jw;nghJ ,uhqtj;jpy; gad;ghl;oy; cs;sJ.
 GPS trjp bfhz;lJ.
gphpj;tp 2
 epyj;jpypUe;J epyj;jpy; cs;s ,yf;if jhf;ff; ToaJ.

 ,J Ballastic Vt[fiz.
 2004 y; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
 350 fp.kP J}uk; tiu brd;W jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 jput vhpbghUs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 jw;nghJ tpkhdg; gilapy; gad;ghl;oy; cs;sJ.
gphpj;tp 3 (jDZ;)
 epyj;jpypUe;J thdj;jpy; cs;s ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.

 600 fp.kP J}uk; tiu brd;W ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 jput vhpbghUs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.

 jiug;gil/ tpkhdg; gil/ fg;gy;gil vd Kg;gilfspYk;

gad;ghl;oy; cs;sJ.
mf;dp Vt[fizfs; (Medium Range Ballastic Missile)
 mf;dp 1-700-1250 KM
 mf;dp 2-2000-3500 KM
 mf;dp 3 -3500-5000 KM
 mf;dp 4-3000-4000 KM
 mf;dp 5-5500-5800 KM
 mf;dp 6-8000-8500 KM
 mf;dp A1 -– 800 KM
mf;dp 1
 epyj;jpypUe;J epyj;jpYk;/ epyj;jpypUe;J thdpYk; cs;s ,yf;if

jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 jpl vhpbghUs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 700-1250 KM J}uk; brd;W ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 jiug;gil/ tpkhdg; gil ,uz;oYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
mf;dp 2

 2000-2500 fp.kP J}uk; brd;W ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.
mf;dp 3

 3500 fp.kP J}uk; brd;W ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 1500 fpnyhfpuhk; vilbfhz;l mqFz;il Rke;J bry;Yk;; rf;jp
tha;e;jJ.
mf;dp 4
 4000 fp.kP J}uk; brd;W ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.

 5 tJ jiyKiw fzpdp bray;ghL ,jpy; cs;sJ.

mf;dp 5
 fz;lk; tpl;L fz;lk; jht[k; Vt[fiz.

 5000 Kjy; 8000 fp.kP J}uk; brd;W ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 DRDO jw;nghJ ,jid ghpnrhjid epiyapy; itj;Js;sJ.
mf;dp 6
 fz;lk; tpl;L fz;lk; jht[k; Vt[fiz.

 8000 Kjy; 10000 fp.kP J}uk; brd;W ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 nkk;ghl;L ntiyfspy; cs;sJ.
mf;dp Vt[fizapd; gad;ghLfs;
 mf;dp Vt[fiz ghuk;ghpa kw;Wk; mq Ma[j';fis Ve;jpr;bry;Yk;.

 Ma[jj; jpwd; 1000 KG.
 jhf;Fjiy jLf;ft[k; jhf;Ftjw;Fk; cjt[k;.
 mf;dp Vt[fiz ,e;jpa ghJfhg;gpy; cs;s Kf;fpa ,ilbtspia
epug;g[fpd;wJ.
 mf;dp Vt[fiz xU ek;gfkhd mq Ma[j jhf;Fk; jpwid
,e;jpahtpw;F mspj;Js;sJ.
 ek;gfkhd mq Ma[j jhf;Fjy; jLg;g[ jpl;lk; vDk; ,e;jpa murpd;
ghJfhg;g[ nfhl;ghl;ow;F ,d;wpaikahjJ.
jphpNy; Vt[fizfs;
 ,e;jpahtpd; kpf mjp etPdkhd Vt[fiz.

 jiuapypUe;J thdpy; cs;s ,yf;ifj; jhf;Fk;.
 FWfpa J}uk; 10 fpnyh kPl;lh;.
 jpl vhpbghUSld; 1985 y; xU';fpize;j tsh;r;rpj; jpl;lk; (IGMDP)
d; fPH; jahhpf;fg;gl;l Kjy; Vt[fiz ,J.
 Ma[jj; jpwd; 50 KG.
jphpNy; I
 jiuapypUe;J thdpy; cs;s ,yf;ifj; jhf;Fk;.

 10 fp.kP tiu brd;W jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 tpkhdg;gilapy; gad;ghl;oy; cs;sJ.

jphpNy; II
 jiuapypUe;J jiuapy; cs;s ,yf;ifj; jhf;Fk;.

 ,uhqtj;jpy; gad;ghl;oy; cs;sJ.
jphpNy; III
 epyj;jpypUe;J thdpy; cs;s ,yf;ifj; jhf;ff;ToaJ.

 jiug;gil/ tpkhdg; gil/ fg;gy;gil vd Kg;gilfspYk;
gad;ghl;oy; cs;sJ.
MfhZ; Vt[fiz
 kj;jpa J}u Vt[fiz.

 epyj;jpypUe;J thdpy; cs;s ,yf;ifj; jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 xypia tpl 2½ kl';F ntfj;jpy; bry;Yk;.
 ,J !;fuk;b$l; (Scram Jet) bjhHpy;El;gj;ij gad;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
 xnu neuj;jpy; gy ,l';fis jhf;fty;yJ.
 tspkz;ly fhw;wpid vhpbghUshf fye;J gad;gLj;Jk;
jpwDilaJ.
 tpkhdg;gilf;fhf jahhpf;fg;gl;lJ.
 ,J vjphpapd; tpkhdj;ij jhf;Fk; Vt[fizia jhf;fhJ.
ehf; Vt[fid
 ,e;jpahtpd; \d;whtJ jiyKiw Vt[fiz.

 Kjy; ,uz;L jiyKiw Vt[fizfs; nrhtpaj; uZ;ahtpd;
cjtpa[ld; jahhpf;fg;gl;lJ.
 5 fp.kP J}uk; brd;W jhf;Fk;.
 nghh;fsj;jpy; nl';Ffis jhf;Fk; fl;lis Vt[fiz.
 vjphpapd; ,uhqt nl';fpy; ,Ue;J vGk;/ btg;gj;jpd; \yk; mjd;
,Ug;gplj;ij mwpe;J jhf;Fk; jpwd; bfhz;lJ.
 Fire & Forget Principle.
 njhy;tp rjtPjk; mjpfk;.

jDZ; II

 ,J uZ;ahtpd; KLVB Vt[fizia nghd;wJ.
 ,J ,e;jpa flw;gilapd; jhf;F jpwdpy; xU iky;fy;yhf cs;sJ.
IGMDP f;F btspna jahhpf;fg;gl;l Vt[fizfs;

Nh;ah
 fz;lk; tpl;L fz;lk; jht[k; jiuia rhh;e;j Vt[fiz.

 jpl kw;Wk; jput vhpbghUs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 DRDO tpd; fdt[ Vt[fizj; jpl;lkhFk;.
m!;l;uh Vt[fiz (Astra)
 cs;ehl;onyna jahhpf;fg;gl;l Vt[fiz.

 m!;l;uh Vt[fiz ,e;jpah jahhpj;Js;s Kjy; gp.tp.Mh; (BVR-Beyond
Visual Range) (ghh;it J}uj;jpw;F mg;ghw;gl;l) Vt[fizahFk;.
 ghJfhg;g[ Muha;r;rp kw;Wk; nkk;ghl;L epWtdj;jpd; \yk; KGikahf
cs;ehl;onyna jahhpf;fg;gl;l rpwpa uf Vt[fizahFk;.
 xw;iw epiy jpl vhpbghUs; \yk; bray;glf; ToajhFk;.
 tpz;zpy; ,Ue;J tpz;zpy; brd;W jhf;ff;Toa ,e;j Vt[fiz
midj;J jl;gbtg;g NHy;fspYk; btt;ntW cau';fspYk;
bray;gLk; jpwDilajhFk;.
 20-80 fp.kP tiu jhf;Fk; jpwd; bfhz;lJ.
 m!;l;uh Vt[fiz Rfha; - 30/ kpnu$; - 2000/ kpf; 29/ $hFthh;/ nj$!;
nghd;w nghh; tpkhd';fspypUe;J ghpnrhjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
rfhhpfh Vt[fiz
 500 - 700 fp.kP tiu brd;W jhf;ff;ToaJ.

 fg;gy; kw;Wk; ePh;\H;fp fg;gypypUe;J jhf;ff; ToaJ.
 mqFz;il Rke;J bry;Yk; Mw;wYilaJ.

gpuk;nkh!; Vt[fiz (Cruise)
 ,e;jpa ejpahd gpuk;kg[j;jpuh kw;Wk; ,uZ;a ejpahd kh!;nfhth

bgah;fis nrh;j;J gpuk;nkh!; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 gpunkh!; Vt[fiz ,e;jpahtpd; DRDO vdg;gLk; ghJfhg;g[ Muha;r;rp
kw;Wk; tsh;r;rp mikg;g[k; uZ;ahtpd; NPO Mashinostroeyenia
epWtdKk; ,ize;J cUthf;fpa Vt[fizahFk;.
 xypapd; ntfj;ij tpl 3 kl';F ntfj;jpy; bry;yf;ToaJ.
 Fire & Forget cf;jpia filgpof;fpd;wJ.
 ePh;\H;fpf; fg;gy;/ fg;gy;/ nghh;tpkhdk; kw;Wk; jiutHp nghd;w
gytpjkhd tHp Kiwfspy; Vt Koa[k;.
 480 fpnyh kPl;lh; J}uk; tiu brd;W ,yf;ifj; jhf;Fk;.
 Ma[jj; jpwd; 300 fp.fp.
 Vt[fizapd; cs;jsk; KGf;f fzpzpahy; totikf;fg;gl;lJ.
 gpuk;nkh!; Vt[fiz brYj;Jtjw;F fg;gy;fspy; a[dpth;ry; bth;ofy;
yh|;rh; vd;w nkil gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
gpufhh; Vt[fiz
 epyj;jpypUe;J epyj;jpy; cs;s ,yf;if jhf;ff;ToaJ

eph;gah Vt[fiz (Cruise)
 Kw;wpYk; cs;ehl;L bjhHpy;El;gj;ij gad;gLj;jp jahhpf;fg;gl;lJ.

 epyk;/ nghh;tpkhdk;/ fg;gy;/ ePh;\H;fpf; fg;gy; Mfpatw;wpy; ,Ue;J
jhf;ff;ToaJ.
 ,e;j tifapyhd Vt[fizfs; xypapd; ntfj;ijtpl rw;Wf;
Fiwthd ntfj;jpy; (rg;-nrhdpf;) bry;yf;ToaJ.
gpdhfh khh;f; 2 Vt[fiz
 cs;ehl;onyna jahhpf;fg;gl;l Vt[fiz .

 1995 Mk; Mz;L uhqtj;jpy; nrh;f;fg;gl;lJ.
 60 fpnyh kPl;lh; J}uj;jpw;Fk; nkw;gl;l bjhiyt[ tiu brd;W
jhf;fty;yJ.

 gpdhfh khh;f; 2 Vt[fiz tpiuthf bray;gl;L bgUk; nrjj;ij

Vw;gLj;jf;ToaJ.
 gyjug;gl;l bto bghUl;fis Ve;jpr; bry;Yk; ,e;j Vt[fiz
vjphpapd; ,yf;Ffs; kw;Wk; gJ';F FHpfSf;F bgUj;j nrjj;ij
Vw;gLj;jf; ToaJ.
nj$!; nghh; tpkhdk;
 cs;ehl;onyna jahhpf;fg;gl;l Kjy; ,yF ufnghh; tpkhdk; nj$!;.

 ,j;jpl;lk; 1983 y; bjhl';fg;gl;lJ.
 GTRE – Gas Turbine Research Establishment My; bg';fAhpy;
jahhpf;fg;gl;lJ.
 HOTAS – Hand on Throttle and Stick bjhHpy;El;gk; bfhz;lJ.
 nj$!; nghh; tpkhdk; Fiwe;j vil/ mjPjj; jpwd; vd;w Kiwapy;
bray;glf; ToaJ.
 nj$!; ,yF uf nghh; tpkhdj; jahhpg;gpy; 70 rjtPjk; ,e;jpaj;
jahhpg;g[ cjphpghf';fns gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
 xypia tpl ntfkhf bry;Yk;.
 mjpetPd o$pl;ly; bjhHpy;El;gk; bfhz;lJ.
 xU';fpizg;g[ o$pl;ly; trjp bfhz;lJ.
 Ma[jj; jh';Fk; jpwd; 4000 fpnyhfpuhk;.
 ,ilEiHt[j;jpwd;/ tpkhd igl;lh;/ Fz;L tPr;R jpwd; bfhz;lJ.
 ,ut[ neu jhf;FjYf;F cfe;jJ.
 2001 y; Kjy; ghpnrhjid bra;ag;gl;lJ.
 2015-2016 Mk; Mz;oy; 60 ,yF uf tpkhd';;fisa[k; gpd;dh; Mz;Lf;F
8 Kjy; 16 tpkhd';fisj; jahhpf;f ]pe;J!;jhd; Vnuhehl;of;fy;
epWtdk; jpl;lkpl;Ls;sJ.
 nj$!; nghh; tpkhdj; jpl;lj;jpw;fhf % 30/000 nfho epjp xJf;fPL
bra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
 nj$!; tpkhdk; thdpy; gwf;Fk;nghnj vhpbghUis epug;gpf; bfhs;s
Koa[k;. ,jd; \yk; ePz;l bjhiyt[f;F Vt[fizfisr; brYj;j
Koa[k;.
 uZ;a jahhpg;ghd Rnfha; kw;Wk; kpf;uf tpkhd';fs; DRDO thy;
jucah;t[ bra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

 epZhe;j; kw;Wk; yf;Z;ah Mfpa Mspy;yh tpkhd';fis jahhpj;j

bgUik DRDO t[f;F cz;L.
,e;jpa tpkhdg;gil tpkhd';fs;
 SU 30, Su 30 MKI, SU 33 – uZ;ahtplkpUe;J th';fg;gl;lit.

 LTA (or) SARAS.
 LCA – Light Combat Aircraft - nj$!;.
 AIT (HAWK).
 PTA (yf;Zah).
 Nishant.
49. ,e;jpahtpy; mwptpaypd; Kd;ndw;wj;jpy; CSIR d; g';fpid vGJf. mjd;

VnjDk; \d;W Muha;r;rp epWtd';fspd; g';if vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf.
 mwptpay; kw;Wk; bjhHpy;Jiw Muha;r;rpf; ft[d;rpy; (CSIR) 1942 y;
mg;nghija kj;jpa rl;lkd;w jPh;khdj;jpd; thapyhf
mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
 ,J r';f';fspd; gjpt[fs; rl;lk; 1860 d;go gjpt[ bgw;w jd;dhl;rp
chpik bgw;w xU mikg;ghFk;.
mwptpay; kw;Wk; bjhHpy;Jiw Muha;r;rp ft[d;rpypd; g';F
 mwptpay; kw;Wk; bjhHpy;El;g bray;ghLfspd; xU C|;ryhf

tps';fpaJ.
 mwptpay; g[Jik kw;Wk; bjhHpy;El;gtpaypy; jpwikfis
cUthf;fp tsh;j;J ,e;jpah xU mwptpay; FGkkhf kyu cjtp
bra;Js;sJ.
 mnef mikg;g[fisa[k; gy Jiwfisa[k; cUthf;fp ,e;jpahtpd;
mwptpay; kw;Wk; bjhHpy;El;gj;jpw;F xU bjhlf;f kw;Wk; gapw;rp
ikakhf cs;sJ.
 epiyahd cyf mstpy; nghl;oaplf; Toa bjhHpy;El;g
cUthf;fj;jpy; cjtp g[hpe;Js;sJ.
 cs;ehl;L \yg; bghUl;fs; kw;Wk; ,aw;if ts';fis
,wf;Fkjpf;F khw;whf gad;gLj;Jjy;.
 khR fl;Lg;ghL kw;Wk; fHpt[fis ifahSjy; fHpt[g; bghUl;fs;
gad;ghL kw;Wk; Mw;wy; nrkpg;g[ Mfpatw;iw Ma;t[ kw;Wk;
gad;gLj;JjYf;F gpd;dzp Mjuthf cs;sJ.

 ntshz;ik/ Rfhjhuk;/ ghJfhg;g[/ Vnuh ildkpf;/ kugpay;/

,e;jpahtpd; KjyhtJ Ng;gh; fk;g;a{l;lh; cUthf;fj;jpYk;
tphpt[gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 Rje;jpu ,e;jpahtpy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;s g[jpa kUe;Jfspy; 11
kUe;Jfs; ,f;ft[d;rpypy; jahhpf;fg;gl;lit.
 Fwpg;gpl;l Muha;r;rp kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jp gpur;rpidfisr;
rkhspg;gjw;F VJthf rpwg;g[ gy;Jiw kw;Wk; rh;tnjr FGf;fis
mikf;Fk; mjDila jpwikapy; cs;sJ.
g';fspg;g[fs;
 mKy; FHe;ij czt[.

 epa{l;ld; mLg;g[.
 bZyp vdg;gLk; bgz;fSf;fhd thuk; xU Kiw tha; tHpahf
vLj;Jf;bfhs;sf;Toa Cf;fp mw;w fUj;jil khj;jpiufs;.
 knyhpah vjph;g;g[f;fhd ,-khy;.
 m!;khd; vd;W miHf;fg;gLk; M!;Jkht[f;fhd \ypifr; rpfpr;ir.
 ru!; vd;W miHf;fg;gLk; xU gy; bjhHpy; tpkhdk;.
 !;gnshrhy;th; vdg;gLk; ,e;jpahtpd; KjyhtJ ,izf; fzpdp.
 !;tuh$; kw;Wk; brhh;zhypfh ouhf;lh;fs; kw;Wk; bgUikf;Fhpa
,e;jpa thf;fhshpd; milahskhfpa mHpah milahs ik.
bjhHpy;El;g';fs;
 3000 f;Fk; mjpfkhd bjhHpy;El;g';fis cUthf;fp 6000

thof;ifahsh;fSf;F mtw;wpy; 1500 f;Fk; nkw;gl;ltw;wpw;F
mDkjp tH';fpa[s;sJ.
 bjhHpy;El;g';fs; kw;Wk; bjhHpy;Eqf;f';fs; thapyhd Mz;L
bjhHpy;Jiw cw;gj;jp kjpg;ghdJ 2 kpy;ypad; lhyh;fSf;Fk;
mjpfk;.
tpz;btsp
 njrpa tpz;btsp Ma;t[f;Tlk; - bg';fAh;.

 ,e;jpahtpd; tpz;btsp jpl;l';f s; bray;gLj;Jk; mikg;g[fspy;
Kf;fpakhd xd;whFk;.
 bghJ kf;fs; gad;ghl;ow;fhd tpkhdk; kw;Wk; nghh;
tpkhd';fSf;fhd cyfj; juk; tha;e;j totikg;g[fs; mgptpUj;jp

kw;Wk; nkk;gl;l bjhFg;g[fspd; gy cgfuz';fspd; g[idjy;
totikg;g[ nrhjidfs; kw;Wk; gFg;gha;t[fs; tpz;btsp
kpd;dqtpay; kw;Wk; mikg;g[fs; Mfpatw;iw cUthf;fpa[s;sJ.
 njrpa tpz;btsp Ma;t[f;Tlk; jw;nghJ ehl;oy; gaz
tpkhd';fis cUthf;Fk; gzpapy; <Lgl;Ls;sJ.
caphpay; kw;Wk; caph; bjhHpy;El;gtpay;
 kugpay; $Pd; btspg;ghLfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy; ,df; fyg;g[

ovd;V bghUl;fs; \yf;TW kw;Wk; bry; caphpay; jpR tsh;g;g[
ntshz; caph; bjhHpy; El;gtpay; kw;Wk; behjpj;jy;.
 etPd caphpaypd; Kd;dzpg; gphpt[fspy; bry;Yyh; kw;Wk;
\yf;TW caphpay; ikakhdJ Kd;dzp Muha;r;rp mikg;ghf
tps';FfpwJ.
 ,e;j ikaj;jpd; nehf;f';fs; etPd caphpaypd; Kd;dzp
gphpt[fspy; cah;ju mog;gil Muha;r;rp kw;Wk; gapw;rpia
nkw;bfhs;Sjy; kw;Wk; caphpaypd; gy;Jiw gphpt[fspy; g[jpa
kw;Wk; etPd bjhHpy;El;g';fSf;fhf kj;jpa njrpa trjpfis
cUthf;Fjy;.
 bry;Yyh; kw;Wk; \yf;TW caphpay; ikakhdJ Kjd; Kyhf
01.04.1977 md;W gFjp jd;dhl;rp bgw;w epWtdkhf mg;nghija
Ijuhghj; kz;ly Muha;r;rp Ma;t[f;Tlk;/ caph; ntjpapay; gphpit
fUthff; bfhz;Lk; lhf;lh; gp.vk;. ghh;fthit g[jpa epiyaj;jpd;
jiytuhff; bfhz;Lk; bjhl';fp itf;fg;gl;lJ.
 Kd;djhf mwptpay; kw;Wk; bjhHpy;Jiw Muha;r;rp ft[d;rpy;
g[Jbly;ypapd; MSk; mikg;ghf ,Ue;j ehl;oy; 44 Muha;r;rp
epiya';fis cUthf;fpa cahpa mikg;ghdJ etPd caphpay;
gphptpy; Kd;dzp kw;Wk; gy;Jiw gFjpfspy; Muha;r;rpfspd;
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij fUjp mj;jifa xU ikaj;ij epWt[tjw;fhf
mDg;gg;gl;l fUj;JUit 1976 y; m';fPfhpj;jJ.
Muha;r;rp gFjpfs;
 caph; kUe;Jfs; kw;Wk; caph; bjhHpy;El;gtpay;.

 kugpay; kw;Wk; ghpzhk tsh;r;rp $Pndhkpf;!;.
 bry; caphpay; kw;Wk; tsh;r;rp.
 \yf;TW caphpay; kw;Wk; totikg;g[ caphpay;.

 caph; ntjpapay; kw;Wk; caph; ,aw;gpay;.

 bjhw;W neha;fs;.
 fzf;fPl;L caphpay; kw;Wk; caph; jftypay;.
kj;jpa njhy; Muha;r;rp epWtdk;
 cyfpd; kpfg;bghpa njhy; Muha;r;rp epWtdk; 24.04.1948 y;

epWtg;gl;lJ.
 kj;jpa njhy; Muha;r;rp epWtdk; jd;Dila bjhiynehf;Fg;
ghh;itahy; bjhHpy;El;g mikg;ig fy;tp kw;Wk; bjhHpy;
Jiwapd; ,izf;f Kaw;rp nkw;bfhz;lJ.
 njhy; bjhlh;ghd fy;tp Muha;r;rp gapw;rp nrhjid totikg;g[ Kd;
mwptpg;g[ jpl;lkpLjy; r\f mjpfhuk; mspj;jy; Mfpatw;wpy; neuo
g';fspg;iga[k; njhy; bjhlh;ghd mwptpay; kw;Wk;
bjhHpy;El;gj;jpy; Kd;dzpia tfpf;fpwJ.
 njhy; gjg;gLj;Jtjpy; g[Jik/ njhy; Milfs;/ njhy; bghUl;fs;/
fhyzpfs; nghd;W njhy; bghUl;fspy; g[Jikahf totikj;jy;
kw;Wk; njhy; bjhHpYf;fhf g[jpa Rw;Wr;NHy; bjhHpy;El;gj;ij
cUthf;Fjy; Mfpatw;wpw;F VJthf cs;sd.
 ,e;jpa kUj;Jt Muha;r;rpf; fHfj;jpd;fPH; epiyahd epWtdkhf
tps';Fk; njrpa fhrneha; Muha;r;rp epWtdk;/ fhrneha;
Muha;r;rpapy; rh;tnjr mstpy; m';fPfhuk; bgw;w xU epWtdk;
MFk;.
 ,J njrk; fle;j bjhlh;g[ Ma;t[f;TlKk; fhrneha; Muha;r;rp kw;Wk;
gpaw;rpf;fhf cyf Rfhjhu epWtdj;jpd; xj;JiHg;g[ bgw;w
ikaKk; MFk;.
 rkPgj;jpy; Muha;r;rpapy; epg[zj;Jtk; bgw;w xU rh;tnjr ikak;
njrpa Rfhjhu epWtdj;jpd; xj;JiHg;g[ld; ,e;j ikaj;jpy;
epWtg;gl;lJ.
 ,e;j ikak; brd;idapy; xU 5 Mz;L jpl;lkhf ,e;jpa kUj;Jt
Muha;r;rpf; fHfk; jkpH;ehL muR cyf Rfhjhu epWtdk; kw;Wk;
gphpl;oZ; kUj;Jt Muha;r;rpf; fHfk; Mfpatw;wpd; Tl;L
Kaw;rpahy; 1956 y; mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
 ,e;j ikaj;jpd; nehf;fk; EiuaPuy; fhr neha; rpfpr;irahy; ntjp
rpfpr;irapd; btF$d ,Ug;gpl gad;ghL Fwpj;j jfty;fis
mspg;gjw;fhf totikf;fg;gl;l fy;tpia tFj;jny MFk;.

50. ry;ghpd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.
 Prime Stone vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 caphpd';fs; caph; thH njitahd rpy Kf;fpa g[uj';fspYk;
,aw;ifapy; fpilf;Fk; fhpk nrh;kkhfpa ,d;Rypd; gFjpg;
bghUshft[k; Kl;il bt';fhak; bts;isg;g{z;oYk; cs;sJ.
gad;fs;
bjhHpw;rhiy gad;fs;
 btokUe;J bjhHpw;rhiy
 fhfpjj; bjhHpw;rhiy.
 g[ifg;glj; bjhHpw;rhiy.
 ry;gpa{hpf; mkpyk; jahhpj;jy;.
kUj;JtJiwg; gad;fs;
 jhtuj;jpy; ghf;Ohpah/ g{|;irfis mHpf;f.

 fpUkpehrpdpahf.
 fhshz; bfhy;ypahf.
 njhYf;fhd fspk;g[fs; jahhpf;f.
 ry;nghdikL kUe;Jfs; jahhpf;f.
 mHF epiya';fspy; Kof;F Fwpg;gpl;l totk; ju.
 ug;giu ty;fid!; bra;jy;.
,ug;giu ty;fidrp'; bra;jy;
 ,aw;if ,ug;giu ry;gUld; nrh;j;J Fwpg;gpl;l btg;g epiyapy;

njitahd fhyj;jpw;F NLgLj;JtJ.
 ry;gh; mqf;fs; ,ug;gh; \yf;TWfSf;F ,ilna xU ghykhf
bray;gl;L/ FWf;Fg;gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;jp bkd;ikahd xl;Lk;
jd;ik cila ,ug;giu fodkhd kPSk; jd;ik cilajhf
khw;WtJ.
51. ry;~a{hpf; mkpyj;jpd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

 ry;~a{hpf; mkpyk; ePiu ftUk; jd;ik cilajhy; ePh; cs;s
bghUl;fspy; ,Ue;J ePiu cldoahf ePf;f.

 Mf;!p$d; kw;Wk; i]l;u$d; cs;s nrh;k';fspypUe;J ePh; cUthf;f

njitahd mst[ mtw;iw ePf;FfpwJ.
 mlh; ry;~a{hpf; mkpyk;/ fhfpjk;/ kuk;/rh;f;fiu Mfpatw;iw fUf;fr;
bra;J fhh;gdhf khw;WfpwJ.
 cuj;bjhHpw;rhiy - mnkhdpak; ry;ngl;/ Ng;gu; gh!;ngl; jahhpf;f.

 ntjpj; bjhHpw;rhiy - i]l;nuh Fnshhpf; mkpyk;/iel;hpf; mkpyk;/
gh!;ghhpf; mkpyk;/ ry;ngl; cg;g[fs;/ <jh; jahhpf;f.
 cnyhfg;gug;gpy; Mf;i!L glyj;ij ePf;f.
 bto kUe;J jahhpj;jy; - mlh; ry;~a{hpf; mkpyk; kw;Wk; mlh; iel;hpf;
mkpyj;ij fhpk nrh;k';fSld; nrh;j;J ildikl;/ DNT/ gpf;hpf;
mkpyk; nghd;wit jahhpf;f.
 Ma;tfj;jpy; - ePh; ePf;fpahft[k;/ cyh;j;jpahft[k; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 bgl;nuhy; Rj;jpfhpg;gpy; gad;gLfpwJ.
52. bjhFjp 17 y; cs;s ]hy$d; FLk;gj;jpd; gad;fs; gw;wp vGJf.

g[Ahpd; - btsph; k|;rs; epw tha[.
Fnshupd; - gRik fye;j k|;rs; epw tha[.
g[nuhkpd; - brk;gGg;g[ epw ePh;kk;.
mnahod; - fU Cjh epw jpz;kk;.
M!;l;lod; - fjph; ,af;f jd;ik cilaJ.
 ,J n]yh kw;Wk; b$d;!; vd;w ,U fpnuf;f thh;j;ijapy; ,Ue;J
bgwg;gl;ld.
 ,jw;F cg;ig cUthf;FtJ vd;W bghUs;.
 n]hy$d; FLk;gj;jpy; kpf;f tPhpak; cs;s jdpkk; - g[Ahpd;.
gad;fs;
 gphpahd; nghd;w nrh;k';fis jahhpf;f g[Ahpd; gad;gLfpd;wd.

 er;Rj; jd;ikaw;w vhpa[k; jd;ik ,y;yhj Mtpahf Toa ,t;tif
ePh;k';fs; Fsp%l;oahf Fspu; rhjd bgl;oapYk;/ MH;e;j
FsP%l;oapYk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 fhy;rpak; g[AiuL cnyhftpaypy; ,sf;fpahf gad;gLfpwJ.
 nrhoak; g[AiuL gw;rpijit jLf;fg;gad;gLfpwJ.

 mjpf kpd; mGj;j rhjd';fspy; kpd;flj;jhg; bghUshf ry;gh;

b]f;rh g[AiuL gad;gLfpwJ.
 blg;yhd;-i]l;nuhg[Ahpf; mkpyk; nrkpj;J itf;Fk; fyd;fs;
jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
53. bjhFjp 18 ke;j tha[f;fspd; gad;fis vGJf.

ke;j tha[f;fs;
 ]ypak; (He)
 epahd; (Ne)
 fpupg;glhd; (Ar)
 brdhd; (Kr)
]Pypak;
 kpft[k; nyrhdJ kw;Wk; vhpa[k; jd;ikaw;wJ.

 gY}d;fspy; milf;fg;gl;L thdpiyia mwpa.
 Mfha tpkhd';fspy; lah;fspy; epug;g.
 ]Pypak;/ Mf;!p$d; fyit MH;fly; \H;FnthUf;F Rthrpf;f.
 iel;u$id tpl ,uj;jj;jpy; Fiwthf fiua[k; jd;ik cilaJ.
 ]Pypak;/ Mf;!p$d; fyit M!;j;Jkhit Fzg;gLj;j.
 Fiw btg;gepiyapy; nrhjidfs; bra;tjw;F ePh;k ]Pypak;
fpiunahb$dpf; fhuzpahf gad;gLfpwJ.
 MRI Scan mjpntf flj;Jk; jpwd; cs;s kpd; fhfpj';fs; jahhpf;f.
epahd;
 tpsk;gu';fspy; gad;gLk; xspUk; FHy; tpsf;Ffspy; epug;g.

 mjpf kpd;dGj;jj;jpypUe;J kpd;rhjd';fis ghJfhf;f
]Pypaj;Jld; nrh;j;J gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 \L gdpapDs; CLUtp bry;Yk; gz;ig bgw;wpUg;gjhy; Mfha
tpkhd';fs; cah;e;j kiyapd; kPJ nkhjhky; ,Uf;f kiyapd; kPJ
bghUj;Jfpd;w tpsf;Ffspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 jhtu';fs; tsh;tij J}z;LtjhYk; Fnshnuh~gpy; cUthf
gad;gLtjhYk; epahd; tpsf;Ffs; jhtuj; njhl;l';fspy;
gad;gLfpwJ.

