Dyeing Machine

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Dyeing, Reduction, Temperature, nozzle, Polyesters, Textiles, Dye Liquor, Dyeing

Process, Liquor Ratio

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Process control in dyeing of textiles

S.M. Shang, in Process Control in Textile Manufacturing, 2013

13.5 Process control in batchwise dyeing machines

Dyeing machines are designed in different shapes and with different loading capac-
ities to accommodate textile materials in varied forms and qualities. The materials
being dyed can be fibre, yarn, fabric, or even garments (Broadbent, 2001). In an
exhaust dyeing, dyes in the dyebath are gradually transferred onto material, which
is thought to be exhausted from the dyebath to the substrate (Shamey and Hussein,
2005). Generally, dyeing equipment intended for exhaust dyeing is designed in
the form of manageable batches (Ingamells, 1993). Therefore, exhaust dyeing is
also called batchwise dyeing, in which textile material is dyed from batch to batch.
The representative machines designed for batchwise processing include: (1) hanks
and package dyeing machines for yarns, and (2) overflow, jet, jig and beam dyeing
machines for fabrics. All of these are based on (1) circulation of the dye solution
through the material, (2) circulation of the material through the dye solution, or (3)
circulation of the material and dye solution simultaneously.

13.5.1 Package dyeing machines for yarn

In package dyeing, the most important dyeing method for yarn, yarns are wound
on perforated cones. Before dyeing, yarn packages are first inserted onto vertical,
perforated spindles in the dyeing machine. When dyeing begins, dye liquor can
be pumped through the perforations in spindles and then forced to run into the
package crosswise. Flow direction can be reversed from inside-to-outside to out-
side-to-inside automatically. A schematic of a package dyeing machine is shown in
Fig. 13.21.

13.21. The schematic of a package dyeing machine.

Evenness is always the predominant consideration in dyeing. For package dyeing,

the evenness depends on good preparation of the yarn (proper package density, even
winding), correct loading, right liquor ratio and appropriate liquor flow rate (good
liquor circulation), and so on.

Package density
The porosity of the package must be uniform to prevent the uneven dyeing caused by
the liquor short-cut. The evenness of winding has great influence on dyeing quality.
Good winding requires the packages are constant in density, including in any single
package from inner to outer, as well as that from package to package in the same
batch. It is very important to find the proper package winding density. Too low a
density would cause the collapse of yarn from the perforated tubes, while too high a
density could result in difficulty for dye liquor penetration. The correct density of
the yarn package is associated with the nature of material, yarn texture, yarn count,
and the liquor circulation of package machine. The examples of package densities
are listed in Table 13.19.

Table 13.19. Packages winding density as a function of yarn count and type

Yarn material Density (g/dm3) Yarn count

Cotton 340–400 40/1 (Nm)
Cotton 320–350 100/1 (Nm)
PET 340–380 /
PET/Cotton 340–380 /

Mounting of package
After packages are prepared, they have to be mounted on a series of hollow, perforat-
ed, vertical spindles in the dyeing machine. It is critical to fix the packages firmly and
compactly on spindles, without any slip space. Gaps between packages, top spacer
and top package, as well as bottom spacer and bottom package, should be eliminated
(Fig. 13.22). Otherwise a leakage may occur between these spaces when dye liquor
flows pumped from either inside-to-outside or in reversed flow direction during the
dyeing operation, which can lead to unevenness in dyeing.
13.22. Load requirements for yarn package.

Liquor circulation
Liquor circulation, as the most fundamental and critical requirement, must be suf-
ficient and uniform (Shore, 1995). A better dyeing levelness can result by changing
liquid flow direction from time to time. Table 13.20 gives the recommended flow
parameters for package dyeing.

Table 13.20. Parameters of flow circulation

Flow direction Time (min) Differential pressure (Kpa)

Inside-to-outside 3–4 60–80
Outside-to-inside 4–6 40–60

Dyeing quality of a dyed yarn depends on both having dyeing evenness and main-
taining the yarn in good physical quality. Generally, the higher the liquor flow rate,
the better the dyeing evenness that can be achieved (Shang, 2002). However, undue
turbulence in the dyebath can cause pilling which declining in physical quality of
the yarn (Shore, 1995). Therefore, the flow rate of dye liquor should be optimally
controlled so as to balance the dyeing evenness and the physical quality of the dyed
yarn (Fig. 13.23).

