About

the Author

Dr AS Bhalla (MA Cantab; Ph.D Manchester) is a former Fellow of Sidney

Sussex College, Cambridge, UK. His recent publications include the Royal
Tombs of India: 13th to 18th Century (Mapin, 2009); and Poverty and Exclusion
of Minorities in China and India (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).


To Praveen, Ranjan and Arman



A. S. Bhalla

BUDDHIST ART IN ASIA







Copyright © A. S. Bhalla (2014)

The right of A. S. Bhalla to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with section 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
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A CIP catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.


ISBN9781784550608


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First Published (2014)
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 Acknowledgments

The publisher and author acknowledge the following for their help and copyright
clearance:

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) (New Delhi) for Figs. 33 and 34 (Chapter 6) taken
from Ajanta Murals: An Album of Eighty-five Reproductions in Colour edited by A.
Ghosh (New Delhi, 1987) and for Fig. 39 supplied by the ASI.

Attinger SA of Neuchâtel (Switzerland) for Fig. 59 (Chapter 9) taken from Thailande: Art
et religion (Neuchâtel, 1974), © Audio-Visual Department (DAV) of the Library of the
City of Chaux-de-Fonds, Fernand Perret Fund.

Terence Faircloth, Atelier Teee, Inc., California for Fig. 58 (Chapter 9) downloaded from
the website:sacreddestinations.com.

Dr John Listopad of California State University Sacramento for Fig. 49 (Chapter 8) taken
from Art from Thailand edited by Robert L. Brown (Mumbai, Marg Publications,
December 1999).

British Museum, London, for Figs. 9, 10 and 11 (Chapter 2) and Figs. 30, 31 and 32
(Chapter 5), © Trustees of the British Museum.

Kolkata Museum for Fig. 29 (Chapter 5), taken by the author.

Lahore Museum (Pakistan) for Fig. 6 (Chapter 2) taken by Ranjan Bhalla.

Oriental Museum, Lisbon (Portugal) and the Berardo Collection for Fig.1, taken by the
author.
Wikipedia for Fig. 12 (Chapter 2).

Contents

List of Figures and Tables
Preface
Chapter 1
Buddhism in India and Abroad
Chapter 2
Buddhist Art in Asia
Chapter 3
Bodhgaya: The Seat of Enlightenment
Chapter 4
Sarnath: Siteof the First Sermon
Chapter 5
The Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati
Chapter 6
The Cave Temples of Ajanta, Ellora and Karle
Chapter 7
The Temples and Sculptures of Angkor
Chapter 8
The Temples and Paintings of Ayutthaya
Chapter 9
The Temples of Bangkok
Glossary
Bibliography
Illustration Credits
Index
 List of Figures and Tables

1. Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri, China

2. Sarnath stupas, India
3. San Fa Si pagodas, Dali, China
4. A stupa, Wat Arun, Bangkok, Thailand
5. A Japanese pagoda, Nikko Toshogu Shrine
6. An emaciated Buddha, Gandhara, Pakistan
7. A standing Buddha, Sarnath, India
8. A Khmer Buddha, Angkor Thom, Cambodia
9. Buddha footprints, Amaravati, India
10. A medallion showing worship of Buddha relics, Amaravati, India
11 A relief showing worshippers, a throne and Buddha’s feet,
Amaravati, India
12. A rock painting from Sirigiya, Sri Lanka
13. Banteay Srei temple, Cambodia
14. Stone carvings, Banteay Srei
15. Mahabodhi temple, Bodhgaya
16. Granite railing, Bodhgaya Museum
17. Current railing around the temple
18. Daijokyo Buddha of Japan, Bodhgaya
19. Great Buddha, Kamakura, Japan
20. Tibetan temple and monastery, Bodhgaya
21. A Buddha statue and tantric decorations, Bhutanese temple
22. Clay carvings, Bhutanese temple
23. Dhamekh Stupa, Sarnath
24. Floral and geometric patterns on the Dhamekh stupa
25. A decorated pediment, Sarnath
26. Round stone pillars, Sarnath
27. Great Stupa, Sanchi
28. Northern gateway to the Great Stupa, Sanchi
29. A Bharhut yaksi
30. A limestone pillar showing the conversion of Nanda, Amaravati
31. Great Departure of Prince Siddharatha, Amaravati
32. Floral decoration on a limestone pillar, Amaravati
33. Round floral decorations, Ajanta
34. A close-up of an apsara, Ajanta
35. Carvings on the facade of Cave 19, Ajanta
36. Nagaraja and his consort, facade of Cave 19, Ajanta
37. Chaitya interior with a standing Buddha, Ajanta
38. Facade of Cave 10 (Carpenter’s cave), Ellora
39. A loving couple on the facade of the Karle monastery
40. A naga hood, Angkor Thom
41. Nagas on a pediment, Banteay Srei
42. General view of Angkor Wat
43. Painted ceiling and columns, Angkor Wat
44. A group of dancing apsaras, Angkor Wat
45. Demon gods, Angkor Thom
46. Bodhisattvas as guardians, Angkor Thom
47. Khmer army marching into battle, Bayon
48. A devata from the central sanctuary, Bayon
49. A jataka scene on a wall painting, Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya
50. Wat Mahathat behind a meditating Buddha, Ayutthaya
51. Khmer-style central tower, Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya
52. Stupas of Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya
53. Golden Buddha statue in royal attire, Wat Na Phra Men,
Ayutthaya
54. A close-up of the reclining Buddha, Wat Po, Bangkok
55. Buddha’s feet with mother-of-pearl inlay, Wat Po, Bangkok
56. Wat Arun from the river, Bangkok
57. Temple guardians, Wat Arun, Bangkok
58. General view of Wat Phra Keo, Bangkok
 59. A mural painting depicting a scene from Buddha’s life, Bangkok

Tables


Table 2.1
Ancient Indian dynasties and patronage of Buddhist art

Table 4.1
Differences between Sarnath and Mathura images of Buddha

Table 5.1
Characteristics of the railings in Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Bodhgaya