Mh;fhd;
 26 rjtPj iel;u$d; cld; nrh;j;J ,t;tha[ epug;gg;gl;l kpd;

tpsf;Ffspy; Mh;fhd; gad;gLfpwJ.
 nuonah thy;t[fspYk; FHha;fspYk; gad;gLfpwJ.
fphpg;lhd; kw;Wk; brdhd;
 xspuf; Toa cnyhf ,iyia bfhz;Ls;s kpd; tpsf;Ffspy;

epug;g fphpg;lhd;/ brdhd; gad;gLfpwJ.
 kpd;rhuj;ij btspnaw;Wk; FHha;fspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
nulhd;
fjphpaf;f Ma;tpYk; fjph;tPr;rpd; \yk; g[w;Wnehia

Fzg;gLj;jt[k; gad;gLfpwJ.
54. d bjhFjp ,ilepiyj; jdpk';fspd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

 mjpf neh;kpd; jd;ika[s;s jdpk';fSf;Fk; Fiwe;j neh;kpd;
jd;ika[s;s jdpk';fSf;Fk; ,ilna mike;Js;sJ.
 midj;J ,ilepiyj; jdpk';fSk; cnyhf';fs;.
 bgUk;ghyhd ,ilepiyj; jdpk';fs; cnyhf nrh;k';fs; jpl
my;yJ fiury; epiyapy; epwk; cs;sitahf cs;sd.
 mizt[r; nrh;k';fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
fhg;gu;
 brk;gGg;g[ epwk; cs;s gsg;gsg;ghf cnyhfk;.

 mjpf mlh;j;jpa[k; mjpf cUF epiyiaa[k; cilaJ.
 kpd;rhjd';fs;/ kpd; fk;gpfs; jahhpf;f.
 bfhs;fyd;fs;/ fnyhhp kPl;lh;fs;/ ehza';fs; jahhpf;f .
 kpd;\yhk; g{Rjypy;.
 j';fk;/ bts;sp fye;j cnyhf fyit ehza';fs;.
 Mguz';fs; jahhpf;f.
Time: 10:30 – 1:30

Fnuhkpak;
 Fnuhk; \yhk; g{Rjypy;.

 Fnuhk; v~F/ Fnuhk; bgndoak; v~F/ JUg;gpof;fhj v~F/
l';!;ld; v~F nghd;w cnyhf fyit jahhpf;f.
 Fnuhk; epf;fy; v~F nfla';fs; jahhpf;f.
 Fnuhkpak; cg;g[fs;/ epwk; Cd;wpfshft[k;/ epwk; cs;s fz;zho
gP';fhd; ghj;jpu';fs; jahhpf;f.
 rhaj; bjhHpy; Fnuhkpaj;jpd; nrh;k';fs; epwkpfshft[k;
njhy;gjdpLjy; bjhHpypy; gad;gLfpwd.
Jj;jehfk;
 ePyk; fye;j btz;ik epw cnyhfk;.

 ,Uk;g[ jsthl';fis fhy;tidrp'; bra;a.
 raidL Kiwapy; j';fk; kw;Wk; rpy;th; gphpj;bjLj;jypy;.
 Jj;jehf Jfs;fs; Ma;tfj;jpy; xLf;Fk; fhuzpahf.
 Jj;jehf jfLfs; kw;Wk; jz;Lfs; cyu; kpd;fyk; kw;Wk;
ngl;lhpapy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
rpy;th;
 rpy;tu; g[nuhikL g[ifg;glr; RUs; jahhpf;f.

 rpy;th; cg;g[fs; rpy;th; \yk; g{r.
 kpd; tha;fspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 etPd fz;zhofs; rpy;th; cg;g[fshy; g{rg;gl;Ls;sd.
 rpy;tu; ,iHfs; kUe;JfspYk; rpy;tu; urf;fyit gw;FHpfis
milf;ft[k; gad;gLfpwJ.
j';fk;
 k|;rs;/ bghd;epwk; cs;s gsg;gsg;ghd cnyhfk;.

 1063 btg;gepiyapy; cUfp gr;ir epw ePh;kk; Mf 2610
bfhjpf;fpwJ.
 ,J midj;J cnyhf';fisf; fhl;oYk; bky;ypa jflhft[k;/
fk;gpahft[k; ePl;lyhk;.
 btg;gk; kpd;rhuj;ij ed;F flj;Jk;.
 cyh;e;j/ <uf;fhw;W/ fhuj;jhy;/ Mf;!p$dhy; ghjpf;fg;glhJ.

 ,urjpuhtfj;Jld; tpidg;g[hpe;J Mhpaf;Fnshiuil jUfpwJ.

 j';f ,iHfs;/ my';fhu bghUs;fs;/ kUe;Jfspy; lhdpf; Mf
gad;gLfpwJ.
 TH;k !;lhdpf; mkpyKk; j';fKk; nrh;e;j fyit nf!;rpa!; Cjh.
,J %gp rptg;g[ fz;zho/ cah;ju kz;ghz;l';fspy; gad; gLfpwJ.
bghl;lhrpak; il Fnuhnkl;
 gUkdwp gFg;gha;tpy;.
 njhiyg;gjg;gLj;Jjy;.
 fhypf;nfh mr;rpLjy;.
 rhahj; bjhHpy;.
 xypg;gltpaYk;/ $yhl;od; ,iHfs; fodg;gLj;jt[k;
gad;gLfpwJ.
55. ituj;jpd; gz;g[fisa[k; gad;fisa[k; Fwpg;gpLf.

 ituj;jpy; cs;s xt;bthU fhh;gd; mqt[k; kw;w 4 fhh;gd;
mqf;fSld; ehd;Kfp mikg;gpy; rfg;gpizg;g[fshy;
gpizg;g[w;W fod Kg;ghpkhd mikg;ig cUthf;FfpwJ.
 fhh;gd;-fhh;gd; gpizg;g[fs; kpft[k; typikahdit.
 itu mikg;gpDs; fhqk; fhh;gd; - fhh;gd; gpizg;g[fspd; bkhj;j
typik ituj;jpw;F kpft[k; mjpf fodj;jd;ikia[k;
ntjptpidf;F cl;glhj jd;ikiaa[k; mspf;fpwJ.
ituj;jpd; gz;g[fs;
 ituk; epwkw;w xsp CLUtf;Toa bghUs;.

 gl;ilj; jPl;lg;gl;l ituk; xsp vjpbuhspg;g[ kw;Wk; xsptpyfy;
fhuzkhf kpft[k; gsg;gsg;ghf fhl;rp mspf;fpwJ.
 ituj;jpd; mlh;j;jp 3.5 .
 kpd;rhuj;ijf; flj;jhJ.
 ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; bghUl;fspy; kpft[k; fodkhdJ.
ituj;jpd; gad;fs;
 Mguz';fs; bra;a.
 fUg;g[ ituk; fz;zhoia btl;Lk;.

 gsp';F fw;fis mWf;f/ ghiwfis Jisapl.

 cah;El;g btg;gepiykhdpfspy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
56. fpuhigl;od; gz;g[fs; kw;Wk; gad;fis gw;wp vGJf.

 fpuhigl;oy; fhh;gd; mqf;fs; jl;ilahd mLf;Ffshf
mike;Js;sJ. xt;bthU mLf;Fk; fhh;gd; mqf;fs; ml';fpa
mW';nfhz tisa';fshy; Mdit.
 xt;bthU fhh;gd; mqt[k; kw;w \d;W fhh;gd; mqf;fSld;
gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 xU mLf;fpy; cs;s fhh;gd; mqf;fSf;F ,ilna cs;s
gpizg;g[ kpft[k; typikahdit.
 gy;ntW mLf;FfSf;fpilna cs;s gpizg;g[ tpir tYtpye;j
thz;lu; thy;!; tpirfshFk;.
 mLf;Ffs; xd;wpd; kPJ xd;W eYt[k; jd;ik cilaJ. ,jdhy;
jhd; fpuhigl; bkd;ikahft[k;/ tstsg;ghft[k; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 ,g;gz;gpdhy;jhd; fpuhigl; ve;jpu';fspy; cat[ bghUshfg;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
 fpuhigl; mnyhfkhf ,Ue;jhYk; jd; gpizg;g[wh vyf;l;uhd;fs;
\yk; kpd;rhuj;ijf; flj;Jk; jd;ikiag; bgw;Ws;sd.
gz;g[fs;
 fU|;rhk;gy; epwk; cilaJ.

 bkd;ikahft[k;/ tstsg;ghft[k; cs;sd.
 kpd;rhuj;ij ed;F flj;Jk;.
 mlh;j;jp 2.3 .
 cUFepiy 3700 .
gad;fs;
 kpd;fy';fspy; kpd;tha;fshf.
 ntfkhf ,a';Fk; ,ae;jpu';fspy;.
 fpuhigl; cat[g; bghUshf.
 bgd;rpy; Kidfs; jahhpf;f.
 mqf;fU ciyfspy; epa{l;uhd;fis cwp|;Rk; bghUshf.
 bgapz;l; jahhpf;f.

57. g[y;yhPd; gw;wp Fwpg;g[ tiuf.
 fhh;gd; mqf;fshy; Md nfhs totKila \yf;TWfs;
xd;nwhblhd;W ,ize;J jpz;k epiyapy; g[y;yhPd;fis
cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
 hpr;rh;l; !;ghyp/ uhgh;l; fh;y;/ ]hhp Fnuhlh Mfpnahh; fpuhigl;il cah;
btg;gepiyapy; NLgLj;jp fhh;gdpd; g[jpa g[wntw;Wik
,iag[fis fz;lwpe;jdh;.
 mbkhpf;f fl;Lkhd ty;Yeh; gf;kpdp!;lh; g[y;yhpd; vd;gthpd;
epidthf ,g;g[jpa g[wntw;Wik totj;jpw;F gf;kpd;!;lh; g[y;yhpd;
vdg;bgah; itf;fg;gl;lJ.
 ,r;nrh;k';fs; mjp jPtpuj;jd;ik flj;Jk; jd;ik bgw;Ws;sJ.
 ,aw;ifapy; vhpfw;fspYk; gy';fhy ghiwfspYk; ,Ug;gjhf
fz;lwpag;gl;ls;sd.
58. fhh;gd; il Mf;i!od; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

 epwkw;w/ kzkw;w tha[/ fhw;iwtpl fdkhdJ.
 ePhpy; rpwpjsnt fiua[k;.
 -78 mstpw;F Fsph;gpj;jhy; fhh;gd; il Mf;i!L neuoahf
jpz;kkhf khWk; epiy cyh; gdpfl;o vdg;gLk;.
gad;fs;
 jP mizf;Fk; bghUshf.
 Fsph; rhjdg; bgl;ofspy; cyu; gdpf;fl;o gad;gLfpwJ.
 rh;f;iu bjhHpw;rhiyapy; ePh;k fhh;gd; il Mf;i!L gad;gLfpwJ.
 nrhoak; fhh;gndl;/ nrhoak;-ig-fhh;gndl; jahhpf;f.
 xspr;nrh;f;ifapd; nghJ jhtu';fs; fhh;gd; il Mf;i!il
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
59. rpypf;fhd;fs; gw;wp rpW Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 g[tpg;gug;gpy; mjpfk; cs;s jdpk';fspy; ,uz;lhtJ ,lk;
bgw;Ws;sJ.
 rpypf;fhd; rpg;fs; fzpdpapy; Kf;fpag';F tfpf;fpd;wd.
 rpypf;fhd; kw;Wk; brh;khdpak; etPd jpz;k epiy kpd; bghUl;fs;
jahhpf;f gad;gLfpd;wd.

60. rpypf;nfhd;fspd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.
 rpypf;nfhd;fs; bjhFg;g[ rpypf;nfh fhpkg;gyg;gofs; MFk;.
 ,it tzpf uPjpahf bgUkstpy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
gad;fs;
 kpd;nkhl;lhh;fs;/ tPl;L cgnahfg; bghUl;fSf;F kpfr;rpwe;j

kpd;fhg;g[g; bghUs;.
 ePh;k rpypf;nfhd;fs; ePh; tpyf;Fk; gz;igg; bgw;Ws;sjhy; ePu;
tpyf;Fk; Milfs; jahhpf;ft[k;/ cat[g; bghUshft[k; bkUF
Cl;LjypYk; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 bgapz;l;fSld; nrh;j;J gad;gLj;jpdhy; ePOj;J ciHf;Fk;.
 rpypf;nfhd; vz;bza;fs; mjpf btg;gepiyfspy; gad;gLk;
vz;bza; bjhl;ofspYk;/ btw;wpl gk;g[fspYk; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 rpf;fyhd FWf;F gyg;go rpypf;nfh nrh;k';fs; xl;lhjj;jd;ik
cs;s bgapz;l; kw;Wk; thh;dPZ;fspy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 rpypf;nfhd; ,ug;gh; kPl;rp jd;ik cilait. nkYk; ntjpg;
bghUl;fshy; ghjpf;fg;gLtjpy;iy.
61. fhhPak; my;yJ byl;od; gz;g[fs; kw;Wk; gad;fis TWf.

gz;g[fs;
 ePsk; fye;j rhk;gy; epwj;ija[k;/ kpspUk; jd;ika[k; cilaJ.
 fhfpjj;jpy; vGJk; gz;g[ cilaJ.
 btg;gk; kw;Wk; kpd;rhuj;ijf; flj;jhJ.
gad;fs;
 je;jp kw;Wk; bjhiyngrp fk;gpfs; jahhpf;f.

 bgl;nuhypd; vjph;tpiria jLf;f cjt[k; byl; bll;uh vj;jpy;
jahhpf;f.
 uit Fz;Lfs; jahhpf;f.
 fhhpaf; FHha;fs; jahhpf;f.
62. gh!;gurpd; gad;fs; gw;wp Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 jPg;bgl;o bjhHpw;rhiyapy;.
 nghh;f;fsj;jpy; gad;gLk; Fz;Lfs; jahhpf;ft[k; g[ifj;jpiu
cUthf;ft[k; gad;gLfpwJ.

 mnkhdpak;/ Ng;gu; gh!;ngl; cu';fs; jahhpf;f.

 kdpj clypy; Mw;wiy nrkpf;Fk; ATP \yf;TWfspy;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
 nrhoak; fhy;rpak; nghd;w cnyhf';fspd; i]g;ngh gh!;ngl;Lfs;
kUj;Jtj;jpy; gad;gLfpwJ.
63. gh!;gPd; gad;fis Fwpg;gpLf.

 gh!;gPd; fhw;wpy; vhpe;J kpf mlh;j;jpahd g[ifia cUthf;Ftjhy;
g[ifj;jpiuahf gad;gLfpwJ.
 n]hy;k;!; fhy;rpak; gh!;igL/ fhy;rpak; fhh;igL epug;gp flypy;
vhpe;jhy; ,uz;Lk; tpidg;g[hpe;J mrPl;Oypida[k; gh!;gPd;fisa[k;
jUfpwJ.
 gh!;gPd; fhw;Wld; cldoahf vhpe;J mrPl;Oypida[k; vhpar; bra;a[k;.
,jdhy; cUthFk; bgUk;g[if flypy; cs;s fg;gy;fSf;F
tHpfhl;Ltjw;fhf gad;gLfpwJ.
64. btg;gepiy mstPLfs; gw;wp Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

bry;rpa!; mstPL
 Mz;l;U!; bry;rpa!; vd;gth; btg;gepiyia mstpLtjw;F
bry;rpa!; mstPl;L Kiwia fz;Lgpoj;jhh;.
 J}a ePhpd; ciwepiyia fPH; jpl;ltiuahft[k;/ ePhpd;
bfhjpepiyia nky;jpl;ltiuahft[k; vLj;Jf;bfhz;L mtw;wpw;F
,ilna cs;s cauj;ij 100 rk ghf';fshf gphpj;J xt;bthU
ghfKk; 1 vd vLj;Jf;bfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
 ,J brd;ofpnuL mst[ Kiw vdt[k; miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
ghud; ]Pl; mstPL
 fPH; jpl;l mstPL - 32

 nky; jpl;l mstPL - 212
jdpr;RHp btg;gepiy
 xU bghUis Fsph;tpf;ff; Toa kpff; Fiwe;j btg;gepiy

jdpr;RHp btg;gepiy MFk;.
 jdpr;RHp btg;gepiy vd;gJ 0 K my;yJ -273.15 MFk;.

jd; btg;g Vw;g[j;jpwd;
 xU fpnyhfpuhk; epiwa[s;s bghUbshd;wpd; btg;gepiyia xU

bfy;tpd; cah;j;jj; njitahd btg;g Mw;wypd; mst[ mjd; jd;
btg;g Vw;g[j;jpwd; vdg;gLk;.
 ,jd; myF $#y;/fpnyhfpuhk;/bfy;tpd;.
btg;gVw;g[j;jpwd;
 bghUbshd;wpd; btg;gepiyia xU bfy;tpd; cah;j;jj;

njitahd btg;g Mw;wypd; mst[ mjd; btg;g Vw;g[j;jpwd;
vdg;gLk;.
 ,jd; myF $#y;/bfy;tpd;.
65. braw;iff; nfhs;fs; vd;why; vd;d? mtw;wpd; tiffs; kw;Wk;

gad;ghLfisg; gw;wpf; TWf.
 nfhspidr; Rw;wp tUfpd;w thd;bghUs;fs; Jizf;nfhs;.
 re;jpud; g{kpapd; Jizf;nfhs;.
 kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l xU bghUs; braw;if Jizf;nfhs;.
 xU bghUis g{kpapid Rw;wp tur; bra;a[k;nghJ mJ g{kpapDila
braw;if Jizf;nfhshf cs;sJ.
 braw;ifj; Jizf;nfhs;fs; re;jpuidf; fhl;oYk; g{kpf;F kpf
mUfpy; cs;sitahFk;.
 g{kpa[k; braw;ifj; Jizf;nfhSk; xnu RHw;rp neuj;jpidf; bfhz;L
Rw;wp tUtjhy; braw;ifj; Jizf;nfhs;fisg; g{kpapypUe;J
ghh;f;Fk; nghJ mit xnu ,lj;jpy; mike;Js;sd.
 braw;ifj; Jizf;nfhs;fspd; Ma[l;fhyk; mjd; fdmst[ kw;Wk;
bjhiytpidg; bghWj;J mika[k;.
 braw;ifj; Jizf;nfhs;fs; Fwpg;gpl;l ntfj;jpy; ,a';Fjy;
ntz;Lk;.
 Fwpg;gpl;l ntfj;jpw;F fPH; ,a';fpdhy; mit fhw;W kz;lyj;jpy;
g[Fe;J cuha;tpdhy; vhpe;J tpLk;.
 braw;if Jizf;nfhs;fs; thbdhyp xypgug;gp kw;Wk; thbdhyp
Vw;gpfis Rke;J bry;fpd;wd. ,it tpz;btspapy; braw;iff;
Jizf;nfhs;fspd; ,Ug;gplj;ij Jy;ypakhf fz;Lgpoj;J
iriffis mDg;g[fpwJ.

 braw;ifj; Jizf;nfhs;fs; mwptpay; bjhlh;ghd jfty;fis

iriffs; \yk; g{kpf;F mDg;g[fpwJ.
 braw;ifnfhs; xd;wpy; ,Uf;Fk; Vw;gpf; fUtpapid g{kpapypUe;J
mDg;gg;gLk; iriffs; \yk; bray;gLj;jt[k; braypHf;fr; bra;a
Koa[k;.
 ce;jj;jpd; mHptpd;ik tpjp kw;Wk; epa{l;ldpd; ,af;ftpjpia
mog;gilahff; bfhz;L uhf;bfl;Lfs; brYj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
tiffs;
g[tp - epiyj; Jizf;nfhs;
 bjhiyf;fhl;rp kw;Wk; bjhiyngrp bjhlh;gpy; gad;glf;Toa xU

tifj; Jizf;nfhs;.
 epyeLf;nfhl;Lg;gFjpf;F nky; xU Fwpg;gpl;l cauj;jpy;
epiyahd ,l';fspy; ,Ug;gJ nghy njhd;Wk;.
 ,J xj;jpUf;Fk; Jizf;nfhs; vdt[k; miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 rpy bjhiyf;fhl;rp epfH;r;rpfs; my;yJ kw;w ehLfspy;
eilbgWk; epfH;r;rpfis nehpilahf xspgug;g[ bra;a ,e;j
Jizf;nfhs; cjt[fpd;wd.
JUtj; Jizf;nfhs;fs;
 tlf;F - nkw;F mr;rpidg; gw;wp RHyf;Toa g[tpia mjd; tl-

bjd; JUt';fSf;F nky; bry;Yk; Rw;Wg;ghijapy; Rw;wptUk;
Jizf;nfhs;.
 500 Kjy; 800 fp.kP cauj;jpy; epWj;jg;gLk; JUtj; Jizf;nfhs;
xU JUtj;jpypUe;J kw;bwhU JUtj;ij 102 epkpl';fspy;
flf;fpd;wd.
 tpz;btspapy; epiyahf ,Uf;Fk; JUtr; Rw;Wg;ghijf;F cs;ns
g[tp RHy;tJ nghy; ,Uf;Fk;.
 g{kpapd; bgUk;ghd;ikahd gFjpfs; JUtr; Rw;Wg;ghijapy;
cs;s Jizf;nfhs;fis fle;Jr;bry;Yk;.
 JUtr; Rw;Wg;ghijapdhy; g[tpapd; gug;g[fis ed;whf fzpf;f
Koa[k;.
 epy mstpLjypYk;/ epyg;glk; vLj;jypYk; gad;gLfpd;wd.

Time: 10:30 – 1:30
gad;fs;
 bjhiyngrp kw;Wk; ,z;lh;bel; tHpahf bjhiyj;J}uj; jfty;

bjhlh;g[f;F.
 thbdhyp epfH;r;rpfs; xypgug;g[ kw;Wk; bjhiyf;fhl;rp xspgug;g[
bra;a.
 fdpk ts';fs; kw;Wk; ePh; Mjhu';fspd; ,Ug;gplj;ij fz;Lgpof;f.
 thdpiyr; bra;jpfis Kd;Tl;ona bjhpe;J bfhs;s.
 tpz;btsp gw;wpa jfty;fis nrfhpf;f.
 bjhiy czh;t[f;fhf.
66. ghpzhkk; vd;why; vd;d?

 ghpzhkk; vd;gJ vspa jd;ik bfhz;l caphpfspypUe;J/ nkk;gl;l
jd;ik bfhz;l caphpfshf gog;goahf Vw;gLk; khw;wkhFk;.
 gokr; rhd;Wfspd; \yk;/ ,g;ghpzhkk; kpft[k; bkJthf gy kpy;ypd;
Mz;Lfshf eilbgWk; epfH;thFk;.
 NH;epiyf; fhuzkhf caphpd';fspd; ntWghLfs; gy rpw; wpdg;
guty;fis Vw;gLj;jpd.
67. rpw;wpdkhjy; vd;why; vd;d?

 rpw;wpdkhjy; vd;gJ Xh; ,dk; beL';fhyj;jpw;Fg; g[tpf;fhuzp
my;yJ ,dg;bgUf;f fhuzpfshy; jdpikg;gLj;jg;gl;L g[jpa
rpw;wpdkhf khWgLk; epfH;t[.
 ,uz;L ,df; Tl;lk; g[tp/ ,dg;bgUf;ff; fhuzpfs; nghd;wtw;why;
jdpikg;gLj;jg;gl;lhy; ,tw;wpd; $Pd; mikg;g[k; khw;wk; bgw;Wg;
g[jpa rpw;wpdkhf MfpwJ.
 ,j;jifa jdpikg;gLj;Jjy; fhuzp g[jpa rpw;wpdk; cUthjYf;fhd
NHiy Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
68. gPndhilg; kw;Wk; $Pndhilg; vd;gJ vd;d?

 g[wj;njhw;wj;jpy; btspg;gilahff; fhzg;gLk; gz;g[fshd bel;il

my;yJ Fl;il/ Cjh my;yJ bts;is epwk; nghd;wit
g[wj;njhw;wg; gz;g[ my;yJ gPndhilg; vdg;gLk;.
 g[wj;njhw;wg; gz;g[fSf;Ff; fhuzkhd Fnuhnkhnrhk; my;yJ $Pd;
mikg;g[ $Pdhf;fg; gz;g[ my;yJ $Pndhilg; vdg;gLk;.
69. Fnuhnkhnrhk;fshy; ghy; gz;g[fs; eph;zapf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij

btspapl;lth; ahh;?
 f;shud;!; bkf; fps'; vd;gth; Fnuhnkhnrhk;fshy; ghy; gz;g[fs;
eph;zapf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;Dk; fUj;ij btspapl;lhh;.
 ,th; btl;Lf;fpspfspy; eilbgWk; ,dr; bry;yhf;fj;ijf; ftdpj;J
,f;fUj;ij btspapl;lhh;.
70. kdpjhpy; fhzg;gLk; ghy; ,dj; jphpg[fis tpsf;Ff.

lh;dhpd; Fiw Tl;L btspg;ghL
 ,th;fs; ,ay;ghd bgz;fisg; nghd;W ,y;yhky;/ kyl;Lj;
jd;ika[lDk;/ Fs;sj; jd;ika[lDk; ,Ug;gh;.
 mfd;w fGj;J kw;Wk; khh;g[ld;/ mwpt[f;Th;ik mw;wth;fshft[k;
rhpahf tsh;r;rpa[whj ghy; kw;Wk; mz;l Rug;gpfisf;
bfhz;lth;fshft[k; ,Ug;gh;.
fpisd;bgy;lh; rpz;l;nuhk;
 Mz;fspy; xU X Fnuhnkhnrhk; mjpfk; fhzg;gLtjhy;

cz;lhFk; neha; btspg;ghL.
 ,J X Fnuhnkhnrhk; bfhz;l xU mrhjhuz Kl;il Y
Fnuhnkhnrhk; bfhz;l rhjhuz tpe;jqthy; fUt[WfpwJ.
 ,th;fs; rhpahf tsh;r;rpa[whj tpe;jf';fSld;/ tsh;r;rpf; Fiwt[/
ePz;l fu';fs;/ bgz;ik fye;j fPr;Rf; FuYlDk; fhzg;gLth;.
cghpg; gz;g[g; bgz;fs;
 ,th;fs; gy X Fnuhnkhnrhk; bfhz;l bgz;fshth;.

 ,ay;ghd bgz;fistpl xU X Fnuhnkhnrhkpid mjpfkhff;
bfhz;oUg;gh;. (44 Ml;nlhnrhk;fs; kw;Wk; XXX Fnuhnkhnrhk;)
 kyl;Lj; jd;ik bfhz;L kdtsh;r;rpaw;Wf; fhzg;gLth;.
XYY Mz;fs;

 ,th;fs; xU Y Fnuhnkhnrhkpid mjpfk; bfhz;oUg;gh;.

 kdtsh;r;rpaw;wth;fshft[k;/ Fw;w kdg;nghf;FlDk; fhzg;gLth;.
Time: 10:30 – 1:30
,Ughy; caphpj;jd;ik
 xU X kw;Wk; Y Fnuhnkhnrhk; mjpfkhff; bfhz;oUg;gh;.

 mz;lf';fs;/ tpe;jf';fs; ,uz;Lk; fhzg;gLk;.
 ghy;rhh;e;j g[w cWg;g[fspd; tsh;r;rp tiuaWf;fg;gLtjpy;iy.
71. caph; czhp kw;Wk; caphpr; rpg;g[fs; ntWgLj;Jf.

caph; czhp
 behjp/ vjph;g;bghUs;/ ]hh;nkhd;/ epa{f;spf; mkpyk; kw;Wk;
caphpfspd; bry;fs; \yk; bghUj;jg;gl;l czhpa[ld;
,izf;fg;gl;l xU fUtpahFk;.
 ,f;fUtp caphpay; J}z;liy kpd; J}z;lyhf khw;WfpwJ.
 ,f;fUtpfs; kUj;Jtk; kw;Wk; bjhHpw;rhiyfspy;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
gad;fs;
 ,uj;j FSf;nfh!; msitf; fzf;fpl.

 neha[Wjy; fhuzkhf cUthd/ clypd; er;Rj; jd;ikiaf;
fzf;fplyhk;.
 FoePh; khRWjiyf; fz;fhzpf;fyhk;.
 cztpd; kzk;/ Rit/ eak; nghd;wtw;iw mstplt[k;
gad;gLj;jyhk;.
caphpr; rpg;g[fs;
 caphpj; bjhHpy;El;gtpay; \ykhf/ caphpr; rpg;g[fs;

cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 vjph;fhyj;jpy; caphpay; fzpg;bghwpfis cUthf;fg;
gad;gLj;jyhk;.

 ,it ghJfhg;g[j; Jiw kw;Wk; kUj;Jtj; Jiwapy; gad;gLk;.
72. ePhpHpt[ nehapd; Kf;fpa mwpFwpfs; ahit?

 100 kpy;yp ypl;lh; ,uj;jj;jpy; 120 kp.fpuhkpw;Fk; mjpfkhf FSf;nfh!;
fhzg;gLk; epiyia ePhpHpt[ neha; (lahgo!; bkypl!;) vd;fpnwhk;.
 rpfpr;ir bra;ag;glhj ePhpHpt[ nehapd; mwpFwpfs;.
1. ghypa{hpah - mjpf mst[ rpWePh; btspnaWjy;.
2. ghypog;rpah - mjpf jfhk; Vw;gLtjhy; ePh; gUFjy;
mjpfhpj;jy;.
3. ghypng$pah - grp mjpfhpg;gjpdhy;/ mjpf mst[ czt[
cz;qjy;/ MdhYk; cly; vil Fiwe;J fhzg;gLjy;.
 clypy; FSf;nfh!Pid nrkpf;fnth my;yJ gad;gLj;jnth
,ayhyjjpdhy; cly; vilf;Fiwt[/ epiwt[ czh;t[ ,y;yhj
grpf;Fk; jd;ik kw;Wk; clw;nrhh;t[.
 bfhGg;g[ tsh;rpij khw;wj;jpy; khWghL.
 rpwpa ,uj;j ehs';fs; ntfkhf mHpe;J nghjy;.
73. fz;g[iu (nfl;uhf;l;) neha; gw;wp Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 tpHpbyd;rpd; xspg[Fk; jd;ik Fiwghl;odhy; fz;g[iu Vw;gLk;.
 byd;rpy; cs;s bky;ypa g[uj ,iHfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; fhuzkhf
Vw;gLfpwJ.
 fz;g[iuapy; KGf; FUl;Lj; jd;ik Vw;glhJ. Mdhy; xspg[Fk;
jd;ik Fiwa[k;. ,jdhy; gpk;gj;jpd; bjspt[ kw;Wk; gz;g[fs;
bjhlh;r;rpahff; Fiwa[k;.
 xspahdJ byd;rpd; tHpahf CLUtp/ tpHpj;jpiuia mila[k;.
xspg[Fk; jd;ik Fiwtjpdhy; xsp tpHpj;jpiuia mila
Kotjpy;iy.
 taJ Kjph;r;rp/ mjpf Nhpa xspgLjy;/ g[ifg;gpoj;jy;/
czt[g;gw;whf;Fiw/ fz; fhakiljy;/ KG cly; neha;f;fhd ePuHpt[/
bjhw;Wneha;fs; Mfpatw;why; fz;g[iu Vw;glyhk;.
 b$h;kd; jl;lk;ik fUt[w;w jhapidj; jhf;Fk;nghJ FHe;ijf;Ff;
fz;g[iu cz;lhff; fhuzkhfyhk;.
 rj;jhd czit cl;bfhs;Sjy;/ mjpfr; Nhpa xsp/ vf;!; fjph;fs;/
mjpf btg;gk; Mfpait fz;zpy; gLjiyj; jtph;j;jy;/ rpgpyp!;

kw;Wk; ePhpHpt[ neha;fSf;F Muk;g fhyj;jpnyna rpfpr;ir bra;jy;
Mfpatw;why; ,jidj; jtph;f;fyhk;.
74. Fnuhnkhnrhk;fisg; gw;wp rpW Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 $Pd;fisj; jd;dfj;nj bfhz;Ls;s mikg;g[fs; Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs;
MFk;.
 ,it DNA kw;Wk; g[uj';fshy; Mdit.
 thy;nlah; vd;gth; 1888 ,y; Fnuhnkhnrhk; vd;w bgaiu
mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;.
 vy;yh caphpd';fspYk; Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,it caphpfspd; kug[g; gz;g[fSf;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wd.
 ghf;Ohpa';fspy; tl;l tot Fnuhnkhnrhk;fSk;/ a{nfhpnal;Lfspy;
ePs; tot Fnuhnkhnrhk;fSk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; $Pd;fisf; bfhz;Ls;sd vd;gij Kjd; Kjypy;
1916 y; gphpl;$!; cWjp bra;jhh;.
75. PUFA vd;why; vd;d?