13.23. The influence of the flow rate of dye solution on both the dyeing quality and
the yarn physical quality in package dyeing.

13.5.2 Overflow dyeing machines and jet dyeing machines for fabric
The principles of the overflow dyeing machine and the jet dyeing machine are same,
that is fabric being dyed runs cyclically, and dye solution at the same time also
flows cyclically. Fabric loaded in the dyeing machine is in rope form, and is moved
by both the driving force from the lifting reel and the pushing force generated by
nozzle liquor, which determines the fabric running rate. Dye solution is sprayed
or jet-fed on to the fabric as the fabric passes through the nozzle, which is the
main place that dye solution exchanges with fabric in terms of dye exhaustion.
During repeated fabric circulation inside the machine, a dyeing process is carried
out. Moreover, some machines are designed to operate above atmospheric pressure,
which is particularly suitable for dyeing polyester at temperatures approaching
135 °C (Broadbent, 2001).

Machine classification
The overflow and the jet dyeing machine are distinguished on the basis of the
fabric running rate inside the machine. Generally, a fabric running rate below
350 m/min is classified as an overflow dyeing machine, and that over 350 m/ min
is called a jet dyeing machine. There are four main shapes of overflow or jet dyeing
machines (Shang and Zhuo, 2003), that is O-shape (Fig. 13.24), U-shape (Fig. 13.25),
up-L-shape (Fig. 13.26) and down-L-shape (Fig. 13.27). The comparison of these
machines is listed in Table 13.21.

13.24. Schematic of O-shape dyeing machine.

13.25. Schematic of U-shape dyeing machine.

13.26. Schematic of up-L-shape dyeing machine.

13.27. Schematic of down-L-shape dyeing machine.

Table 13.21. The comparison of overflow and jet dyeing machines

Machine shape 0 U Up-L Down-L

Overflow or jet Overflow or jet Overflow only Overflow only Overflow or jet
Maximum fab- < 350 (overflow) < 350 < 350 < 350 (overflow) or-
ric running rate or > 350 (jet) - > 350 (jet)
(m/min)
Nozzle pressure High (jet) or low Low Low High (jet) or low
(overflow) (overflow)
Friction between High (jet) or low Low Low High (jet) or low
fabric and machine (overflow) (overflow)
Liquor ratio 1:5–8 1:5–8 1:6–10 1:6–10
Maximum dyeing 135 100 135 135
temperature (°C)
Fabric pile style in- Plaiting (tight) Plaiting (tight) Waving (loose) Waving (loose)
side machine
Availability for fab- Jet for pure poly- For knitted cotton For cotton, poly- For pure (thin)
ric ester; overflow for ester, nylon, and polyester, nylon,
knitted cotton or blends; for both of blend, or the fab-
cotton blend knitting and wo- ric easily having
ven crease marks

For the overflow dyeing machine, friction between fabric and machine, as well as that
between fabric and liquor, is smaller than that of the jet dyeing machine, since the
liquor pushing force generated by nozzle is gentle. The overflow dyeing machine is
particularly suitable for those fabrics which cannot withstand high tension and high
friction, such as cotton knits and their blends, as well as the elastic fabrics. Knitted
fabrics should be dyed with overflow dyeing machines to reduce pilling and to retain
its dimensional stability. This is because the nozzle liquor pushing force for fabric
is moderate, and the slippage between fabric and lift reel is small. The jet dyeing
machine is more suitable for pure synthetic fabrics, especially for thin fabrics and
the easy crease-marked fabric.

Factors of dyeing process control

Overflow and jet dyeing machines are the most significant exhaust dyeing machines
for fabric at present. Keeping the machines running under the optimal conditions
has profound influences on the dyed goods. The important factors for dyeing process
control include: (1) fabric loading weight, (2) liquor ratio, (3) fabric running rate in
terms of the total actions of lifting reel speed and nozzle liquor pressure, (4) fabric
cycle time, (5) chemical dosing rate, and (6) temperature/time profile.

