054CS301 - Computer Graphics

Computer graphics are graphics created using computers and, more generally, the representation and
manipulation of pictorial data by a computer.

The development of computer graphics has made computers easier to interact with and better for
understanding and interpreting many types of data. Developments in computer graphics have had a
profound impact on many types of media and have revolutionized the animation and video game
industry

Overview:

The term computer graphics includes almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Today
nearly all computers use some graphics and users expect to control their computer through icons and
pictures rather than just by typing. [1] The term Computer Graphics has several meanings:

the representation and manipulation of pictorial data by a computer

the various technologies used to create and manipulate such pictorial data

the images so produced, and

the sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating
visual content, see study of computer graphics

Today computers and computer-generated images touch many aspects of our daily life. Computer
imagery is found on television, in newspapers, in weather reports, and during surgical procedures. A
well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and
interpret. Such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, theses, and other presentation material. A
range of tools and facilities are available to enable users to visualize their data, and computer graphics
are used in many disciplines. [2]

Image types

2D computer graphics

Raster graphic sprites (left) and masks (right)

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2D computer graphics are the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-
dimensional models, such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images, and by techniques specific
to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques, or
for the models themselves.

2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional
printing and drawing technologies, such as typography, cartography, technical drawing,
advertising, etc.. In those applications, the two-dimensional image is not just a representation of a real-
world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are
therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics,
whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography.

Pixel art

Pixel art is a form of digital art, created through the use of raster graphics software, where images
are edited on the pixel level. Graphics in most old (or relatively limited) computer and video games,
graphing calculator games, and many mobile phone games are mostly pixel art.

Vector graphics

Example showing effect of vector graphics versus raster graphics.

Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics, which is the representation of images
as an array of pixels, as it is typically used for the representation of photographic images. There are
instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with
raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An
understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them
is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools.

3D computer graphics

3D computer graphics in contrast to 2D computer graphics are graphics that use a three-
dimensional representation of geometric data that is stored in the computer for the purposes of
performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be for later display or for real-time
viewing.

Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms as 2D computer
vector graphics in the wire frame model and 2D computer raster graphics in the final rendered
display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D
applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D
rendering techniques.

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3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. Apart from the rendered graphic, the model
is contained within the graphical data file. However, there are differences. A 3D model is the
mathematical representation of any three-dimensional object (either inanimate or living). A model is
not technically a graphic until it is visually displayed. Due to 3D printing, 3D models are not confined to
virtual space. A model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D
rendering, or used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations.

Computer animation

An example of Computer animation produced using Motion capture

Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is a subfield of
computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics,
though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time
rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target
is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI ( Computer-generated imagery or
computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films.

Virtual entities may contain and be controlled by assorted attributes, such as transform values (location,
orientation, scale; see Cartesian coordinate system ) stored in an object's transformation matrix.
Animation is the change of an attribute over time. Multiple methods of achieving animation exist; the
rudimentary form is based on the creation and editing of keyframes, each storing a value at a given
time, per attribute to be animated. The 2D/3D graphics software will interpolate between keyframes,
creating an editable curve of a value mapped over time, resulting in animation. Other methods of
animation include procedural and expression-based techniques: the former consolidates related
elements of animated entities into sets of attributes, useful for creating particle effects and crowd
simulations; the latter allows an evaluated result returned from a user-defined logical expression,
coupled with mathematics, to automate animation in a predictable way (convenient for controlling bone
behavior beyond what a hierarchy offers in skeletal system set up).

To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen then quickly replaced
by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to the
illusion of movement in television and motion pictures. '''''''''''''''

Concepts and Principles

Image

In common usage, an image or picture is an artifact, usually two-dimensional, that has a similar
appearance to some subject—usually a physical object or a person. Images may be two-dimensional,
such as a photograph, screen display, and as well as a three-dimensional, such as a statue. They may be

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captured by optical devices—such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and
natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water surfaces.

A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional image using ones and zeros (binary).
Depending on whether or not the image resolution is fixed, it may be of vector or raster type. Without
qualifications, the term "digital image" usually refers to raster images.

Pixel

In the enlarged portion of the image individual pixels are rendered as squares and can be easily seen.