Table 7.1
Temples of Angkor
 Preface

Buddhism, which originated in India in the sixth century BC, faded into near oblivion by
the thirteenth century. However, it spread to other countries in Asia, and along with it,
Buddhist art. Tracing the Indian influence on Buddhist art in Asia is a central theme of the
book.
Why did Buddhism disappear in India? This question has not yet found a satisfactory
answer. Some scholars and historians believe that Buddhism was so tolerant of other faiths
that it was gradually reabsorbed by the Hindu tradition. It may have lasted as long as it
received royal patronage during Ashoka’s reign and that of his successors. This religion
was also popular among the mercantile community which provided financial support to
the Buddhist temples and monasteries. The decline of the mercantile community may have
lowered the status of Buddhism. Lack of resources to sustain a new religion may have
further contributed to its downfall. The arrival of Islam in India in the thirteenth century
was perhaps the final blow to Buddhism.
Chapter 1 presents a brief history of Buddhism in South Asia, Southeast Asia and
East Asia as a background to a discussion of monuments (temples, monasteries, stupas),
sculpture (Buddha statues, medallions and relief panels) as well as paintings in Ajanta,
Bodhgaya, Ellora, Karle Sarnath and Sanchi in India, Angkor in Cambodia, and Ayutthaya
and Bangkok in Thailand. It examines reasons for the spread and later downfall of
Buddhism in India and its expansion in countries such as Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia,
Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Chapter 2 discusses the patronage of Buddhist art by kings, rich merchants and
ordinary people as well as Indian influence on Buddhist art in South Asia and the rest of
Asia particularly Southeast Asia (that is, Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand). There are
wide variations in the features of Buddhist art (especially Buddha sculptures) across
countries and regions. We examine whether these differences are due to history, culture,
legends or geography.
Early conservative form of Buddhism did not present Buddha in a human form. His
presence was shown by such symbols as the Wheel of Law, lotus, a tree, footprints, a
stupa and an empty throne. However, later the form of Buddhism broke away from the
above symbolism and allowed Buddha’s human embodiment for worship. Buddha
sculptures grew rapidly throughout Asia and replaced the earlier symbols.
Chapter 3 on Bodhgaya discusses its importance as a Buddhist holy place where
Buddha attained enlightenment. It is a small town of international significance. It contains
Buddhist temples and monasteries built by Bhutan, Burma (Myanmar), China, Japan,
Taiwan, Thailand and Tibet (China), which represent different styles of architecture.
Similarly, Buddhist sculptures vary from temple to temple.
Sarnath is another important Buddhist holy place where Buddha delivered his first
sermon. At the end of the first sermon, five monks became the first members of sangha
(order) in search of dharma (truth). Chapter 4 discusses and illustrates the Dhamekh stupa,
the only surviving monument as well as the ruins of monasteries and stone pillars.
In Chapter 5, the railing pillars of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) are compared with those
in Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) and Bodhgaya (Bihar). Sanchi
is known for the Great Stupa and its richly-decorated gateways. Although the Bharhut and
Amaravati stupas have not survived, their railings preserved in the National Museum in
Kolkata and the British Museum in London respectively, offer a rich source of information
on Buddhist art.
Chapter 6 discusses Ajanta, Ellora and Karle rock-cut temples in Maharashtra. The
Ajanta mural paintings are some of the oldest Indian paintings to have survived. The
themes of these paintings and sculptures are discussed and illustrated.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the Khmer temples of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.
Angkor was the seat of Khmer kings from the ninth to thirteenth century. King
Yasorvarman I moved his capital to Angkor and built Hindu temples devoted first to Shiva
and later to Vishnu. Later, these temples became places of Buddha worship. Buddhist art is
discussed notably, bas reliefs of devatas, heavenly nymphs as well as Buddha sculptures
which are displayed in abundance in the various temples.
Chapters 8 and 9 deal with Thailand where Buddhism influenced art from the first
century AD onwards. The two chapters discuss temples, sculptures and paintings in
Ayutthaya and Bangkok respectively as well as the Ayutthaya and Bangkok Schools of art.
The Indian influence on Buddhist art pervaded South Asia (in Burma, Ceylon and
Nepal, for example) and Southeast Asia (in Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand). Different
chapters of the book provide concrete examples of this influence in architecture, sculpture
and paintings.
Most illustrations in the book are based on my fieldwork in the various Buddhist holy
places covered in the book.
I owe a debt of gratitude to several friends and relatives, notably, IngvarÅhman, for
the scanning of rare photographs; my two sons, Arman Bhalla and Ranjan Bhalla, for
supplying photographs of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom in Cambodia and Ayutthaya in
Thailand; Sandra Zysset for providing photographs of Buddhas from Japan: and Anjali
Ghate for willingly offering assistance in library searches.
I would like to thank the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, and a number
of museums for permission to use illustrations, notably, the British Museum in London,
the Oriental Museum in Lisbon, National Museum Kolkata in India and the Lahore
Museum in Pakistan.
Finally, I am grateful to the staff of the following libraries in Geneva and Cambridge
for their valuable assistance in the course of my research work: Library of the Museum of
Ethnography,Geneva;Library of Art and Archaeology of the City of Geneva; India Office
Section of the British Library, London and the Cambridge University Library.
 Commugny, Switzerland A.S.
Bhalla
 Chapter 1

Buddhism in India and Abroad

Buddhist religion was a driving force behind the evolution of what is commonly viewed as
Buddhist art—architecture, sculpture and painting. While one may quibble about whether
religion can stimulate art or art can be defined in religious terms, there is no denying the
fact that much of Buddhist art, mainly sculpture, centres around Buddha, his life before
birth, after nirvana and the religion he founded.
Buddhism originated in India in the fifth or sixth century BC. Hinduism was the
prevailing religion at that time which believed in sacrificial rituals, transmigration of soul
and karmas.
Gautama Siddhartha, later Lord Buddha, was the founder of Buddhism. He was born
in around 563 BC in a southern clan of Sakyas in Nepal, bordering India. He came from a
wealthy family and grew up in the midst of comforts of life. Since his childhood, Gautama
was known to be contemplative. A Brahmin predicted that he would become a saint by
renouncing the world. Therefore, his father was particularly keen to keep his son away
from any discomforts. He was married at the age of sixteen and was blessed with a son,
Rahula.
Gautama was disillusioned with family and social life, and soon decided to abandon
it. At the age of twenty-nine, he left his home, wife and son. He rode away on his horse,
Kanthaka, accompanied by his charioteer, Channa. This event is known as the Great
Departure. He was deeply influenced by the sight of misery of a decrepit man, a sick man
and a dead man.
Buddha learned Yoga, a meditative discipline, and practised it while searching for the
Truth. He attained enlightenment (or bodhi) under a pipal tree in Gaya (later called
Bodhgaya, see Chapter 3) in Bihar in about 525 BC.

Birth, Principles and Types of Buddhism

Buddhism originated in the northeast of India, bordering UP and Bihar, what is now
Nepal, as a reaction to Hindu idol worship, rituals and caste hierarchy.
During Buddha’s life time (approximately 563–480 BC), India was replete with small
religious movements centred around a few well-known and charismatic yogis. People
were increasingly dissatisfied with the Hindu practices of rituals and sacrifices. This is
when tri-ratna (three jewels) emerged involving Buddha, Dharma (the doctrine) and
Sangha (the community). Buddha himself spent the first seven years as a yogi. But at the
end of this period, he realised that this was not the right path to salvation. This is when he
adopted the middle path between self-indulgence and self-mortification.