Loading capacity
Generally, the maximum fabric loading capacity depends on the design capacity
of the dyeing machine. However, the actual loading weight should be based on
the fabric loading length. For a designed weight, the fabric length of thin fabric is
longer, while the fabric length is shorter for thick fabrics. Since the requirement of
shortening fabric cycle time for ensuring even dyeing, thick fabric could be loaded
up to the designed capacity, while the loading of thin fabric should be discounted.
The loading for easy crease marked fabric might also need to discount to avoid
the un-removed crease marks happened. The actual loading capacity for a single
chamber machine can be calculated as follows:

1. Determine the optimum fabric cycle time, usually no more than 3 min for
cotton and its blends, and no more than 2.5 min for pure polyester.
2. Determine the optimum machine running rate, that is, no slippage between
fabric and lift reel.
3. Calculate fabric length:

Fabric length = machine running rate × cycle time

The elongation of fabric and the slippage between fabric and lifting reel should be
considered.

4. Calculate the actual fabric loading weight:

Actual fabric loading weight = fabric length × fabric weight per metre

For a machine with multi-chambers, its actual total loading capacity can be calcu-
lated as:

Total actual loading capacity = the actual loading weight of a single chamber x

chamber number

The development trend of the overflow and jet dyeing machines is towards lower
liquor ratio and shorter processing time for environmental and energy considera-
tions, so-called low carbon dyeing. Right-first-time and reproducibility in dyeing for
all batchwise dyeing machines are other important issues needed to be improved.
Various modified overflow and jet dyeing machines approaching these targets are
now appearing in the market.

> Read full chapter

Fundamental principles of dyeing

M. Clark, in Handbook of Textile and Industrial Dyeing, 2011

1.3.2 Circulating-goods machines

Some hank dyeing machines and particularly fabric dyeing machines fall into this
category of dyeing machine. Fabric dyeing was traditionally carried out on a winch,
whereby the fabric was drawn in rope form through the dyebath via a driven winch
reel, the speed of which could be adjusted depending on the fabric length and
construction. However, these have been largely superseded by pressurised jet dyeing
machines. These machines circulate both the fabric, via a winch reel, and the dyebath
via the jet. The dyebath is ‘injected’ into the fabric as it passes through the jet nozzle.
Jet dyeing machines are capable of running at very low liquor ratios, typically 8:1,
although some may run as low as 4:1, enabling savings in water and energy to be
made by the dyer. Jiggers were also commonplace with winch machines, where the
fabric is mounted in whole width on a beam and guided back and forth through the
dyebath in open width.

> Read full chapter

Introduction to dyeing and dyehouse

automation
In Modelling, Simulation and Control of the Dyeing Process, 2014

1.4.4 Pumps
Dyeing machines may have more than one pump. One of these is the main circu-
lation pump, which is normally located at the base of the kier, as close to the centre
as possible to reduce frictional flow losses. These may be centrifugal or axial.

In a review of pumps by Horn,30 it is stressed that, whatever the type of pump used,
the pressure generated should be constant for a moderate change in the volume of
flow. This is normally a result of leaks from the columns of the spindles and is also
observed when long spindles together with high liquor ratios are used.

Secondary pumps are normally centrifugal and are used to pressurise the whole
system by sucking the liquid from the bottom of the kier and feeding it to the main
pump. Cavitation, which is a result of steam bubbles forming at high temperatures
on the low-pressure side of the pump, may also be avoided if the whole system is
pressurised even when dyeing at 100 °C.

Other pumps for injecting dye and chemicals are also used in package dyeing
machinery. The number of auxiliary pumps on a machine depends on the number
of inlets for injecting various chemicals throughout the course of dyeing.

> Read full chapter

Methods and machinery for the dyeing

process
G.P. Nair, in Handbook of Textile and Industrial Dyeing, 2011

8.8 HT softflow/overflow dyeing machines

These batch rope dyeing machines are popular HT dyeing machines, particularly for
dyeing polyester and its blends. Figure 8.14 shows the three fabric transport systems
used in jet dyeing machines, labelled A, B and C (Anon, 1989). A shows the system in
the original versions of jet dyeing machines, such as ATYC’s vertical dyeing machine
‘Texajet, wherein the fabric is transported solely by means of liquor jets hydraulically
based on the ventura principle, the original patent of which belongs to Burlington
Industries, USA.

8.14. Fabric transport systems. A: Jet system; B: Overflow system; C: Jet/overflow

system.

B shows the overflow system, first introduced by the Japanese, in which the liquor
flows as free fall without pressure. This system is ideal for dyeing sensitive fabrics that
cannot be dyed without damaging them in traditional jet dyeing machines. ATYC’s
‘Fluxsuau’ overflow machine was first exhibited at ATME 1973 in Greenville, USA.