 PUFA vd;gJ Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid vdg;gLk;.
 epiwt[whj bfhGg;g[ mkpyk; vdg;gLk; ,it vspjpy;
Mf;!pfuzkila[k;.
 vdntjhd; ,uj;j mGj;j neha; cs;sth;fSf;F epiwt[whj bfhGg;g[
mkpyk; mjpfkhf cs;s Nhpafhe;jp vz;bza;/ rd;~gpsth; vz;bza;
nghd;wit kUe;Jth;fshy; ghpe;Jiuf;fg;gLfpwJ.
76. caphp cuk; vd;why; vd;d?

 Rw;Wr;NHYf;F jP';F tpistpf;fhj kz;zpy; iel;u$d; nghd;w
Cl;lr;rj;Jf;fis epiyepWj;Jk; ghf;Ohpah/ g{|;ir/ ePyg;gRk;ghrp
nghd;wtw;wpd; caphpr;bry;fshy; jahhpf;fg;gl;l Ez;qaphpf; fyit.
 ntshz;ikapy; mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,urhaz cu';fs;
kz;zpd; jd;ikia ghH;gLj;JtJld;/ kiH ePhpy; moj;Jr;
bry;yg;gl;L ePh; epiyfisa[k; khRgLj;Jfpd;wd.
 ,urhaz cu';fs; ,aw;ifr; NHYf;Ff; nfL tpistpg;gjhy;
jw;fhyj;jpy; caphp cu';fs; tptrhaj;jpy;
mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
 v.fh.

 iel;u$id epiyepWj;Jk; iunrhgpak;/ mrpl;nlhghf;lh;/
eh!;lhf;/ mnrhyh/ mdgPdh/ Mrpy;ynlhhpah nghd;w
randhghf;Ohpa';fs;.
 gh!;ngl;ilf; fiuf;Fk; ngry;y!; ghf;Ohpa';fs;.
 Cl;lg;bghUl;fis cwp|;r cjt[k; Fnshk!;/
$pi$fh!;nghuh nghd;w g{|;irfs;.
gad;fs;
 Rw;Wr;NHiy khRgLj;Jfpd;wd.
 kypthdit.
 ,urhaz cu';fistpl kpFe;j gad; mspf;ff;Toait.
 kz;zpd; tsj;ijg; bgUf;Ffpd;wd.
 kz;thH; Ez;zpaphpfs; vz;zpf;ifia kz;zpy; mjpfhpf;fpd;wd.
77. kz;zPuypd; gzpfis tpsf;Ff.

 kpft[k; tajhd epiyapYs;s ,uj;jr; rptg;gqf;fs; mHpf;fg;gLk;
,lk;.
 rptg;gq cw;gj;jpf;F khw;W ikakhft[k;/ rptg;gqf;fisj; njf;fp
itf;Fk; cWg;ghft[k; cs;sJ.
 ,uj;j Xl;lg; ghijapy; Ez;fpUkpfs; nghd;w may;bghUl;fis
tofl;Lk; cWg;g[.
 ,uj;jk; tHpahf tUk; Mz;ob$d;fSf;bfjpuhf filfhg;g[
eltof;iffis KLf;fp tpLfpwJ.
 neha; jilfhg;g[ cWg;g[fspy; ,J kpfg;bghpa cWg;ghFk;.
 clypd; neha; jLg;ghw;wiy cWjp bra;tjpy; Kf;fpag;
g';fhw;WfpwJ.
78. Md;ob$d; gw;wp ePtph; mwpe;jJ ahJ?

 neha;f;fpUkpfs;/ neha;f;fpUkpfshy; Ruf;fg;gLk; er;Rg;bghUs;
Mfpa may;bghUl;fs; Md;ob$d;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,tw;wpw;F ,k;a[ndhb$d; vd;w bgah; cz;L.
 ,k;a[ndhb$d; vd;gJ neha; jilfhg;g[ eltof;ifiaj; J}z;Lk;
\yf;TwhFk;.
 Md;ob$d; vd;gJ Md;oghoa[lndh my;yJ bry;tHp neha;
jilfhg;gpy; <LgLk; bry;fSlndh tpidg[hpak; \yf;TwhFk;.

79. $Pndhk; thpirahf;fk; vd;why; vd;d?

 xU caphpapd; $Pndhkpid gy;ntW mstpyhd \yf;TWfshf
vyf;l;nuhnghnuhrp!; bra;Kiw \yk; gphpf;f ,aYk;.
 xU caphpapd; DNA MdJ vyf;l;nuhnghnuhrp!; Kiwg;gog;
gphpf;fg;gLk;nghJ mjd; \yf;TWfs; neh;kpd; Kidia nehf;fp
efh;fpd;wd. Vbddpy; DNA vjph;kpd; \yf;TW MFk;.
 DNA tpd; rpwpa \yf;TWfs; bghpa \yf;TWfistpl mjpf
ntfj;jpy; efh;r;rpailfpd;wd.
 DNA tpd; gy;ntW \yf;TWg; gFjpfspd; efh;r;rp J}uj;ijf; bfhz;L
mtw;wpy; ml';fpa[s;s \y';fspd; vz;zpf;if fzf;fplg;gLk;.
 DNA gFjpfspd; nkw;go \y';fspd; thpiraikg;g[ ntjpapay;
kw;Wk; caphp ntjpapay; bra;Kiwfspd; thapyhf mwpag;gLk;.
 DNA tpd; E}w;Wf;fzf;fhd \y';fis thrpf;ff;Toa jhdpa';fp
thpira[zh; rpf;nfhndl;lhl; ,ae;jpu';fs; jw;nghJ cUthfpa[s;sd.
 DNA tpd; thpir jut[fs; gpd;dh; fzpdpapy; vspjpy; bgwf;Toa
tifapy; nrkpf;fg;gLfpdw;d.
80. ,onahfpuhk; vd;gJ ahJ?

 Fnuhnkhnrhk; bjhFg;g[ tiugl Kiwf;fhf xU bry;ypy; cs;s
midj;J Fnuhnkhnrhk;fSk; gphpf;fg;gl;L mitfs; thpirahf
mikf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,f;Fnuhnkhnrhk; mikg;g[ Kiwf;F nfhpnahfpuhk; my;yJ
,onahfpuhk; vd;W bgah;.
81. ouhd;!;bgf;Zd; (may;$Pd; bjhw;W) vd;gJ vd;d?

 tpy';Ffspd; bray;fs; may; $Pd;fis Vw;Wf; bfhs;Sk; gz;gpid
ouhd;!;bgf;Zd; my;yJ may;$Pd; bjhw;W vd;fpnwhk;.
 may;$Pd; bjhw;wpa bry;fs; gy;ntW eilKiwfspy; gad;ghl;oy;
cs;sd.
 gyntjpg;bghUl;fSk; kUj;Jtg; bghUl;fSk; jahhpg;gjw;Fg;
gad;gLfpd;wJ.
 $Pd;fspd; mikg;iga[k; braiya[k; mwpe;J bfhs;s cjt[fpwJ.

 tpahghu hPjpapy; gy bghUshjhu Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j kugpay;g[

khw;wg;gl;l fhy;eil tpy';Ffisa[k;/ kPd;fisa[k; ,jd; \yk;
cw;gj;jp bra;a ,aYk;.
82. ,aj;jir erpt[wy; neha; vd;why; vd;d?

 ,J Xh; ,jaj;jirj; jkdp nehahFk;.
 ,e;neha; ,jaj; jirfSf;Fr; bry;Yk; jkdpf;FHy;fs;
milgLtjhy; njhd;Wk;.
 ,jdhy; fLikahd be|;Rtyp Vw;gLk;. ,e;nehahy;
,jaj;jirapd; xU gFjp ,we;J tpLfpwJ.
fhuz';fs;
 ,jaj;jir jkdpfspy; Vw;gLk; ,uj;jf;fl;ofshy; Vw;gLk;

milg;g[.
 jkdpfspd; cl;Rtw;wpy; bfhy!;ouhy; nghd;w bfhGg;g[g;
bghUl;fs; gojy;.
 got[fshy; ,uj;jf;frpt[ Vw;gl;L ,uj;jk; ciwjy;.
 ciwe;j ,uj;jj; Jqf;F FHiy milg;gjhy; ,jaj; jirfSf;F
,uj;j Xl;lk; jilgLjy;.
mwpFwpfs;
 kpff; fLikahd be|;R typ.

 tpah;j;jy;.
 \r;Rj; jpzwy;.
 tapw;Wf; Fkl;ly;.
 the;jp.
 glglg;g[.
83. caph; g[tp ntjpar; RHw;rp gw;wp rpW Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; bgUf;fj;jpw;fhf caphpd';fshy; g[tpapypUe;J
bgwg;gLk; Cl;l \yf;TWfs; caph;-g[tp ntjpg;bghUs;fs;
vdg;gLk;.
 capuw;w NHYf;Fk; (kz;/ ghiw/ fhw;W/ ePh;) caphpd';fSf;Fk;
,ilna eilbgWk; \yf;TWfs; my;yJ gFjpg;bghUs;fspd;
RHw;rp Xl;lk; caph;-g[tp ntjpar; RHw;rp vdg;gLk;.

 ,aw;gpay; fhuzpfisa[k; gpw caphpd';fisa[k; cs; slf;fpa

tpy';Ffs; kw;Wk; jhtu';fs; thGk; Rw;Wg;g[wnk Rw;Wr;NHy;
vdg;gLk;.
 caphpd';fSf;Fk; mjd; Rw;Wr;NHYf;Fk; ,ilna cs;s
bjhlh;g[fisg; gw;wpa caphpaypd; gphpt[ NH;epiyapay; vdg;gLk;.
 caphpd';fSk; mit thGk; ,lj;jpd; ,aw;gpa Rw;Wg;g[wKk; nrh;e;J
cUthf;Fk; xU NH;epiyf; Tl;likg;ng NH;epiyj; bjhFg;g[
vdg;gLk;.
 NH;epiyj; bjhFg;g[ ,uz;L ,d;wpaikahj gFjpg;bghUs;fis
cs;slf;fpaJ.
 capuw;w gFjpg;bghUs;fs; (,aw;gpa my;yJ capuw;w)
 capUs;s gFjpg;bghUs;fs; (capUs;sit)
 ek; clypy; \d;wpy; ,uz;L gFjp ePh; ml';fpa[s;sJ.
 g{kpapd; ePh;tH';fy; 97 % bgU';fly;fs;/ 2 % gdpKfLfs; kw;Wk; 1 %
epyj;jo ePh; cs;sJ.
 20 epkpl ,okpd;dYld; Toa g[ay; 12/50/00/000 fyd;fs; ePiu fPnH
mDg;g[k;. 1 fyd; vd;gJ 4.5 ypl;lUf;Fr; rkk;.
84. g[Snuhrp!; gw;wp rpWFwpg;g[ tiuf.

 ,e;jpahtpYs;s 13 khepy';fspy; FoePhpy; mjpf mst[ ~g;Shpd;
cs;sJ.
 kdpj cly; Vw;Wf;bfhs;sf;Toa mjpf ~g;Shpd; mst[ ypl;lUf;F 1.5
kp.fp. MFk;.
 ~g;Shpd; mjpf mst[ clypy; nrUk;nghJ/ ~g;Snuhrp!; vd;w neha;
cUthfpwJ.
 ,jdhy; gw;fspy; ~g;Shpd; got[fs; gojy;/ xG';fw;w gy; mikt[
kw;Wk; Kuz;ghlhd vYk;g[fspd; mikt[ Mfpa mwpFwpfs; njhd;Wk;.
 rikf;fg; gad;gLj;Jk; ePhpYk;/ FoePhpYk; rhpahd mstpw;F
~g;Shpd; cs;sjh vd;gij Ma;t[ bra;J gad;gLj;j ntz;oaJ
mtrpak;.
Weekend Class will Start from (Monday, Wednesday, Friday)
10.02.2019 Time: 10:30 – 1:30

85. bfhGg;g[ kw;Wk; ePhpy; fiua[k; itl;lkpd;fspd; tsh;rpij khw;w gzpfis

tpsf;Ff.
itl;lkpd; A
fhzg;gLk; bghUl;fs;
 gg;ghsp.
 nful;.
 khk;gHk;.
 rh;f;fiuts;spf; fpH';F.
 k|;rs;/ Mu|;R epwf; fha;fwpfs;.
 <uy;/ Kl;il/ ghy;/ bfhGg;g[ epiwe;j kPd;.
gzpfs;
 Fiwe;j btspr;rj;jpYk; fz; ghh;it bjspthf ,Ug;gjpy;

cjt[fpwJ.
 vgpjPypaj; jpRf;fspy; Ruf;fg;gLk; nfhiH cUthtjw;F
itl;lkpd; A mtrpakhdJ.
 vYk;g[ cUthjypy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 vYk;igr; NH;e;Js;s ikaypd; ciw itl;lkpd; A Fiwtpdhy;
nrjkilfpwJ.
 kpa{nfh g[uj';fs; kw;Wk; fpisf;nfh g[uj';fspd; jahhpg;gpy;
cjt[fpwJ.
 ,dg;bgUf;fj;jpw;F ,t;itl;lkpd; kpf ,d;wpaikahjJ.
itl;lkpd; D
fhzg;gLk; bghUl;fs;
 Nhpa xsp clypy; vh;f;nfh!;ouhy;; vd;w bghUs; kPJ gLk;nghJ
cly; ,t;itl;lkpid ,aw;ifahfj; jahhpj;Jf;bfhs;fpwJ.
 kPd; <uy; vz;bza;/ btz;bza;/ ghy;fl;o/ bea;/ghy;.
gzpfs;
 fhy;rpak; kw;Wk; gh!;ngl;Lfs; clypy; cwp|;rg;gLtjw;F .
 vYk;g[fspy; fhy;rpak; gojYf;Fk;/ cWjpahf;ft[k;.
 ,uj;j gpsh!;khtpy; fhy;rpaj;jpd; mlh;tpidr; rPuhf;FfpwJ.
itl;lkpd; E

fhzg;gLk; bghUl;fs;
 jhtu vz;bza; kw;Wk; bfhGg;g[fs;.
 vz;bza; tpj;Jfs;.
 nfhJik/ Kis fl;oa jhdpa';fs;.
gzpfs;
 kdpjdpd; ,dtpUj;jpf;F ,d;wpaikahjJ.

 Md;oMf;!pld;l; Mf tpidg[hpe;J ,janeha; tuhky; jLf;fpwJ.
 jpRf;fSf;F g[j;Jzh;r;rp mspj;jypy; ,J gad;gLfpwJ.
itl;lkpd; K
fhzg;gLk; bghUl;fs;
 gr;irf; fha;fwpfs;.
 jf;fhsp.
 Kl;il/ <uy;/ fPiufs;.
 rpy fpH';F tiffs;.
gzpfs;
 ,uj;jk; ciwjYf;F cjt[fpwJ.
 ,uj;jk; ciwaj; njitahd g[nuhj;uhk;gpd; vd;w g[ujg;bghUs;
fy;yPuypy; cw;gj;jpahtjpy; gad;gLfpwJ.
ePhpy; fiua[k; itl;lkpd;fs;
itl;lkpd; B
fhzg;gLk; bghUl;fs;
 KG jhdpa';fs;.
 iff;Fj;jy; mhprp.
 KG nfhJik.
 <uy;/ Kl;il/ ,iwr;rp.
gzpfs;
 cly; tsh;r;rpf;F jakpd; ,d;wpaikahjJ.

 euk;g[ kz;lyk; kw;Wk; brhpkhd kz;lyj;jpd; guhkhpg;gpw;F ,J
mtrpak;.
 fhh;nghi]l;nul; tsh;rpij khw;wj;jpy; Kf;fpag; g';F tfpf;fpwJ.

itl;lkpd; C
fhzg;gLk; bghUl;fs;
 bey;ypf;fha;/ Mu|;R.
 vYkpr;ir.
 bfha;ahg;gHk;.
 rpl;u!; gH';fs;.
 fPiufs;/ gg;ghsp/ jf;fhsp.
gzpfs;
 clypd; neha; vjph;g;g[r; rf;jpia Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ.

 bry;fisj; jpRf;fSld; ,izf;fg; gad;gLk; bfhyh$d; vd;Dk;
g[ujg; bghUis cw;gj;jp bra;jypy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 clypy; ,Uk;g[r;rj;J cwp|;rg;gLjypy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 kUe;Jfs; e|;rhf khwhjpUg;gij cWjpg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 ]hh;nkhd;fs; bray;gLtij Cf;Ftpf;Fk; fhuzpahf
bray;gLfpwJ.
86. neha;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy; <Lgl;Ls;s mikg;g[fSf;F

vLj;Jf;fhl;L jUf.
 njrpa bjhGneha; xHpg;g[j; jpl;lk;
 jPtpu nghypnah jLg;g[ Kiw gpur;rhuj; jpl;lk;
 nghypnahit KGikahf xHpf;Fk; nehf;fpy;
bfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ.
 2010 y; ,e;jpah nghypnah neha; ,y;yhj ehlhf
mwptpf;fg;gl;lJ.
 njrpa fhrneha; jpl;lk; - fhrneha; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk; ePf;Fjy;.
 njrpa ignyhpahf; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; jpl;lk;.
 njrpa knyhpah neha; xHpg;g[j; jpl;lk;.
 ,e;jpa njrpa neha; jLg;g[ Kiwj;jpl;lk; - 9 Kjy; 15 khj';fshd
FHe;ijfSf;F MMR jLg;g{rpiag; ghpe;Jiu bra;Js;sJ.
 cyfk; jGtpa neha; ghJfhg;g[j; jpl;lk; - DPT/ nghypnah/ fhrneha;
kw;Wk; jl;lk;ik Mfpa MW jtph;f;ff;Toa neha;fspy; ,Ue;J
FHe;ijfisg; ghJfhj;jy;.

 jkpH;ehl;oy; 1990 y; khepy va;l;!; FG jd;Dila gzpiaj;

Jtf;fpaJ. va;l;!; neha; gw;wpa tpHpg;g[zh;it kf;fspilna
Vw;gLj;Jjy;.
87. fhh;g!; Y}l;oak; rpW Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 fU tsh;r;rp fhyj;jpy; fhh;g!; Y}l;oak; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; bgWk;.
 mz;l mq njhd;wp btspnawpa fhypahd fpuhgpad; ghypf;fpspd;
khWghnl fhh;g!; Y}l;oakhFk;.
 ,t;tikg;g[ Ruf;Fk; ]hh;nkhd; g[nuhb$!;ouhd;. ,J xU !;Ouha;L
]hh;nkhd;.
 fUt[w;w mz;lj;ij fUg;igapy; gjpg;gjw;Fk;/ fU tsh;r;rpf;Fk;
,e;j ]hh;nkhd; mtrpakhdJ.
 fUg;ig fUt[whj fhy';fspy; fhh;g!; Y}l;oak; rpije;J fhh;g!;
my;gpfd;!; vd;w tL nghd;w mikg;ghf khWfpwJ.
88. KFsj;jpd; gzpfs; ahit?

 KFsk; vd;gJ \isj; jz;od; fPH;g;gFjpahFk;.
 nky; kw;Wk; fPH; bry;Yk; euk;g[g; ghijfspd; flj;Jk;
,ilg;gFjpahf ,g;gFjp bray;gLfpwJ.
 KFsj;jpy; cs;s cl;fUf;fs; gy mdpr;irr; bray;fspd; ikakhfr;
bray;gLfpwJ.
 ,jaj;Jog;gpd; tPjk;/ ,uj;jf;FHy;fspd; RUf;fk;/ Rthrk;/
tpG';Fjy;/ the;jp vLj;jy;/ ,Uky;/ Jk;ky; nghd;w mdpr;ir
bray;fspy; KFsk; g';F bgWtjhy; caph; Kor;R vd
miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
89. caphp jftypay; vd;why; vd;d?

 caphp jfty;fshd epa{f;spd; mkpyk;/ $Pd; thpirfs; kw;Wk; g[uj
thpiraikg;g[ Mfpatw;wpd; jut[j; js';fis cz;lhf;ft[k;/
epWtt[k; cjt[fpwJ.
 caphp jftypay; jut[fis Ma;t[ bra;jy; $Pndhk; kw;Wk; g[uj
\yf;TWfSf;fhd kpd;dq jut[j; js';fisj; jahhpj;jy;
nghd;wtw;iwr; bra;fpd;wJ.
90. jhtu';fs; tpy';Ffspd; czt{l;lk; gw;wp vGJf.

 caphpd';fs; md;whlr; braiyr; bra;at[k;/ mit epiyjpUf;ft[k;

Mw;wy; njit.
 caphpd';fs; czit cl;bfhs;Sk; Kiwa[k; mjidg; gad;gLj;Jk;
Kiwa[nk czt{l;lk; vdg;gLk;.
jhtu';fspd; czt{l;l Kiw ,U tifg;gLk;
jw;rhh;g[ Cl;lKiw – Auto trophos
 jw;rhh;g[ Cl;lKiw – jdf;Fj; njitahd czit jhnd jhahpj;Jf;
bfhs;Sk; czt{l;l Kiwia Fwpf;Fk;. v.fh – gRe;jhtu';fs;.
 fhpakpy tha[it fhpkf; Tl;Lg; bghUs;fshf khw;Wtjw;Fj;
jhtu';fs; vt;thW Mw;wiyg; bgWfpd;wd vd;gijg; bghWj;J
,uz;L tifahf gphpf;fyhk;.
 xspj;jw;rhh;g[ caphpfs;
 ntjpj;jw;rhh;g[ caphpfs;
xspj;jw;rhh;g[ caphpfs;
czt[ jahhpg;gjw;Fr; Nhpa xspapypUe;J fpilf;Fk; Mw;wiyg;
gad;gLj;Jk; caphpfs; xspj;jw;rhh;g[ caphpfs; vdg;gLk;. v.fh. gRk;
fe;jf ghf;Ohpah/ Cjh fe;jf ghf;Ohpah/ gRe;jhtu';fs;.
ntjpj;jw;rhh;g[ caphpfs;
fhpkf; Tl;Lg;bghUs;fisj; jahhpg;gjw;fhf ntjpMw;wiyg;
gad;gLj;Jk; caphpfs; ntjpj;jw;rhh;g[ caphpfs; vdg;gLk;. v.fh.
iel;nuhnrhnkhdh!;.
gpwrhh;g[ Cl;lKiw – Hetero trophos

 gpwrhh;g[ Cl;lKiw –- cztpw;fhf gpw caphpd';fis rhh;e;J thGk;
Cl;lKiwiaf; Fwpf;Fk; v.fh. kdpjd; kw;Wk; tpy';Ffs;.
 gpwrhh;g[ Cl;l Kiw ,Utifg;gLk;. mit
 kl;Fz;zp my;yJ rhWz;zp tif Cl;lKiw.
 xl;Lz;zp tif Cl;l Kiw.
kl;Fz;zp tif Cl;lKiw

,we;j my;yJ capuw;w fhpkf; Tl;Lg;bghUs;fspypUe;J
czitg; bgWk; jhtu';fs; kl;Fz;zpj; jhtu';fs; vdg;gLk;. v.fh.
kpa{f;fh;/ eha;f;Fil g{|;irfs;/ ngrpy;y!; rg;oyp!; ghf;Ohpah/ kw;Wk;
khndhl;nuhgh M|;rpnah!;bgh;k;.

xl;Lz;zp tif Cl;lKiw

 xl;Lz;zp czt{l;l Kiwapy; caphpdk; jdf;Fj; njitahd
czit kw;w caphpapd; clypypUe;J bgw;Wf;bfhs;fpwJ.
 xl;Lz;zpfs; Xk;g[aphpiaj; Jisj;J czt[/ ePh; kw;Wk; fdpk';fis
cwp|;Rtjw;Fr; rpy rpwg;ghd mikg;g[fisg; bgw;Ws;sd. ,e;j
mikg;g[fSf;F ]h!;nlhhpahf;fs; (cwp|;R cWg;g[fs;) vd;W bgah;.
 v.fh. rhe;njhnkhdh!; rpl;hp (ghf;Ohpah)/ brh;f;nfh!;n ghuh bgh;rndl;lh
(g{|;ir)/ f!;Fl;lh (M|;rpnah!;bgh;k;)
 Auto – Self, Hetero – Other, trophos – nourishment
91. itl;lkpd;fs; gw;wpa[k; mjd; gw;whf;Fiwahy; Vw;gLk; neha;fs; gw;wpa[k;

vGJf.
 Kjypy; fz;Lgpof;fg;gl;l itl;lkpd; itl;lkpd; C.
 Kjypy; itl;lkpid fz;Lgpoj;jth; g';f; 1912.
 itl;lkpd; clk;gpy; cw;gj;jpahtjpy;iy.
 tpl;lkpd;fis mfuthpirg;gLj;jpath; J.C. ouk;z;L
itl;lkpd;fs;
bfhGg;gpy; fiugit ePhpy; fiugit

A,D,E,K B,C
fy;yPuypy; brd;W j';Fk; ml;hpdypy; brd;W j';Fk;

6 khjk; tiu 2 ehl;fs; tiu
itl;lkpd; A
 bul;odhy; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Mz;ob$uhg;jhy;kpah
 b$uhg;jhy;kpah fz; twz;L fhzg;gLjy;.
 nful; fnuhlod; fy;yPuy; itl;lkpd; A.
 itl;lkpd; A Fiwtpdhy; FHe;ijfSf;F Vw;gLk; fz; Fiwghl;L
neha; nfnuhl;nlhknyrpah.
 itl;lkpd; A Fiwtpdhy; epf;lnyhgpa vd;w khiyf;fz; neha;
Vw;gLfpwJ.

itl;lkpd; B₁
 itl;lkpd; B₁ ijakpd; vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;kpd; B₁ Fiwghl;odhy; bghpbghp neha; kw;Wk; gf;fthjk;
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
itl;lkpd; B₂
 itl;lkpd; B₂ hpg;nghgpnstpd; vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₂ Fiwtpdhy; fpnyh!p!; vdg;gLk; tha;g;g[z;
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
itl;lkpd; B₃
 itl;lkpd; B₃ epahrpd; my;yJ epf;nfhl;od; mkpyk; vd;W
miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₃ Fiwtpdhy; bgy;yfuh vd;w neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 1935 fpdpahtpy; fz;Lgpof;fg;gl;lJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₃ Fiwghl;odhy; 4D vd;W miHf;fg;gLk; njhy;tpahjp/
tapw;Wg;nghf;F/ |hgfkwjp kw;Wk; ,wg;g[ Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,J gwitfis ,dg;bgUf;f fhyj;jpy; jhf;Fk;.
itl;lkpd; B₅
 itl;lkpd; B₅ ngz;nlhbjdpf; mkpyk; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,J cyfpy; mjpfk; cs;s itl;lkpd; MFk;.
 itl;lkpd; B₅ Universal itl;lkpd; vd;Wk; miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₅ Fiwghl;odhy; cs;s';if kw;Wk; fhypy; mhpg;g[
Vw;gLfpwJ kw;Wk; kwjp neha;/ njhy; neha;/ tapw;Wg;nghf;F
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
itl;lkpd; B₆
 itl;lkpd; B₆ ighplhf;rpd; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₆ Fiwghl;odhy; mjpfhiyapy; vGk; nghJ if
fhy;fspy; typ Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₆ Fiwghl;odhy; cjL kw;Wk; tha; Xuk; btog;g[
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.

itl;lkpd; B₇
 itl;lkpd; B₇ gnahod; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₇ ,uj;jj;jpy; bfhGg;g[ msit fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₇ Fiwghl;odhy; iffhy; gpog;g[ kw;Wk; Heart Attack
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 Kl;ilapy; mtpl;od; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; ,J itl;lkpd; B₇ ia
Fiwj;J tpLk;.
itl;lkpd; B₉
 itl;lkpd; B₉ nghypf; mkpyk; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; B₉ Fiwghl;odhy; nkfnyhgpsh!;of; mdpkpah
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
itl;lkpd; B₁₂
 itl;lkpd; B₁₂ randhnfhgykpd; vd miHf;fg;Lfpd;wJ.
 randhnfhgykpd; tpy';Ffspy; ,Ue;J bgwg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jid 1945
y; !;kpj; vd;gth; fz;Lgpoj;jhh;.
 B tif itl;lkpd;fs; gw;wpa Muha;r;rpf;fhf kpd;dhl; vd;gth; nehgy;
ghpR bgw;Ws;shh;.
 itl;lkpd; B₁₂ Fiwghl;odhy; bgh;dPrpa!; mdpkpah vd;w ,uj;jr;
rptg;gqr; rpijt[ neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
itl;lkpd; C
 itl;lkpd; C MdJ jhtu';fspy; ,Ue;J kl;Lnk bgwg;gLfpd;wJ.
 gH';fspy; itl;lkpd; C fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Kjypy; fz;lwpag;gl;l itl;lkpd; itl;lkpd; C MFk;.
 rikf;Fk; nghJ itl;lkpd; C fiue;J tpLk;.
 itl;lkpd; C Fiwghl;odhy; !;fhh;tp vd;w neha; Vw;gl;L gw;fs;
tpGfpd;wd.
 itl;lkpd; C gw;wpa Muha;r;rpf;F nehgy; ghpR bgw;wth; Szent Gyorgi.
itl;lkpd; D
 itl;lkpd; D fhy;rpbguy; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; D Fiwghl;odhy; hpf;fl;!; neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. ,J
,';fpyhe;J tpahjp vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

 itl;lkpd; D rd;ird; itl;lkpd; vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

 clYf;F fhy;rpak; kw;Wk; gh!;gu!; fpilj;jhy; vYk;g[ tsh;r;rp
mjpfhpf;Fk;.
 jha;g;ghy; bfhLf;Fk; bgz;fSf;F fhy;rpak; mst[ Fiwtjpdhy;
M!;ohpnah knyrpa vd;w neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; D Fiwghl;odhy; M!;ohpnah nghurp!; vd;w neha; Vw;gl;L
\l;Lfspy; fhy;rpak; msthdJ Fiwfpd;wJ.
itl;lkpd; E
 itl;lkpd; E nlhf;nfhbguy; vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; E mHF itl;lkpd; vd;Wk; miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; E Fiwghl;odhy; Mz;fSf;F kyl;Lj; jd;ika[k;/
bgz;fSf;F Mghrd; nghd;wit Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
itl;lkpd; K
 itl;lkpd; K igy;nyhFapndhd; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; K ,uj;jk; ciwjYf;F fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
 itl;lkpd; K Fiwghl;odhy; ,uj;jf; frpt[ Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
92. bry; gFg;g[k; mjd; tiffis gw;wp tphpthf vGJf.

 jhtu';fs; my;yJ tpy';Ffs; xw;iwr; bry;yhd irnfhl;oypUe;nj
njhd;Wfpd;wd.
 irnfhl; gy Kiw gFg;gile;J xU jhtuk; my;yJ tpy';ifj;
njhd;Wtpf;fpwJ.
 bry;fs; \d;W Kiwfspy; gFg;gilfpd;wd. mit
 neh;Kfr; bry;gFg;g[ (Vikl;lhrp!;)
 kiwKfr; bry;gFg;g[ (ikl;lhrp!;)
 Fd;wy; gFg;g[ (kpahrp!;)
 xt;bthU KiwapYk; irl;nlhgpshrk; gFg;giltjw;F Kd;dh;
cl;fU/ gFg;g[ mila[k;.
neh;Kfr; bry;gFg;g[ (Vikl;lhrp!;)

 Vikl;lhrp!; vd;gJ Xh; vspa Kiw bry;gFg;ghFk;. ,J neh;Kfr;
bry;gphpjy; vd;Wk; miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