In digital imaging, a pixel is the smallest piece of information in an image. [6] Pixels are normally arranged
in a regular 2-dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample
of an original image, where more samples typically provide a more accurate representation of the
original. The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has typically three or four
components such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.

Graphics

Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or
stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Examples are photographs, drawings, line art, graphs,
diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or
other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the
deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web
site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective,
association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style.

Rendering

Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The
model is a description of three dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It
would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital
image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene.
'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce
final video output.

3D projection

3D projection is a method of mapping three dimensional points to a two dimensional plane. As most
current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two dimensional media, the use of
this type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting.

Ray tracing

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Ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the path of light through pixels in an
image plane. The technique is capable of producing a very high degree of photorealism; usually higher
than that of typical scanline rendering methods, but at a greater computational cost.

Volume rendering

Volume rendered CT scan of a forearm with different colour schemes for muscle, fat, bone, and blood.

Volume rendering is a technique used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely sampled data set.
A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a CT or MRI scanner.

Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a
regular number of image pixels in a regular pattern. This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with
each volume element, or voxel represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate
area surrounding the voxel.

3D modeling

3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical, wireframe representation of any three-

dimensional object, called a "3D model", via specialized software. Models may be created automatically
or manually; the manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is
similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D models may be created using multiple approaches: use of
NURBS curves to generate accurate and smooth surface patches, polygonal mesh modeling
(manipulation of faceted geometry), or polygonal mesh subdivision (advanced tessellation of polygons,
resulting in smooth surfaces similar to NURBS models). A 3D model can be displayed as a two-
dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering, used in a computer simulation of physical
phenomena, or animated directly for other purposes. The model can also be physically created using 3D
Printing devices.

Device for entering information into a computer. Input devices include keyboards, joysticks, mice, light
pens, touch-sensitive screens, scanners, graphics tablets, speech-recognition devices, and vision systems.
The input into an electronic system is usually through switches or sensors. Compare with an output
device.

Display Devices:

A display device is an output device for presentation of information for visual, tactile or auditive
reception, acquired, stored, or transmitted in various forms. When the input information is supplied as
an electrical signal, the display is called electronic display. Electronic displays are available for
presentation of visual, tactile and auditive information.

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Tactile electronic displays (aka refreshable Braille display) are usually intended for the blind or
visually impaired, they use electro-mechanical parts to dynamically update a tactile image (usually of
text) so that the image may be felt by the fingers.

Common applications for electronic visual displays are television sets or computer monitors.

Early devices

IBM 740

IBM 2250

IBM 1627

Tektronix 4014

Digital clocks display changing numbers.

Cathode ray tube (CRT)

Storage tube

Bistable display

Electronic paper

Nixie tube displays

Vector display

Flat panel display

Vacuum fluorescent display (VF)

Light-emitting diode (LED) displays

Electroluminescent display (ELD)

Plasma display panels (PDP)

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Liquid crystal display (LCD)

HPA display

Thin-film transistor displays (TFT)

Organic light-emitting diode displays (OLED)

Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) (experimental)

Laser TV (forthcoming)

Carbon nanotubes (experimental)

Nanocrystal displays (experimental), using quantum dots to make vibrant, flexible screens.

Head-mounted display

Paper

Computer printers

Laser printer

Inkjet printer

Electrostatic printer

Thermal printer

Industrial digital printer

Plotters

Projectors

Film projectors

Movie projector

Slide projector

Digital projector

Video projector

LCD projector

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Laser projector

Head-up display

Three dimensional

Swept-volume display

Varifocal mirror display

Emissive volume display

Laser display

Holographic display

A raster scan,

A raster scan, or raster scanning, is the rectangular pattern of image capture and reconstruction in
television. By analogy, the term is used for raster graphics, the pattern of image storage and
transmission used in most computer bitmap image systems.

The word raster comes from the Latin word rastrum (a rake), which is derived from radere (to scrape);
see also rastrum, an instrument for drawing musical staff lines.

The pattern left by the tines of a rake, when drawn straight, resembles the parallel lines of a raster: this
line-by-line scanning is what creates a raster. It's a systematic process of covering the area progressively,
one line at a time. Although often a great deal faster, it's similar in the most-general sense to how one's
gaze travels when one reads text.