Changes to the overflow system were also required due to its slow gravity aided
circulation and its need for a high volume of liquor. In order to overcome these
drawbacks and to make the machine flexible and cost-effective, the jet/overflow
system, C, was developed.
Figure 8.15 shows the concept of modern automatic dyeing using machines of
the fifth generation onwards with the various sections labelled. Modern dyeing
machines have gentle action and are safe for both the goods and the operator. They
have a very high degree of automation, with only loading and unloading performed
by the operator. With microprocessor control, these machines are ‘dyeing robots’
with the dyeing technician only entering the recipes and the selected dyeing method
into the process control system.

8.15. Automatic dyeing. A: Microprocessor; B: Dyeing machines; C: Automatic

dye-kitchen and D: Computer, printer, data processing system.

Table 8.7 provides a list of leading machine manufacturers and their main machine
models, a selection of which are presented below.

Table 8.7. HT softflow/overflow dyeing machines

S. No. Manufacturers Models

1 ACME, Taiwan AM-SF Dual Flow
2 AKM, Taiwan AK-SL Dual FlowAK-ISL Dual
Flow Rapid
3 Alkan Makina, Turkey 03C HT
4 Anjani, India Long Tube Soft Flow‘O’ Type Soft
Flow
5 ATYC, Spain Rapidsuau F/FLRapid Stretch
6 Brazzoli, Italy Saturno HTF
7 Devrekha, India Multi-Nozzle Softflow (A)Multi-
-Nozzle Softflow (B)
8 Dilmenler (DMS), Turkey DMS 02 HT Softflow
9 Flainox, Italy PIROGAGHBLI/Flow HT
10 Fong’s, Hong Kong Eco-8 Multi Rope SoftTowel-8
High Temperature
11 Hisaka, Japan CUT-MF Type (Mild Jet Flow)
12 Infab (Texfab), India HT/HP Eco-Softflow Single
Tube/Multi Tube
13 Krsna, India HT Soft Flow Long Tube Model
K2002 RHLHT Soft Flow Model
K2002 RH
14 Laip, Italy 600/HP Soft-flow800 HT Water
Flow900 HT Overflow
15 MCS, Italy Long Horn Flow Jet HTSoftflow
SF 100 Horizontal
16 Memnun, Turkey Conti Dye HT
17 Minox, Italy Flow PRT Soft
18 PMM, Turkey Softflow HT
19 Then, Germany Thenflow
20 Thies, German Soft-TRDSoft-TRDDS
21 Yamuna, India HT/HP Softflow

Source: Adapted from Nair (2001e); Nair and Pandian (2005e); Nair and Pandian
(2008d).
Multi-Nozzle Softflow (B) of Devrekha, India
This machine has the following features.

• Flexibility: ability to work at high and low temperatures and also as a softflow
or jet dyeing machine. This makes the machine versatile and able to process
all types of fabrics.
• Four nozzles: Nozzles 3 and 4 are of big diameter and fixed with individual
flow control valves. The first main nozzle is adjustable, and by increasing and
decreasing the gap of nozzle, flow and pressure will increase and decrease
according to the requirements of the fabric. To run this machine as a softflow
machine, the gap should be increased in order to decrease the pressure and
increase the water flow. Under these conditions, all three nozzles will work
as a softflow and water flow control system with individual control valves to
facilitate processing of all types of fabrics.
• Other features are ultra low liquor ratio of 1:1 (wet fabric); can dye both woven
and knitted fabrics of 30–450 gm/m2; temperatures up to 140°C; capacities
from 50 to 2000 kg.

PIROGA of Flainox, Italy

Figure 8.16 shows this new HT machine for rope dyeing with fabric out of bath. The
special features of this machine are as follows:

8.16. Parts and rope in PIROGA (Flainox).

• Revolutionary concept and design with fabric always being dyed above the bath
with sprays from the top, in a bath with a liquor ratio of 1:4.
• Low liquor ratio results in less dyeing time and savings in costs.