 Fnuhnkl;od; tiyg;gpd;dy; vt;tpj khw;wKk; fhzg;glhj bry;

gphpjy; Vikl;lh!p!; MFk;.
 cl;fU ePz;L xU RUf;fj;ij mjd; ikaj;jpy; njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ.
 RUf;fk; bkJthf cs;nehf;fpr; brd;W Kotpy; cl;fUit ,uz;L
nra; cl;fUf;fshfg; gphpf;fpwJ.
 ,ijj; bjhlh;e;J irl;nlhgpshrj;jpYk; RUf;fk; Vw;gl;L ,uz;L nra;
bry;fs; njhd;Wfpd;wd. ,t;tifahd bry;gphpjy; bghJthf
g[nuhnfhpnahl;Lfspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. v.fh. ghf;Ohpah/ mkPgh.
kiwKf bry;gphpjy; (ikl;lhrp!;)

 kiwKf bry;gphpjy; clyr; bry;fspy; eilbgWfpd;wJ.
 ikl;lhrp!; bry; gFg;gpy; Fnuhnkhnrhk; mikg;gpy; khWghL
Vw;gl;Lk; Fnuhnkhnrhk; vz;zpf;ifapy; vt;tpj khw;wkpd;wpa[k;
,Uf;Fk;.
 ikl;lhrp!; ehd;F epiyfspy; eilbgWfpd;wJ. mit
 Kjy; epiy (g[nuh epiy)
 ikaepiy (bkl;lhepiy)
 ,WjpKd;epiy (mdhepiy)
 ,Wjpepiy (Onyh epiy)
,ilepiy
 xU bry; ikl;lhl;of; bry;gFg;gpw;F cl;gLtjw;FKd;
gFg;giltjw;Fj; jd;idj; jahh;gLj;jpf; bfhs;fpwJ. ,e;j epiy
,ilepiy vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 epa{f;spf; mkpy';fs; ,ul;og;g[ miltjd; \yk; Fnuhnkl;od;
bghUs;fs; ,ul;og;g[ milfpd;wd.
Kjy;epiy (g[nuhepiy)
 Fnuhnkl;od; tiy RUz;L ePz;l ,iHnghd;w mikg;g[fshd
Fnuhnkhnrhk;fshfj; njhd;Wfpd;wd.
 xt;bthU FnuhnkhnrhKk; xd;Wf;bfhd;W ,izahd ,uz;L
Fnuhnkl;oLfisf; bfhz;Ls;sJ.
 ,uz;L Fnuhnkl;oLfs; ,ize;Js;s g[s;sp brd;l;nuhkpah; MFk;.
 JUtg;gFjpapy; ,Ue;J ikak; nehf;fp !;gpd;oy; ehh;fs;
njhd;Wfpd;wd. epa{f;spa!; ciw kw;Wk; epa{f;spnahy!;
kiwaj;bjhl';Ffpd;wd.

ikaepiy (bkl;lhepiy)
 epa{f;spa!; ciw Kw;wpYk; kiwe;JtpLfpwJ.
 Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; Fl;ilahft[k; jokdhft[k; khWfpd;wd.
 Fnuhnkl;oLfs; brd;l;nuhkpah;fSld; bry;ypd; ikaj;jpw;F
efh;fpd;wd.
 brd;l;nuhkpah;fs; !;gpd;oy; ehh;fSld; ,izfpd;wd.
,WjpKd; epiy (mdhepiy)

 xt;bthU Fnuhnkhnrhkpd; brd;l;nuhkpaUk; ,uz;lhfg;gphpfpwJ.
 xt;bthU Fnuhnkl;oLk; xU brd;l;nuhkpaiug; bgw;W xU
Fnuhnkhnrhkhf khWfpwJ.
,Wjpepiy (Onyhepiy)
 nra;Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; JUt';fisr; brd;wilfpd;wd.
 epa{f;spnahy!; kw;Wk; epa{f;spa!; ciw kPz;Lk; njhd;Wfpd;wJ.
 !;gpd;oy; ehh;fs; kiwfpd;wd.
 cl;fUtpd; ,e;jg; gFg;g[ cl;fUg; gFg;g[ (nfhpnahifd!p!;)
vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
irl;nlhifd!p!; (irl;nlhgpshrg; gFg;g[)

 irl;nlhgpshrk; gFg;giltJ irl;nlhifd!p!; vdg;gLk;.
 ikl;lhrp!; bry;gFg;gpd; Kotpy; xnu khjphpahd ,uz;L
nra;r;bry;fs; njhd;Wfpd;wd.
ikl;lhrpd; gFg;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;

 ikl;lhrp!; gFg;ghy; xd;Wf;bfhd;W xj;jpUf;Fk; ,uz;L nra;
bry;fs; cUthfpd;wd.
 ,it jha; bry;iya[k; xj;jpUf;fpd;wd.
 ikl;lhrp!; gFg;gpd; fhuzkhf nra; bry;fs; kugpay; xw;Wikfis
mstpYk; gz;gpYk; bgw;Ws;sd.
 cah; jhtu';fspy; xl;Lg; nghLjy; kw;Wk; jpR tsh;g;g[ nghd;w cly;
,dg;bgUf;f KiwfSk; ikl;lhrp!; tpisthfnt epfH;fpd;wd.
 bry;fs; bgUf;fkile;J mjd; fhuzkhf tsh;r;rpa[k; cUj; njhw;wKk;
gy bry; caphpfspy; ikl;lhrp!; \ynk epfH;fpwJ.

 mHpe;j bry;fisg; g[Jg;gpg;jw;Fk;/ nrjk; mile;j bry;fis

caph;g;gpg;gjw;Fk; fha';fis Mw;WtjpYk; ikl;lhrp!; cjt[fpwJ.
kpahrp!; Fd;wy; gFg;g[

 caphpd';fspd; ,dg;bgUf;fr; bry;fspy; eilbgWk; xU tifahd
bry;gFg;g[ kpahrp!; MFk;.
 nfkPl;Lfspd; cUthf;fj;jpd;nghJ ,e;epfH;r;rp fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
 tpy';Ffspd; ,dg;bgUf;f vgpjPypay; bry;fspy; kpahrp!; (Fd;wy;
gFg;g[) bry; gphpjy; eilbgWfpd;wJ.
 kpahrp!; bry; gphpjypy; Fnuhnkhnrhkpd; mikg;gpYk;/
vz;zpf;ifapYk; khw;w';fs; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
 kpahrp!; bry;gFg;gpd; \yk; ,dg;bgUf;f cWg;g[fspd; rpwg;ghd
,Ukar; bry;fs;/ ehd;F xw;iw ika ,dr;bry;fs; cz;lhfpd;wd.
 xw;iwikar; bry;fs; bgw;nwhh; bry;fisg; nghyy;yhJ Fnuhnkhnrhk;
vz;zpf;ifapy; ghjpia kl;Lk; bgw;Ws;sd.
 kpahrp!; mLj;jLj;j ,uz;L gphpt[fspy; ele;njWfpwJ. mit
 kpahrp!; I
 kpahrp!; II
kpahrp!; I
 kpahrp!; I ,y; Fnuhnkhnrhkpd; vz;zpf;if ghjpahff;
Fiwf;fg;gLtjhy; ,ij Fd;wy; gphpt[ vd miHg;gh;.
 kpahrp!; I ,d; gy;ntW epfH;t[fs; ehd;F Jiz epiyfspy; mwpe;J
bfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. mit
 g[nuhepiy- I
 bkl;lhepiy - I
 mdhepiy- I
 Onyhepiy- I
g[nuhepiy- I
 Fnuhnkl;od; tiygpd;dy; tiyaikg;g[ ,He;J jdpj;J
Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; xd;wpypUe;J xd;W tpLgLfpd;wd.
 cl;fUr; rt;t[ fiue;Jnghfpd;wJ.Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
tifapy; jkJ tot mikg;gpy; khw;w';fSf;F cs;shfpd;wd.
 kpahrp!; Fnuhnkhnrhk;fspd; tot';fspd; mog;gilapy; 5 Jiz
epiyfspy; g[hpe;J bfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.

1. byg;nlhOd;
2. irnfhl;od;
3. ghf;fpOd;
4. og;nshOd;
5. ilahifd!p!;
nyg;nlhod;
 Fnuhnrhk;fs; RUf;fkile;J E}y;nghy; njhd;Wfpd;wd.
 xt;bthU FnuhnkhnrhKk; brd;l;nuhkpah; gFjp jtpu Vida
gFjpfspy; ePsthf;fpy; gpsf;fpd;wd.
irnfhl;od;
 xj;jpirthd Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; beU';fp te;J ,iz nrUfpd;wd.
 ,izt[Wjy; vd;gJ Edp my;yJ eLg;gFjpapy; bjhl';fp
ePsthf;fpy; ,izahfg; gpiztJ MFk;.
 ,e;j ,iz rpdhg;rp!; vdg;gLk;. ,e;j ,iza[w;w
Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; ,ul;ilfs; vdg;gLk;.
ghf;fpod;
 Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; nkYk; RU';fp joj;J Fl;ilahfpd;wd.
 xt;bthU ,ul;ila[k; ,g;nghJ ehd;F Fnuhnkl;oLfisf;
bfhz;oUg;gjhy; mit bll;uL my;yJ Fthl;hpntyz;L vd
miHf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 xj;jpirthd Fnuhnkhnrhk; ,izfs; fah!;nkl;lh vd;w rpy
g[s;spfspy; gpize;J fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 xj;jpirthd Fnuhnkhnrhk;fspd; rnfhjhp my;yhj
Fnuhnkl;oLfspd; Jz;Lfs; fah!;nkl;lh g[s;spfspy; ghpkhwpf;
bfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd.
 xj;jpirthd Fnuhnkhnrhk;fspd; Fnuhnkhol;LfSf;F ,ilna
,j;jifa ghpkhw;wk; Vw;gLtijf; FWf;nf fyj;jy;
vd;wiHf;fg;gLk;.
og;nshOd;
 FWf;nf fyj;jy; KGik mile;jgpd; xj;jpirthd
Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; gphpfpd;wd ,e;jg; gphpjy; Edp miljy;
vdg;gLk;.

 Edp miljy; vd;gJ fha!;nkl;lh g[s;spapy; bjhl';fp

Fnuhnkhnrhk; Edp tiu mila[k;.
ilahifd!p!;
 ,e;j epiyapy; cl;fUr; rt;t[k; cl;fU kzpa[k; kiwfpd;wd.
 fjph; mikg;g[ irl;nlhgpshrj;jpy; njhd;Wfpd;wJ.
bkl;lhepiy - I
Fnuhnkhnrhk; nkYk; RU';Ffpd;wJ. ,ul;ilfs; fjph;fspd;
eLikag;gFjpapy; j';fspd; Fnuhnkl;oLfis eLika gFjpia
nehf;fpathWk;/ brd;l;nuhkpah; JUtg; gFjpia nehf;fpathWk;
mikfpd;wd.
mdhepiy- I
 fjph; ,iHfs; RUf;fkile;J Fnuhnkhnrhk;fis vjph; vjph;
JUt';fis nehf;fp ,Gf;fpd;wd.
 Fnuhnkhnrhk; vz;zpf;ifapy; Fiwjy; Vw;gLfpwJ. vdnt
,g;bghGJ xt;bthU JUtj;jpYk; ghjp vz;zpf;ifapYs;s
Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; bfhz;l ,U Fnuhnkhnrhk; FGf;fs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
Onyhepiy- I
 xt;bthU JUtj;jpYk; Fnuhnkhnrhk; bjhFjpiar; Rw;wp cl;fUr;
rt;t[ cUthfpd;wJ.
 xt;bthU JUtj;jpYk; ghjpast[ Fnuhnkhnrhk; cs;s ,uz;L nra;
cl;fUf;fs; cUthfpd;wd.
 fjph; ,iHfs; kiwfpd;wd. irl;nlhgpshrg; gphpjYf;F
irl;nlhifdrp!; vd;W bgah;.
kpahrp!; II
 ikl;lhrp!; nghd;wnj kpahrp!; II MFk;. vdnt ,J knahof;
ikl;lhrp!; vdt[k; miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 kpahrp!; II ,d; epfH;t[fs; ehd;F epiyfspy; mwpag;gLfpd;wd. mit
 g[nuhepiy- II
 bkl;lhepiy - II
 mdhepiy- II
 Onyhepiy- II

g[nuhepiy- II
 Fnuhnkhnrhk; ,ul;ilfs; FWfyilfpd;wd. brd;l;hpnahy;fs; M!;lh;
,iHfis cz;lhf;fpj; JUtj;jpw;F efh;j;Jfpd;wd.
 cl;fUkzp/ cl;fUr; rt;t[ kiwfpd;wd.
bkl;lhepiy – II
,ul;ilfs; Fnuhnkl;oLfisj; jh';fpg; gpof;Fk; brd;l;nuhkpah;
bgw;Ws;s Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; fjph; ,iHfspd; eL ikag; gFjpapy;
mikf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
mdhepiy- II
 brd;l;nuhkpah; ,uz;lhfg; gphptjhy; ,uz;L Fnuhnkl;o Lfs;
gphpfpd;wd.
 ,it jw;nghJ nra;f;Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; my;yJ g[jpa
Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs; vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
Onyhepiy- II
 ,uz;L JUt';fspy; cs;s xU bjhFjp Fnuhnkhnrhk;fs;
RUsile;J Fnuhnkl;od; tiyg;gpd;dy; mikg;ghf khWfpd;wJ.
 cl;fUr; rt;t[/ cl;fUkzp kPz;Lk; njhd;Wfpd;wd. ,t;thW
,uz;L nra; cl;fUf;fs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
irl;nlhifd!p!;
cl;fUtpw;F neh;Fj;jhf irl;nlhgpshrg; gphpjy; eilbgw;W
ehd;F ,dr; bry;fs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
kpahrp!; bry;gFg;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;

 xt;bthU rpw;wpdj;jpd; Fnuhnkhnrhk; vz;zpf;if epiy
epWj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 xw;iwika ,dbry;fs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 FWf;nf fyj;jy; nra;fspy; kug[ TWfspd; ntWghLfs;
njhd;Wjiy Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
 jiyKiw jiyKiwahfg; gz;g[fs; flj;jg;gLjYf;Fg;
ghuk;ghpak; my;yJ kughjy; vd;W bgah;.

93. bry; Ez;qg;g[fspd; gzpfis tpthp.
 ekJ clypd; mog;gilf; fl;likg;g[ bry; MFk;.
 bry; vd;gJ caphpd';fspd; mikg;g[ kw;Wk; braypd; mog;gil
myfhFk;.
 Kjypy; bry;iy fz;Lgpoj;jth; ,uhgh;l; ]#f; (1665). ,tnu bry;
vd;W bgahpl;lhh;.
 12 (m) 13 cs;SWg;g[ cWg;gpdh;fs; nrh;e;J ,ufrpakhfg; gzpahw;Wk;
Fl;oj; bjhHpw;rhiy bry; vd;W Twpath; ,uhgh;l; gpbusd;.
 jhtuk;/ tpy';F ,uz;ow;Fk; bry;fs; xnu khjphp ,Ug;gjpy;iy.
 nkk;ghL mile;j caphpd';fs; cWg;g[fisf; bfhz;Ls;sd.
cWg;g[fs; jpRf;fshy; Mdit. jpRf;fs; bry;fshy; Mdit kw;Wk;
bry;fs; \yf;TWfspypUe;J njhd;Wfpd;wd.
 tpy';F bry;fspy; gpsh!;khrt;tpidf; bfhz;Ls;s caphpdj;jpd; Xh;
mog;gil myF bry; MFk;.
 jhtubry;fspy; bry;Rth; kw;Wk; gpsh!;khrt;tpidf; bfhz;Ls;s
caphpdj;jpd; Xh; mog;gil myF bry; vdt[k; tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ.
bry;Rth;
 jhtu bry;Yf;F totj;ij jUk; btspa[iw bry;Rth;.
 bry;Rth; bry;Ynyhrpdhy; MdJ.
 gzp – bry;ypd; Ez; cWg;ig ghJfhj;jy;.
 fodkhd ,t;tikg;g[ tpy';F bry;fspy; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.
bry;rt;t[
 jthuk; kw;Wk; tpy';F bry; ,uz;oYk; fhzg;gLk;.
 jhtu bry;ypy; bry; Rtiu mLj;Jf; fhzg;gLk;.
 tpy';F bry;ypy; mjd; g[w vy;iyahf mike;Js;sJ.
 ,uz;L mLf;Ffspdhyhd gh!;ngh ypg;gpL kw;Wk; g[ujj;jpdhy;
MdJ.
 bry;ypd; M!;khl;of; mGj;jj;ij epiyg;gLj;Jk;.
 Cl;lg;bghUs;fis bry;Yf;Fs; flj;JtnjhL/ fHpt[fis
bry;Yf;F btspna njh;e;bjLj;Jf; flj;Jk; njh;t[f; flj;Jr; rt;thf
bray;gLk;.
g[nuhl;nlhgpshrk;

 gpsh!;kh glyj;jpw;F cs;ns ,Uf;Fk; TH;.

 gpsh!;kh rt;t[/ irl;nlhgpshrk; kw;Wk; cl;fU Mfpatw;iw
cs;slf;fpaJ g[nuhl;nlhgpshrk; MFk;.
 g[nuhl;nlhgpshrk; vd;W bgahpl;lth; nf.,. g[h;fpd;$p.
 g[nuhl;nlh vd;why; Kjd;ik vd;Wk;/ gpsh!;kh vd;why; TH; nghd;w
mikg;g[ vd;Wk; bghUs;.
 g[nuhl;nlhgpshrj;jpy; g[uj';fs;/ fhh;nghi]l;nul;Lfs;/ bfhGg;g[fs;/
epa{f;spf; mkpyk; nghd;w fhpk \yf;TWfs; cs;sd.
 g[nuhl;nlhgpshrk; bghJthf caphpapd; ,aw;gpay; jsk; vd;W
miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
fzpf';fs;
 ,it jhtu bry;fspy; kl;Lnk fhzg;gLk; rpwpa gy tot/
jd;dpr;irahd cWg;g[fshFk;.
 fzpf';fs; \d;W tifg;gLk;.
 ypa{f;nfhgpsh!;l; - ,it epwkw;w fzpf';fs;. ,tw;wpd;
gzp nrkpj;jy;.
 Fnuhnkhgpsh!;l; - ,it rptg;g[/ Mu|;R kw;Wk; k|;rs;
nghd;w epwKs;s fzpf';fs;. ,it kyh;fs; kw;Wk;
fdpfspd; epw';fSf;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wd.
 Fnshnuhgpsh!;l; - gRik epwKila fzpf';fs;. ,tw;wpy;
gr;ira epwkpahd Fnshnuhgpy;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,it
xspr;nrh;f;ifapy; <LgLfpd;wd.
ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpah
 bry;ypd; Rthrk; eilbgWk; gFjp ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpah.
 bry;ypd; Mw;wy; ikak; ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpah.
 bry;ypd; irl;nlhgpshrj;jpy; ,iH/ tl;l my;yJ Fr;rp totk;
bfhz;L fhzg;gLk; cWg;g[ ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpah.
 ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpahf;fs; g[uj';fs;/ bfhGg;g[fs; kw;Wk; rpwpjst[
DNA ita[k; bfhz;Ls;sd.
 ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpah g[ujj;jhy; Md ,ul;ilr; rt;thy;
NHg;gl;Ls;sd. btspr;rt;thdJ xU ig nghd;W fhzg;gLk;.
cl;rt;thdJ tpuy; nghd;w ePl;rpia cl;g[wkhf cUthf;FfpwJ
,jw;F fphp!;nl vd;W bgah;.

 fphp!;nl ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpahtpd; cl;gFjpia KGikaw;w

Kiwapy; gphpf;fpd;wd. cl;gFjp jsg;bghUs; (khl;hpf;!;)
vdg;gLk; xnu khjphpahd mlh;e;j bghUs;fshy;
epug;gg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 Rthrpj;jy; epfH;r;rpapy; Kf;fpag; g';F tfpf;Fk; F₁ Jfs;fs; my;yJ
Mf;!pnrhk;fs; vd;W miHf;fg;gLk; Fz;^rpj; jiytot
cly';fisf; fphp!;nl bgw;Ws;sd.
 ikl;nlhfhz;l;hpah bry; Rthrj;jpy; bgUk;g';F tfpj;J rf;jpia
cUthf;FfpwJ.
 bry; Rthrpj;jypd; nghJ Mw;wiy ATP (mondhird; l;iu
gh!;ngl;) vd;Dk; Tl;Lg;bghUshf ,J cUthf;fpa[k; nrkpj;Jk;
tUfpd;wd.
vz;nlhgpshr tiyg;gpd;dy;
 nghh;l;lh; vd;gth; ,jidf; fz;Lgpoj;jhh;.
 ,it irl;nlhgpshrj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; tiyg;gpd;dy; fhy;tha;
nghd;w mikg;ghFk;.
 ,it gpsh!;kh rt;ita[k;/ cl;fU rt;ita[k; ,izf;fpd;wd.
 ,tw;wpYs;s cl;g[w kog;g[fSf;fpilapYs;s ,ilbtsp
rp!;lh;nd.
 ,it bry;Yf;Fs; flj;Jjy; gzpapy; <LgLk;.
 brhubrhug;ghd vz;blhgpshr tiy - hpnghnrhk;fshy;
cUthf;fg;gLk;. g[ujj;ij cw;gj;jp bra;a[k;.
 tHtHg;ghd vz;nlhgpshr tiy - ypg;gpLfis cw;gj;jp bra;a[k;.
hpnghnrhk;fs;
 Mh;.gp. ,uhgh;l;!; ,jw;F hpnghnrhk; vdg; bgahpl;lhh;.
 ,it vz;nlhgpshr tiyapypUe;J cUthfp mjpy; xl;of;
fhzg;gLk; Jfs;fshFk;.
 irl;nlhgpshrj;jpy; Jiz myFfshf jdpj;Jk; fhzg;glyhk;.
 ,Utifahd upnghnrhk;fs; cs;sd mit. 70S upnghnrhk;fs;/ 80S
upnghnrhk;fs;.
 70S upnghnrhk;fs; rpwait. ,it nkYk; 30S kw;Wk; 50S vd;w
,uz;L Jiz myFfisf; bfhz;lJ. ,J g[nuhnfhpnahl;of;
bry;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

 80S upnghnrhk;fs; 40S kw;Wk; 60S Jiz myFfshy; Mdit. ,J

a{nfhpahl;of; bry;fspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
nfhy;if cWg;g[fs;
 nfkpy;nyh nfhy;if vd;gth; nfhy;if cWg;ig fz;Lgpoj;jhh;.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; jhtur; bry;ypy; of;onahnrk;fs; vd;gh;.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; 3 tpjkhd rt;tikg;g[fisf;
bfhz;oUf;fpd;wd.
 jl;L totkhd/ jl;ilahd igfs; - rp!;lh;nd.
 rpwpa Ez;FHy;fs; - bt!pf;fps;fs;.
 bghpa Ez;FkpH;fs;.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; czt[ brhpkhdk; mila behjpfisr; Rug;gJ.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; iynrhnrhk;fis cUthf;FfpwJ.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; behjpfs; ]h;nkhd;fis cw;gj;jp bra;fpd;wJ.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; cztpypUe;J g[uj rj;ij gphpj;J vLj;J
bry;Yf;Fk;/ clYf;Fk; tY nrh;f;Fk;.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; behjpfis bfhz;l irnkh$d;/ Jfs; nghd;w
Ruf;Fk; FHy;fis cUthf;Fk;.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; tsUk; Cirl;Lfspy; rpy k|;rs; fUit
cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; tHpj;jpiuapy; tpHp epwkpr;bry;fis (Tk;g[bry;)
cUthf;f cjt[fpd;wd.
 nfhy;if cWg;g[fs; tpe;jqtpy; cs;s mf;nuhnrhik cUthf;f
cjt[fpd;wd.
 bry;Rth; kw;Wk; bry;rt;tpd; cw;gj;jpf;Fk; nfhy;if cWg;g[fs;
fhuzkhf cs;sJ.
iynrhnrhk;fs;
 bry;ypd; fhtyh;fs; iynrhnrhk;fs;.
 cs;ns EiHa[k; Ez; fpUkpfis capiu bfhLj;jhtJ bfhy;Yk;.
 iynrhnrhk;fs; bry;ypd; jw;bfhiy igfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
 iynrhnrhk;fs; brhpf;Fk; igfs; vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 iynrhnrhk;fs; nfhy;if cWg;gpypUe;njh neuoahf
vz;nlhg;gpshr tiyapypUe;njh njhd;Wfpd;wd.

 \g;g[ mile;j kw;Wk; rPuHpe;j bry; Ez;qWg;g[fspd; rpijtpy;

iynrhnrhk;fs; g';F bgWfpd;wd. vdnt iynrhnrhk;fs; mHpf;Fk;
giltPuh;fs;/ Jg;g[uthsh;fs;/ bry; nkyhsh;fs; vd;W
miHf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 iynrhnrhk;fs; bry;ypy; cs;s fHpt[g; bghUl;fis
ntspnaw;Wfpd;wJ.
 iynrhnrhk;fs; brhpj;jy; gzpapid bra;fpd;wd.
 iynrhnrhk;fs; bry;Yf;F cs;nsa[k; btspnaa[k; brhpf;Fk;
gzpia bra;fpd;wd.
 bry;tpG';Fjy; (vz;nlhirl;lhrp!;) vd;w epfH;tpd; \yk;
bry;ypDs; <h;f;fg;gl;l Jfs;fisr; brhpkhdk; bra;tjpy; g';F
tfpf;fpd;wd.
brd;l;nuhnrhk;
 fz;lwpe;jth; - ,gpd; bgdpld;.
 cl;fUtpw;F mUfpy; mike;Js;sJ.
 bry; gFg;giljypy; Kf;fpag; g';F tfpf;fpwJ.
 tpy';F bry;ypy; kl;Lk; fhzg;gLk;.
 bry;gFg;gpd; nghJ !;gpd;oy; ehh;fs; (RU';Fk; ehh;fs;)
njhd;Wtjpy; Kf;fpa g';F tfpf;fpwJ.
 brd;l;nuhnrhk; bry;gphpjypd; nghJ fjph;,iH ehh;fisa[k;/
M!;l;uy; cWg;g[fisa[k; cUthf;fpr; bry; gphpjiyj;
jpl;lkpLfpd;wd.
cl;fU
 cl;fU bry;ypd; midj;J bray;fisa[k; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
 cl;fU bry;ypd; eLtpy;jhd; ,Uf;f ntz;Lbkd;w mtrpak;
,y;iy.
 cl;fU nfhs totk; bfhz;lJ.
 cl;fU ehd;F gFjpfis bfhz;lJ mit -1. cl;fU glyk;/ 2.
cl;fU gpshrk; 3. cl;fU kzp 4. Fnuhnkhl;od; tiyg;gpd;dy;.
 cl;fUtpd; cs;ns fhzg;gLk; g[nuhl;nlhgpshrj; jputj;jpw;F
cl;fUg; gpshrk; vd;W bgah;.
 cl;fU kzp bry; mikg;ghsh; vd;Wk; miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

 cl;fU ,ul;ilr; rt;tpdhy; Md ciwiag; bgw;Ws;sJ. ,J

cl;fU ciw my;yJ epa{f;spa!; ciw vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;.
 epa{f;spnahgpshrk; my;yJ epa{f;spa!; rhW (nfhpnahypk;g;)
vdg;gLk; jsg;bghUs;fis epa{f;spa!; ciw NH;e;Js;sJ.
 epa{f;spnahgpshrj;jpy; ,uz;L tpjkhd epa{f;spah; mikg;g[fs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mit epa{f;spnahy!; kw;Wk; Fnuhnkl;od;.
 xU jiyKiwapypUe;J mLj;j jiyKiwf;F kug[ rhh;e;j
gz;g[fis vLj;J bry;tJ cl;fU.
 bry;ypy; eilbgWk; midj;J tsh;r;rpij khw;w';fisa[k;
ghuk;ghpag; gz;g[fisa[k; flj;jpf; fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 cl;fUg;glykhdJ cl;fUg; gpshrj;jpw;Fk; irl;nlhgpshrj;jpw;Fk;
,ilna madpfspd; ghpkhw;wj;jpw;F cjt[fpwJ.
 cl;fU bry;gFg;igf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
thf;Fnthy;fs;
 xw;iwr; rt;tpdhy; NHg;gl;l jputk; epuk;gpa igfs;
thf;Fnthy;fs; MFk;.
 thf;Fnthy;fs; jhtur; bry;fspy; fhzg;gLk;.
 thf;Fnthy;fis Rw;wp fhzg;gLk; bjspthd ciw nghd;w rt;t[
nlhndhgpsh!;l; vdg;gLk;.
 thf;Fnthy;fs; fdpk cg;g[fisa[k; Cl;lg; bghUs;fisa[k;
nrkpj;J itf;fpd;wd.
 bry;ypd; tpiwg;g[j;jd;ik kw;Wk; ePh; cwp|;rg;gLjy;
,tw;Wf;fhfr; bry;ypd; rt;t{Lg;guty; mGj;jk; (M!;khl;of;
mGj;jk;) xnu rPuhd epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;go bra;fpwJ.
94. bry; bfhs;ifia tiuaW.

 1838 Mk; Mz;L n$f;fg; !;yPld; kw;Wk; jpnahlh; !;thd; Mfpnahh;
,ize;J bry; bfhs;ifia cUthf;fpdhh;fs;.
 midj;J caphpd';fSk; bry;fshy; Mdit.
 midj;Jr; bry;fSk; Ke;ija bry;fspy; ,Ue;nj cUthfpd;wd.
 bry;fs; midj;Jk; epa{f;spairf; bfhz;l g[nuhl;nlhgpshrj;jhy;
Mdit.
 mikg;g[ kw;Wk; tsh;rpij khw;w bray;fspy; midj;J bry;fSk; xnu
khjphpahdit.

 bry; vd;gJ Kd;gpUe;j xU bry;ypUe;J cUthdjhFk;.
95. mikg;gpd; mog;gilapy; bry;fspd; tiffs; ahit? mtw;wpid tpthp.

mikg;gpd; mog;gilapy; bry;fs; g[nuhnfhpahl;of; bry; kw;Wk;
a{nfhpahl;of; bry; vd ,Utifg;gLk;.
g[nuhnfhpahl;of; bry;
 ghf;Ohpa';fs; kw;Wk; randh ghf;Ohpa';fspd; (ePyg;gRk;ghrpfs;)
bry;fs; bjspthd cl;fUitg; bgw;wpUg;gjpy;iy ,it
g[nuhnfhpahl;of; bry; MFk;.
 g[nuhnfhpahl;of; bry;ypd; DNA (o Mf;!p hpngh epa{f;spf; mkpyk;)
cl;fU rt;tpdhy; NHg;gl;oUg;gjpy;iy.
 g[nuhnfhpahl;of; bry; caphpfs; nkk;ghL milahj
caphpd';fshff; fUjg;gLfpd;wd.
a{nfhpnahl;of; bry;fs;
 midj;Jj; jhtu';fs; (ghf;Ohpah kw;Wk; randh ghf;ohpah jtpu)
kw;Wk; tpy';Ffspd; bry;fs; bjspthd cl;fUitg;
bgw;wpUg;gjhy; ,it a{nfhpnahl;of; bry;fs; vd;W
miHf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 a{nfhpnahl;of; bry;fspd; kug[g; bghUs;fs; cl;fU rt;tpdhy;
NHg;gl;Ls;sd.
g[nuhnfhpnahl;of; bry; kw;Wk; a{nfhpnahl;of; bry; ntWghL
g[nuhnfhpnahl;of; bry; a{nfhpnahl;of; bry;

mstpy; rpwpaJ (1-10 ikf;nuhkPl;lh;) mstpy; bghpaJ (5-100 ikf;nuhkPl;lh;)
cl;fU rt;tpdhy; cl;fU rt;tpdhy;
NHg;gl;oUg;gjpy;iy. bjspthd NHg;gl;oUg;gjhy; bjspthd
cl;fUit bgw;wpUg;gjpy;iy cl;fUit bgw;Ws;sd
xU Fnuhnkhnrhik kl;Lnk xd;Wf;F nkw;gl;l
bgw;Ws;sJ Fnuhnkhnrhk;fis bgw;Ws;sJ
epa{f;spnahy!; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy epa{f;spnahy!; fhzg;gLfpwJ
rt;tpdhy; NHg;gl;l bry; Ez; rt;tpdhy; NHg;gl;l bry; Ez;
cWg;g[fisg; bgw;wpUg;gjpy;iy cWg;g[fisg; bgw;wpUf;Fk;
bry; gFg;g[/ gpsj;jy; my;yJ ikl;lhrp!; kw;Wk; kpah!p!;

bkhl;L mUk;g[jy; \yk; tifahd bry; gFg;g[fs;
eilbgWfpwJ. ikl;lhl;of; kw;Wk; eilbgWfpd;wd
kpahl;of; bry; gFg;g[fs;
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy
hpnghnrhk;fs; rpwpait hpnghnrhk;fs; bghpait
96. ehndh bjhHpy;El;gk; vd;gJ ahJ? ehndh bghUs;fspd; gz;g[fs; kw;Wk;

gad;fis tpsf;Ff.
 ehndh bjhHpy;El;gk; vd;gJ bghUl;fis ehndh mstpy; jahhpj;J
gz;g[fis mwpe;J gad;ghl;Lf;F bfhz;L tUjyhFk;.
 ehndh Jfs;fspd; mst[ 1 Kjy; 100 ehndh kPl;lh; tiu MFk;.

gz;g[fs;
gug;gst[
 ehndh bghUl;fs; mjpf g[wg;gug;gsit bfhz;Ls;sd.
 vdnt mtw;wpd; ntjp tpidj;jd;ik kw;Wk; tpida{f;fpj; jpwd;
mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;
xspapay; gz;g[
g[w Cjhf; fjph;fis mjpfkhf cwp|;RfpwJ kw;Wk;
btspnaw;wt[k; bra;fpwJ.
fhe;jg; gz;g[
ehndh bghUl;fspd; fhe;j Vw;g[j;jpwd; mtw;wpd; cUtst[
Fiwtijg; bghWj;J mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
kpd; gz;g[
ehndh bghUl;fspy; kpd;flj;J jpwd; mjpfkhFk;.
,ae;jpuhtpay; gz;g[
a';Fzfk;/ kPl;rpj; jd;ik nghd;w ,ae;jputpay; gz;g[fs; ehndh
bghUl;fspy; mjpfk;.
gad;fs;
rkjs jpiufs;

,iz mr;R bfhz;l ehndh FHy;fs; bjhiyf;fhl;rp kw;Wk;
fzpdpfspy; rkjs jpiufshf gad;gLfpd;wd.
kpd;njf;fpfs;
xw;iwr; Rth; fhh;gd; ehndh FHy;fs;/ gy;Rth; fhh;gd; ehndh
FHy;fs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
ehndh mst[
 ill;nldpak; il Mf;i!L -xsp czh;thd;.
 cnyhfk; kw;Wk; cnyhf Mf;i!L - <ug;gj czh;thdhf
gad;gLfpwJ.
Nhpa kpd;fyd;fs;
 ehndh ry;gh; kw;Wk; ehndh $p';f; Mf;irL Nhpa kpd;fy';fspy;
Mw;wy; khw;wpfshf gad;gLfpwJ.
 Mil jahhpg;g[ bjhHpypy; ,iHfspy; Fiw vjph;g;g[ jd;ik
cUthf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
97. irf;nshl;uhd; gw;wp Fwpg;bgGJf

 kpd;D}l;lk; bgw;w Jfs;fis cah;e;j Mw;wiy bgWkhW KLf;f
cjt[k; mikg;g[ irf;nshl;uhd;.
 yhud;!; vd;gtuhy; totikf;fg;gl;lJ.
 irf;nshl;uhd; miyt[ neuk; -
 irf;nshl;uhd; jj;Jtk;. Rw;wpaf;f mjph;btz; -

 fhe;jg;g[yj;jpw;F br';Fj;jhd jpirapy; kpd;D}l;lk; bgw;w Jfs;
,a';Fk; nghJ bray;gLk; yhud;!; tpir Jfis tl;lg; ghijapy;
,a';fr;bra;fpwJ.
tuk;g[fs;
cah; mjph;btz;fspy; vbyf;l;uhdpd; xg;g[ik epiw khWghL kpf
mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy; vbyf;l;uhd;fis irf;nshl;uhdhy; KLf;f
,ayhJ.
98. g;hpahd;fs; vd;why; vd;d?

 g;hpahd;fs; vd;git Fnshnuh g[Snuh fhh;gd;fshFk;.