Description

Scan lines

In a raster scan, an image is subdivided into a sequence of (usually horizontal) strips known as "scan
lines". Each scan line can be transmitted in the form of an analog signal as it is read from the video
source, as in television systems, or can be further divided into discrete pixels for processing in a
computer system.

This ordering of pixels by rows is known as raster order, or raster scan order.

Note that analog television has discrete scan lines (discrete vertical resolution), but does not have
discrete pixels (horizontal resolution) – it instead varies the signal continuously over the scan line. Thus,
while the number of scan lines (vertical resolution) is unambiguously defined, the horizontal resolution is
more approximate, according to how quickly the signal can change over the course of the scan line.

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Scanning pattern

In raster scanning, the beam sweeps horizontally left-to-right at a steady rate, then blanks and rapidly
moves back to the left, where it turns back on and sweeps out the next line. During this time, the vertical
position is also steadily increasing, but much more slowly – there is one vertical sweep per image frame,
but one horizontal sweep per line of resolution. Thus each scan line is sloped slightly "downhill" (towards
the lower right), with a slope of approximately –1/horizontal resolution, while the sweep back is very
rapid and almost horizontal.

The tilt in the scan lines is imperceptible – it is tiny to start, and is dwarfed in effect by screen convexity
and other modest geometrical imperfections. Even on the rare truly-flat computer monitors such as the
Zenith Flat Tension Mask, the effect was too small to see.

There is a misconception that once a scan line is complete, a CRT display in effect suddenly jumps
internally, by analogy with a typewriter or printer's paper advance or line feed, before creating the next
scan line. As discussed above, this does not happen: the vertical sweep continues at a steady rate over a
scan line, creating imperceptible tilt. Steady-rate sweep is done, instead of a stairstep of advancing every
row, because steps are hard to implement technically, while steady-rate is much easier, and the resulting
distortion is imperceptible. In detail, scanning of CRTs is done by magnetic deflection, by changing the
voltage. Rapidly changing the deflection (a jump) requires a voltage spike to be applied to the yoke, and
the deflection can only react slowly. Electronically, the inductance of the deflection yoke's vertical
windings is relatively high, and thus the current in the yoke, and thus the vertical part of the magnetic
deflection field, can change only slowly.

Printers

Computer printers create their images basically by raster scanning. Laser printers use a spinning
polygonal mirror (or an optical equivalent) to scan across the photosensitive drum, and paper movement
provides the other scan axis. Considering typical printer resolution, the "downhill" effect is minuscule.
Inkjet printers have multiple nozzles in their printheads, so many (dozens to hundreds) of "scan lines" are
written together, and paper advance prepares for the next batch of scan lines. However, converting
vector-based data into the form required by a display, or printer, requires a Raster Image Processor (RIP).

Random scan:

When operated as a random-scan display unit, a CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of
the screen where a picture is to be drawn. Random-scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and
for this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing or calligraphic displays). The
component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random-scan system in any specified
order (fig). A pen plotter operates in a similar way and is an example of a random-scan, hard-copy
device.

Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be displayed. Picture definition
is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred to as the refresh display
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file. Sometimes the refresh display file is called the display list, display program, or simply the refresh
buffer. To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands in the display file,
drawing each component line in turn. After all line-drawing commands have been processed, the system
cycles back to the first line command in the list. Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the
component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each second. High-quality vector systems are capable of
handling approximately 100,000 "short" lines at this refresh rate. When a small set of lines is to be
displayed, each refresh cycle is delayed to avoid refresh rates greater than 60 frames per second.
Otherwise, faster refreshing of the set of lines could burn out the phosphor.

Random-scan systems are designed for line-drawing applications and can-not display realistic shaded
scenes. Since picture definition is stored as a Set of line-drawing instructions and not as a set of intensity
values for all screen points, vector displays generally have higher resolution than raster systems. Also,
vector displays produce smooth line drawings because the CRT beam directly follows the line path. A
raster system, in contrast, produces jagged lines that are plotted as discrete point sets.

Difference between raster and Random scan:

Raster-scan system:-

1)raster displays have less resolution.

2)the lines producced are ziz-zag as the plotted values are discrete.