The Middle Path and Four Noble Truths

Buddha decided to teach Dharma to others for their salvation. He delivered the first
sermon in Sarnath (see Chapter 4) which is called ‘setting the Wheel of Law in motion’. It
enunciated Four Noble Truths about:

Suffering (dukkha)
The cause of suffering (samudaya) which originates within us from the craving for
pleasure.
The removal of the cause of suffering (nirodha), and
The path leading to the removal of the cause of suffering (marga).

Suffering can be eliminated by following a middle path, defined as the Eightfold Path
for the attainment of salvation or release from rebirths (nirvana).

The purification of the soul and the elimination of suffering and misery requires:

Continual meditation
Right mode of seeing things
Right thinking
Right speech
Right action
Right mode of living
Right effort in every mode of being
Right mindfulness

The adoption of the Eightfold Path involved the creation of such institutions as the
Buddhist Order or sangha, Buddhist councils and monasteries. The sangha was created
with the core membership of the first five disciples of Buddha. It soon accepted others in
its fold, for example, Yasa, the son of a wealthy banker from Varanasi, his parents and lay
devotees.
The sangha rapidly grew due to the simplicity of local dialects in which the Buddhist
message of equality and charity was preached. A number of rules governing the new Order
were introduced.
Initially, only monks were accepted by the Order. However, nuns were also admitted
in due course. It was possible for women to be ordained if they agreed to follow stringent
rules.
In the early days of Buddhism, those who gave up family life started wandering and
living on alms as mendicants. They adopted a guru and started wandering with him.
During the rainy season (vassa) from July through August, they stayed at fixed retreats in
villages. After Buddha’s death, rain retreats were replaced by more permanent monasteries
called viharas.
Different Types of Buddhism

Buddha died at the age of eighty. After his death, Buddhism and his doctrine developed in
three different directions—Theravada, and Tantra. About 100 years after Buddha’s death,
divisions began to appear in the Buddhist Sangha (Council). It was perhaps a consequence
of a rapid growth of the Order from a rather small number of monks to a large community.
In this context, the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra (present-day Patna) in c250 BC
was quite significant. At this conference, the Theravada Buddhists attempted to exclude
dissidents from the Buddhist Order. It was also at this Council that the Buddhist canon
(Tripitaka) was completed and it was decided to send missionaries to Southeast Asian
countries. At this stage, there were two main schools (1) A conservative group which
adhered strictly to the original principles and practices of Buddhism and (2) a more liberal
school which offered greater freedom. Subsequently, the liberal form of Buddhism started
incorporating Hindu Tantric rituals which may have eventually led to its decline.
The three types of Buddhism are briefly discussed below.

1. Theravada Buddhism (Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle): It is the oldest and original form
of Buddhism that adhered to the teachings of Buddha. It had three main elements:

The ‘sphere of desire’ (kamadhatu).

The ‘sphere of material form’ (rupadhatu); animals, demons, ghosts and goods.
The ‘fear of the formless’ (arupadhatu).

At the Third Council, a controversy arose between the reformists and the early
Theravidans over the reality of states of consciousness (cittas). The former group believed
that these states actually existed whereas the latter condemned this view. The former sect
at this stage decided to leave the Ganges Valley and move to Madhura in the northwest. It
is in Madhura that a more reformed school of Buddhism or Greater Vehicle developed.
Theravada believes that an ideal form of Buddhism is reached when an ascetic attains
nirvana through his own efforts. It lays greater emphasis on his Dharma than on Buddha
himself. It also believes that an ascetic and a layman have very different roles to play in
religion as well as society.

2. Buddhism: This adaptation of the original form of Buddhism was presumably meant
to bring a larger number of followers within its fold. It spread to Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
and Southeast Asia after the gradual disappearance of Buddhism in India. It believes
in Buddha as a transcendent being who multiplies himself. In several temples in and
outside India, a large number of Buddha statues are found in different forms,
especially in Southeast Asian countries which adopted the form of Buddhism.

 Unlike the Theravada form of Buddhism, focuses more on Buddha and Bodhisattvas
(Buddhas-to-be) than on Buddha’s doctrine (Dharma). This is evidenced by the existence
of a large number of Bodhisattva images, for example in Ajanta in India and Angkor
Thom in Cambodia (see Chapters 6 and 7) as well as in China. Figure 1 of Bodhisattvas
Lokesvara and Manjushri date back to the Jin or Yuan dynasties of the thirteenth century.
There was also a practice in China of carving them in stone. Often Bodhisattvas are
adorned with garments and jewels unlike Buddha images which are invariably very
simple.

Fig. 1 Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri, China

Under Buddhism, Buddha is seen as one of many Buddhas who appeared in different
universes. While Theravada Buddhists believe that a Buddhist can achieve salvation on his
own by following the Eightfold Path, the followers believe in turning to Bodhisattvas.

3. Tantrism (or Vajrayana): This form of Buddhism is associated with deities, for
example, the goddess of fertility, magical rites, geometrical symbols, formulae and
diagrams and even sexual freedom (sexual orgies are known to have been allowed).
In early stages, Tantrism appeared in both Hinduism and Buddhism. The objective of
this form of esoteric belief and practice was to attain a state of mystical union of a
deity with his consort. Hence the symbolism of sexual union was a way of realising
an ultimate mystical experience. Morals, celibacy and asceticism were rejected in
favour of indulgence of the senses. This form of Buddhism became open to abuse and
misinterpretation of the true tenets of Buddhism. That is why it is considered by some
critics as a degeneration of true Buddhism. It spread to Ceylon, India, Nepal and
Tibet.

This form of Buddhism is said to be a simplification of the Hindu Vedic cults. It
accepts spouses of male Bodhisattvas as Taras or Saviouresses (Thapar, 1990:261-2).
Revered as a goddess, Tara was the female equivalent of the Boddhisattva Avalokitesvara
who became important in Tibet. In sixth-century Indian art, Tara first appears along with
Avalokitesvara as the Mother of all Buddhas. The mother image was respected, as a
woman is the source of all creation. The fifth century witnessed the emergence of a new
cult worshipping female deities such as the goddess of fertility. This may have been the
precursor of Tantrism, which developed in the sixth century and centred on magical
formulae and symbols as well as worship of a mother image as the source of all creation.