 ,it ]hy$ndww;kile;j i]l;nuh fhh;gd;fs;.

tiffs;
 - gphpahd; 11 oiu Fnshnuh g[Snuh kPj;njd;.
 - gphpahd; 12 il Fnshnuh il g[Snuh kPj;njd;.
 - gphpahd; 13 Fnshnuh l;iu g[Snuh kPj;njd;.
 - gphpahd; 14.
 - gphpahd; 112.
jahhpg;g[
i]l;nuh fhh;gd;fs; my;yJ Fnshhpndw;wk; mile;j i]l;nuh
fhh;gd;fSld; tpida{f;fp Kd;dpiyapy; i]l;u$d; g[SiuL
tpidg[hpe;J gphpahd;fs; cUthFk;.
(gphpahd; 112)
(gphpahd; 12)
gad;fs;
 Fsph;rhjdg; bgl;ofspy; Fsph;tpg;ghdhf.
 fhw;W Fsph;tpg;ghd;fspy; Fsph;tpg;ghdhf.
 fhw;W ce;jpfspy; vhpbghUshf.
99. gphpahdhy; Vw;gLk; Rw;Wr; NHy; khRgLjiy tpsf;Ff.

 gphpahd;fs; Fsph;rhjg; bgl;ofs; kw;Wk; fhw;W Fsph;tpg;ghd;fspy;
mjpfkhf gad;gLj;Jtjhy; CFC tspkz;lyj;jpy; fyf;fpwJ.
 gphpahd;fs; !;l;unlh!;gpah; mLf;fpy; g[wCjhf; fjph;fSld;
tpidg[hpe;J Fnshhpd; jdp cWg;ig cUthf;Fk;.



 ,t;tpid r';fpyp epiyahf eilbgWtjhy; Xnrhd; fiue;J
g[wCjhf; fjph;fs; g{kpia nehpilahf te;jilfpwJ.
 ,jdhy; kdpjh;fSf;F njhy; g[w;Wneha; Vw;gLk;.
 tspkz;lyj;jpYs;s tha[thdJ Xnrhd; fiujiy
jilbra;fpwJ.


 Mdhy; JUtg; gFjpapy; tha[thdJ jpz;k epiyapy; cs;sjhy;

ClO cld; tpidg[hptjpy;iy. ,jdhy; JUtg; gFjpapy; Xnrhd;
fiury; mjpfKs;sJ.
 USEPA - United States Environment Protection Agency - gphpahd;fis
tspkz;lyj;ij khRgLj;Jk; gl;oaypy; nrh;j;Js;sJ.
100. kPj;njd; gw;wp Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 kPj;njd; vd;gJ kpf vspa i]l;nuh fhh;gdhFk;. bfhs;sp tha[
my;yJ rJg;g[ epy tha[ vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 epyf;fhp tha[tpy; 30 rjtPjk; kPj;njd; cs;sJ. ,aw;if tha[tpy; 90
rjtPjk; kPj;njd; cs;sJ.
 kPj;njd; xU rfg;gpizg;g[ \yf;TW. xU fhh;gd; mq ehd;F
i]l;u$d; mqf;fSld; ehd;Kfp totj;jpy;
gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 kPj;njd; ePhpy; fiuahJ vd;gjhy; ePhpd; fPH; Kfg;bgah;rpapdhy;
nrfhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
gz;g[fs;
 ,J epwkw;w kzkw;w tha[.
 ,J ePhpy; fiuahJ.
 fhw;iw tpl vil FiwthdJ.
 fhw;wpy; ePy epw RlUld; vhpa[k;.
gad;fs;
 kPj;njd; vhpa[k;nghJ mjpf mst[ btg;gk; btspg;gLtjhy; mJ
xU rpwe;j vhpbghUshf gad;gLfpwJ.
 fhh;gd; gpshf; bra;a gad;gLfpwJ.
 ghh;khy;oi]L/ kPj;ijy; My;f]hy; kw;Wk; Fnshnuhghh;~k;
Kjyhd gy bghUl;fs; jahhpf;f.
 jhdpa';fp thfd';fspy; ,aw;if tha[ vhpbghUshf (kPj;njd;
mjpfk; cs;sJ) gad;gLfpwJ.
 rhz vhptha[ (kPj;njd; ml';fpaJ) tPLfspy; vhpbghUshf
gad;gLfpwJ.

101. gpsh!;of; cgnahfg;gLj;Jjyhy; Vw;gLk; Rw;Wr;NHy; rPh;nfLfs;
ahit?
 fhw;W kw;Wk; fly; ePnuhl;l';fs;/ flnyhu g[tpapay;/ efh;g;g[w
gFjpfs; kw;Wk; tzpf tHpfs; Mfpa gy;ntW fhuzpfspd;
tpisthf gpsh!;of; Fg;igfspd; guty; kpf mjpfkhf tputpf;
fplf;fpd;wd.
 rpy gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLk; kf;fs; bjhifa[k; ,jw;F Kf;fpa
fhuzkhf tps';FfpwJ.
 fhPgpad; nghd;w KGtJk; NHg;gl;l gFjpfspy; mjpfkhf
fhzg;gLk; gpsh!;of; rPh;nflhdJ.
 caphpd';fis mtw;wpd; brhe;j Rw;Wr;NHy; my;yhj bjhiy
J}uj;jpw;F bfhz;L bry;Yk; xU tHpahf tps';FfpwJ.
 ,J caphpay; hPjpahf Fiwe;j gd;Kfj;jd;ik bfhz;l Fwpg;gpl;l
,l';fspy; caphpd';fspd; ntWghLfspd; gutiya[k; mjpfhpf;f
fhuzkhf tps';Fk;.
epyk;
 Fnshhpndw;wk; bra;ag;gl;l gpsh!;of; Rw;wpYk; cs;s epyj;jpy;
bfLjyhd ntjpg;bghUl;fis tpLtpf;ff; TLk;.
 me;j ntjpg;bghUl;fs; xGfpr; brd;W epyj;jo ePiu my;yJ
Rw;wpYk; cs;s ,ju ePh;epiyfisa[k; kw;Wk; Rw;Wr;NHy;
mikg;iga[k; mila[k;.
 me;jj; jz;zPiu mUe;Jk; rpw;wpd';fSf;F nkhrkhd
bfLjy;fis tpistpf;Fk;.
 kz;\oa gFjpfspy; gy;ntW tifahd gpsh!;of;Ffs;
ml';fpapUf;fpd;wd.
 ,e;j kz;\oa gpsh!;of;Ffis tpiuthf caph;tHpr; rpijt[wr;
bra;a[k; mnef Ez;qaphpfs; cs;sd.
 ,e;j Ez;qaphpfspy; Nnlhnkhd!;/ ieyhd; cl;bfhs;Sk;
ghf;Ohpah kw;Wk; gpsnth ghf;Ohpah nghd;w ghf;Ohpahf;fs;
ml';Fk;.
 ,e;j ghf;Ohpahf;fs; ieyhd; vd;irk;fspd; bray;ghLfs;
\ykhf ieyhid rpijf;fpd;wd.
 caph;tHpr; rpijt[Wk; gpsh!;of;Ffs; cilf;fg;gl;lhy; kPj;njd;
btspaplg;gLfpwJ.

 mJ kpft[k; rf;jp tha;e;j xU gRik ,y;y tha[ MFk;. ,J

cyf btg;gkhjYf;F Fwpg;gplj;jf;f mst[ g';fspf;fpwJ.
fly;
 cyf fly;fspy; Vwj;jhH 165 gpy;ypad; ld;fs; gpsh!;of; khR
,Ug;gjhf 2012 y; kjpg;gplg;gl;lJ.
 fly; gpsh!;of; khRf;fis bghWj;jkl;oy; kpft[k;
ftiyg;glj;jf;fJ xU tifahd gpsh!;of; eh;oy;fs; MFk;.
 eh;oy;fs; vd;git gpsh!;of; bghUl;fs; cw;gj;jpapy;
gad;glf;Toa mof;fo ruf;Ff; fg;gy;fshy; vLj;Jr;
bry;yg;gLk; cw;gj;jp gpsh!;of; FkpHfs; MFk;.
 Fwpg;gplj;jf;f mstpy; eh;oy;fs; flypy; rpjwtplg;gLfpd;wd.
cyf mstpy; flw;fiu Fg;igfspy; 10 tpGf;fhL ,e;j
eh;oy;fisf; bfhz;lit.
 rhjhuzkhf flypy; cs;s gpsh!;of;Ffs; vy;yhk; xU Mz;oy;
rpijtile;JtpLk;. Mdhy; KGikahf rpijtiltjpy;iy.
 ,e;j bray;ghl;odhy; gp!;gPdhy; V kw;Wk; ghyp!;ilhPd; nghd;w
er;R ntjpg;bghUl;fs; me;j gpsh!;of;FfspypUe;J fly; ePhpy;
frpe;J tpLfpd;wd.
 ghyp!;ilhPd; kw;Wk; eh;oy;fs; nghd;witna flypy; kpf
rhjhuzkhf fhzg;gLk; gpsh!;of; khR tif.
 ,it gpsh!;of; igfs; kw;Wk; czt[ bfhs;fyd;fSld; nrh;e;J
fly; Fg;igapd; bgUk; gFjpia cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
 xU Ma;tpy; 5 ohpy;ypad; gpsh!;of; Jz;LfSf;Fk; mjpfkhf
flypy; kpjg;gjhf kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
102. ,e;jpahtpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ntjp g{r;rpf;bfhy;ypfs; kw;Wk; caphp

g{r;rpf;bfhy;ypfspd; bgah;fis vGJf.
ntjpg; g{r;rpf;bfhy;ypfs;
 vz;nlhry;~ghd;.
 khyj;jpahd;.
 jhypak; ry;ngl;.
 fhg;gh; Mf;rp FnshiuL.
 nghh;lhf;!; fyit.
caphp g{r;rpf;bfhy;ypfs;

 g{r;rpfs;/ fisfs; kw;Wk; nehk;g[aphpfs; ,tw;iw fl;Lg;gLj;j

caphp bghUl;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,j;jifa bghUs;fs; capUs;stw;wpypUe;J bgwg;gLfpwJ.
,it caphp g{r;rpf; bfhy;ypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
 itu!;fs;/ ghf;Ohpa';fs;/ g{|;irfs;/ g[nuhl;nlhnrhthf;fs; kw;Wk;
rpW g{r;rp tiffis caphp g{r;rpf;bfhy;ypfshf fUjyhk;.
 ghrpy;y!; Jhp|;rpadpa!;.
 l;iuf;nfhblh;kh tphpona.
103. gy;ntW iel;u$d; nrh;k';fspd; gad;ghLfis gw;wp tpsf;Ff.

 ePh;k mk;nkhdpah fiug;ghdhf.
 gdpf;fl;o jahhpf;Fk; bjhHpypy; mk;nkhdpah Fsph;tpg;ghdhf.
 braw;ifg;gl;L/ a{hpah/ cu';fs;/ ryit nrhlh Mfpait jahhpf;f.
 iel;u!; Mf;irL kw;Wk; Mf;!p$d; fyit gy; kUj;Jtj;jpy;
kaf;f kUe;jhf gad;gLfpwJ.
 mnrh-rha';fs; jahhpf;f iel;u!; mkpyk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 cu';fs;/ TNT/ GTN nghd;w btog;bghUl;fs; jahhpf;f iel;hpf;
mkpyk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 j';fk;/ bts;sp nghd;w cnyhf';fis J}a;ikahf;f iel;hpf;
mkpyk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 fiwglh v~F jahhpf;f iel;hpf; mkpyk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 thrid jputpa';fs;/ braw;ifg;gl;L/ kUe;Jfs; jahhpf;ft[k;
iel;hpf; mkpyk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 ePh;k iel;u$d; xU Fsph;tpg;ghdhf gad;gLfpwJ.
103. braw;iff;nfhs; bjhHpy;El;gj;jpy; ,e;jpahtpd; rhjidfis gw;wp

tpthpj;J vGJf.
 1962 - tpz;btsp Muha;r;rpf;fhf ,e;jpa njrpa fkpl;o mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
epyeLf;nfhl;L Vt[jsk; Jk;ghtpy; mikg;gjw;fhd gzpfs;
bjhlf;fk;.
 1963 - KjyhtJ xyp vGg;g[k; uhf;fbl; Jk;gh epyeLf;nfhl;L
Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J Vtg;gl;lJ.
 1965 - Jk;ghtpy; tpz;btsp mwptpay; kw;Wk; bjhHpy;El;g ikak;
epWtg;gl;lJ.

 1967 - braw;iff;nfhs; jfty; bjhlh;g[ g[tp epiyak; mfkjhghj;jpy;

mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
 1968 - Jk;gh epyeLf;nfhl;L uhf;bfl; Vt[jsk; gpg;uthp 2 md;W If;fpa
ehLfSf;F mh;g;gzpf;fg;gl;lJ.
 1972 - tpz;btsp Mizak; kw;Wk; tpz;btspj;Jiw $Pd; 1 md;W
bjhl';fp itf;fg;gl;lJ.
 tpz;btsp mog;gilapyhd bjhiy czh;t[ nrhjidfs; bjhl';fpd.
 1975 - ,e;jpahtpd; KjyhtJ braw;iff; nfhshfpa Mhpag;gl;lh/
igfhD}hpy; cs;s uZ;ah tpz;btsp epiyaj;j;jpd; fh!;nkh uhf;bfl;
thapyhf tpz;zpy; brYj;jg;gl;lJ.
 braw;iff;nfhs; mwpt[iu bjhiyf;fhl;rp nrhjid bjhl';fp
itf;fg;gl;lJ.
 1977 - braw;iff;nfhs; bjhiyj;bjhlh;g[ nrhjidj; jpl;lk;
bray;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1979 - g[tpapd; kPjhd Ma;t[fis nkw;bfhs;tjw;fhf nrhjid
mog;gilapyhd braw;ifnfhs; gh!;fuh - 1 $#d; 7 md;W uZ;ah Vt[
jsj;jpypUe;J fh!;nkh uhf;bfl; thapyhf tpz;zpy;
epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ.
 nrhjid mog;gilapyhd KjyhtJ Vt[ thfdk; SLV - 3 Vt[ thfdk;
Mf!;l; 10 md;W _]hpnfhl;lh Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J Vtg;gl;lJ. gFjp
njhy;tp mile;jJ.
 1982 -,d;rhl; - 1V mbkhpf;fhtpd; bly;lh uhf;bfl; thapyhf Vg;uy; 10
md;W ePs; tl;lg;ghijapy; epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ. ,J Ie;J khj';fs;
fHpj;J bray; ,Hf;fr; bra;ag;gl;lJ.
 1983 - _]hpnfhl;lh Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J braw;iff;nfhs; Vt[thfdk; 3
,d; tHp mDg;gg;gl;l ,uz;lhtJ mgptpUj;jp tpkhdk; Mh;.v!;.o. 2
braw;iff;nfhs; Vg;uy; 17 md;W ePs; tl;lg;ghijapy;
epiyepWj;jpaJ.
 ,d;rhl; - 1gp mbkhpf;fhtpd; mbkhpf;f tpz;btsp Xlk; thapyhf
Mf!;l; 30 md;W ePs; tl;lg;ghijapy; epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ. ,J
mLj;j gj;J Mz;Lfhyk; braypy; ,Ue;jJ.
 1984 - kdpjDld; Toa ,e;njh nrhtpaj; tpz;btsp Xlk; Vg;uypy;
mDg;gp itf;fg;gl;lJ.

 1987 - khh;r; 24 md;W _]hpnfhl;lh Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J Mf;bkz;ll;

braw;iff;nfhs; brYj;J thfdk; KjyhtJ tsh;r;rp bjhlf;fk;
btw;wpfukhf brYj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1988- bray;gLk; KjyhtJ ,e;jpa bjhiy czh;t[ braw;iff;nfhs;
IRS -1A khh;r; 17 md;W uZ;ahtpd; Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J th!;lhf;
uhf;bfl;lhy; epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1990 - mbkhpf;fhtpd; bly;lh uhf;bfl;odhy; $#d; 12 md;W Vtg;gl;l
,d;rhl; braw;iff;nfhs; epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1991 - uZ;ahtpd; Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J th!;lhf; uhf;bfl;lhy; Mf!;l; 29
md;W Vtg;gl;l IRS - 1B braw;iff;nfhs; epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1992 - ,e;jpahtpnyna Kjy; Kiwahf cUthf;fg;gl;l ,uz;lhk;
jiyKiw ,d;rhl; braw;iff;nfhshfpa ,d;rhl; - 2V bfsU
jsj;jpypUe;J $#iy 10 md;W Vhpad; uhf;bfl;lhy;
epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1993 - bfsU jsj;jpy; ,Ue;J $#iy 23 md;W Irhl; -2gp
epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1994 - Vv$;vy;tp -d; ehd;fhtJ tsh;r;rp tpkhdk;/ v';rpuh!; -rp2
braw;iff;nfhis nk 4 md;W g{kpapd; jhH;thd ePs;tl;lg; gijapy;
epiy epWj;jpaJ.
 1995 - ,d;rhl; 2 rp braw;iff;nfhs; bfsU jsj;jpy; ,Ue;J Vhpad;
uhf;bfl;lhy; ork;gh; 28 md;W IMh;vr;-1rp braw;iff;nfhs; uZ;ah
Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J nkhy;dpah uhf;bfl;lhy; tl;lg;ghijapy;
epiyepWj;jg;gl;lJ.
 1996 - _]hpf;nfhl;lh Vt[jsj;jpypUe;J IMh;v!; -gp3
braw;iff;nfhis eph;zapf;fg;gl;l tl;lg;ghijapy; epiy
epWj;jpajw;fhf gpv!;vy;tp - rp2 uhf;bfl;lhy; Vtg;gl;lJ.
 2000 - ,d;rhl; - 3rp MdJ khh;r; 22 md;W bfsU jsj;jpy; ,Ue;J Vhpad;
uhf;bfl;lhy; tpz;zpy; brYj;jg;gl;lJ.
 2001 - g[tp epiy braw;iff;nfhs; brYj;J thfdk; GLSV
_]hpnfhl;lhtpypUe;J Vg;uy; 18 md;W Vtg;gl;lJ.
 2002 - $dthp 24 md;W ,d;rhl; -2rp braw;iff;nfhs; gpu|;R
fahdhtpypUe;J Vhpad; 4 \ykhf tpz;zpy; brYj;jg;gl;lJ.
 2002 - brg;lk;gh; 14 md;W gpv!;vy;tp bkl;rhl; brYj;jg;gl;lJ.

 nk 6 2003 - _]hpf;nfhl;lhtpd; rjPZ; jthd; tpz;btsp ikaj;jpy;

,Ue;J GSLV-D2 brYj;jg;gl;L $prhl; 2 ia tl;lg;ghijapy;
brYj;jpaJ.
 2003 mf;nlhgh; 17 - hpnrhh;!;rhl; vd;W miHf;fg;gLk; ts
braw;iff;nfhisj; jh';fpa gpv!;vy;tp - rp5 MdJ
_]hpf;nfhl;lhtpd; rjPZ; jthd; tpz;btsp ikaj;jpy; ,Ue;J
Vtg;gl;lJ.
 20 brg;lk;gh; 2004 - $pv!;vy;tp-vg;1 uhf;bfl;il gad;gLj;jp fy;tp
braw;iff;nfhs; (vLrhl;) btw;wpfukhf brYj;jg;gl;lJ.
 2005 nk 5 - fhh;nlhrhl; 1/ ]k;rhl; Mfpait _]hpf;nfhl;lhtpd; g[jpa
etPd ikaj;jpypUe;J gpv!;vy;tp - rp6 uhf;bfl; thapyhf
brYj;jg;gl;lJ.
 2005 ork;gh; 22 - gpu|;R fahdhtpy; cs;s bfsUtpy; ,Ue;J Inuhg;gpa
tpz;btsp mikg;gpd; Vhpad; 5$p uhf;bfl; \yk; ,d;rhl; -4V
Vtg;gl;lJ.
 2006 mf;nlhgh; 28 - uhf;bfl; Vt[k; gzpapy; xU fpiunahb$dpf;
epiyia cUthf;fpa ehLfspd; FGtpy; MwhtJ cWg;gpdh;
,lj;ij ,e;jpah bgw;Ws;sJ.
 2007 $dthp 10 - JUt braw;iff;nfhshd brYj;J thfdk; gpv!;vy;tp
-rp7 uhf;bfl; \yk; _]hpf;nfhl;lhtpy; ,Ue;J fhh;nlhrhl;-2/ v!;Mh;<
- 1 braw;iff;nfhs;fs; brYj;jg;gl;lJ.
 23 Vg;uy; 2007 - ,!;nuh gpv!;vy;tp-rp8 uhf;bfl; thapyhf ,j;jhypapd;
mi$y; braw;iff; nfhis tpz;zpy; brYj;jpaJ.
 2008 Vg;uy; 28 - ,!;nuh gpv!;vy;tp-rp9 uhf;bfl; thapyhf Fwpg;gpl;l
fhy ,ilbtspapy; xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf 10 braw;iff;nfhs;fis
tl;lg;ghijf;F mDg;gpaJ.
 2008 mf;nlhgh; 22 - gpv!;vy;tp -rp 11 uhf;bfl; \yk;
_]hpf;nfhl;lhtpypUe;J re;jpuhad; -1 I brYj;jpaJ. ,jd; \yk;
re;jpuDf;F tpz;fyj;ij mDg;gpa 6tJ ehL ,e;jpah vd;w
bgUikiag; bgw;wJ.
 2009 Vg;uy; 20 - gpv!;vy;tp -rp 12 uhf;bfl; hprhl; - 2 kw;Wk; mDrhl;
Mfptw;iw Fwpg;gpl;l tl;lg;ghijapy; epiyepWj;jpaJ.
 23 brg;lk;gh; 2009 - ,e;jpahtpd; fly;fis Ma;t[ bra;a[k; braw;if
nfhshfpa Xrd;rhl; - 2 kw;Wk; MW Inuhg;gpa ehndh braw;iff;
nfhs;fis Rke;J bfhz;L gpv!;vy;tp -rp14 uhf;bfl;
_]hpf;nfhl;lhtpypUe;J Vtg;gl;lJ.

bkl;rhl; fy;gdh - 1
 fy;gdh - 1 braw;iff; nfhshdJ ,!;nuhtpd; JUt braw;iff; nfhs;
brYj;J thfdj;jpd; \yk; _]hpf;nfhl;lhtpypUe;J 2002 y;
Vtg;gl;lJ.
 ,J ,!;nuhtpdhy; jahhpf;fg;gl;l KjyhtJ jdpahd xU
braw;iff;nfhshFk;.
 Ma;t[ kw;Wk; bjhiyj;bjhlh;g[ xypgug;g[ nritfSf;F vd
jdpj;jdpahf nritfisg; bgw;W jUtjw;F Vjthf mika[k;.
fhh;nlhrhl; - 2gp
 gpv!;vy;tp -rp15 uhf;bfl; 5 braw;iff;nfhs;fSld;
_]hpf;nfhl;lhtpy; cs;s rjP!;jthd; tpz;btsp ikaj;jpypUe;J
Vtg;gl;lJ.
 ,e;jpa bghwpapay; khzth;fs; jahhpj;j !;ll;rhl;/ my;rhl; -2V/
ma;rhl;1 kw;Wk; orhl;-1 Mfpa Jiz braw;iff;nfhs;fSk;
Vtg;gl;ld.
 ,J xU ehisf;F 14 Kiw g{kpiar; Rw;wp tUk;.
 efh;g;g[w/ fpuhg;g[w fl;likg;g[ trjpfs;/ beL|;rhiy nkk;ghL/
tdg;gFjpfs;/ rJg;g[ epyg; gFjpfis fz;lwpjy;/ vhptha[ FHa;
,izg;g[ mikg;gjw;fhd cfe;j ,l';fis fz;lwpjy;
nghd;wtw;wpw;fhf bghpJk; gad;gLk;.
104. Xk; tpjpiaf; TWf.

 xU flj;jpapd; KidfSf;fpilna cs;s kpd;dGj;j
ntWghl;ow;Fk; flj;jpapy; gha[k; kpd;ndhl;lj;jpw;Fk; ,ilna
cs;s bjhlh;ig tpsf;FfpwJ.
 1827 y; b$h;kd; ehl;L ,aw;gapy; mwp|h; $hh;$; irkd; Xk; xU
flj;jpapd; KidfSf;fpilnaahd kpd;dGj;j ntWghL V
f;Fkhd bjhlh;igf; fz;lwpe;jhh;.
 Xk; tpjp - khwh btg;gepiyapy; flj;jp xd;wpd; tHpna gha[k; rPuhd
kpd;ndhl;lk; mjd; KidfSf;F ,ilnaa[s;s kpd;dGj;j
ntWghl;ow;F neh;j;jftpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
 I - kpd;ndhl;lj;ija[k;/ V - kpd;dGj;j ntWghl;ila[k; Fwpj;jhy;/
my;yJ khwpyp.

105. $#y; btg;g tpjpia tpsf;Ff.

 R kpd;jila[s;s kpd;jilahf;fp tHpna gha[k; kpd;ndhl;lk; I vd;f.
 kpd;jilahf;fpapd; KidfSf;fpilna kpd;dGj;j ntWghL V
vd;f.
 t tpdhofspy; kpd;jil tHpna gha[k; kpd;D}l;lk; Q vd;f.
 Q kpd;D}l;lj;ij V kpd;dGj;j ntWghl;oy; ,af;fr; bra;ag;gLk;
ntiy (W) MdJ VQ MFk;.
 kpd;\ykhdJ t tpdhofspy; VQ vd;w Mw;wiy mspf;f ntz;Lk;.
 ,e;j Mw;wy; kpd;jilapy; btg;gkhf khwp btspg;gLfpwJ.
epiyahd kpd;ndhl;lk; I xU kpd;jil tHpahfg; gha[k;nghJ t
tpdhofspy; cUthf;fg;gl;l btg;gk;.
vd;gjhy;
 Xk; tpjpiag; gad;gLj;j

 ,J $#y; btg;gtpjp vdg;gLfpwJ. ,t;tpjpg;go xU
kpd;jilapy; cUthf;fg;gLk; btg;gkhdJ.
 Fwpg;gpl;l kpd;jilf;F mjd; tHpna gha[k;
kpd;ndhl;lj;jpd; ,Ukof;F neh;tpfpjj;jpYk;.
 Fwpg;gpl;l kpd;ndhl;lj;jpw;F/ kpd;jilf;F
neh;tpfpjj;jpYk;.
 kpd;ndhl;lk; gha[k; neuj;jpw;F neh;tpfpjj;jpYk; ,Uf;Fk;.
106. tPl;Lg; gad;ghl;L kpd;Rw;Wfs; gw;wp Fwpg;g[ tiuf.

 tPLfSf;Fj; njitahd kpd;dhw;wiy Kjd;ik Mw;wy;
tH';fpapypUe;J g{kpf;foapy; gjpf;fg;gl;l fk;gptl';fs; my;yJ
kpd;fk;g';fspd; kPJ tUk; fk;gpfs; \yk; bgWfpnwhk;.
 ,jpy; rptg;g[f; fhg;g[iw bfhz;l fk;gp kpd;ndhl;lf;fk;gp vdg;gLk;.
fUg;g[f; fhg;g[iwa[s;s kw;bwhU fk;gp eLepiyf;fk;gp vdg;gLk;.
 ,t;tpU fk;gpfSf;Fkpilna kpd;dGj;j ntWghL 220 V ,Uf;Fk;.
kw;bwhU gr;irf; fk;gp g[tp ,izg;g[f; fk;gpahfr; bray;gLfpwJ.

 ekJ tPLfspy; ,f;fk;gpfs; kPl;lh; gyifapy; cs;s Kjd;ik

kpd;cUF,iH tHpahf thl;-kzp kPl;lUld;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 tHf;fkhf ,Utifr; Rw;Wfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ePh; Nnlw;wpfs;/
Fsph;tpf;Fk; rhjd';fs; ml';fpa Rw;WfSf;F 15 A mstpyhd
mjpfj; jpwd; tH';F Rw;Wfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
 kpd;gy;g[fs;/ kpd;tprpwpfs; ml';fpa Rw;WfSf;F 5A mstpyhd
Fiwe;j jpwd; tH';F Rw;Wfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
 kpd;frptpdhy; cz;lhFk; kpd;djph;r;rpiaj; jtph;f;fg;
g[tpg;gLj;Jjy; njitg;gLfpwJ.
 tPLfspy; gy;ntW kpd;fUtpfs; kpd;ndhl;lf; fk;gpf;Fk; eLepiyf;
fk;gpfSf;Fk; ,ilna jdpj;jdpahf ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
xt;bthU rhjdj;ij ,af;ft[k; xU jdp Rtpl;R cs;sJ.
 vy;yh kpd;fUtpfSk; gf;f,izg;gpy; cs;sjhy; xt;bthd;Wk; xnu
kpd;dGj;jj;ijg; bgWk;.
 kpd;ndhl;lf; fk;gpa[k;/ eLepiyf; fk;gpa[k; vjph;ghuhj tpjkhf
neuoahfj; bjhLk;nghJ mjpfg; gSthf khWk;. mg;nghJ kpd;
Rw;wpy; kpd;ndhl;lk; mjpfhpf;Fk;.
 ,ijf; FWf;Fj;jlr;Rw;W vd;fpnwhk;. mj;jifa jUz';fspy;
kpd;cUF ,iH cUfp kpd;Rw;iwa[k; kpd;fUtpfisa[k;
gGjhtjpypUe;J ghJfhf;fpwJ.

