Oscillators

EE214/EE301 Objectives
Analogue Electronic II
Describe the basic concept of an oscillator
Discuss the basic principles of operation of an
oscillator
Chapter 3
Analyze the operation of RC, LC and crystal
OSCILLATORS oscillators
Describe the operation of the basic relaxation
oscillator circuits
Dr. Wong Chin Hong

1 2

Oscillators
Introduction
Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous
signal of some type without the need of an input.
These signals serve a variety of purposes.
Communications systems, digital systems
(including computers), and test equipment make
use of oscillators.
Oscillators
An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive
signal from a dc voltage.
The feedback oscillator relies on a positive
feedback of the output to maintain the
oscillations.
The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC
timing circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal signal
such as square wave.

3 4

Oscillators Oscillators
Types of oscillators
dc supply
voltage 1. RC oscilators
- Wien Bridge
- Phase Shift

V out or 2. LC oscillators
Oscillator - Hartley
- Colpitts
or 3. Relaxation oscilators

5 6

Oscillators Oscillators
Basic principles for oscillation
¾ An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback. Vo AVe
Ve Vo AVs  V f  AVs  ȕ9o 
Vs A
+ Vo AVs  AEVo
Ve Vs  V f (1) Vf
E
Vf ȕ9o (2) 1  AE Vo AVs

Vo AVe AVs  V f  AVs  ȕ9o  (3)

7 8
 Oscillators Oscillators
In general A and E are functions of frequency and
The closed loop gaind is; thus may be written as;
Vo A
Af { Vo As 
Vs 1  Aȕ  A f s  s 
Vs 1  As ȕ s 

Vs
Ve Vo As ȕ s  is known as loop gain
A
+
Vf
E 9 10

Oscillators Oscillators
Writing T s  As ȕ s  the loop gain becomes; At a specific frequency f0;

T  jȦ0  A jȦ0 ȕ  jȦ0  1

As 
A f s 
1  T s  At this frequency, the closed loop gain;

Replacing s with jZ; A jȦ0 

A f  jȦ0 
A jȦ 1  A jȦ0 ȕ  jȦ0 
A f  jȦ
1  T  jȦ
and will be infinite, i.e. the circuit will have finite output
for zero input signal - oscillation
T  jȦ A jȦȕ  jȦ 11 12

Oscillators Oscillators
Thus, the condition for sinusoidal oscillation of
frequency f0 is; The feedback oscillator is widely used for
generation of sine wave signals. The positive (in
A jȦ0 ȕ  jȦ0  1
phase) feedback arrangement maintains the
This is known as Barkhausen criterion. oscillations. The feedback gain must be kept to
unity to keep the output from distorting.
The frequency of oscillation is solely determined
by the phase characteristic of the feedback loop –
the loop oscillates at the frequency for which the
phase is zero.
13 14

Oscillators Oscillators
In phase Design Criteria for Oscillators
1. The magnitude of the loop gain must be unity
Vf Vo or slightly larger i.e.
Av
Aȕ 1 – Barkhaussen criterion
Noninverting
amplifier 2. Total phase shift,I of the loop gain must be 0°
or 360°.
Feedback
circuit
15 16
 Oscillators Oscillators
Factors determining the frequency of
oscillation
Oscillators can be classified into many types
depending on the feedback components,
amplifiers and circuit topologies used. 1. RC Oscillators
RC components generate a sinusoidal waveform
at a few Hz to kHz range.
LC components generate a sine wave at
frequencies of 100 kHz to 100 MHz.
Crystals generate a square or sine wave over a
wide range,i.e. about 10 kHz to 30 MHz.
17 18

Oscillators Oscillators – Wien-bridge

1. RC Oscillators
RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to It is a low
frequencies of 1 MHz or less. frequency
oscillator
The types of RC oscillators that we will discuss are which ranges
the Wien-bridge and the phase-shift. from a few kHz
to 1 MHz.
Structure of
this oscillator
is shown
below;
19 20

Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge

The loop gain for the oscillator is Hence;