Spread of Buddhism in India

Several factors account for the rapid spread of Buddhism and its doctrine. This religion
was open to all and did not recognise caste differences (an important feature of the Indian
society at that time). The only differences recognised by Buddha were those that derived
from diverse moral maturity of individuals. However, this could not have been the only
reason for a new religion to survive Hindu critics and prosper. Royal patronage of the
Mauryan, Gupta and Sunga kings as well as financial support from the mercantile
community must have also played an important part in the propagation of the new
religion.
The rapid spread of Buddhism in India is associated with the conversion of Mauryan
King Ashoka to the Buddhist doctrine and principles after the battle of Kalinga (in
present-day Orissa) in 260 BC. The battle for the supremacy of the trade routes to South
India involved a lot of bloodshed, the deaths of a large number of people and the
displacement of those who survived. The king felt permanent remorse and horror after the
bloody battle. He decided to adopt Buddhism because it preached peace and non-violence.
Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, founder of the Mauryan dynasty in India
(322 BC to 185 BC), is known to be the earliest and most well-known of the patrons of
Buddhism in India and the rest of Asia. He was a Hindu when he ascended the throne and
was converted to Buddhism much later, after the battle of Kalinga, as noted above. One
scholar (for example, Thapar, 1963) believes that Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism was a
way to attract support from non-orthodox elements. Apparently, his rise to power was not
without difficulties. He did not receive whole-hearted support from the orthodox
Brahmanic elements.
The Sunga kings took over after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. In 185 BC,
Pushyamitra murdered the last Maurya king and established the Sunga dynasty (185-72
BC). Although the first Sunga king is said to have persecuted Buddhists, the kings who
followed him either tolerated or actually promoted Buddhism. Controversy surrounds the
belief that the first Sunga king actively persecuted Buddhism. It is known that he was a
Brahmin and as such may not have been enthusiastic about Buddhism. But both religions
were practised during the Sunga dynasty.
There is some historical evidence to suggest that the orthodox Sunga kings were
tolerant of Buddhism and that this religion prospered during the Sunga Empire. The
following two inscriptions found at the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya suggest royal
support:

‘The gift of Nagadevi, the wife of King Brahmamitra’.

‘The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King Indragnimitra,
son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine’ (Barua, 1934).

The Gupta period (fourth to seventh century), the golden age of India as it is
sometimes called, saw Buddhism flourish further. The two Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hsien[1]
and Hsuan Tsang[2], who visited India in the fifth and seventh century respectively,
testified that both Hinayana and forms of Buddhism had prospered in the Gupta Empire.
During the Gupta period, Buddhism had spread beyond India, into China, Southeast
Asia and Central Asia. Buddhism drove out the more orthodox Hinayana form. This
period also witnessed the development of Tantrism. It is also during this period that the
King of Ceylon sought permission from King Samudragupta to build a Buddhist
monastery in Gaya. As discussed in chapter 6 on Ajanta and Ellora, this period also
witnessed the construction of rock-cut Buddhist shrines and temples in the Deccan. The
literature of this period frequently mentions the Buddhist wall paintings of Ajanta cave
temples.
To conclude, the royal court continued to accept both Hinduism and Buddhism. Even
when some kings practised Hinduism (they were Brahmins) they did not oppose
Buddhism and the construction of its temples and monasteries.
Even before the advent of the Mauryan dynasty, Hinduism (or more appropriately,
Brahmanism) had developed a complex system of rituals and caste beliefs. It had become
a religion of the high-caste princes and priests, and possibly wealthier members of the
commercial class. The lower castes were either marginalised or excluded. The merchant
class (vaishyas) became economically and financially prosperous with the opening of
trade to Southeast Asia and West Asia. Building of the road infrastructure by Ashoka must
have helped such trade. In the north, Indo-Greek and later Indo-Roman connections
opened the trade route with West Asia and the Mediterranean. Settlement of Indian traders
in Cambodia and Thailand must also have encouraged the expansion of trade with that
part of Asia. It is logical that the merchant class would be attracted to Buddhism which did
not recognise the caste system and thus offered social mobility to anyone who adopted it.
Adoption of Buddhism by this class may have been a kind of resentment against the caste-
ridden Hindu orthodoxy. Buddhism may have also been more popular with the Greeks and
Romans due to its egalitarian principles and greater degree of openness.

Decline of Buddhism in India


During the Gupta Empire both Buddhism and Hinduism prospered at the same time.
Buddhism, a more recent religion than Hinduism, did not believe in the traditional Hindu
thought of ‘ultimate reality in things’. Buddha believed in the impermanency of
everything. Unlike Hindus, Buddhists do not believe in soul or atman. They argue that
nothing within us is metaphysically real. They believe in the theory of the non-existence
of an eternal I, or atman (anatta). Buddhism does not recognise caste, social class or
ethnic origin. But caste is the cornerstone of Hindu religion. Buddhism preaches celibacy
for monks and nuns. Were these differences not strong enough for Buddhism to hold its
own ground? What accounts for the decline of Buddhism in India and its spread in the rest
of Asia?
Scholars and historians do not agree on the contributing factors. A popular belief is
that Buddhism became so tolerant of other faiths that it was reabsorbed by the Hindu
tradition. In respect of both worship and rituals, it ‘had compromised with the brahmanical
religion to such an extent that it could almost have been regarded as a sect of the latter’
(Thapar, 1990:159). This argument does not seem to be all that convincing considering
that Hinduism and Buddhism happily coexisted for several centuries. Many Hindu kings
who practised Hinduism continued to patronise Buddhist art and architecture not only in
India but also in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand.
Why would the two religions prosper side by side in Southeast Asia but not in India?
Indeed, Hinduism was strong in Cambodia before King Suryavarma VII adopted
Buddhism. This is amply visible in Angkor Wat bas-reliefs of scenes from Ramayana and
Mahabharata, not to speak of the celestial Hindu deities, devatas and apsaras. Perhaps the
roots of Hinduism were not as strong abroad to dominate Buddhism? In both India and
Southeast Asia, Buddhism went through different adaptations and phases which must have
weakened it vis-à-vis Hinduism.
Buddhism lasted as long as it received royal patronage during the reign of Ashoka
and his successors. It was also popular among the mercantile community which provided
financial support to the Buddhist temples and monasteries (see Chapter 2). The decline of
this community may have lowered the status of Buddhism. A lack of resources to sustain
this young religion may have contributed to its downfall in India. The arrival of Islam in
India in the thirteenth century was perhaps the final blow to Buddhism. Muslim invaders
destroyed the Buddhist monasteries in many parts of India, which may have led to the
exodus of Buddhists from eastern India to Southeast Asia. However, Muslim invasions
cannot be a primary explanation for the decline of Buddhism in India. After all, both
Hinduism and Jainism survived the Muslim onslaught.
Another explanation may be that Tantric Buddhism was regarded by many true
Buddhists and non-Buddhists as a degenerate form which brought a bad name to
Buddhism. Internal causes of the decline of Buddhism were perhaps as important as the
external ones. Buddhism relied too heavily on costly monastic institutions enjoying royal
patronage but not popular support. Buddhist monasteries remained isolated from the
surrounding village communities (The Encyclopaedia of Religion, 1987:380).
Hindu Brahmin priests had a strong hold on kings who were generally very religious
at that time. The kings turned to royal priests for ceremonies, rituals and good omens.
With the spread of Buddhism, the royal priests lost their power and influence and must
have resented this situation. They would make every effort to ensure that Hinduism and its
ritual practices were reinstated.