3)high degree realism is achived in picture with the aid of advanced shading and hidden surface
technique.

4)decreasing memory costs have made raster systems popular.

Random scan system:-

1)random displays have high resolutions since the picture defination is stored as a set of line drawing
commands and not as a set of intensity values.

2)smooth lines are produced as the electron beam directly follows the line path.

3)realism is difficult to achieve.

4)random-scan system's are generally costlier.

Input Devices:

Various devices are available for data input on graphics workstations. Most systems have a
keyboard and one or more additional devices specially designed for interactive input. These include a

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mouse, trackball,spaceball,joystick,digitizers,dial and button boxes. Some other input devices used in
particular applications are data gloves, touch panels,image scanners and voice systems.

Keyboards:

An alphanumeric keyboard on a graphics system is used primarily as a device for entering text
strings. The keyboard is an efficient device for inputting such non graphic data as picture labels
associated with a graphics display. Keyboards can also be provided with features to facilitate entry of
screen co ordinates, menu selection, or graphic function.

In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which
uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. A keyboard
typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds
to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several
keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs
(characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.

In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or
other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software.
A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all keypresses to the
controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by
using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke
combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as
Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.

Mouse:

In computing, a mouse (plural mouses, mice, or mouse devices) is a pointing device that functions by
detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an
object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other
elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or
extra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically
translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User
Interface.

The name mouse, originated at the Stanford Research Institute, derives from the resemblance of early
models (which had a cord attached to the rear part of the device, suggesting the idea of a tail) to the
common mouse.

The first marketed integrated mouse – shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal
computer navigation – came with the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981. However, the
mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the Apple Macintosh; in 1984 a prominent

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PC columnist commented the release of this new computer with a mouse: “There is no evidence that
people want to use these things.”

A mouse now comes with most computers and many other varieties can be bought separately.

Track ball:

A pointing device. Essentially, a trackball is a mouse lying on its back. To move the pointer, you rotate
the ball with your thumb, your fingers, or the palm of your hand. There are usually one to three buttons
next to the ball, which you use just like mouse buttons.

The advantage of trackballs over mice is that the trackball is stationary so it does not require much space
to use it. In addition, you can place a trackball on any type of surface, including your lap. For both these
reasons, trackballs are popular pointing devices for portable computers.

Data Glove:

A wired glove is a glove-like input device for virtual reality environments. Various sensor technologies
are used to capture physical data such as bending of fingers. Often a motion tracker, such as a magnetic
tracking device or inertial tracking device, is attached to capture the global position/rotation data of
the glove. These movements are then interpreted by the software that accompanies the glove, so any
one movement can mean any number of things. Gestures can then be categorized into useful
information, such as to recognize Sign Language or other symbolic functions.

Expensive high-end wired gloves can also provide haptic feedback, which is a simulation of the sense of
touch. This allows a wired glove to also be used as an output device. Traditionally, wired gloves have only
been available at a huge cost, with the finger bend sensors and the tracking device having to be bought
separately.

Wired gloves are often called "datagloves" or "cybergloves", but these two terms are trademarks,
belonging to Sun Microsystems (which acquired the patent portfolio of VPL Research Inc. in
February 1998) and Immersion Corporation (which acquired Virtual Technologies, Inc. and its patent
portfolio in September 2000) respectively.

Joystick:

A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to
the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more
push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on
modern video game consoles is the analog stick.

The joystick has been the principal flight control in the cockpit of many aircraft, particularly military fast
jets, where centre stick or side-stick location may be employed (see also Centre stick vs side-stick).

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Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles
and zero turning radius lawn mowers. Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input
devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones.

Hard Copy Devices:

We can obtain hard copy output for our images in several formats. For presentations or
archiving, we can send image files to devices or service bureaus that will produce 35-mm slides or
overhead transparencies. To put images on film, we can simply photograph a scene displayed on a video
monitor. And we can put our pictures on paper by directing graphics output to a printer or plotter.

Printer produce output by either impact or non impact methods.

Impact printers press formed character faces against an inked ribbon on to the paper. E.g.: Line printer

Non impact printers and plotters use laser techniques E.g.: ink-Jet sprays, xerographic processes,
electrostatic methods and electro thermal methods.

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