§ R ·ª 1 º
§ R ·§ Z p ·¸ T s  ¨¨ 1  2 ¸¸ «
T s  As ȕ s  ¨¨ 1  2 ¸¸¨ © R1 ¹ ¬ 3  sRC  1 /sRC  »¼
© R1 ¹¨© Z p  Z s ¸¹
where;
Substituting for s;
R
Zp
1  sRC § R ·ª 1 º
T  jZ  ¨¨1  2 ¸¸ «
and; © R1 ¹ ¬ 3  jZRC  1/jZRC  »¼
1  sRC
Zs
sC 21 22

Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge

For oscillation frequency f0; From the previous equation;

§ R ·ª 1 º § R ·ª 1 º
T  jZ0  ¨¨1  2 ¸¸ « » T  jZ0  ¨¨1  2 ¸¸ « »
© R1 ¹ ¬ 3  jZ0 RC  1/jZ0 RC  ¼ © R1 ¹ ¬ 3  jZ0 RC  1/jZ0 RC  ¼

Since at the frequency of oscillation, T(jZ) must be the magnitude condition is;
real (for zero phase condition), the imaginary
component must be zero i.e.; § R ·§ 1 · R2
1 ¨¨1  2 ¸¸¨ ¸ or; 2
© R1 ¹© 3 ¹ R1
1 1
jZ0 RC  0 Z0 To ensure oscillation, the ratio R2/R1 must
jZ0 RC RC 23
be slightly greater than 2. 24
Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge
With the ratio; The lead-lag circuit of a Wien-bridge oscillator
R2 reduces the input signal by 1/3 and yields a
2 response curve as shown. The frequency of
R1
then; resonance can be determined by the formula
below.
R2 1
K { 1 3 fr
R1 2SRC
K = 3 ensures the loop gain of unity – oscillation.

- K > 3 : growing oscillations

- K < 3 : decreasing oscillations
25 26

Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge

V in V out

27 28

Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge

The lead-lag
circuit is in the Since there is a loss of
positive about 1/3 of the signal
feedback loop of in the positive feedback
Wien-bridge loop, the voltage-
oscillator. The divider ratio must be
voltage adjusted such that a
divider limits positive feedback loop
the gain. The gain of 1 is produced.
lead lag circuit This requires a closed-
is basically a loop gain of 3. The ratio
band-pass with of R1 and R2 can be set
a narrow to achieve this.
bandwidth. 29 30
30

Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge

To start the oscillations an initial gain greater

than 1 must be achieved.

The back-to-back zener diode

arrangement is one way of
achieving this.

31 32
Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge

D1 D2 When dc is first applied the zeners

appear as opens. This allows the slight
R1 R3
amount of positive feedback from turn
+ V out on noise to pass.
.


R2 f r Lead-lag
1/3 33 34

Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Wien-bridge

The lead-lag circuit narrows the feedback
to allow just the desired frequency of
these turn transients to pass. The higher
gain allows reinforcement until the
breakover voltage for the zeners is
reached.
35
Automatic gain control is necessary to
maintain a gain of exact unity.
The zener arrangement for gain control is
simple but produces distortion because of
the nonlinearity of zener diodes.
A JFET in the negative feedback loop can be
used to precisely control the gain.
After the initial startup and the output signal
increases, the JFET is biased such that the
negative feedback keeps the gain at
precisely 1. 36

Oscillators – Wien-bridge Oscillators – Phase-shift

Rf


0V C C C Vo
.
R
+
R R

37 38

Oscillators – Phase-shift Oscillators – Phase-shift

Rf
The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC
circuits to provide 180º phase shift that when

coupled with the 180º of the op-amp itself 0V C C C Vo
.
provides the necessary feedback to sustain R
+
oscillations. The gain must be at least 29 to
R R
maintain the oscillations. The frequency of
resonance for the this type is similar to any RC
circuit oscillator.
The transfer function of the RC network is
1
fr v in 1
2S 6 RC TF
39
vo sRC 
3
 5 sRC   6 sRC   1
2
40
Oscillators – Phase-shift Oscillators – Phase-shift
If the gain around the loop equals 1, the circuit Putting s = jZ and equating the real parts and
oscillates at this frequency. Thus for the oscillations imaginary parts, we obtain;
we want,

K TF  1  j ZRC   j 6ZRC  0 (Imaginary part)

3

or; (1)

sRC 3  5 sRC 2  6 sRC   1 - K 0

 5ZRC   1  K
2
0 (Real part) (2)