Spread of Buddhism to Asia

The Mauryan kings, especially Ashoka, were largely responsible for the spread of
Buddhism in South Asia (Burma, Ceylon and Nepal) and Southeast Asia (Cambodia and
Thailand).
In the third century BC, Ashoka sent missionaries to Ceylon and Southeast Asia.
There is historical evidence (chronicles of Ceylon) of close relations between the Mauryan
kingdom and the kingdom of King Tissa of Ceylon. The chronicles note that Ashoka sent
to the Ceylon king a branch of the original Bodhi tree (pipal) under which Buddha attained
enlightenment. The tree is known to have survived in Ceylon although it was cut in India
by an anti-Buddhist fanatic (Thapar, 1990:75).
Theravada Buddhism, which spread to Southeast Asia in the early eleventh century,
also took roots in Ceylon. In the beginning, it had to struggle against entrenched
Hinduism, Tantrism and various forms of practised there at that time. Although rather
conservative, Theravada Buddhism of Ceylon was flexible and accommodating. It
accepted the worship of Hindu gods as well as local spirits. The Tamil kings may have
been partly responsible for this flexibility.
Missionaries played an important role in the spread of Buddhism outside India, which
took hold in Ceylon with the arrival of King Ashoka’s son, Mahinda and his companions.
The king sent them there as missionaries to propagate Buddhism. Mahinda and his
companions were successful in converting King Tissa and many nobles to Buddhism.
Many monasteries were built during the king’s reign. After King Tissa’s death in around
207 BC, the country was taken over by a Tamil king from South India (Elara) who was a
Hindu. He was opposed to Buddhism and threatened to absorb the new religion into
Hinduism. It is only when Dutthagamani, a descendant of King Tissa, overthrew the Tamil
king that Buddhism was revived in Ceylon.
In Burma, Buddhism was established by the fifth century. It was spread by the
Ceylonese missionaries. Both Theravada and forms were practised. Theravada was
popular in the north and in the south.
During the reign of King Anawrahta (1044-77) the north and south of Burma were
united. Theravada Buddhism received royal patronage during this period and remained
popular until Burma’s independence in 1948. The tradition of the councils was preserved.
In 1961, Buddhism became the state religion. However, religion lost its political influence
soon after General Ne Win took over the country. The Army’s programme of
modernisation and a political framework of moderate socialism weakened the religious
influence on the affairs of the state.
 The Mon in the south of Burma, the first to be influenced by Buddhism, were
influential in converting the Burmese people to Theravada form of Buddhism. Tantrism
flourished in upper Burma at this time. However, controversy arose about ordination when
Upper and Lower Burma were united during the reign of King Anawrahta. One school
believed that the ordination dating back to Ashoka’s missionaries in the second century
BC was still valid. Another believed in the ordination in the line of succession established
by the Sinhalese monastery of Mahavihara. Finally, King Dhammazedi (1472-92) decided
in favour of the latter.
Buddhism also spread to the Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim.
Buddha was born in Lumbini in Nepal, but Buddhist religion developed there much later.
The Indian form of Buddhism based on Sanskrit texts continues to be used in rituals in
Nepal. Inscriptions provide evidence of the existence of Buddhist monasteries in the
country during the fifth century. By the eighth century, Nepal had fallen under the Tibetan
cultural influence which is visible even today in such symbols as prayer wheels. In
Bhutan, a Tibetan Lama introduced Buddhism in the seventeenth century. Tibetans also
introduced the religion in Sikkim which they usurped in the seventeenth century.
Buddhism spread to Central Asia through northern India. However, not much is
known about who brought Buddhism to this region. Did King Kanishka’s missionaries
spread the religion there? A son of Ashoka is believed to have founded the kingdom of
Khotan in around 240 BC and his grandson introduced Buddhism there. In around the first
century BC, Buddhism was practised in Eastern Turkistan which had several Indian
colonies. Buddhism must have declined in Central Asia after the spread of Islam in the
seventh century.
Buddhism was brought to Tibet from India in the seventh century. So the Indian
influence was to be expected. But the form of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan art were also
influenced by China and Central Asia.
Buddhism in Tibet was ‘a curious mixture of shamanism. Tantrism and Indian
Madhyamika gradually became the core of what came to be known erroneously as
Lamaism, the religion of the “superior ones” (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica,
1981a:411).[3] It represented a synthesis of and Vajrayana types prevalent in the north of

India during the seventh to eleventh century. While the former stressed a gradual process
of understanding an established doctrine, the latter preached the use of mystical means to
achieve quicker results. The Buddhist religion also adopted some practices of the Bon cult
(which believes in local divinities and divine kingship) that prevailed at the time of the
advent of Buddhism. The Bon cult favoured Tantric principles, performed rituals and
sacrificed animals.
In the eighth century, Indian monks went to Tibet to preach Buddhism. Clearly, their
major task was first to subdue the Bon spirits that were being practised. During the tenth
and eleventh centuries, Indian monks went to Tibet to translate sacred Buddhist texts.
Rivalry between different groups of monks following different masters developed in the
seventeenth century. It was a case of gaining political power rather than religious
supremacy.[4] The Theravada form of Buddhism in Cambodia was perhaps introduced