• Positive mechanical conveyance system inside the autoclave, operated inde-

pendently of the dyeing bath, advances the fabric. It consists of a bar-work
element (Patented) operating with a rotary action that lifts and then deposits
the material so that it advances with each action.
• Squeezing effect on fabric allowing for a natural bath/fibre exchange effect
(sponge effect) aided by special sprinklers positioned all along the route.
• Special transportation system with integrated cooling-rinsing system that
leads to highly efficient washing cycles thereby giving drastic reduction in
water and time factors, claimed to be only a tenth of that of standard machines.
• Coupling possibility for up to four machines.

> Read full chapter

Developing theoretical models of dye-
ing
In Modelling, Simulation and Control of the Dyeing Process, 2014

4.2.3 System geometry definition

For the package dyeing machine described above, a clear definition of the system
geometry is demonstrated in Fig. 4.3. The dye liquor is assumed to circulate through
the package during the dyeing, the direction of the flow being perpendicular to the
yarn layers in the package. Figure 4.4 shows a simplified two-dimensional system
geometry.

4.3. Flow through the package.

4.4. Flow through the package in two dimensions.

To simplify calculations, it is assumed that the process for both mass transfer and
flow behaviour is the same for both sides along the symmetric axis. Therefore, the
system geometry can be further simplified to that shown in Fig. 4.5. Only the left
side of the symmetric axis line is considered as the system geometry described here.

4.5. Geometry of the system in two dimensions.

> Read full chapter

Finishing of denim fabrics

Asim Kumar Roy Choudhury, in Principles of Textile Finishing, 2017

12.4.1 Garments washing and/or dyeing machines

A garment dyeing and washing factory needs the following machines:

• Garments dyeing/washing machine for—Sample & Bulk

• Hydroextractor

• Dryer

Basically, there are two types of machines used for garments dyeing:

• Pedal-type machine

• Rotary-type machine
The pedal-type garment dyeing machine is the first and oldest type of garment
dyeing machine still used in the European countries. Pedal-type garment dyeing
machines come in two types: overhead pedal and side pedal.

In a rotary drum machine (Fig. 12.1), the goods are placed in a perforated horizontal
cylinder (P) rotating slowly (5–15 rpm depending on the size of the drum) inside a
vat of a slightly greater size (V) having a door (D) at the top. The internal cylinder
is divided into separate quadrants (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4), thus ensuring the goods move
with the rotation of the drum and each quadrant has its own sliding cover (C). It is
customary to mount two drums side by side on the same revolving shaft. A standard
size machine may have the following specifications:

Fig. 12.1. Rotary garment dyeing cum washing machine.

Drum diameter: 116 cm

Drum width: 80 cm
Liquor capacity: 1800 L
Maximum load: 90 kg
Liquor ratio: 20:1

Rotary drum machines are used for dyeing small garments, especially stockings and
hoses. The garments may be placed in open-mesh nonabsorbent bags randomly or
after folding flat. The mechanical action in the machine is very gentle. The rotary
drum is cheap, compact and simple to operate. Silk hosiery is frequently dyed in
such machines, but the internal surface must be polished to the highest degree of
smoothness. A reversing mechanism causes the drum to make a certain number
of rotations in one direction and an equal number in the other. High-temperature
rotary dyeing machines and machines with programmable automatic controllers are
also available.

Tumblers are similar to rotary drum machines, but they are front-loading machines.
The goods are loaded into a perforated drum, which rotates about a horizontal shaft
at the back of the machine. The drum may be divided into three or four pockets or
fitted with buffle plates to lift the goods, which are usually contained in bags. The
height of dye liquor in the drum may be varied over a wide range and the liquor
ratio may be kept as low as 8:1. The speed of rotation is variable, usually in the
range of 10–30 rpm. The tumbler machine may be used for scouring garments and
particularly for milling woollen garments. The speed of rotation has a marked effect
on the rate of milling. A hot-air blowing system may be incorporated, as used in a
tumbler dryer, thus providing a complete dry-to-dry sequence in the same machine.
The differences in mechanical action between tumbler and paddle machines result
in significantly different products.
> Read full chapter

Sustainable chemical technologies for

textile production
Asim K. Roy Choudhury, in Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, 2017

10.11.5 Polyester dyeing

Polyester fabric is usually dyed in pressurized dyeing machines (jet-dyeing ma-
chines) at 130°C. Economy can be achieved by reducing the dyeing time using
selected optimized designs for the dyeing machines/processes or by using low--
molecular weight disperse dyes (to avoid uneven dyeing during the shorter dyeing
period) (Baldwinson, 1985); the use of compatible dyes that are adsorbed at the same
rate is also important in dye selection.