RRB JE/TALUK SI / TN Group II, IV&VAO 2019
POLICE (Monday, Wednesday,
Weekend Class will Start Friday)
from 10.02.2019 Time: 10:30 – 1:30

107. ,uj;jj;jpd; gFjpg; nghUl;fisf; Fwpg;gpLf.
 flj;Jk; jpRthdJ czTg; nghUs;> Rthr thAf;fs;> fopTg;nghUs;fs;
Nghd;wtw;iw flj;Jtjw;F Vw;w jftikg;gpidg; ngw;Ws;sJ.
 kdpj ,uj;jkhdJ gpsh];kh vd;w jputg;gFjpiaAk;> ,uj;jr; nry;fs; vd;w
jplg;gFjpiaAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 Blood is the Rive of life vd;wtH jpNahlH ];thd; kw;Wk; N[f;fg; ];tPld;.
 ,uj;jkhdJ vjDlDk; tpidGhpahJ.
 Mz;fSf;F 5 ypl;lH ,uj;jKk;> ngz;fSf;F 4.5 ypl;lH ,uj;jKk;
,Uf;Fk;.
 nkhj;j cly; vilapy; 10 rjtPjk; ,uj;jk; cs;sJ.
 ePiutpl ,uj;jj;jpd; mlHj;jp mjpfk;.
 ,uj;jj;jpd; PH kjpg;G 7.35 Kjy; 7.45 tiu MFk;.
 ,uj;jkhdJ cg;Gj;jd;ik tha;e;jJ.
,uj;jk;
gpsh];kh (55%) ,uj;jr; nry;fs; (45%)
ePH 92 % jpz;kk; 8%
Gujk; 7% cg;G 1% RBC WBC ,uj;j jl;;Lfs;
my;Gkpd; FNshGypd; /ighpNdh[d;

rt;t+L gutiy
jLf;fpwJ
gpsh];kh
 gpsh];kh vd;gJ ,uj;jr; nry;Yf;F ntspNa fhzg;gLk; jputkhFk;.
 ,uj;jj;jpy; 55 rjtPjk; gpsh];khthy; MdJ.
 gpsh];kh fhuj;jd;ik nfhz;l ntspH kQ;rs; epwj; jputkhFk;.

 gpsh];khtpy; Gujq;fs;> nehjpfs;> :hHNkhd;fs;> fopTfs; kw;Wk;

jdpkq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 gpsh];kh GNuhl;Bd; vd;gJ gpsh];khtpd; Kf;fpaf; fdpk $whFk;.
 my;Gkpd; ePHr;rkepiyia rPuf;Ffpd;wJ.
 FNshGypd; Neha; vjpHg;ghw;wYf;F ,d;wpaikahjJ.
 /ighpNdh[d; ,uj;jk; ciwjypy; Kf;fpa ghq;fhw;Wfpd;wJ.
,uj;jr; nry;fs;
,uj;jj;jpy; 45 rjtPjk; ,uj;jr; nry;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,uj;jr; nry;fs; 3
tifg;gLk;. mitahtd
 vhpj;jpNuhirl;Lfs; (RBC rptg;gZf;fs;).
 Yaf;Nfhirl;Lfs; (WBC nts;isaZf;fs;).
 jpuhk;Nghirl;Lfs; (,uj;jj; jl;Lfs;).
108. vhpj;jpNuhirl;Lfs; (RBC rptg;gZf;fs;) gw;wp tphpthf vOJf.

 :PNkhFNshgpid fz;Lgpbj;jtHfs; nfd;U> NgUl;[;.
 rptg;gZf;fs; rptg;G epwKila ,UgwKk; Fopahd jl;Lf;fshFk;
 Kjypy; cUthFk; NghJ cl;fUTld; Njhd;Wk; ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fs;
gpd; cl;fUf;fis ,of;fpd;wd .
 kdpjr; rptg;gZ cl;fU mw;wJ. ,J :PNkhFNshgpd; vd;w Rthr
epwkpiag; ngw;W ,Ug;gjpdhy; rptg;G epwKilajhff; fhl;rpaspf;fpd;wd.
 rptg;gZf;fs; thA ghpkhw;wj;jpw;F cjTfpwJ.
 Mf;rp[d; glF> Rthr epwkp> epwkpg; Gujk; vd;W :PNkhFNshgpd;
miof;fg;gLtJ.
 :PNkhFNshgpdpy; cs;s jdpkk; ,Uk;G 1Hb→4Fe – xU
:PNkhFNshgpdpy; ehd;F ,Uk;G mZf;fs; cs;sd.
 xU ,uj;j rptg;gZtpy; 280 :PNkhFNshgpd;fs; ,Uf;Fk;.
 Mz;fSf;F xU fd kpy;yp kPl;lH ,uj;jj;jpy; 5.2 kpy;ypad; ,uj;jr;
rptg;gZf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ngz;fSf;F xU fd kpy;yp kPl;lH
,uj;jj;jpy; 4.5 kpy;ypad; ,uj;jr; rptg;gZf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 Foe;ijfSf;F xU fdkpy;yp kPl;lH 6 kpy;ypad; ,uj;jr; rptg;gZf;fs;
,Uf;Fk;. fUtpy; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ xU fd kpy;yp kPl;lH ,uj;j j;jpy; 8
kpy;ypad; ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fs; ,Uf;Fk;
 ,uj;jr; rptg;gZf;fspd; tho;ehs; 100 Kjy; 120 ehl;fshFk;.
 ,uj;jr; rptg;gZf;fs; vYk;G k[;i[apy; cw;gj;jp Mfp fy;yPuypYk;>
kz;zPuypYk; mopf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

 :PNkhirl;Nlhgpsh];l; ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fshf khWfpwd;wJ.

 ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fs; mjpfkhf cw;gj;jpahf fUTw;w ngz;fSf;F
Nghypf; Mrpl; (B9) khj;jpiu nfhLf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Hb +4O₂ HbO₅ Mf;]p :PNkhFNshgpd; Rj;jkhd ,uj;jk;.
 xU :PNkhFNshgpdpy; 5 Mf;]p[d; ,Uf;Fk;.
 ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fs; EiuaPuypy; ,Ue;J Mf;]p[id clypy; vy;yhg;
ghfq;fSf;Fk; vLj;Jr;nry;fpd;wJ.
 ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fs; vt;tsT Mf;]p[id vLj;J nry;fpwJ vd;gij
fz;Lgpbf;f cjTk; fUtp NghNyhNuhfpuhgp.
 ,Utho;tpfSf;F nghpa mstpyhd rptg;gZf;fs; cs;sd.
 ghY}l;bfSf;F rpwa mstpyhd rptg;gZf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if fhz cjTk; nl];bd; ngaH
n:a;k;]; solution.
 rptg;gZ kw;Wk; nts;isaZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if fz cjTk; ,ae;jpuk;
:PNkhirl;NlhkPl;lH.
 ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfhpg;gjhy; ghypirj;jPkpah vd;w
Neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if Fiwtjhy; mdpkpah vd;w Neha;
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
mdpkpahtpd; tiffs;
 i:g;NghFNuhkpf; mdpkpah - ,Uk;G rf;jp Fiwtjhy; Vw;gLfpwJ.
 NkfNyhgpsh];bf; mdpkpah – tpl;lkpd; B ₉ Fiwghl;bdhy;
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 ngHkprpa]; mdpkpah – tpl;lkpd; B₁₂ Fiwghl;bdhy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 jhyrpkpah mdpkpah – Mf;rp[d; Fiwtjhy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 Vgpsh];bf; mdpkpah – mjpf khj;jpiufis gad;gLj;Jtjhy;
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 nrg;brpkpah mdpkpah-nfl;Lg;Nghd czit cz;gjhy; Vw;gLfpwJ.
:pNkhiyl;bf; mdpkpah- ghk;G fbf;Fk; NghJ ,uj;j rptg;gZtpy; cs;s
Mf;rp[id fl; nra;fpwJ
:PNkhFNshgpd; gzpfs;
 EiuapuypYs;s Mf;rp[d; cs;s ,uj;jj;ij jpRf;fSf;F :PNkhFNshgpd;
nfhz;L nry;fpd;wJ.
 jpRtpy; cs;s fhHgd; il Mf;i]il EiuapuYf;F vLj;Jr;nry;fpd;wJ.

 :PNkhFNshgpd; xU ,izT Gujk; MFk;. xU gFjp GujKk;> kw;nwhU

gFjp Gujkpy;yh cNyhfq;fs; kw;Wk; jdpkq;fs; NrHe;J fhzg;gLtJ
,izT Gujk; vdg;gLk;.
:PNkh- ,Uk;G
FNshgpd; - Gujk;
 :PNkhFNshgpdpd; ruhrhp – 15 fpuhk;∕100 kpy;yp ypl;lH.
:PNkhFNshgpd;
,Uk;G (Fe) gpypUgpd; gpYtpUbd;

fy;yPuypy; Nrkpf;fg;gLfpwJ
gpj;j epwkpfs;
,it jw;fhypfkhf gpj;jigapy;
Nrkpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
 kNyhpah Neha; Vw;gLk; NghJ :PNkhFNshgpd; tpiutpy; mope;J rpWePH
topahf ntspNaWfpd;wJ. ,J fUePHf;fha;r;ry; vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J ,wg;ig Vw;gLj;Jk; xU tif kNyhpah Neha;
MFk;.
 fUePH fha;r;riy Vw;gLj;JtJ gpsh];Nkhbak; ghy;rpnguk;.
 :PNkhFNshgpd; Fiwtjhy; mdpkpah vd;w ,uj;jNrhif Neha;
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,uj;j nts;is mZf;fspy; :PNkhFNshgpd; ,y;yhjjhy; nts;sahf
cs;sJ.
 ,uj;j jl;Lfspy; :PNkhFNshgpd; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.
 fug;ghd; g+r;rpapd; ,uj;jk; nts;isahf ,Uf;f fhuzk; mjpy;
:PNkhFNshgpd; ,y;iy.
109. Y}f;Nfhirl;Lfs; (WBC nts;isaZf;fs;) kw;Wk; jpuhk;Nghirl;Lfs;

(,uj;jj; jl;Lfs;) gw;wp tphpthf vOJf.
 nts;isaZf;fs; epwkw;w> xOq;fw;w tbtk; nfhz;l cl;fU cs;s
mkPgha;L nry;fs; MFk;
 rptg;gZit tpl ,it vz;zpf;ifapy; Fiwe;jit. xU fd kpy;yp kPl;lH
,uj;jj;jpy; 8000 nts;isaZf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd
 rptg;gZf;fistpl nts;isaZf;fs; mstpy; nghpait.
 nts;isaZf;fs; vYk;Gfspd; kQ;rs; k[;i[apYk;> epzePH Kbr;RfspYk;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
 nts;isaZf;fspd; tho;ehs; 2 Kjy; 3 thuq;fs; MFk;.

 nts;isaZf;fs; Neha;f; fpUkpfsplkpUe;J Nghuhb cliy NehapypUe;J

ghJfhf;fpd;wJ. Neha; vjpHg;G Mw;wiy nfhLf;fpwJ.
 ,uj;j nts;isaZf;fs; NghH tPuHfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,uj;j nts;isaZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if fhz cjTk; nl];bd; ngaH
lf;]; solution.
 ,uj;j nts;isaZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if Fiwtjhy; Yf;Nfhkpah (cancer)
vd;w Neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,uj;j nts;isaZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfhpg;gjhy; Yf;Nfhgpdpah vd;w
Neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
 nry;tpOq;Fjy; Ngf;Nfhirl;Nlhrp]; vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ ,jid
fz;Lgpbj;jjw;fhf ,u\;ahit NrHe;j vypd; nkr;rpd;fha; vd;gtUf;F 1961
y; Nehgy; ghpR toq;fg;gl;lJ.
 RBC kw;Wk; WBC apd; tpfpjk; 600 : 1 vd;w tpfpjj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
 ,uj;j nts;isaZf;fs; 5 tifg;gLk;. mitahtd.
 NkhNdhirl;Lfs; (Fjpiu fhyb tbtj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;).
 ypk;/g;Nghirl;Lfs; (B & T nry;fs; cs;sd).
 epa+lNuh/gpy;fs;.
 <];Ndhgpy;fs;.
 NgN]h/gpy;fs;.
Yaf;Nfhirl;Lfs;
xw;iw ePa+f;spaH (NkhNdh) gy ePa+f;spaH nfhz;lJ

1.ypk;/g;Nghirl;Lfs; 1. epa+l;Nuh/gpy;fs;
2. NkNdhirl;]; 2.<];Ndhgpy;fs;
3. NgN]h/gpy;fs;
jpuhk;Nghirl;Lfs; (,uj;jj; jl;Lfs;)
 jpuhk;Nghirl;Lfs; ,uj;jj;jpy; kpje;J fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

 ,uj;j jl;Lfs; tbtkw;wit.
 jpuhk;Nghirl;Lfs; rpwpa cl;fU mw;w nry;fshFk;.
 ,uj;j jl;Lfs; vYk;gpd; rptg;G k[;i[apYs;s nghpa nry;fs; moptjhy;
cUthfpd;wd.

 xU fd kpy;yp kPl;lH ,uj;jj;jpy; 2>00>000 Kjy; 4>00>000 jpuhk;Nghirl;Lfs;

fhzg;gLk;.
 clypy; fhak; Vw;gLk;NghJ jpuhk;Nghirl;Lfs; rpijtile;J
jpuhk;Nghgpsh];bd; vd;w nehjpiar; Rue;J ,uj;jk; ciwjYf;F cjTfpwJ.
110. ,uj;jj;jpd; gzpfs; Fwpg;gpLf.

 ,uj;jkhdJ nrhpj;j czit clypd; vy;yhg; gFjpfSf;Fk; nfhz;L
nry;fpwJ.
 tsHrpij khw;wj;jpd;NghJ cz;lhFk; fopTg; nghUs;fisf; fopT ePf;f
cWg;GfSf;Ff; nfhz;L nry;fpwJ.
 ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfspd; Rug;G nghUs;fis clypd; vy;yhg; gFjpfSf;Fk;
nfhz;L nry;fpwJ.
 clypd; ntg;gepiyiar; rPuhf itj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ.
 cly; jpRf;fis <ukhf itj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ.
111. ,uj;j tiffs; kw;Wk; RH fhuzp gw;wp Fwpg;gpLf.

 A,B,O ,uj;j tiffis fz;lwpe;jtH Nyz;l;];nla;dH.
 AB ,uj;j tifia fz;lwpe;jtH bfh];nly;yh ];yHb.
 Antigen – ,uj;j rptg;gZf;fspy; ,Uf;Fk;.
 Antibody – gpsh];khtpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
A B AB O
RBC Antigen A Antigen B Antigen AB Antigen No
gpsh];kh Antibody B Antibody A Antibody No Antibody AB
,uj;jk; nfhLg;gtH kw;Wk; ,uj;jk; ngWgtH
nfhLg;gtH ngWgtH
A A,AB
B B, AB
AB AB
O O,A,B,AB
 O ,uj;j tif cilatH Universal Donor

 AB ,uj;j tif cilatH Universal Receiver
RH fhuzp
 Rh Factor fz;Lgpbj;jtHfs; Nyz;l;];nla;dH kw;Wk; nta;dH (1940).

 Anti D ,d;[f;rd; Blue Baby syndrome ,wg;ig jLf;f Nghlg;gLfpd;wJ.

 June 14- World Blood Donor Day.
 October 1- National Voluntary Blood Donation Day.
,uj;jj;ij gjg;gLj;jp itj;jy;
 ,uj;jkhdJ ₌-4°C Kjy; -12°C ntg;gepiyapy; itf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

 Nrhbak; Mf;]Nyl; kw;Wk; mYkpdpak; Mf;]Nyl; Nghd;wit fye;J
,uj;jk; gjg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,uj;jj;jpy; cs;s fhy;rpak; madpfis vLj;Jtpl;lhy; ,uj;jk; ciwahky;
,Uf;Fk;.
112. ,uj;j Xl;l tiffisg; gw;wp Fwpg;gpLf.

 tpy;ypak; :hHtp vd;w Mq;fpNya kUj;JtH 1628 y; kdpjdpy; ,uj;jr;
Row;rpiaf; fz;lwpe;jhH.
 ,uj;j Row;r;rp vd;gJ ,jak;> ,uj;jf;Foha;fs; kw;Wk; ,uj;jk; Mfpait
mlq;fpa xU rpwg;G tifj; njhFg;ghFk;.
 ekJ clypy; ,uj;jr; Rw;W cWg;Gfshf ,jak;> jkdpfs;> rpiufs;>
je;Jfpfs; vd;Dk; ,uj;jf; Foha;fSk;> ,uj;jk; vd;Dk; jputj;jpR kw;Wk;
epzePH Mfpait cs;sd.
 ,uj;j Xl;lk; ,uz;L tifg;gLk;
 jpwe;jtif ,uj;j Xl;lk;
 %batif ,uj;j Xl;lk;
jpwe;j tif ,uj;j Xl;lk;
 ,jaj;jpdhy; mOj;jg;gl;l ,uj;jk; rpwpJ ,uj;jf; Foha;f;Fs;Sk;> gpd;dH

clw;Fopf;Fs;Sk; mDg;gg;gLfpd;wJ. ,q;F je;Jfpfs; ,y;iy.
 ngUk;ghyhd fZf;fhypfspy; jpwe;jtif ,uj;j Xl;lk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ
 jpwe;jtif ,uj;j Xl;lj;jpy; ,uj;j mOj;jk; kpff; FiwT. v.fh.
fug;ghd;g+r;rp.
%ba tif ,uj;j Xl;lk;
 %ba tif ,uj;j Xl;lj;jpy; ,uj;jk; ,jaj;jpd; RUq;fp> tphpAk;

jd;ikahy; ,uj;jf; Foahf;Fs; XLk;.
 %ba tif ,uj;j Xl;lj;jpy; ,uj;jf; Foha;f;Fs; ,uj;j mOj;jk;
mjpfhpf;Fk;. v.fh. kdpjd;.
113. ,jaj;jpd; gFjpfs; kw;Wk; nray;gLk; Kiw gw;wp tpsf;Ff.

 kdpj ,jak; cs;sPlw;w ehd;F miwfNshL $ba rpwg;G gz;Gfisf;

nfhz;l fhHbahf; jirahy; Md cWg;G MFk;.
 ,jaj;ijr; Rw;wp ,ul;ilr; Rthpdhy; Md nghpfhHbak; ciw cs;sJ.
 nghpfhHba rt;tpw;F ,ilg;gl;l gFjp nghpfhHbay; jputj;jhy;
epug;gg;gl;L cs;sJ.
 ,jak; khHG miwf;Fs; ,uz;L EiuaPuYf;Fk; ,ilapYs;s kPbah];bdk;
gFjpapy; itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,jak; Vl;hpak; (Mhpf;fps;) vd;W miof;fg;gLk; nky;ypa Rtiu cila
,uz;L Nky; miwfisAk;> ntz;bhpf;fps; vd;W miof;fg;gLk; jbj;j
Rtiu cila ,uz;L fPo; miwfSk; cs;sd.
 ,jak; Vl;hpNah ntz;bhpFyhH ,ilr;RtH vd;w ePs;thl;lr; Rthpdhy;
tyg; gFjp> ,lg;gFjp vdg; gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 tyg;Gw ,jakhdJ clypy; ,Ue;J Rj;jpfhpf;fg;glhj ,uj;jj;ijg;
ngWfpwJ.
 ,lg;Gw ,jakhdJ Rj;jpfhpf;fg;gl;l Mf;]p[d; kpf;f ,uj;jj;ij cly;
KotJk; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ.

Mhpf;fps;fs; (Vl;hpaq;fs; )
 tyJ Mhpf;fps; kw;Wk; ,lJ Mhpf;fps; ,il Mhpf;FyhH jLg;Gr; Rtuhy;

gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 Mhpf;fps;fs; ,uj;jj;ijg; ngwf; $ba cWg;Gfshf cs;sd.
 fPo;ngUQ;rpiu> Nky;ngUk;rpiu %yk; clypypUe;J Rj;jpfhpf;fg;glhj
,uj;jk; KOtijAk; tyJ Mhpf;fps; ngWfpd;wJ.
 ehd;F EiuaPuy; rpiufspd; %yk; EiuaPuypypUe;J Mf;]p[d; kpf;f
,uj;jj;ij ,lJ Mhpf;fps; ngWfpd;wJ.
ntz;l;hpf;fps;fs;
 tyJ ntz;l;hpf;fps; kw;Wk; ,lJ ntz;l;hpf;fps; ,il ntz;l;hpf;FyhH

jLg;Gr;Rtuhy; gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 ntz;l;hpf;fps;fs; ,uj;jj;ij ntspr; nrYj;Jk; cWg;Gfshf cs;sd.
 tyJ ntz;l;hpf;fps; tyJ Mhpf;fpspypUe;J Mf;]p[dw;w ,uj;jijg; ngw;W
EiuaPuy; jkdp %yk; EiuaPuYf;Fs; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ.
 ,lJ ntz;l;hpf;fps;> ,lJ Mhpf;fpspypUe;J Mf;]p[d; kpFe;j ,uj;jijg;
ngw;Wg; ngUe;jkdpf;Fs; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ.
,jaj;NjhL njhlHGila ,uj;jf; Foha;fs;
 jkdp> je;Jfp> rpiu vd %tif ,uj;jf; Foha;fs; cs;sd.

 tyJ Vl;hpak; - Nkw;ngUQ;rpiu> fPo;g;ngUQ;rpiu> nfhNuhdhp rpiu.
 tyJ ntz;bhpf;fps; - EiuaPuy; jkdp (capHtsp mw;w ,uj;jk;).
 ,lJ Vl;hpak; - 4 EiuaPuy; rpiufs; (capHtsp cs;s ,uj;jk;).
 ,lJ ntz;bhpf;fps; - kfhj;jkdp.
,jaj;jpd; Jisfs;
 tyJ Mhpf;fps; kw;Wk; tyJ ntz;l;hpf;fSf;F ,ilapy; tyJ

Mhpf;FNyh-ntz;l;hpf;FyhH Jis mike;Js;sJ.
 ,lJ Mhpf;fps; kw;Wk; ,lJ ntz;l;hpf;fSf;F ,ilapy; ,lJ
Mhpf;FNyh-ntz;l;hpFyhH Jis mike;Js;sJ.
,jaj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; thy;Tfs;
 tyJ Mhpf;fps; xU nghpa Vl;hpNah ntz;l;hpf;FyhH Jis topahf tyJ

ntz;l;hpf;fpspy; jpwf;fpwJ. ,j;Jis ntz;lhpf;fpis Nehf;fp mike;Js;s
%tpjo; thy;tpdhy; ghJfhf;fg;gLfpd;wJ . ,J ,uj;jk; gpd;Ndhf;fp
nry;tij jLf;fpd;wJ.

 %tpjo;thy;T – tyJ Vl;hpaj;jpw;Fk; tyJ ntz;bhpf;fpSf;Fk; ,ilapy;

fhzg;gLk;.
 ,lJ Mhpf;fps; nghpa xU Mhpf;FNyh ntz;l;hpf;FyhH Jis topahf ,lJ
ntz;l;hpf;fpNshL njhlHG nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,j;Jis ntzl;hpf;fpis
Nehf;fp mike;Js;s <hpjo; thy;tpdhy; ghJfhf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J ,uj;jk;
gpd;Nehf;fp nry;tij jLj;J xOq;FgLj;JfpwJ.
 <hpjo; thy;T - ,lJ Vl;hpaj;jpw;Fk; ,lJ ntz;bhpf;fpSf;Fk; (kpl;uy;
thy;T) ,ilapy; fhzg;gLk;.
 <hpjo; thy;T kpl;uy; thy;T vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 miur;re;jpu thy;T – EiuaPuy; jkdp Gwg;gLk; ,lj;jpYk;> kfhj;jkdp
Gwg;gLk; ,lj;jpYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
 tyJ ntz;l;hpf;fps; xUJisapd; topahf EiuaPy; jkdpAld; njhlHG
nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,j;Jis gpiw tbtg; gy;Nkhdhp thy;tpdhy;
ghJfhf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ,lJ ntz;l;hpf;fps;> gpiwtbt thy;tpdhy; (ngUe;jkdp thy;T)
ngUe;jkdpf;Fr; nry;Yk; ,uj;jk;> kPz;Lk; gpd;Nehf;fpr; nry;tijj; jLj;J
xOq;FgLj;JfpwJ.
yg; lg;
0.16 Kjy; 0.9 nrfz;L tiu 0.10 nrfz;L tiu Nfl;Fk;
Nfl;Fk;
ePz;l Neuk; Nfl;Fk; Fiwe;j Neuk; Nfl;Fk;
Fiwe;j xyp msT mjpf xyp msT
ntd;l;hpf;FyhH rp];Nlhy; epiyapy; ntd;l;hpf;FyhH rp];Nlhypd;
Vl;hpNah ntd;l;hpf;FyhH thy;Tfs; Kbtpy; miur;re;jpuh thy;Tfs;
%Ltjhy; yg; vd;w xyp Nfl;fpwJ %Ltjhy; lg; vd; xyp
Vw;gLfpd;wJ
je;Jfpf; Foha;fs;
 thy;Tfs; nray;gLk; tpjk; gw;wp $wpatH Fabriciow.
 je;Jfpfis fz;lwpe;jtH khHnrNyh khy;rpfp.
 nry;fSf;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; kpf Ez;zpa Foha;fs; je;Jfpfs;.
 je;Jfpfs; jpRf;fisr; Rw;wp tiy Nghd;W gpd;dp glHe;J jpRf;fSf;F
,ujj;jpypUe;J nghUl;fis toq;Ffpd;wd.
 Rw;Nwhl;lj; njhFg;G epfo;j;jf; $ba vy;yh NtiyfSk; je;Jfpfspy;
kl;LNk eilngWtjhy; kw;w ,uj;jf; Foha;fshd jkdp> rpiuiatpl
je;Jfpfs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd.

114. itu]; gw;wp Fwpg;G tiuf. itu]hy; guTk; rpy Neha;fis Fwpg;gpLf.
 ituir ,u\;ahit rhHe;j jhtutpay; mwpQH bkpl;hp INthdh];fp 1892 y;
fz;Lgpbj;jhH.
 Gifapiy nkhirf; ituir fz;Lgpbj;jtH bkpl;hp INthdh];fp.
 itu]; vd;w ,yj;jpd; nkhopr;nrhy;ypd; nghUs; eQ;R.
 ituir gw;wp gbg;G ituhy[p.
 itu]; capUs;sit kw;Wk; capuw;witfspd; vy;iyf; Nfhl;by;
mike;Js;sJ. capH kw;Wk; capuw;witapd; ,izg;G ghyk; vd itu];
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 iturpy; cs;s ithpad; vd;gJ mjd; er;R jd;ikf;F fhuzk; MFk;.
 itu];fs; ve;j caphpia jhf;fp jd;id mjDs; ngUf;fp nfhs;fpwNjh mJ
tpUe;Njhk;gp nry; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 tpUe;Njhk;gpapd; mbg;gilapy; itu];fis 5 tifahf gphpf;fyhk;.
 ghf;BhpNahNg[;.
 igl;NlhNg[; - jhtu itu];.
 #Ng[; - tpyq;F itu];.
 igNfhNg[; - ghrp itu];.
 ikf;NfhNg[; - g+Q;ir itu];.
 itu]hy; cz;lhFk; Neha;fs;

gd;wpf;fha;r;ry; (H₁N₁)> gwitf;fha;r;ry; (H₅N₁)> rpf;Fd;Fdpah> kQ;rs;
fhkhiy> rsp> rpd;dk;ik> ,sk;gps;isthjk;> mk;ik> va;l;];>
,d;G@ad;rh.
 itu];fs; Gujj;jhy; #og;gl;l ciwia cila DNA my;yJ RNA it
kuGg; nghUshff; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 ,d;G@ad;rh Neha; A(H₁N₁) vd;w iturhy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. 1970 fspy;
cyif Ml;bg;gilj;;j nfhLikahd Neha; ,d;G@ad;rh MFk;.
 ,Jtiu mwpag;gl;l midj;J itu];fSk; NghypNah> ntwpeha;f;fb>
fy;yPuy; tPf;fk;> %is ciw tPf;fk;> %isf; fha;r;ry; Nghd;w fLikahd
Neha;fis cUthf;Fk; xl;Lz;zpfshf cs;sd.
 itui] kpd;dD Ez;Nzhf;fp %yk; kl;LNk ghHf;fKbAk;.
 rhjhuz rsp E}w;Wf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l itu];fs; fhuzpfshf cs;sd.
 ed;ik nra;Ak; itu]; kugpay; Nrhjidfspy; gad;gLfpd;wd. v.fh.
ghf;Bhpah/Ng[;.

Neha; itu]pd; ngaH

rsp iuNdh itu];
,sk;gps;isthjk; NghypNah itu];
rpd;dk;ik n:Hg;]; itu];
Gifapiy gy;tz;zNeha; Gifapiy nkhirf; itu];
va;l;]; vr;.I.tp
ntwpeha;f;fb Nug;Nlh itu];
115. GNuhl;NlhNrhthf;fshy; guTk; Neha;fs; gw;wp Fwpg;gpLf.

 xU nry; caphpfshd GNuhl;NlhNrhthf;fspy; rpy xl;Lz;zpfs;
Neha;f;fpUkpfshf cs;sd.
 ,it kdpjh;fSf;F Neha;fis cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd.
kNyhpah
 gpsh];Nkhbak; vd;Dk; Ez;Zaphp %yk; kNyhpah guTfpd;wJ.
 ,e;jpahtpy; fhzg;gLk; gpsh];Nkhbaj;jpd; tiffs; 1. gpsh];Nkhbak;
itthf;];> 2. gpsh];Nkhbak; kNyhpah> 3. gpsh];Nkhbak; ghy;]pghuk; 4.
gpsh];Nkhbak; xNty;.
 gpsh];Nkhbak; ghy;]pghuk; ,wg;ig Vw;gLj;Jk; fLikahd tif MFk; .
 kNyhpah ngz; mNdhgpyp]; nfhR %yk; guTfpd;wJ.
kNyhpah Neha; guTjy;
 gpsh];Nkhbaj;jpd; ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; ngz; mndhgpyp]; nfhRtpYk;>
ghypyh ,dg;ngUf;fk; kdpjhpYk; eilngWfpd;wdJ.
 NehAw;w kdpjid ngz; mndhgpyp]; nfhR fbf;Fk; nghOJ gpsh];Nkhbak;
nfhRtpd; clYf;Fs; nrd;W ghypdg;ngUf;fj;jpdhy; ngUfp
];NghNuhRtha;Lfshf cUthfpf; nfhRtpd; ckpo;ePHr; Rug;gpapy; NrukhfpwJ.
 ,f;nfhR Nehaw;w kdpjid fbf;Fk; NghJ ,e;j ];NghNuhRtha;Lfs; kdpj
clypy; Eioe;J fy;yPuy; nry;fspy; ngUfpg; gpd;dH ,uj;jr; rptg;gZitj;
jhf;fp ntbf;fr; nra;fpwJ.
 ,jdhy; :PNkhNrhapd; vd;Dk; er;Rg;nghUs; ntspg;gl;Lf; FspiuAk;> fLk;
fha;r;riyAk; Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. ,e;j fha;r;ry; 3 Kjy; 4 ehs; ePbf;fyhk;.
 rH Nuhdhy;L uh]; my;Nkhuhtpy; gpwe;j gphpl;B\; ,e;jpa kUj;JtH. ,tH
kNyhpah Neha; guTk; Kiwia fz;Lgpbj;jw;fhf 1902 y; Nehgy; ghpR
ngw;whH.
 Lavern vd;gH kNyhpahtpw;F fhuzk; gpsh];Nkhbak; vd;W fz;Lgpbj;jhH.
mkPgpah]p];
 vz;lkpgh :p];Nlhiybfh vDk; GNuhl;NlhNrhth Ez;Zaphp
ngUq;Flypy; gutp mkPgpf; rPjNgjpia Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.

 mkPgpf; rPjNgjp ePH kw;Wk; cztpd; %yk; guTfpd;wJ.