there by Ceylonese monks. There is evidence of frequent contacts between Ceylon and
Cambodia.[5] Chinese influence spread to North Vietnam, Indonesia and Thailand through
merchants and missionaries.
The Khmer kingdoms of Chenla (sixth century) and Angkor (ninth century) inherited
many features of Buddhism from Funan. At the time of its arrival, Hinduism was the state
religion. First, Shiva was worshipped and later Vishnu. Buddhism was practised at the
same time. First, the Hinayana form was introduced. Later in the fifth century, under King
Kamdinya Jayavarman, Hinduism and Buddhism began to be practised.
Shiva worship declined in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and Buddhism and
Vaishnav Hinduism became stronger (the existence of Vaishnu temple at Angkor Wat
bears testimony to this). Buddhism was declared the state religion under King Jayavarman
VII (1181-1215) whose reign represents the heyday of the Khmer Empire.
However, when the Thai captured Angkor Wat in 1431, the Mon started spreading
Theravada Buddhism (1200-1350). The Khmer conversion to Theravada Buddhism was
completed by the time of the Thai capture of Angkor.
In Thailand, Theravada Buddhism is the state religion. During the reign of King
Chulalongkorn (1873-1910), Buddhism was considered to be a peaceful religion good for
the unity of the country. The Thai came into contact with the form in China in the ninth
century. Later during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Thailand was swept by the
reformed Sinhalese form of Theravada Buddhism which had been spreading fast through
Southeast Asia. In the thirteenth century, two Thai kingdoms were established in Sukhotai
and Chiengmai. A powerful Thai kingdom emerged in 1350 in Ayutthaya. By the sixteenth
century, Chiengmai had become the leading centre of Theravada Buddhism. The Khmer
people at this time followed Brahmanic Hindu tradition, some elements of which were
absorbed by the Thai in Ayutthaya. King Rama I (1782-1809), who established the
kingdom in Bangkok, also followed this tradition. The kingdom of Bangkok became the
state of Thailand after Ayutthaya fell into the hands of the Burmese in 1769.
At present, there are two Buddhist sects in Thailand. First, a larger sect or
Mahanikaya, and second, a sect of the followers of Dhamma (Dhammayuttika-Nikaya).
The king names a patriarch who is accepted by the heads of the two sects. The sangha is
state-directed and carries out such social functions as education, public works and the
administration of religious property.
In Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where both Theravada and (mainly
Zen and Pure Land) forms of Buddhism continue to be practised side by side. In Laos,
Buddhist statues of style date back to the eleventh and twelfth centuries, suggesting that
Buddhism arrived during this period under the Khmer influence. However, in the
fourteenth century, Theravada form became more popular.
Different forms of Buddhism and Hinduism were found in Indonesia before the
thirteenth century when Islam had established its roots there. As in Cambodia and
Thailand, the Indian influence travelled to Indonesia through ‘Brahmins who were invited
by Indonesian princes to dedicate temples and explain their beliefs’ (Fahr-Becker, vol. I,
1998:326). The Buddhist Srivijaya dynasty in Sumatra and the Shailendra dynasty in Java
bear testimony to the Indian influence (also see Chapter 2). Hinduism continues to be
practised on the Indonesian island of Bali today even though Indonesia is a predominantly
Muslim country.
 In China, historical records suggest that Buddhism was known and practised as far
back as the third century BC when Ashoka ruled in India and promoted Buddhism far and
wide. It seems to have become popular during the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). There
were close links between Taoism (which was then practised) and Buddhism. Taoism
believed in magical practices and folk beliefs; it may have been influenced by Buddhism
which preached nirvana through various ascetic practices.[6]
Buddhism prospered particularly well during the T’ang dynasty (618-907) whose
emperors favoured the religion. They brought the Buddhist monasteries and the legal
status of monks under government control. Buddhist temples and monasteries expanded
rapidly. Many pilgrimages to India were organised; several foreign monks visited India in
the seventh century and wrote about Bodhgaya and other Buddhist centres.
During the Sung dynasty (960-1279), Buddhism spread throughout China. It became
popular because of its pragmatism and worldly outlook compared with Buddhism
practised in India at that time. For example, monasteries owned and operated oil presses,
lent money and maintained roads. The Indian-style sangha was reorganised from a
democratic institution to one controlled by the state.
Buddhism was brought to Korea from China in the fourth century and it gradually
spread to several kingdoms. The unification of different kingdoms into one country led to
the adoption of the religion throughout the territory. Buddhism began to decline during the
Koryo period (935-1392). The government gradually curtailed privileges offered to the
monks. Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the state religion.
Korean refugees and craftsmen carried Buddhism to Japan in the sixth century. Its
introduction was not without controversy. While the powerful Soga clan accepted it,
others rejected it out of a sense of nationalism. They felt that the introduction of Buddha
statues was an insult to local deities. The fortunes of Buddhism were revived by Prince
Shotoku Taishi (573-621) who became regent in AD 593. He introduced a ‘Seventeen
Article Constitution’ which attempted to harmonise Confucianism and Buddhism as a
spiritual foundation of the state.
Shinto was the dominant religion in Japan when Buddhism arrived there. Those
practising Shinto worshipped the gods of the sky and the sun. Buddhism had to overcome
the scepticism of these followers. The spread of the new religion was facilitated by the
conversion of Prince Shotoku to Buddhism as was the conversion of Emperor Ashoka in
India much earlier.
Buddhism became the state religion during the Nara period (710-784). Nara, which is
home to the Great Buddha Statue, Daibutsu, became an important Buddhist centre.
Several Buddhist sects developed: Hinayana, Shingon and Pure Land. In the thirteenth
century, Zen Buddhism (Chinese Ch’an) became popular, especially with the military.
Buddhism gradually incorporated some elements of Shinto and Confucianism. Local
divinities worshipped under Shinto were accepted as incarnations of the Buddha. In turn,
in AD 767 an imperial decree announced that kami (sacred objects and symbols of Shinto)
were to guard the Law of the Buddha. Buddhist monks were also permitted to officiate in
Shinto temples.
In the thirteenth century, Japan witnessed the emergence of its own Buddhist monk,
Nichiren (1222-82), who was considered a prophet. He preached that salvation could be
achieved by reciting the Lotus Sutra. During the later periods, Zen Buddhism became
popular. Several schools of Zen thought and practice developed. During the Tokugawa
period (1603-1867), Buddhism was promoted as the state religion. Temples were used to
register population in order to prevent the spread of Christianity.[7]
The association of Buddhism with the Tokugawa regime made it unpopular during
the Meiji period (1868-1912) particularly among the elite who wanted to bring back
Shinto as the state religion. This led to the separation of two religions. Lands were
confiscated from the Buddhist temples and many Buddhist priests were dismissed.
Many new religions emerged in Japan during the inter-war and post-war periods.
This plurality of religions is rare if not unknown in other Buddhist countries.
Thus, it can be seen from the above brief account that Buddhism spread far and wide
in South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia despite its disappearance from
India. But India continued to wield important influence in these regions especially in
Southeast Asia.
Indian Influence in Southeast Asia

From the very beginning of Christian era, the Indian influence has been felt outside India
particularly in Southeast Asia. Indian seafarers went out in search of trade and commerce
despite Hindu strictures against travelling overseas. There was a continuation of earlier
contacts between pre-Aryan India and Southeast and East Asia (Groslier and Arthaud,
1957). The Indian expansion to Southeast Asia was in sharp contrast to that of China
southwards.[8] René Gousset considers ‘Indian spiritual colonies of Borobodur and
Angkor’ constituting ‘India’s greatest title to fame, her contribution to mankind’ (cited in
ibid.:16).
There is no consensus on why Indians moved outwards in ancient times. No single
explanation is satisfactory. The following are several plausible reasons.