To reduce dyeing times for polyester, dyeing should be started at the highest possible
temperature and the rate of temperature rise should be the highest possible without
hampering levelness. The critical temperature test has been developed in which
visual estimations are made of the temperature at which 50% exhaustion of a
specified amount of dye is obtained within 20 min. According to Clariant, the critical
temperature zone for high-temperature dyeing is the temperature zone in which the
last 80% of the dye is exhausted into polyester fibre (Clariant (India), 1983). Level
dyeing can be obtained if the heating rate is controlled through this temperature
zone.

In conventional jet-dyeing machines, the maximum heating rate is 2°C per min,
whereas in rapid jet dyeing, the rate normally is 6°C per min, and in advanced
machines such as the Hisaka and Callebaut de Blicquy Jet-Dyeing machines, 8–10°C
per min.

Below the critical temperature, the temperature can be increased at a higher rate. In
rapid jet-dyeing, the rate may be 6°C/min followed by about 2°C/min in the critical
temperature zone. In conventional machines, the maximum heating rate may be
2°C/min, which is to be further reduced to 1–1.5°C/min in the critical zone.

To reduce the dyeing time still further, quick-fixable rapid-dyeing disperse dyes
may be selected so that satisfactory diffusion and fixation may be achieved within
10–20 min in the rapid-dyeing machine compared with the much higher time (up
to 50 min) by conventional dyes in conventional jet machines. The total dyeing
cycle may be reduced to 50–70 min compared with180 min in conventional process
(Sherrill et al., 1981).
> Read full chapter

Fabric Finishing
P.R. Richards, in Textiles and Fashion, 2015

19.13 Revision Questions

• List the main criteria for dye selection.

• Describe the key fundamental requirements of a dyeing machine.

• Describe the process by which colour is perceived.

• List the main classes of dye applicable to (1) protein fibres and (2) acrylic fibres.

• Explain the mechanism by which a fluorescent brightening agent is effective.

• Explain why natural dyes are unlikely to present an immediate challenge to

synthetic dyes.
• Describe the criteria for assessing the quality of a dyed product.

• List the main areas of environmental concern for the dyer.

• Explain why the liquor-to-goods ratio is an important factor in dyeing.

> Read full chapter

Environmentally friendly dyes

R.B. Chavan, in Handbook of Textile and Industrial Dyeing, 2011

16.7.1 Exhaust dyeing of polyester and polyester blends with

carrier-free dyeing techniques or with the use of environmen-
tally optimised carriers97
Exhaust dyeing of polyester is usually carried out at high temperature and pressure
conditions 130°C using high temperature high pressure (HTHP) dyeing machines.
However, such dyeing conditions are harmful to blends like polyester/wool. There-
fore in such cases it is essential to carry out dyeing at 95–100°C by using carriers. In
dyeing and rinsing a significant amount of carrier is emitted to waste water. The
fraction that remains on the fibre may be emitted to air during subsequent drying
and heat setting.
 Active substances used in carrier formulations include:

• chlorinated aromatic compounds (mono-chlorobenzene, trichlorobenzenes,

etc.)
• o-phenylphenol

• biphenyl and other aromatic hydrocarbons (trimethyl benzene, 1-methyl

naphthalene, etc.)
• phthalates (diethylhexylphthalate, dibutylphthalate, dimethylphthalate).

Human and aquatic toxicity, high volatility and high odour intensity are the main
concerns associated with the use of the above-mentioned substances. Not only do
water and air become contaminated by the emissions, but it is increasingly suspected
that consumer health problems can be caused by remobilisation of halogenated
carriers (e.g. 1,2,4-trichlorobenene) in the treated textiles.

The hazardous carriers can be replaced by chlorine-free substances with improved

toxicological and environmental characteristics. New carriers are based on benzyl-
benzoate and N-alkylphthalimide. Benzylbenzoate is a readily biodegradable sub-
stance while N-alkylphthalimide is bio-eliminable. Moreover, because of their low
volatility, odour nuisance (especially in the workplace) is negligible. Both substances
are water soluble and easy to remove at the end of the dyeing process. Dyeing is
carried out at boil using 2–5% (o.w.f.) carrier concentration. A number of eco-label
schemes recommended cessation of the use of organohalogen carriers.

> Read full chapter

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