116. ,e;jpahtpy; nray;gLj;jg;gLk; Neha;j;jLg;g+rpj; jpl;lk; gw;wp Fwpg;G tiuf.
 BCG – fhrNeha;j;jLg;g+rp.
 DPT – njhz;il milg;ghd;> ff;Fthd; ,Uky;> nll;lhd];
Kj;jLg;g+rp.
 MMR – Gl;lhyk;ik> kPry;];> Ungy;yh.
 DT – bg;j;jPhpah (njhz;il milg;ghd;)> nll;lhd]; (,UjLg;g+rp).
 TT- nll;lhd]; lhf;]ha;L.
taJ jLg;g+rp msT

gpwe;j Foe;ijfSf;F BCG Kjy; jtiz
15 ehs; NghypNah nrhl;L kUe;J Kjy; jtiz
6tJ thuk; njhz;il milg;ghd;> Kjy; jtiz
ff;Fthd; ,Uky;>nll;lhd]; )
Kj;jLg;g+rp
10 tJ thuk; Kj;jLg;g+rp kw;Wk; NghypNah 2 tJ jtiz
14 tJ thuk; Kj;jLg;g+rp kw;Wk; NghypNah 3 tJ jtiz
9-12 khjk; kPry;]; Kjy; jtiz
18-24 khjk; Kj;jLg;g+rp kw;Wk; NghypNah Kjy; Cf;Ftpg;Gj; jtiz
15 khjk; -2 Mk; Mz;L MMR Kjy; jtiz
2-3 Mz;L ilg;gha;L 1 khj ,ilntspapy; ,U
jtizfspy;
4-6 Mz;L D.T. kw;Wk; NghypNah ,uz;lhtJ Cf;Ftpg;Gj;
jtiz
10 tJ Mz;L T.T. kw;Wk; ilg;gha;L Kjy; jtiz
16 tJ Mz;L T.T. kw;Wk; ilg;gha;L ,uz;lhtJ Cf;Ftpg;Gj;
jtiz
117. HIV Neha; gw;wp tphpthf vOJf.

 HIV itu]; 1984 y; uhgHl; NfNyh vd;guhy; Mg;gphpf;fhtpy;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ.
 uhgHl; NfNyh fz;Lgpbj;j HIV ituRf;F Human T Limbo itu]; vd;W
ngahpl;lhH. gpd;dH ,J LAV – Limbo Adino Virus vd;Wk;> ACV –AIDS
Create Virus vd;Wk; ngaH khw;wg;gl;L ,Wjpahf HIV vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 HIV xU tpyq;F itu]; MFk;.

 jkpo;ehl;by; HIV ituir fz;Lgpbj;jtH nrd;idia NrHe;j Rdpjp

rhykd;.
 HIV – Human Immuno deficiency virus (Immuno – Neha; vjpHg;G).
 AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (ngwg;gl;l Neha;j;
jLg;ghw;wy; FiwT).
 HIV vdg;gLtJ xU RNA it kuGg; nghUshff; nfhz;l fpisf;Nfh
Gujj;jhy; #og;gl;l xU tif hpl;Nuh itu]; MFk;.
 hptH]; luhd;];fphpg;Nl]; mikg;ghdJ clypy; HIV itu]; nrd;wTld;
,jpy; cs;s RNA it DNA thf khw;WfpwJ.
 ,e;j RNA thdJ DNA thf khWtij ngkpd; vd;gH 1961 y; fz;Lgpbj;jhH.
,jw;F nlkpdprk; vd;W ngaH.
 HIV itu]; Mz;bghbf;fis cUthf;Fk; CD4 kw;Wk; T cjTk; nry;fis
cUthf;Fk; ,uj;j nts;is mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaf; Fiwj;J
Neha;j; jLg;ghw;wy; Fiwit Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
 Project Sunrise vd;gJ tlfpof;fpy; cs;s 8 khepyq;fspy; AIDS Nehia
fl;Lg;gLj;j kj;jpa Rfhjhuj; Jiw mikr;rH el;lh mwpKfg;gLj;jpa
jpl;lkhFk;.
AIDS d; mwpFwpfs;
 cly; vilf; Fiwjy;.
 ,utpy; tpaHj;jy;.
 njhz;il Gz; Vw;gLjy;.
 Qhgf kwjp Vw;gLk;.
AIDS ia fz;Lgpbg;gjw;fhd Nrhjidfs;

 ELISA Test (Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay) fz;lwptjw;fhd
Nrhjid.
 nt];ld; gpshl; Nrhjid cWjpg;gLj;Jk; Nrhjid.
 PCR Test.
 vNghyh itui] fz;lwpaTk; PCR Test gad;gLfpd;wJ.
AIDS f;fhd kUe;Jfs;

 AZT – mrpNlhijkpbd;
 [pNlhTbd;.
 irf;NshtpH.
 nrf;dpNdhtpd;.

 ARV – Anti Retro Virus Drugs rpg;yh epWtd chpikahsH a+Rg; :kpJ
fz;Lgpbj;j kUe;J.
116. kdpj nrhpkhd kz;lyj;ij tpsf;Ff.

 czT kz;lyj;jpd; mikg;G nray;ghL> ,iug;ig kw;Wk; czTf; Foypy;
Njhd;Wk; Neha;fisf; fz;lwpjy;> Neha;r; rpfpr;ir Kiwfisg; gw;wp
mwptJ Nf];l;bNuh vz;lhpahy[p (,iug;ig Flypay;) vdg;gLk;.
 nrhpj;jy; kz;lyj;ij ,uz;L gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
 ,iug;ig> Fly; Foy;fs;
 nrhpkhd Jizr; Rug;gpfs;
 tha; - ehk; tha; topahf cztpid cl;nfhs;fpNwhk;. tha;f;FopapDs;
gw;fs;> ehf;F kw;Wk; ckpo;ePH Rug;gpfs; cs;sd.
 rhg;gpLk; czthdJ EiuaPuYf;F nry;yhky; jLg;gJ vgpfpyhl;b];.
 gw;fs; - gw;fs; czitr; rpWrpW Jd;Lfshf;Ftjw;Fk;> nky;Ytjw;Fk;
miug;gjw;Fk; cjTfpd;wd.
 ckpo;ePH Rug;gpfs; - %d;W tpjkhd ckpo; ePH Rug;gpufs; cs;sd. ,J Ruf;Fk;
ckpo; ePH czit <ukhf;Ftjw;Fk;> vspjhf tpOq;fTk; gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy;
cs;s mikNy]; vd;w nehjpahdJ ];lhHr; nrhpj;jYf;F cjTfpwJ.
 ehf;F- ,J Rit czH cWg;G. czit tpOq;Fk; NghJ mij
ftskhf;fp cl;js;sTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 czTf;Foy; - tha;f;FopiaAk; ,iug;igiaAk; ,izf;fpwJ.
 ,iug;ig - ,J xU ig Nghd;w mikg;G. ,q;F czT nrhpf;fg;gl;L
$o;kkhf khw;wg;gLfpwJ. ,iug;igapy; Ruf;Fk; ,iug;ig ePH czT
nrhpj;jYf;F gad;gLfpwJ.
 rpWFly; - 7 kPl;lH ePsKilaJ. ,q;F czthdJ gpj;j ePH> fizaePH>
rpWFly;ePH Mfpatw;Wld; fye;J KOtJkhf czT nrhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 Kbtpy; fhHNghi:l;Nul;Lfs; rpije;J FSf;Nfh]hfTk;> Gujq;fs;
rpije;J mkpNdh mkpyq;fshfTk;> nfhOg;Gfs; rpije;J nfhOg;G
mkpyq;fshfTk; khWfpd;wd.nrhpf;fg;gl;l czT rpWFlypy; cs;s
FlYwpQ;rpfs; %yk; cwpQ;rg;gLfpd;wd.
 ngUq;Fly; - 1.5 kPl;lH ePsKilaJ> ,J ePiu cwpQ;r cjTfpwJ> ,q;F
nrhpj;jy; eilngWtJ ,y;iy.
 rpWFlYk; ngUq;FlYk; ,izAk; ,lk; rPf;fk; (mg;gz;bf;];) vdg;gLk;.
 kyg;Gio – nrhpf;fg;glhj czT kw;Wk; fopTg;nghUs;fs; kyg;Gio
topahf ntspNaWfpwJ. Fly; jirfs; rPuhd RUq;Fjy; kw;Wk;
tphptiljyhy; czthdJ czTf;FoypypUe;J kyg;Giof;F
miyNghd;W nry;fpwJ. ,t;tiy ,af;fj;jpw;F Fly;jir miyT vd;W
ngaH.

 nehjp vd;gJ capH fphpah Cf;fpfs; vdg;gLk;.
117. tpyq;Ffspd; Rthrpj;jy; Kiwapid tpsf;Ff.

 ehk; Xa;tpypUf;Fk; nghOJk; ekJ cWg;Gfshd ,jak;> %is> rpWePufk;
kw;Wk; E}iuaPuy;fs; ,aq;fpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 kdpjd; ruhrhpahf xU epkplj;jpw;F 16 Kjy; 18 Kiw %r;R tpLfpwhd;.
 capHtspahdJ nry;fspd; cs;Ns nrd;wilAk; nghOJ> rf;jpg;nghUs;
vhpf;fg;gLfpwJ mjid Mf;]p[Ndw;wk; miljy; vd;fpNwhk;.
 Rthrpj;jy; vd;gJ fhpk %yf;$Wfis Mf;]p[Ndw;wk; nra;J Ntjp
Mw;wiy ngWjyhFk;.
 Rthrpj;jy; MdJ ,uz;L tifg;gLk; mit . 1. fhw;W Rthrk;> 2.
fhw;wpyh Rthrk; (nehjpj;jy;).
fhw;W Rthrk;
capHtspapd; cjtpahy; czTg; nghUs;fs; vhpf;fg;gl;L Mw;wiy
ntspf;nfhzHfpd;wd. vdNt capHtspapd; Kd;dpiyapy; eilngWk;
Rthrj;jpw;Ff; fhw;Wr; Rthrk; vd;W ngaH.
FSf;Nfh]; + capHtsp fhpakpy thA + ePH + Mw;wy;
fhw;wpy;yh Rthrk;
rpy Ez;ZapHfs;> <];l;> ghf;Bhpah Nghd;wit capHtsp mw;w epiyapy;
cztpypUe;J Mw;wiyg; ngWfpd;wJ. capHtsp mw;w epiyapy; eilngWk;
Rthrj;jpw;Ff; fhw;wpy;yhr; Rthrk; vd;W ngaH.
capHtsp mw;wepiy
FSf;Nfh]; vj;jpy; My;f:hy; + fhpakpy thA + Mw;wy;
My;f:hy; vhpnghUs; rhjdkhfTk; gad;gLfpwJ
118. fhw;Ws;s Rthrj;jpd; gbepiyfis tpsf;Ff.

 Mf;rp[d; vLj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gLk; Rthrk; fhw;Ws;s Rthrk; MFk; .
 C₆H₁ O6+O H₂O+CO₂+2900 KJ
Mw;wy;
38 ATP
ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpahtpy; Nrkpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ

ATP – mbNdhird; l;iu gh];Ngl;
 ATP nry;ypd; Mw;wy; ehzak; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ATP ia fz;Lgpbj;jtHfs; - ypg;Nkd;> Nyhf;Nkd;.
 ATP Row;rpapd; je;ij vd;wiof;fg;gLgtH – Nyhf;Nkd;.
ATP cUthjy;
ADP+Pi ATP
mbNdhird; il gh];Ngl;+ gh];Ngl; mbNdhird; l;iu gh];Ngl;
Pi - ,d;MHfhdpf; gh];Ngl;
ATP rpijjy;
ATP+O ADP+Pi + 7.3 fpNyh fNyhhp Mw;wy;
fhw;Ws;s Rthrj;jpd; gbepiyfs;

 fpisf;Nfhiyrp];.
 igUtpf; mkpy Mf;]p[Ndw;w fhHgd; ePf;fk;.
 fpnug; Row;rp.
 vyf;l;uhd; flj;Jr;rq;fpyp.
fpisf;Nfhiyrp];
fpisf;Nfh – rHf;fiu
iyrp]; - rpijj;jy;
 fpisNfhiyrp]; vd;gJ rHf;fiu my;yJ fhHNghi:l;Nul;il gpsj;jy;
vd;W nghUs; jUk;.
 xU FSf;Nfh]; %yf;$W rpijtile;J 2 igUtpf; mkpykhf khWfpd;w
epfo;T fpisNfhiyrp]; vdg;gLk;.
 fpisNfhiyrp]; nry;ypd; irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpy; eilngWk;.
 fpisNfhiyrp]; midj;J caphpdq;fspYk; eilngWk;. itu]; jtpu>
itu]py; tsHrpij khw;wq;fs; vJTk; eilngwhJ.
 fpisNfhiyrp]; Row;rpia n[Hkdp ehl;ilr; NrHe;j 3 tpQ;Qhdpfs;
fz;Lgpbj;jdH.
vk;ld; (E)
Nkauhg; (M)
gHdh]; (P)
 fpisNfhiyrp]; EMP topj;jlk; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 fpisNfhiyrp]; Row;rp fhw;Ws;s kw;Wk; fhw;wpy;yh Rthrk; vd
,uz;bYk; eilngWfpd;wJ.

fpisNfhiyrp]pd; xl;Lnkhj;j tpid

C₆H₁₂O6+2NAD+2Pi+2ADP igUtpf; mkpyk;+2ATP+2NADH₂
C₆H₁₂O6 = FSf;Nfh];.
NAD = epf;Nfhl;bd; mikL mbidd; il epa+f;spNahilL.
2Pi = fdpk gh];Ngl;.
2ADP = mbNdhird; il gh];Ngl;.
fpisNfhiyrp]py; cUthFk; ATP fs;
ATP
Neub ATP kiwKf ATP

2 ATP (2NADH 3 ATD) = 2*3 = 6 ATP
 fpisNfhiyrp]py; cUthFk; xl;L nkhj;j ATP fs; - 8

 fpisNfhiyrp]p]; ,uz;L gbepiyfis nfhz;lJ
 vf;];Nrh]; epiy
 l;iuNah]; epiy
 vf;];Nrh]; epiyf;Fk; l;iuNah]; epiyf;Fk; cs;s NtWghLfs;
vf;];Nrh]; epiy l;iuNah];epiy

1. FSf;Nfh]; (6 fhHgd;) → fpsruhy;ifL 3 1. 3 fhHgdpy; ,Ue;J 2 igUtpf;
mkpyk; cUthfpd;wJ
gh];Ngl;+ ili:l;uhf;rp mrpl;Nlhd;
gh];Ngl; DHAP (3)
2. 2 ATP ,e;epiyapy; 2. ATP cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ
gad;gLj;jpf;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ
igUtpf; Mf;]p[Ndw;wk;
1. igUtpf; mkpy Mf;rp[Ndw;wk; ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahtpy; ,uz;L kw;Wk; %d;whk;
gbfspy; eilngWfpd;wJ.
2. igUtpf; mkpyk; Mf;rpfuzk; mile;J mrpl;ily; CO. A (Nfh. A) vd;w
nghUis jUfpd;wJ.
C₆H₁₂O6 (FSfNfh];)
irl;Nlhgpshrk; fpisf;fhyprp];

2 igUtpf; mkpyk;
2 NADH (6 ATP)
mrpl;ily; CO. A
fpnug;]; Row;rp (TCA – l;iu fhHghf;rpypf; mkpy Row;rp)
,J TCA Row;rp vd;Wk; rpl;hpf; mkpy Row;rp vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
Vnddpy; fpnug;]; Row;rpapy; Kjypy; cUthFk; mkpyk; rpl;hpf; mkpyk; MFk;.
fpnug;]; Row;rpia Jtq;FtJ mrpl;ily; CO .A MFk;.
C₆H₁₂O6 (FSfNfh];)
irl;Nlhgpshrk; fpisf;fhyprp];
2 igUtpf; mkpyk;
2 NADH (6 ATP)
mrpl;ily; CO. A
fpnug;]; Row;rp
 rpl;hpf; mkpyk; cUthjy;
mf;rNyh mrpl;bf; mkpyk;+ mrpl;ily; CO.A ,ize;J rpl;hpf; mkpyk;
cUthfpd;wJ.
 rpl;hpf; mkpy Row;rpia fz;Lgpbj;jtH :hd;]; A fpnul; (1943). rpl;hpf; mkpy
Row;rpia ,tH Gwhtpd; jir nry;fspy; fz;Lgpbj;jhH.
 rpl;hpf; mkpy Row;rp Mk;gpNghypf; Row;rp vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
,r;Row;rpapy; rpij khw;wKk;> tsH khw;wKk; eilngWtjhy; tsHrpij
khw;wk; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 fpnug;]; Row;rpia jhtuq;fspy; fz;Lgpbj;jtH Wood kw;Wk; rf
tpQ;Qhdpfs;.
 fpnug;]; Row;rp ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpahtpy; eilngWfpd;wJ.
 fpnug;]; Row;rp cUthFk; ATP fspd; vz;zpf;if 24 ATP MFk;.
 fpnug; Row;rp ghf;Bhpahtpy; nry;rt;tpy; eilngWfpd;wJ. Vnddpy;
ghf;Bhpahtpy; ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpah fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.
vyf;l;uhd; flj;Jr; rq;fpyp (m) gh];Ngl; Mf;rpfuzk; miljy;

 ,J ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpahtpy; fphp];Nl vd;w cl;rt;tpy; eilngWfpd;wJ
 Rthr rq;fpyp vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 vyf;l;uhd; flj;Jr; rq;fpyp ghf;Bhpahtpy; nry;rt;tpy; eilngWfpd;wJ
 NADH₂ kw;Wk; FADH₂ Mfpa ,uz;Lk; ATP Mf khWk; epfo;r;rp vyf;l;uhd;
flj;Jr; rq;fpyp vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 NADH₂ = epf;Nfhbd; mikL mbidd; il epa+f;spNahilL.
 FADH₂ = gpNstpd; mbidd; il epa+f;spNahilL.

 vyf;l;uhd; flj;Jr; rq;fpypapy; ,Wjpahf ½O₂+H₂O fpilf;fpd;wJ.

 vyf;l;uhd; flj;Jr; rq;fpyp Kbe;j gpd; xU FSf;Nfh]; KOtJkhf
Mf;rpfuzk; mile;J 38 ATP fis jUfpd;wJ.
119. ,lHghL jUk; fopTfspd; Nkyhz;ik nra;jy; gw;wp Fwpg;G tiuf.
 epyj;jpy; epug;Gjy; - ,uhZtf; fopTfs; ,t;tif Nkyhz;ik %yk;
epyj;ij Njhz;b fopTfis epug;gp gpd; fspkz;zhy; %lg; gLfpd;wd.
,jdhy; fjpHtPr;R Nghd;w Mgj;Jfs; Vw;glhky; ,Uf;fpd;wd
 vhpj;Jr; rhk;gyhf;Fjy; - kUj;Jtf; fopTfs; vhpj;J
rhk;gyhf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 Mo;Jis fpzW gha;r;ry; - Mokhd Ms;Jis fpzWfspy; Jfs;fs; kw;Wk;
Fg;igfis nfhl;Ljy;.
 Nkw;gug;gpy; %b itj;jy; - nfkpf;fy; rhHe;j fopTfs; ,k;Kiwapy;
Nkyhz;ik nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
 caphpa jPHT (Bio Remediation) -1978 Mde;j rf;NuhtHj;jp #Nlh Nkhd];
Gl;blh> 2010 y; Mapy; Nrk;ghpy; Kk;ig fg;gypy; Mapy; frpthy; Vw;gl;l
fopTfis Nkyhz;ik nra;a gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. #Nlh Nkhd]; Gl;blh
vd;gJ i:l;Nuh fhHgid fhHgd; il Mf;i]L kw;Wk; ePuhf khw;Wk;.
120. czT rq;fpyp Kiwapid tpsf;Ff.

 XH caphpapYs;s czT Mw;wy; kw;nwhU capHf;F mjid cz;gjd;
%ykhf xNu jpirapy; flj;jg;gLfpd;w rq;fpypj;njhlH czT rq;fpyp
vdg;gLk;.
 Gy;ntspapy; czTr; rq;fpyp
cw;gj;jpahsH → jhtu cz;zp → Kjyhk; epiy Cd; cz;zp →
,uz;lhk; epiy Cd; cz;zp
(v.fh. ney; →vyp→ ghk;G→ fOF)
 fhLfspy; czTr; rq;fpyp
cw;gj;jpahsH→ jhtu cz;zp →Cd; cz;zp
Gy; → khd; → Gyp
 Fsj;jpy; czTr; rq;fpyp
jhtu kpjit caphp → g+r;rp → rpwpakPd; →nghpakPd; →kdpjd;
cw;gj;jpahsHfs;→ jhtu cz;zpfs;→ Kjyhk; epiy → ,uz;lhk; epiy Cd;

(jhtuq;fs;) (vyp) Cd; cz;zpfs;(ghk;G) cz;zpfs;(fOF)
Kjyhk; ,uz;lhk; %d;whk; ehd;fhk;

Cl;lepiy Cl;lepiy Cl;lepiy Cl;lepiy

 midj;J caphphpdq;fSf;Fk; #hpaNd Kjd;ikahd Mw;wy; %ykhFk;.

,e;j Mw;wy; khw;wkhdJ xNu jpirapy; kl;LNk eilngWk;.
 czTr; rq;fpypapy; XH cwT cile;jhYk; mjd; KbT XH caphpdj;jpd;
mopitNa cUthf;Fk;.
121. gRik Ntjpapayhy; cz;lhFk; nghUl;fs; gw;wp Fwpg;G tiuf.
 gRik Ntjpapay; vd;gJ Fiwe;j msNt jPik tpistpf;ff;$ba
Ntjpg;nghUs;fis cUthf;Fjy; my;yJ Ntjpg;nghUs;fisg;
gad;ghl;bypUe;J mwNt ePf;Fk; xUtpjg; Gjpa topKiw MFk;.
 gRik Ntjpapay; nfhs;ifahdJ 1995 Mk; Mz;L mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
 jiyik gRik Ntjpapay; rhjidg;ghpRfs; 1999 Mk; Mz;L Kjy;
toq;fg;gLfpd;wd.
gRik Ntjpapaypd; tpisthf cz;lhFk; nghUs;fs;
 fhhPak; ,y;yhj gw;w itg;ghd;fs; kw;Wk; fhhPak; my;yhj ngapz;l; kw;Wk;

kpd;fy Rj;jpfhpg;ghd;fs;.
 caphpg; gpsh];bf;Ffs; - kf;fhr; Nrhsk;> cUisf;fpoq;F kw;Wk; jhtug;
nghUs;fspypUe;J cUthf;fg;gLk; gpsh];bf;Ffs;.
 vspjpy; jPg;gpbf;fhj nghUs;fs;.
 :hNyh[d; ,y;yhj jP mizg;ghd;fs;.v.fh. rpypfhd; rhHe;j
nghUs;fisg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
122. caphp vhpnghUs;fs; gw;wp vOJf.

 gutyhff; fhzf;$ba vhpnghUs;fspy; caphp vhpnghUs;fs;
Kf;fpakhdit.
 caph;j; jpus;fspypUe;J rpy topfspy; ngwg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,tw;wpy; jplepiy> jputepiy> vhpnghUs;fs;> thAepiy vhpnghUs;fs;>
gy caphp thAf;fSk; mlq;Fk;.
Nghf;Ftuj;J thfdq;fspy; gad;gLj;Jk; vhpnghUs;fs;

 gNah-My;f:hy; (caphp vhprhuhak;).
 gRik Bry;.
 gNah Bry; (caphp Bry;).
 jhtu vz;nza;fs;.
 gNah-<j;jH (caphp-<j;jH).
 caphp-thA.
gNah-My;f:hy; (caphp vhprhuhak;)

 gNah vj;jdhy; jhtuq;fspd; rHf;fiug; nghUs;fis nehjpf;fr; nra;J

caphp vhprhuak; jahhpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 gpNurpy; ehl;bYk;> mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehLfspYk; gNah My;f:hy;
gutyhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
gNah Bry; (caphp Bry;)
jhtu vz;nza; kw;Wk; tpyq;Ffspd; nfhOg;gpypUe;J caphp Bry;
ngwg;gLfpwJ.
caphpthA
fhpkg; nghUs;fs; fhw;wpy;yhr; rpijT %yk; fhw;wpy;yhr; Rthrpfshd
ghf;Bhpahf;fs; %yk; caphp thA cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
123. ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfs; tiuaW.
 clw;nraypay; epfo;Tfis Ntjpapay; Kiwg;gb xUq;fpizj;Jj;
jd;epiy fhj;jiyg; guhkhpg;gNj ehskpy;yhr; Rug;gp kz;lyj;jpd; Ntiy
MFk;.
 ehskpy;yhr; Rug;gp kz;lyk; :hHNkhd;fs; %ykhf Ntjp xUq;fpizg;G
Kiwia mspf;fpwJ.
 vz;Nlhfpiud; Rug;gpfs; vdg;gLk; ehskpy;yhr; Rug;gpfs; midj;jpw;Fk;
ehsq;fs; ,y;iy.
 ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfs; vd;gJ :hHNkhd;fs; vdg;gLk; Ntjpa %yf;$Wfis
cw;gj;jp nra;J clypd; uj;j Xl;lj;jpNdhNlh my;yJ clypd; cs;Ns
my;yJ Nkw;gug;gpy; cs;s Jisfspy; ntspapLk; cWg;ghFk;.
 ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfspy; cw;gj;jpahfpd;w Ntjpg;nghUl;fs; ,uj;jj;jpd;
%ykhf mit nray;gLk; ,lj;jpw;Ff; flj;jg;gLfpd;wd. mq;F
:hHNkhd;fs; clw;nraypay; Ntiyiar; nra;fpd;wd.
 :hHNkhd;fspd; %yk; jpRf;fSf;fhd fl;Lg;ghl;Lr; nra;jpfis mDg;gp
cly; cWg;Gfspd; nray;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;jp cly; epiyia rPuhf
itj;Jf;nfhs;s cjTfpd;wd.
 ehskpy;yh Rug;gpaypd; je;ij vd miof;fg;gLgtH T. mbrd;.
 ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfs; ,U tifg;gLk.;
 mfr;Rug;gpfs; - ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfs;.
 Gwr;Rug;gpfs; - Ruf;fg;gLk; :hHNkhd;fis ehsq;fs; %yk;
ntspapLk;.
 ek; cly; cWg;Gfspd; ,af;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;jTk;> mtw;wpd;
xUq;fpize;j nray;ghl;bw;fhfTk; ,uz;L Kf;fpa fl;Lg;ghl;L
mikg;Gfs; cs;sd. mit
 euk;G kz;lyk; - kpd; J}z;ly;fs; %ykhf fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.

 ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfs; -:hHNkhd;fs; %ykhf
fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
 :hHNkhd;fs; gpsh];kh rt;it Jisj;J nry;Yf;Fs; nry;Yk;
jd;ikAilaJ.
 :hHNkhd;fs; tsHrpij khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jhJ.
 :hHNkhd;fs; clypy; vq;Fk; jhq;fhJ.
 :hHNkhd;fs; jz;zPhpy; Rygkhf fiuAk; jd;ikAilaJ.
 :hHNkhd;fs; kpf Fiwthf jhd; Ruf;Fk;. Mdhy; jpwDs;sitahFk;.
 Ntjpapay; mbg;gilapy; :hHNkhd;fs; Gujq;fshfNth> mkpNdh
mkpyq;fshfNth ];Buha;LfshfNth cs;sd.
124. kdpj clypy; cs;s ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfisAk; mjdhy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk;

nray;fisAk; Fwpg;gpLf.
 gpl;a+l;lhp jiyg;gFjp
 gpdpay;
 ijuha;L fOj;Jg;gFjp
 ghuhijuha;L
 ijk]; - khHG gFjp
 fizak;
 ml;hpdy;fs; tapw;Wg;gFjp
 tpe;Jr; Rug;gpfs;
 mz;lr; Rug;gpfs;
ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfshy; ek; clypy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk; nray;fs;

 tsHr;rp.
 N:hkpNah];Nlh]p]; rPuhf;Fjy; -cly; mikg;Gfspd; cs;
#o;epiyia.
 tsHr;rpij khw;wk; - clypd; Mw;wy; epiyfs;.
 ,dg;ngUf;fk;.
 J}z;Ljy;fSf;F Vw;wthW nray;gLjy;.
125. gpl;a+l;lhp Rug;gp Ruf;Fk; :hh;Nkhd;fisAk; mjd; gzpfisAk; tphpthf tpsf;Ff.

 gpl;a+l;lhp Rug;gpahdJ kz;ilNahl;by; %isg;gFjpapd; jiuapy; cs;s
];gPdha;L vYk;gpy; nry;yh lhrpfh vDk; XH gs;sj;jpy; cs;sJ. %isapd;
i:g;NghjyhkRld; gpl;a+l;lhp Rug;gp ,d;gd;bGyk; vd;w ePl;rpahy;
,ize;Js;sJ.gpd; gpl;a+l;lhp i:g;Nghjyhkrpd; ePl;rpahFk;. gpl;a+l;lhp
Rug;gp 1 nr.kP FWf;fsTk;> 0.5 Kjy; 1 fpuhk; msT vilAk; nfhz;lJ.

 i:g;Nghjyhk]; gpl;a+l;lhpapd; %yk; nkhj;j ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfisAk;

Neubahff; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. ,jw;fhf epANuhnrf;hpnlhp nry;fs;
:hHNkhd;fisr; Ruf;fpd;wd.
 gpl;a+l;lhp Rug;gp ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfspd; jiytdhf nray;gl;L kw;w
Rug;gpfis fl;Lg;gLj;jpdhYk; gpl;a+l;lhp i:g;Nghjyhk]pd;
fl;Lg;ghl;by; jhd; cs;sJ.
 i:g;Nghjyhk]; ntsptUk; fhuzp kw;Wk; jilnra;Ak; fhuzp %yk;
gpl;a+l;lhpapd; Rug;igf; fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ
 ehskpy;yh Rug;gpfspd; elj;JdH> Ring Master, Band Master
vd;nwy;yhk; miof;fg;gLtJ gpl;a+l;lhp.
 gpl;a+l;lhp vd;W ngahpl;ltH ntrhypa];.
 gpl;a+l;lhpapd; gzpfis gw;wp tpsf;fpatH ngHdz;l];.
 gpl;a+l;lhp Rug;gpahdJ ,uz;L gFjpfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ mit
 Kd; gpl;a+l;lhp (m) mbNdhi:g;Nghrp];.
 gpd; gpl;a+l;lhp (m) epa+Nuhi:g;Nghrp];.
 mbNdhi:g;Nghrpd; %d;W gFjpfs;
 ghH]; b];lhyp];.
 ghH]; ,z;lH kPbah.
 ghH]; baguhyp];.
 Kd; gpl;a+l;lhp (m) mbNdhi:g;Nghrpi] fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; :hHNkhd;fs;
 ijNuhnlNuhgpd; - ntspapLk; :hHNkhd;
 tsHr;rp :hHNkhd; - ntspapLk; :hHNkhd;
 tsHr;rp :hHNkhd; - jLf;Fk; :hHNkhd;
 nfhdNlhl;Nuhgpd; - ntspapLk; :hHNkhd;
 fhHbnfhl;Nuhgpd; - ntspapLk; :hHNkhd;
 Kd; gpl;a+l;lhp (m) mbNdhi:g;Nghrp]; Ruf;Fk; :hHNkhd;fs;
gpd;tUkhW
 LH – Y}l;bidrpq; :hHNkhd; (ngz;fs;).
 LTH – Gnuhyhf;bd; (m) Y}l;bNahbNuhgpf; :hHNkhd;.
 TSH – ijNuhbNuhgpd; (m) ijuha;ilj; J}z;btpLk; :hHNkhd;.
 STH/GH –Nrhkhl;Nlh bNuhgpf; :hHNkhd; (m) tsHr;rp
:hHNkhd;.
 FSH - /ghypf;fps; nry;fisj; J}z;btpLk; :hHNkhd;.
 ACTH – ml;hpNdh fhHbNfhNuhgpf; :hHNkhd; (m) ml;hpdy;
Gwzpiaj; J}z;Lk; :hHNkhd;.
 ICSH-Mz; ,ilaPl;L tpe;jZ nry; cw;gj;jp (Mz;fs;).