41 42

Oscillators – Phase-shift Oscillators – Phase-shift

Rf
From equation (1);

6 
C C C
 ZRC   6 0
Vo
2
Z R
0V .

RC +

Substituting into equation (2); R R

ª 6 º
 5« 2»
RC 2  1 K K 29
¬ RC  ¼ The last R has been incorporated into the summing
resistors at the input of the inverting op-amp.
The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the
oscillations 43 44

Oscillators – Phase-shift Oscillators

Rf


0V C C C Vo
.
R
+ 2. LC Oscillators
R R

1  Rf
fr K 29
2S 6 RC R3
45 46

Oscillators Oscillators
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits
Employs BJTs (or FETs) instead of op-amps and
For frequencies above 1 MHz, LC feedback are therefore useful at high frequencies.
oscillators are used.
Consider the general BJT circuit:
We will discuss the Colpitts, Hartley and
crystal-controlled oscillators.
Transistors are used as the active device in
these types.

47 48
 Oscillators Oscillators
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits
Using the small signal equivalent circuit this becomes; Applying KVL around loop (1), and let

ZT Z1  Z 2  Z 3
we will have;

IZ 3  I  ib Z 2  I  h feib Z1 0
or;

IZT  ib h fe Z1  Z 2  0 (1)
49 50

Oscillators Oscillators
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits
Applying KVL around loop (2); Substituting (2) into (1);

hieib I  ib Z 2
Z2I
ib (2)
hie  Z 2

51 52

Oscillators Oscillators
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits
If the Z’s are purely imaginary and ݄௜௘ is real, then; Z2 and Z1 are the same type of component

Z3 is the opposite type (-ve). If Z2 and Z1 are

Substituting (3) into the expression
inductors, then Z3 is a capacitor and vice versa.
ZT Z1  Z 2  Z 3 0

53 54

Oscillators Oscillators
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits

55 56
Oscillators – Colpitts Oscillators – Colpitts

The Colpitts oscillator utilizes a tank circuit

(LC) in the feedback loop as shown in the
following figure.

57 58

Oscillators – Colpitts Oscillators – Colpitts

Conditions for oscillation and start up
The resonant frequency can be determined
by the formula below. 1
ܸ௙ ‫ܺܫ‬௖ଵ ܺ஼ଵ ߱‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ
ߚ= = = = =
ܸ௢௨௧ ‫ܺܫ‬௖ଶ ܺ஼ଶ 1 ‫ܥ‬ଵ
1 ߱‫ܥ‬ଶ
fr
2S LCT
Since the condition for oscillation is ‫ܣ‬௩ ߚ = 1

1 1 1 ‫ܣ‬௩ ߚ = 1

CT C1 C2 ‫ܥ‬ଶ
‫ܣ‬௩ =1
‫ܥ‬ଵ
‫ܥ‬ଵ
59 ‫ܣ‬௩ = 60
‫ܥ‬ଶ

Oscillators – Hartley Oscillators – Hartley

The calculation of the resonant frequency is the same.

1
The Hartley fr
oscillator is similar 2S LT C
to the Colpitts.
The tank circuit LT L1  L2
has two inductors
and one capacitor
L1 1 L2
E Av
L2 E L1
61 62

Oscillators – Crystal Oscillators – Crystal

• The crystal-controlled oscillator is the most stable
and accurate of all oscillators.
• A crystal has a natural frequency of resonance.
• Quartz material can be cut or shaped to have a
certain frequency.
• The use of a crystal in the operation of an
oscillator can be explained better by viewing its
electrical equivalent.

63 64
Oscillators – Crystal Oscillators

Since crystal has

natural resonant
frequencies of 20
MHz or less, 3. Relaxation Oscillators
generation of higher
frequencies is
attained by operating
the crystal in what is
called the overtone
mode
65 66

Oscillators – Relaxation Oscillators – Relaxation

Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing Triangular-wave oscillator
and a device that changes states to generate a Triangular-wave oscillator circuit is a combination
periodic waveform (non-sinusoidal). of a comparator and integrator circuit.
1. Triangular-wave

2. Square-wave

3. Sawtooth

67 68

Oscillators – Relaxation Oscillators – Relaxation

Triangular-wave oscillator Triangular-wave oscillator

1 § R2 ·
fr ¨ ¸
4CR1 ¨© R3 ¸¹

§R · §R ·
VUTP Vmax ¨¨ 3 ¸¸ VLTP Vmax ¨¨ 3 ¸¸
© R2 ¹ © R2 ¹

69 70

Oscillators – Square-wave Oscillators – Square-wave

A square wave relaxation oscillator is like the
Schmitt trigger or Comparator circuit.
The charging and discharging of the capacitor
cause the op-amp to switch states rapidly and
produce a square wave.
The RC time constant determines the frequency.