Internal population pressures in India.

Expansionist policies of South Indian states.
Political upheavals in northern India which may have triggered exodus from India.
Emergence of Buddhism which was much more tolerant and egalitarian than
Hinduism.
Development of maritime technology and the building of large ships.
Growth of trade and commerce. When trade with the Mediterranean reached its peak,
Indians needed new sources of supply of spices, gold, precious stones and perfumes
which might have led them to Southeast Asia in search of these goods. Combined
with this was Ashoka’s desire to spread the message of Buddhism.

Buddhist sculpture, architecture and painting spread from India to the Southeast and
East Asia along with the spread of Buddhist religion. Buddhist art is discussed in the
following chapters with special reference to Indian (Buddhist and Hindu) influence on it.
Chapter 2 discusses the subject in general in India and the rest of Asia. Chapters 3 to 9 are
devoted to Buddhist sculpture, architecture and paintings, particularly to the places of
importance to Buddhist religion.
 Chapter 2

Buddhist Art in Asia

Indian art is often said to be religious in the sense that it represents a particular religion
such as Hinduism or Buddhism by depicting its gods, temples and other places of worship.
Some observers go even further and say that in India art is religion and religion is art.
However, strictly speaking it may be more appropriate to speak of Indian art that
represents Hindu or Buddhist themes. The art form is more a function of time and space
than of religion per se. For example, whether a piece of art or sculpture represents a Hindu
deity or Buddha does not change the form or type of sculpture. For purposes of exposition,
the term ‘Buddhist art and architecture’ is often used, but one needs to bear in mind this
caveat.
Any art is generally defined in terms of architecture, sculpture and painting. Buddhist
architecture encompasses stupas, prayer halls and temples. Buddhist temples in the old
Hindu tradition are rare in India. The two main examples of such temples are Temple 17 in
Sanchi (see Chapter 5) and Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3). Simple
prayer halls (chaityas) provided places of worship and monasteries (viharas) places of
accommodation for monks. As discussed below, stupas were the most common form of
Buddhist architecture in ancient India.
Temples, stupas and viharas were the main symbols of Buddhist art during the early
period. For example, the Mahabodhi Temple, the Dhamekh Stupa (see Chapter 4) and the
Great Stupa in Sanchi (see Chapter 5) are some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art
and architecture which remain intact until today. The Buddhist cave temples of Ajanta and
Ellora (see Chapter 6) dating back from the third century BC to the sixth century AD
depict the art of mural painting, sculpture and stone carvings. Below we shall first discuss
the royal and non-royal patronage of Buddhist art followed by its various aspects, namely,
architecture, sculpture and paintings.
The earliest Hindu and Buddhist monuments used wood as the main building
material which was later replaced by brick, clay, stone and metal. Since wood is
perishable, very little of ancient structures remain in existence today. During later periods,
the use of stone became particularly popular. Most buildings discussed in this book are of
brick or stone. Artisans, who were familiar with wood and clay, continued to imitate
wooden forms in stone, which is evident in many buildings that have survived.
Patronage of Buddhist Art

Early Buddhist art was promoted by kings (such as Ashoka) and rich merchants. A number
of scholars (Dehejia and Zimmer, for example) cite inscriptional evidence showing that
laymen and women also contributed to the building of Buddhist monuments. There is no
doubt that religious devotion in a country such as India involved ordinary people
contributing financially and/or materially to holy places. But lay sponsorship alone
without any royal backing could not explain such magnificent buildings as Sanchi stupas,
toranas and the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya.
The three types of sponsorship by kings, merchants, laymen and women are
discussed below.

Royal Patronage

Royal patronage was an important factor explaining the spread of Buddhist art in India
and the rest of Asia. Table 2.1 describes the royal dynasties in India under which Buddhist
art prospered. Royal members of some dynasties practised Hindu religion but tolerated
Buddhism and promoted Buddhist art by building or renovating monuments. Perhaps
royal patronage was motivated by the concern of the rulers ‘for the fortunes of their
empire’ (Dehejia, 1997:112).

Table 2.1 Ancient Indian dynasties and patronage of Buddhist art

Period of
Dynasty Religion Monuments supported
reign

Maurya 321-185 BC.

Ashoka 274-237 BC. Hinduism/Buddhism. Sarnath,Bodhgaya, Amaravati, early stupas.

Sunga 185-72 BC. Hinduism. Sanchistupano.2, Sarnath railings.


Andhra Bodhgayarailing; Bharhut gateway and railing; Bhaja;
220 BC-150 Hinduism.
(Satavahana) AD. renovation of Amaravati; decoration of the gateways in Sanchi.


First-second
Buddhism,
Images of Buddha and Bodhisattva in Sarnath; expansion of
Kushana Hinduism,
century. Dharmajika stupa.
Zoroastrianism.

Fourth to
Gupta seventh Hinduism. Sarnath, Ajanta.
century

Chalukya Sixth to
Hinduism. Ajanta wall paintings, Ellora.
eighth century

Below we discuss the royal patronage of each dynasty.

Ashoka (Mauryan) Dynasty

Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty was the first important patron of Buddhist art in India.
According to legend, he built 84,000 Buddhist stupas in a single night (Rowland, 1953:40)
which must be a gross exaggeration. A more realistic number seems to be a hundred or so.
However, it is not unfair to say that he did more for Buddhist art and religion (not only in
India but also in other parts of Asia and the Hellenistic kingdoms) than any other royal
figure.
Ashoka provided support for the building of temples, stupas and monasteries. There
is no trace of any stupas built during the pre-Mauryan period, which suggests that he was
the first Mauryan emperor to have introduced them perhaps as a way of unifying the
empire. Historical records show that he distributed the Buddha relics to a large number of
stupas built by him in all the principal towns of the empire.
Historic monuments of such holy Buddhist places as Bodhgaya and Sarnath are
associated with Ashoka’s name. His stone and rock edicts are pieces of Buddhist art which
also offer historians useful insight into his religious inclinations as well as economic and
social life in his empire. The edict pillars have survived more than the Buddhist
monuments (with the exception of stupas of Piprawa in Nepal and Sanchi in India) which
are largely ruined.
It is suggested that Mauryan art was influenced by Persian and Hellenic art. The lion
capitals on top of the Ashokan pillars reflected the ancient solar symbol in Persia,
Mesopotamia and Egypt long before Buddhism was born. Rowland (Ibid.:43) concludes
that ‘the idea of such memorial columns is, of course, not Indian, but is yet another
derivation from the civilization of ancient Mesopotamia’. Even if we accept the existence
of foreign influence in the Ashoka pillars, they were intended to convey an entirely Indian
Buddhist message of peace. However, Rowland may be right in stating that the primary
function of any religious memorial built during Ashoka’s reign ‘was magical and
auspicious’, neither ‘decorative’ nor ‘architectural’ (p.45).
Of all the Buddhist monuments built by Ashoka, the following may be cited as the
most important: the Sarnath stupa (Dhamekh); the Sanchi stupa I; and the Bodhgaya
temple. These are discussed in subsequent chapters.