LH – Y}l;bidrpq; :hHNkhd;
fpuhgpad; ghypf;fpspypUe;J mz;lk; tpLgLjy; vd;w mz;l ntspaPl;L
epfo;r;rpiar; nra;fpwJ. <];l;Nuh[d;> Gnuhn[];BNuhd; Nghd;w ngz; ,d
:hHNkhd;fspd; cw;gj;jpf;F fhuzkhdJ Y}l;bidrpq; :hHNkhd; MFk; .
ICSH-Mz; ,ilaPl;L tpe;jZ nry; cw;gj;jp
Mz;fspy; ,ilaPl;Lr; nry;fs;> Mz; ,d :hHNkhdhd
nl];Nlh];BNuhidr; Ruf;fr; nra;fpd;wJ.
LTH – Gnuhyhf;bd; (m) Y}l;bNahbNuhgpf; :hHNkhd;
ghy; Ruf;Fk; nraiyj; J}z;Lfpd;wJ. fhHg]; Y}l;baj;jpd; kPJ
nray;gl;L mJ Ruf;Fk; Gnuhn[];buhid J}z;Lfpd;wJ.
TSH – ijNuhbNuhgpd; (m) ijuha;ilj; J}z;btpLk; :hHNkhd;
,J ijuha;L Rug;gpiaj; J}z;b tsHrpij khw;wj;jpw;F Njitahd
ijuhf;]pid Ruf;fr; nra;fpwJ.
GH/STH – tsHr;rp :hHNkhd; (m) Nrhkhl;Nlh bNuhgpf; :hHNkhd;
 Foe;;ij gUtj;jpy; tsHr;rpapid Cf;Ftpg;gjw;fhfTk;> gpd;dH jir

kw;Wk; vYk;Gfis typikg;gLj;jTk; gad;gLfpd;wJ. tsHr;rpiaj;
J}z;Lk; gy;NtW tsHrpij khw;wq;fspy; gq;FngWfpwJ.
 GNuhl;Bd; kw;Wk; nfhOg;G tsHrpij khw;wq;fisj; J}z;Lfpd;wJ. vYk;G
kw;Wk; FWj;njYk;G cUthtijj; J}z;Lfpd;wJ.
 Foe;ijg;gUtj;jpy; tsHr;rp :hHNkhd; mjpfk; Ruf;Fkhdhy; ,uhl;rj
jd;ik Vw;gLfpwJ. ,f;FiwghL cilatHfs; 7 Kjy; 9 mb cauk; tiu
,Ug;gH.
 nghpatHfspy; ,e;j :hHNkhd; mjpfkhf Rue;jhy; me;epiyf;F
mf;Nuhnkfyp vd;W ngaH.
FSH - /ghypf;fps; nry;fisj; J}z;btpLk; :hHNkhd;
ngz;fspy; fpuhgpad; /ghypf;fps; mz;lr;Rug;gpapd; KjpHtiljiyj;
J}z;b mz;l cw;gj;jpf;F topNfhYfpwJ. ,J Mz;fspy; tpe;J cUthjiyj;
J}z;b tpLfpd;wJ.
ACTH – ml;hpNdh fhHbNfhNuhgpf; :hHNkhd;
 ml;hpdy; Rug;gpapd; fhHnlf;]; (Gwdp) Rug;Gfis fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.

 My;Nlh];BNuhd; kw;Wk; fhHbN]hd; cw;gj;jp nra;a ml;hPdy; Gwzpiaj;
J}z;Lk;.

 Njhypd; nkyNdhirl;Lfisj; Jz;b Njhy; epwkpfs; Njhd;Wjy;.

,d;Rypd; Rug;ig J}z;Lfpd;wJ. mbNgh]; jpRf;fspypUe;J nfhOg;Gfis
,lkhw;WfpwJ.
 cly; gUkDf;F fhuzkhd jpR mbNgh]; jpR MFk;.
gpd; gpl;a+l;lhp (m) epa+Nuhi:g;Nghrp]; Ruf;Fk; :hHNkhd;fs; gpd;tUkhW
 Mf;rpNlhrpd;
 thN]hgpu];]pd; (Mz;bila+hpbf; :hHNkhd; ADH)
,e;j ,uz;L :hHNkhd;fSk; %isapd; i:g;Nghjyhk]; cw;gj;jp
nra;Ak; ,e;j ,uz;L :hHNkhd;fisAk; epa+Nuhi:g;Nghrp]; Nrkpj;J
itj;Jf;nfhz;L Njit Vw;gLk; NghJ ntspNaw;WfpwJ. ,e;j :hHNkhd;fs;
Mf;lh ngg;ilL kw;Wk; nlf;fh ngg;ilL vd;w Gujq;fshy; MdJ.
Mf;rpNlhrpd;
fUg;igapd; nkd;ikahd jirfs; kPJ gl;L mtw;iw Ruq;fr; nra;J
Foe;ij gpwg;ig vspjhf;FfpwJ.
thN]hgpu];]pd; (m) Mz;bila+hpbf; :hHNkhd; ADH)
 ePH kPz;Lk; cwpQ;rg;gLjiyj; J}z;b rpWePiuf; Fiwe;j msT

cUthf;FfpwJ. ,uj;jf; Foy;fisr; RUq;fr; nra;J ,uj;j
mOj;jj;ij caHj;JfpwJ.
 ADH Fiwthf Rug;gjdhy; lahngB]; ,d;rpgpl]; Neha; Vw;gLfpwJ.
,jd; fhuzkhf ePHj;j rpWePiu mjpf msT ntspNaw;WfpwJ.
126. gPdpay; Rug;gp gw;wp rpWFwpg;G tiuf.

 gPdpay; Rug;gp %isapd; fhHg;g]; fNyhrk; mbapy; ,Uf;Fk;.
 kdpjdpd; %d;whtJ fz; gPdpay; Rug;gp MFk;.
 7 taJ tiu :hHNkhd; mjpfkhf Ruf;Fk;.
 gPdpay; Rug;gp nkyNlhdpd; vd;w nghUis cw;gj;jp nra;fpd;wJ. ,J
Kfg;gU tl;lk;> khHG fhk;G> tpijg;ig Nghd;wtw;wpd; epwj;jpw;F
fhuzk; MFk;.
127.ijuha;L Rug;gpapd; gzpfisAk; mjd; :hh;Nkhd; Fiwghl;bdhy; Vw;gLk;

Neha;fisg; gw;wpAk; tphpthf vOJf.
 ijuha;L Rug;gp njhz;il gFjpapd; ,U Gwq;fspYk; mike;Js;sJ
 ijuha;L Rug;gpahdJ ,uz;L fJg;Gfisf; nfhz;lJ. ,J
%r;Rf;Foypd; Nky; gFjpapy; ,U gf;fq;fspYk; cs;sd.

 ,f;fJg;Gfs; FWfpa ,];Jk]; vDk; ijuha;L jpRtpdhy; Mdit.

ijuha;L Rug;gpahdJ 15 Kjy; 20 fpuhk; vil tiu ,Uf;Fk;.
 ijuha;L Rug;gpapDs; gy Nfhs tbt ghypf;fps;fs; cz;L. ,tw;wpd;
Rthpy; $k;G tbt vgpj;jPypa nry;fSz;L. ghypf;fpspd; eLtpy; XH
,ilntsp cz;L. mt;tplk; ijNuhFNshGypd; GNuhl;Bdhy;
epuk;gpapUf;Fk;.
 ijuha;L Rug;gpadhJ ijuhf;rpd; vd;w :hHNkhid Ruf;fpd;wJ. ,jpy;
ilNuhrpd; mkpNdh mkpyKk;> mNahbDk; cs;sJ.
 ijuhf;rpd;
ijuhf;rpd; :hHNkhdhdJ ,ay;ghd cly; tsHr;rpiaAk;> vYk;G
kw;Wk; euk;G kz;lyj;jpd; tsHr;rpiaAk; J}z;b tpLfpwJ. mbg;gil
tsHr;rpij khw;w tPjj;ij mjpfhpf;fpwJ. juhf;rpd; :hHNkhdhdJ 211
mkpNdh mkpyq;fshy; MdJ.
 ijuhf;]pdpd; gzpfs;
 tsHr;rpij khw;w tPjj;ij caHj;JfpwJ.
 clypd; ntg;gj;ij mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
 jpR tsHr;rp kw;Wk; khWghL miljiy Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ.
 cly; tsHr;rpia kiwKfkhfg; ghjpg;gjhy; ,J MSik
:hHNkhd; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ,uj;jj;jpy; mNahbd; kw;Wk; rHf;fiu msit
xOq;Fg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
 rpWePufr; nray;ghl;ilAk;> rpWePHg; Nghf;ifAk;
fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 ijuhf;rpd; Fiwthf Rug;gjpdhy; Vw;gLk; Neha;fs; i:Ngh
ijuha;brk; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ijuhf;rpd; Fiwthf Rug;gjpdhy; fha;lH> kpf;]pbkh> fphpl;bdp]k;
Kjypa Neha;fs; cz;lhfpd;wd
 fha;lH – cztpy; mNahbd; gw;whf;Fiwapdhy; Kd; fOj;Jf; foiy
Neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. fOj;Jg; gFjpapy; ijuha;L Rug;gp tPq;fpf;
fhzg;gLk; epiy fha;lH vdg;gLk;.
 kpf;]pbkh - ,J nghpatHfspy; Njhd;Wfpd;wJ. Fiwe;j
tsHrpijkhw;w tPjk;> clystpYk;> kdj;jstpYk; tpiuT mw;Wf;
fhzg;gLjy;> vil $Ljy;> Njhy; fbdkhjy;> Fiwthd ,jaj; Jbg;G
kw;Wk; kdr;NrhHT Mfpait ,jd; mwpFwpfshFk;.
 fphpl;bdprk; - ijuha;L Fiwghl;bdhy; rpwpatHfSf;F fphpl;bdprk;
Neha; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. Fs;sj;jd;ik> Fd;wpa kdtsHr;rp> FiwghLila
gw;fs;> JUj;jpa ehf;F> jsHthd Njhy; Kjypad ,jd; mwpFwpfshFk;.

 ijuhf;rpd; mjpfkhf Rug;gjpdhy; Vw;gLk; Neha;fs; i:gH ijuha;b]k;

vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; fhuzkhf vf;Nrh/g;jhy;kpf; fha;lH
my;yJ fpNutpd; Neha; Vw;gLfpwJ.
 kpifahd tsHr;rpij khw;w tPjk;> caH ,uj;j mOj;jk;> glglg;G>
mjpfkhf tpaHj;jy;> vil Fiwjy;> fisg;giljy;> gpJq;fpa fz;fs;
Nghd;wit ,jd; mwpFwpfshFk;.
ghuhijuha;L Rug;gp
ghuhijuha;L Rug;gpfs; ijuha;L Rug;gpAld; ,ize;Nj cs;sd. ijuha;L
Rug;gpf; fJg;Gfs; xt;nthd;wpd; gpd;Gwj;jpYk; ,it Gije;Js;sd. ehd;F
ghuijuhapL Rug;gpfs; cs;sd. ,J kQ;rs; gOg;G epwj;jpy; ePs;tl;l tbtj;jpy;
cs;sJ.
ghuhijuha;L Rug;gpahdJ ,uz;L tifahd :hHNkhd;fis Ruf;fpd;wJ.
mitahtd
 ghuhjhHNkhd;
 fhy;rpNlhdpd;
ghuhjhHNkhd;
,J vYk;G k[;i[apypUe;J fhy;rpaj;ij tpLtpj;J ,uj;jj;Jld; fye;J
vYk;GfSf;F GJ tbtk; mspf;fpwJ. ,uj;jj;jpy; fhy;rpaj;jpd; msit
mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ghuhjhHNkhd; Fiwe;j NeuNk nray;gLk; :hHNkhd; MFk;.
fhy;rpNlhdpd;
 ,uj;jj;jpy; fhy;rpaj;jpd; msit Fiwf;fpd;wJ.

 ,ug;igapy; Ruf;Fk; i:l;NuhFNshhpf; mkpyj;jpd; msitf; Fiwf;fpd;wJ.
NkYk; ,d;Rypd; kw;Wk; FSf;f:hd; Rug;gpfspd; msitf; Fiwf;fpwJ.
 fhy;rpak; Fiwghl;bdhy; M];l;hpNah Neha; Vw;gLfpwJ. vYk;G FiwghL>
%l;Ltyp Vw;gLjy;
 fhy;rpaj;jpd; msthdJ 100 kp.yp. ,uj;jj;jpy; 12 kpy;ypfpuhk; ,Uf;Fk;.
128.fiza Rug;gp gw;wp tphpthf vOJf.

 fizakhdJ ,ug;igAk; Kd;rpWFlYk; ,ize;Js;s ,lj;jpd;
tisg;gFjpapy; cs;sJ. fizaj;jpd; vil 85 Kjy; 100 fpuhKk;> 15
nr.kPl;lH ePsKk; cilaJ.
 fizakhdJ 98 rjtPjk; ehsKs;s Rug;gpahfTk;> 2 rjtPjk; ehskpy;yh
Rug;gpafhTk; nray;gLfpd;wJ.
 fizak; ,Utpjkhd gzpfisr; nra;af;$ba ehskpy;yhr; Rug;gpahFk;.
vf;N]hfpiud; gFjp fiza epiur; Ruf;fpwJ.

 fizaj;jpd; ehskpy;yh Rug;gpg; gFjpapy; (vz;Nlhfpiud;) fizaj; jPTfs;

vdg;gLk; yhq;fH:hdpd; jpl;Lfs; 5 yl;rk; Kjy; 10 yl;rk; tiu
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,j;jpl;Lfspy; My;gh> gPl;lh kw;Wk; nly;lh nry;fs;
cs;sd.
fizaj;jpy; cs;s nry;fspd; msT kw;Wk; Ruf;Fk; :hHNkhd; gpd;tUkhW

nry;fs; nry;fspd; msT Ruf;Fk; :hHNkhd;
α My;gh nry;fs; 20 rjtPjk; FSf;f:hd;
β gPl;lh nry;fs; 75 rjtPjk; ,d;Rypd;> mikypd;
δ nly;lh nry;fs; 5 rjtPjk; NrhkhNlh];lhbd;
 FSf;f:hd; :hHNkhd;
1. fizaj;jpy; cs;s My;gh nry;fs; FSf;f:hd; :hHNkhid
Ruf;fpwJ.
2. FSf;f:hd; :hHNkhd; 29 mkpNdh mkpyq;fshy; MdJ.
3. FSf;f:hd; :hHNkhd; fpisf;Nfh[id rpijj;J FSf;Nfhrhf
khw;wp ,uj;jj;jpy; FSf;Nfh]pd; msitf; mjpfhpf;fr; nra;fpwJ.
4. fy;yPuy; FSf;NfhirAk;> FSf;Nfh:hidAk; rpijf;fpwJ.
 ,d;Rypd; :hHNkhd;
1. fizaj;jpy; cs;s gPl;lh nry;fs; ,d;Rypd; :hHNkhidr; Ruf;fpwJ.
2. ,d;Rypd; 51 mkpNdh mkpyq;fshy; MdJ.
3. ,d;Rypd; jpR Mf;]pfuzj;jpw;fhf nry;fs; FSf;Nfhi]
vLj;Jf;nfhs;tij Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ.
4. ,d;Rypd; ,uj;jj;jpy; cs;s FSf;Nfhir fpisf;Nfh[dhf khw;wp
,uj;jj;jpy; FSf;Nfhrpd; msitf; Fiwf;fpwJ.
5. ,d;Rypd; jpRf;fspy; FSf;Nfh]; Mf;rpfuzk; milAk; tPjj;ij
milar; nra;fpwJ.
6. mkpNdh mkypq;fs; rpijAk; tPjj;ij xOq;Fg;gLj;JfpwJ.
7. NghJkhd msT ,d;Rypd; Ruf;fhtpby; jirfs;> fy;yPuy; ,tw;why;
FSf;Nfhi] fpisNfh[dhf khw;w ,ayhJ. ,jdhy; ,uj;jj;jpy;
FSf;Nfh]; msT mjpfhpf;Fk;.
8. ,uj;jj;jpy; FSf;Nfh]; msT mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; epiyf;F
i:gHfpisrpkpah vd;W ngaH. ,jdhy; mjpf msT FSf;Nfh];
rpWePUld; ntspNaw;wg;gLk; ,JNt ePhpopT NehahFk; (lhag;b];
nky;ypl];).
9. jphprpah ,d;[f;rd; lagpb]; nky;ypl]; Neha;f;F jw;NghJ
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;s kUe;J.

10. ,d;Rypd; rhf; vd;gJ Fiw ,uj;j mOj;jk; fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; Neha;
MFk; (45 kp.fp/100 kp.yp).
 vz;NuhNf];bhpd; :hHNkhd; HCL msitf; Fiwf;fpwJ.
 czit nrhpf;f Kjypy; tUtJ Nf];bhpd;.
 vz;Nlhifdpd; rpWFly; Rug;gpfis J}z;lr;nra;fpwJ.
 nrf;ubd; - Kjd; Kjypy; ngahplg;gl;l :hHNkhd;.
 tpy;ypifdpd; rpWFly; gFjpapy; cs;sJ. ,J rpWFlypypUe;J rj;ij
vLj;J clYf;F jUfpd;wJ. tpy;yp vd;gJ rpWFlypy; nrhunruhg;ghf
fhzg;gLk; gFjpahFk;.
 czthdJ miyT ,af;fk; %yk; cs;Ns nry;fpd;wJ.
129. ml;hpdy; Rug;gpapd; ghfq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfis gw;wp tphpthf vOJf.

 xt;nthU rpWePufj;jpd; kPJk; ml;hPdy; Rug;gp mike;Js;sJ. ml;hpdy;
Rug;gpiar; Rw;wpYk; mbg;Ngh]; jpR cs;sJ. ml;hpdy; Rug;gpahdJ
fhHnlf;]; vd;w Gwg;gFjpiaAk;> ml;hPdy; nkLy;yh vd;w cl;gFjpiaAk;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 ml;hpdy; Rug;gp rpWePufj;jpd; NkNy mike;J fhzg;gLtjhy; ,tw;iwr;
Rg;uhhPdy; Rug;gp vd;Wk; $WtH
ml;hpdy;
fhHnlf;]; nkLy;yh
My;Nlh];BNuhd; ml;hPdypd;
fhHbN]hd; ehH ml;hPdypd;
ml;hPdy; fhHnlf;];
fhHnlf;]py; cs;s nry;fs; %d;W mLf;Ffshf cs;sd. mit FshkUNyhrh
mLf;F> ghrpFNyl;lh mLf;F> nul;bFNyl;lh mLf;F. fhHnlf;]; MdJ
My;Nlh];BNuhd; kw;Wk; fhHbN]hdh; vd;w ,uz;L :hHNkhd;fis Ruf;fpd;wJ.
My;Nlh];Bnuhd; (jhJfye;j fhHbfha;L)
 ,e;j :hHNkhd; ePH kw;Wk; Nrhbak; kPz;Lk; cwpQ;rg;gLjiy Cf;Ftpj;Jk;

nghl;lhrpak;> gh];gu]; madpfis fopT ePf;fk; nra;Jk; jhJ cg;Gfspd;
tsHrpij khw;wj;ijg; guhkhpf;fpwJ.
 kpd; gFspfshd vyf;l;Nuhiyl;Lfspd; rkepiy> cly;jput mlHj;jp>
rt;t+Lguty; mOj;jk;> ,uj;j mOj;jk; Nghd;wtw;iwg; guhkhpf;fpwJ.
 My;Nlh];BNuhd; Fiwtjhy; mbrd; Neha; Vw;gLfpwJ.

 My;Nlh];BNuhd; mjpfhpg;gjhy; Nfhd;]; Neha; Vw;gLfpwJ.
fhHbN]hd; (FSf;NfhfhHbfha;L)
 fpisNfh[idf;> FSf;Nfh]hf rpijtilar; nra;jiyj; J}z;b

,uj;jr; rHf;fiu msit caHj;JfpwJ.
 ,J mow;rpj; jLg;G tpidfisj; Njhw;Wtpj;J Neha;jilf; fhg;Gj;
Jyq;fiy kl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 rfpg;Gj;jd;ik :hHNkhd; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 kd mOj;jk; kw;Wk; ,lHghlhd #o;epiyfspy; fhHbN]hd; Ruf;fpwJ.
 rpWFlypy; cs;s tpy;ypfis J}z;b tpl;L FSf;Nfhir ngw cjTfpwJ.
ml;hPdy; nkLy;yh
 ml;hpdy; nkLy;yh cUkhwpa euk;G Gwg;gilr; nry;fshy; MdJ.

ml;hPdy; nkLy;yhthdJ ,uz;L :hHNkhd;fisr; Ruf;fpd;wd.
mitahtd
 ml;hPdypd; (vgpne/g;hpd;)
 ehH ml;hPdypd; (ehH vgpne/g;hpd;)
 ,e;j ,uz;L :hHNkhd;fisAk; NrHj;J nghJthf mtruf;fhy
:hHNkhd; my;yJ gwf;Fk;> rz;il :hHNkhd; vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ,t;:hHNkhd;fs; mOj;jkhd> mghakhd epiyikfis vjpHnfhs;s
ekJ cliy ,it tpiuthfj; jahH nra;fpd;wgbahy; ,t;thW
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ml;hPdypd; (vgpne/g;hpd;) (Fight, Flight, Fright)

ml;hPdypd; :hHNkhdhdJ gpd;tUk; gzpfisr; nra;fpd;wJ.
 ,jaj; Jbg;gpd; tPjj;ijAk; ,jaj;jpd; miyT vz;izAk; mjpfhpf;fr;

nra;fpwJ.
 %r;Rf; Foy; tpuptiljy;> fz;ghHit tphptiljy;> tpaHit cw;gj;jpia
mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
 cNuhkf; fhy;fSf;F nry;Yk; jirfspy; RUf;fj;ij cz;lhf;fp
cNuhkk; Fj;jpl;L epw;fr; nra;fpwJ. (muf;lH igyp).
 ,uj;jr; rHf;fiuapd; msit mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
 ,J neUf;fb rkaj;jpy; jftyikg;gpy; gq;Nfw;fpwJ. ,jdhy; ,e;j
:hHNkhDf;F Nfhgk;> Xl;lk;> gaKWj;jy; :hHNkhd; vd;W ngaH.

ehH ml;hPdypd; (ehH vgpne/g;hpd;)
ehH ml;hPdypd; :hHNkhdhdJ gpd;tUk; gzpfisr; nra;fpd;wJ
 ,jaj;jpw;F ,uj;jj;ij vLj;Jr; nry;Yk; ,uj;jf; Foha;fs; jtpu kw;w

Foha;fspy; RUf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
 ,uj;j mOj;jj;ij mjpfhpf;fr; nra;fpwJ.
 ehH ml;hpdypd; cly; rkepiyia nfhz;L tUfpd;wJ.
130. %isapd; ghfq;fs; kw;Wk; mjd; gzpfis gw;wp tphpthf vOJf.

 kdpjd; tpyq;fpdj;ijr; rhHe;j xU KJnfYk;gp kw;Wk; ghY}l;bahthd;.
 kw;w KJnfYk;gpfspy; cs;sijg; NghyNt kdpj %is %d;W
ghfq;fshfg; gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 Kd; %is
 eL%is
 gpd; %is
Kd; %is
ngU%is> jyhk]; kw;Wk; i:g;Ngh jyhk]; Mfpa mikg;Gfis Kd; %is
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
ngU%is
 %isapd; ngUk;gFjpahf ngU%is mike;Js;sJ. %isapd; %d;wpy; ,uz;L
gq;F ngU%is cs;sJ.
 Mokhd eLg;gpsT ngU%isia neLf;Fthl;lj;jpy; tyJ> ,lJ vd ,U
gFjpahfg; gphpf;fpd;wJ.
 ,e;jg; ngU%is miuf;Nfhsq;fs; mbg;gFjpapy; fhHg]; fNyh]k; vd;Dk;
euk;Gr; jpRg; gl;ilahy; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ngU%isapd; ntspg;Gwg;gFjpf;Fr; rhk;gy; nghUs; my;yJ ngU%isg;
Gwzp vd;W ngaH. cl;gFjpf;F ntz;ikg;nghUs; vd;W ngaH.
ngU%isapd; Gwzp
 ngU%is euk;Gr;nry; clyq;fisf; nfhz;l gymLf;Fr; rhk;gy; epw
euk;Gr; nry;fshy; MdJ.
 kdpjdpd; ngU%is Gwzpapd; mjpfg;gbahd Gwg;gug;G kbg;GfSw;Wg; gy
RUf;fq;fisf; nfhz;L fhzg;gLk;. ,e;jr; RUf;fq;fs; NkL gs;sq;fisf;
(ry;rp-%is gs;sk;> ifhpd;- %is NkL) nfhz;Ls;sd.
 ngU%isapd; Gwzapy; mike;Js;sit.
1. ,af;fg; gFjpfs;.
2. czHTg; gFjpfs;.
3. ,izg;Gg; gFjpfs; (czHT> ,af;fg; gFjp my;yhjit).

,af;fg; gFjpfs;
 ,af;fg; gFjpfs; vd;git ngU %isapd; fl;lis kw;Wk; xOq;FgLj;Jk;
gFjp MFk;.
 ek; clypd; gy;NtW cWg;Gfspd; nray;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;j fl;lisfs;
,af;fg;gFjpapy; ,Ue;J jhd; Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
 ,r;ir nray;fSk; ,af;fg; gFjpapy; ,Ue;Jjhd; njhlq;Ffpd;wd.
czHTg; gFjp
czHT cWg;Gfs; ngUk; czHTj;J}z;ly;fis> czHr;rp euk;gpd; topNa
ngwg;gLk; ,lk; czHTg; gFjpahFk;.
,izg;G gFjp
gy;NtW czHjYf;F ,ilNaahd njhlHG epidthw;wy;> jfty; ghpkhw;wk; Kjypa
rpf;fyhd gzpfSf;Fg; nghWg;Ngw;Fk; gFjp ,izg;Gg; gFjpahFk; .
ngU%isapd; ntz;ikg; gFjp

 ngU%is miuf;Nfhsq;fSf;Fs; cs;s FopfSf;F ntz;lhpf;fps;fs; vd;W
ngaH.
 ,e;jf; Fopfs; %isj; jz;Ltl jputk; vd;Dk; xUtif Cl;lj;jputj;jhy;
epug;gg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ngU%isapd; gzpfs;
 ngU%is czHT> mwpTf;$Hik> epidthw;wy;> fw;gidj;jpwd;> fhuzfhhpak;
Ma;e;jwpjy; Kjypatw;wpd; ,Ug;gplkhfj; jpfo;fpd;wJ.
 ngU%is clypd; gy;NtW gFjpfspypUe;J czHTj; J}z;ly;fisg; ngw;W
,r;ir nray;fisj; njhlq;fp itf;fpd;wJ.
jyhk];
jyhk]; vd;w mikg;igr; Rw;wp ngU%is #o;e;Js;sJ. czHT kw;Wk; ,af;F
czHtiyfisf; flj;Jk; Kf;fpag; gzpiar; nra;fpwJ
i:g;Nghjyhk];
 ,J jyhk]pd; mbg;Gwj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ.
 i:g;Nghjyhk]; gpd;tUk; nray;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ
1. cly; ntg;gepiy> cz;Zjy;> ePHgUFjy; Nghd;wtw;wpw;fhd ce;Jjy;.
2. ghY}wT elj;ijia xOq;Fg;gLj;Jjy;.
3. fpsHr;rp> rpdk;> gak;.
4. J}z;Ljy; Nghd;w kdntOr;rp.

eL%is
 jyhk]pw;Fk; gpd;%isf;Fk; ,ilapy; eL%is mike;Js;sJ.
 ngU%is Foy; vd;w fhy;tha; eL%isapd; CNl nry;fpd;wJ.
 eL%isapd; KJFg;gf;fj;jpy; ehd;F miutl;lf; Nfhsq;fs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mit fhHNghuh Fthl;hpn[kpdh MFk;.
 Fthl;hpn[kpdh ghHj;jypd; mdpr;irr; nray;fisAk;> ghHitapd; rhHG
,af;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy;> xOq;Fg;gLj;Jjy; nray;fisAk; nra;fpwJ.
 eL%is> gpd;%is ,uz;ilAk; NrHj;J %isj;jz;L vd miof;fg;gLk;.
gpd;%is
ghd;];> rpW%is> KFsk; Mfpait gpd;%isapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
rpW%is
 rpW%is ngU%isf;Ff; fPo;g;Gwkhf mike;Js;sJ.
 rpW%isapy; eLikag;gFjp kw;Wk; ,uz;L gf;fthl;L fJg;GfSk;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 rpW%is elj;jy;> XLjy; Nghd;w ,af;Fj;jirfspd; ,af;fq;fis
xOq;Fg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
ghd;];
rpW%isapd; fJg;Gfis ,izf;Fk; euk;G ehhpiog; ghyk; ghd;]; MFk;. ,J
ngU%isapypUe;J rpW%isf;Fr; nra;jpfisf; flj;JfpwJ.
KFsk;
 jz;Ltlj;NjhL ,izAk; %isapd; filrpg; gFjp KFsk; MFk;.
 KFsk; capHKbr;rp vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,jaj;Jbg;G> ,uj;jf; Foy;fs; RUf;fk;> %r;RtpLjy; Nghd;w nray;fis
xOq;FgLj;Jk; gy;NtW mdpr;ir nray;fspd; ikakhf KFsk;
nray;gLfpwJ.
 KFsj;jpd; ntz;l;hpf;fps; ngU%is miuf;Nfhs ntz;lhpf;fps;fSld;
,ize;Js;sJ.
RRB JE/TALUK SI / TN Group II, IV&VAO 2019
POLICE (Monday, Wednesday, Friday)
Weekend Class will Start from Time: 10:30 – 1:30
10.02.2019


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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 1

2. My;gh/ gPl;lh/ fhkh fjph;fspd; gz;g[fs; gw;wp Fwpg;gpLf.

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 2

gPl;lh fjphpd; gz;g[fs;

fhkh fjph;fspd; gz;g[fs;

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 3

ghunltpd; Kjy; tpjp

ghunltpd; ,uz;lhk; tpjp

4. hpf;lh; mstPL gw;wp Fwpg;bgGJf.

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 4

6. IGCAR gw;wp Fwpg;g[ vGJf.

7. jput epiyapYs;s i]l;u$d; vt;thW vhpbghUshfg; gad;gLfpwJ

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 5

 ,J rhjfkhd khR Vw;gLj;jhj vhpbghUs;.

8. !;bey; xsptpyfy; tpjpiaf; TWf.

9. mrpl;oyPdpd; gad;fisj; jUf.

10. <j;jPdpd; (vj;jpyPd;) gad;fisf; TWf.

11. gygofspd; VnjDk; Ie;J gad;fis tpsf;Ff.

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 6

12. ghh;it vd;gjd; bghUs; vd;d? ghh;it Fiwghl;oid tpthpf;ft[k;.

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 7

13. Inrhghh;/ Inrhnlhd; gw;wp tpthp.

14. mrpl;nlhdpd; gad;fs; ahit?

15. mqf;fU gpst[ kw;Wk; mqf;fU ,izt[ tpidfis ntWgLj;Jf.

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 8

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 9

17. jdp Cry; tpjpia tiuaWf;ft[k;.

 Ma;tpd; \yk; K kjpg;g[ vdf; fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.

 jdp Crypd; miyt[ neuj;jpw;fhd tha;g;ghL - √

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 10

20. rikay; nrhlhtpd; gad;fs; ahit?

21. cg;g[fspd; gy;ntW gad;fis tpsf;ft[k;.

md;whl thH;tpy; gad;fs;

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 11

 ryitj;J}s; Jzpfs; kw;Wk; jz;zPiu Rj;jk; bra;a.

tptrhaj; Jiwapy; gad;fs;

g[ifg;glj; Jiwapy; gad;fs;

bjhHpy; Jiwapy; gad;fs;

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 12

 fhg;gh; ry;ngl; cg;g[ g{|;ir bgl;oj; bjhHpw;rhiyapy;

22. mYkpdpaj;jpd; gad;fs; ahit?

23. i]l;u$dpd; gad;fs; ahit?

24. mq Mw;wypd; ed;ik jPikfs; gw;wp vGJf.

Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 13

 mq Mw;wy; epiya';fs; fhh;gd; - il- Mf;i!L/ ry;gh;

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Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 17

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Bharathidasan Tnpsc Coaching Center, Omalur: 9788819401(WhatsApp), 9751214117 Page 18

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