71 72
Oscillators – Square-wave Oscillators – Sawtooth voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO)

Sawtooth VCO circuit

is a combination of a
Programmable
Unijunction Transistor
(PUT) and integrator
circuit.

73 74

Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO

OPERATION OPERATION

Initially, dc input = -VIN

• ܸ‫ܸͲ = ݐݑ݋‬, ܸܽ݊‫ீܸ < ݁݀݋‬
• The circuit is like an integrator.
• Capacitor is charging.
• Output is increasing positive going ramp.

75 76

Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO

OPERATION OPERATION

When Vout = VP Oscillation frequency

• Vanode > VG , PUT turns ‘ON’
• The capacitor rapidly VIN § 1 ·
f ¨¨ ¸
Ri C © VP  VF ¸¹
discharges.
• Vout drop until Vout = VF.
• Vanode < VG , PUT turns ‘OFF’
VP – maximum peak value
VF – minimum peak value 77 78

Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE (cont’d)

In the following circuit, let VF = 1V.

a) Find;
(i) amplitude;
(ii) frequency;
b) Sketch the output waveform

79 80
Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO
EXAMPLE – Solution EXAMPLE – Solution
a) (i) Amplitude a) (ii) Frequency

R4 VIN § 1 ·
VG  V  10 15 7.5 V f ¨ ¸¸
R3  R4 10  10 Ri C ¨© VP  VF ¹

VP VG 7.5 V and VF 1V R2
VIN  V  1.92 V
So, the peak-to-peak amplitude is; R1  R2
VP  VF 7.5  1 6.5 V 81 82

Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO Oscillators – Sawtooth VCO

EXAMPLE – Solution EXAMPLE – Solution
a) (ii) Frequency b) Output waveform
1 1
T 2 ms
1.92 § 1 · f 628
f ¨ ¸
100k 0.0047ȝ  © 7.5V  1V ¹
7.5 V
628 Hz V out
1V t
2 ms
83 84
8

Oscillators Oscillators
The 555 timer The 555 Timer As An Oscillator
as an oscillator
The 555 timer is an integrated circuit that can be
used in many applications. The frequency of
output is determined by the external components
R1, R2, and C. The formula below shows the
relationship.

144
fr
R1  2 R2 Cext
85 86

Oscillators Oscillators
The 555 Timer As An Oscillator The 555 Timer As An Oscillator
Duty cycles can be adjusted by values of R1 and
R2. The duty cycle is limited to 50% with this Duty Cycle < 50 %
arrangement. To have duty cycles less than 50%,
a diode is placed across R2. The two formulas § R1 ·
show the relationship; Duty cycle ¨¨ ¸¸100%
© R1  R2 ¹
Duty Cycle > 50 %

§ R  R2 ·
Duty cycle ¨¨ 1 ¸¸100%
© R1  2 R2 ¹
87 88
 Oscillators Oscillators
The 555 Timer As An Oscillator The 555 Timer As An Oscillator

The 555 timer

may be
operated as a
VCO with a
control voltage
applied to the
CONT input
(pin 5).

89 90

Oscillators Oscillators
Summary Summary (cont’d)

¾ Sinusoidal oscillators operate with positive
feedback.
¾ Two conditions for oscillation are 0º feedback
phase shift and feedback loop gain of 1.
¾ The initial startup requires the gain to be
momentarily greater than 1.
¾ RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge, phase
shift, and twin-T.
¾ LC oscillators include the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley,
Armstrong, and crystal.
91
¾ The crystal actually uses a crystal as the LC tank
circuit and is very stable and accurate.
¾ A voltage controlled oscillator’s (VCO) frequency
is controlled by a dc control voltage.
¾ A 555 timer is a versatile integrated circuit that can
be used as a square wave oscillator or pulse
generator.
92