Sunga Dynasty

Would the Sunga Brahmins have promoted Buddhist art in the tradition of Ashoka?
Historical accounts show that a good deal of it (for example, the Bharhut stupa, gateway
and railing, the Sanchi gateways and the Amaravati stupa) belong to the early period of
the Sungas. How does one reconcile this apparent paradox of Brahmins patronising
Buddhist art? It is quite likely that the successors of Pushyamitra, though Hindus, were
tolerant of Buddhism and contributed to the construction of Buddhist monuments. This
view is supported by an inscription attributed to the Sungas found at the Mahabodhi
Temple in Bodhgaya (Barua, 1934).
Several Buddhist monuments were built, renovated or expanded during the Sanga
dynasty, for example, Sanchi Stupa no. 2. These monuments are discussed in Chapter 5.

Satavahana (Andhra) Dynasty

The Satavahana rulers (also known as Andhras) who ruled in Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh from 230 BC to AD 220, gave financial support for the building of Ajanta cave
monasteries and temples. They are also known to have financed the four gateways to the
Great Stupa in Sanchi. The Amaravati Stupa built during the Andhra dynasty north of
Madras (Chennai) at the mouth of the river Krishna is one of the most important examples
of Buddhist art in South India. This dynasty represents the ‘golden age of Buddhist art’
(Rowland, 1953:123).
Several Buddha statues of the Andhra period dating to the second and third centuries
have been found in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Champa (modern Indo-China), which suggests
that the Satavahana kingdom had commercial and religious contacts with neighbouring
countries.

Kushana Dynasty

Images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas in Sarnath are associated with the Kushana kings such
as Kanishka who made popular the human image of Buddha, replacing the earlier
symbolic representation. Kushanas may have sponsored the production of the Mathura
type of Buddha image. Mathura was almost the second capital of the Kushanas.

Gupta Dynasty

Buddhist art flourished further under the Gupta patronage which is reflected in the Buddha
statues in Sarnath (see Chapter 4) and Buddhist rock-cut temples in Ajanta (for example,
Cave no. 19, see Chapter 6). Thapar (1990:157-8) notes that the Buddha images
discovered in Sarnath represented ‘the highest achievement of classical sculpture. They
reflect a serenity and contentment which have come to be associated with the religious
atmosphere of the age’.
This period also witnessed the construction of rock-cut Buddhist shrines and temples
in the Deccan.
Not many buildings of the Gupta period have survived. However, the following
remain intact:

The Buddhist temples such as Temple 17 near the Great Stupa in Sanchi. It is a
simple temple with a flat roof.
The Ajanta cave temples, for example, cave no. 19, a Buddhist sanctuary (see
Chapter 6) whose facade contains rich and decorative sculpture of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas.
The Buddhist chaitya-hall in Karle (Maharashtra), converted into a temple,
represents Buddhist sculpture in Western India. It contains a statue of Buddha
flanked by the Bodhisattvas Avalaokitesvara and Maitreya.
The Buddha images discovered in Sarnath, for example, a statue of the preaching
Buddha with ornamental halo around Buddha’s head is its main feature.
Metal statues and statuettes of Buddha, for example, the colossal copper image of
Buddha from Sultanganj in the Birmingham Museum in the UK.
Mural paintings of Ajanta temples (1, 2, 6, 17 and 19) (see Chapter 6), the Gupta
caves of Badami and paintings of Bagh.

Gupta art, sculpture and paintings provided prototypes not only for India but also for
Cambodia and Thailand where Buddha statues have also been discovered (see Chapters 7
to 9). The Chinese pilgrims to India during the Gupta period may have taken the Gupta
style to China in the sixth and seventh centuries.
That Buddhist art developed during the Gupta period cannot be doubted. However,
was it the result of an explicit royal patronage of the Gupta rulers? One cannot be entirely
certain about this point. The promotion of art during the period may have resulted from a
combination of royal patronage, patronage by wealthy merchants and by the ordinary
devotees of Buddhism.
Subsequent Dynasties

Pala kings, who ruled eastern India (eighth to twelfth century), appeared to have continued
promoting Buddhist art even when Buddhism was in decline in the north. Chandra kings
of eastern Bengal (tenth to eleventh century) and Bhaumas of Orissa (eighth to tenth
century) were devout Buddhists who patronised Buddhist monuments. However, Buddhist
building art witnessed a marked decline from the twelfth century onwards in the wake of
Muslim invasions.
In the Deccan, during the fifth and sixth centuries, the Chalukya and Vakataka kings
patronised early mural paintings of Ajanta. They may have also supported the construction
of Buddhist prayer halls in Ellora.

Patronage of the Merchant Class

Wealthy merchants provided strong financial support to the construction of monasteries,

stupas and viharas. Inscriptions on ancient Buddhist monuments show that they offered
individual and collective donations for the building of shrines.
What was the motivation behind the generosity of the merchant class? First, it is
important to note that India at that time was quite prosperous which made philanthropy
possible. Secondly, religious donations may have been made in the hope that donors
would acquire better karmas in life after death. This may partly explain why many Hindus
donated funds for Buddhist shrines even though they did not practise the religion.

Patronage of Ordinary People

Contributions of ordinary people, Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike, are known to have
been made for the building of Buddhist monuments in Amaravati, Sanchi and Bharhut.
Inscriptions show that a large number of ordinary people as well as monks and nuns gave
donations for their construction. Dehejia (1992:67) notes that ‘Sanchi brings us into
contact with the everyday world of the housewife and householder, the fisherman and
gardener, the merchant and banker, who left as many as 631 records of donations inscribed
in stone’. Only three out of the 631 records mention royal patronage. She further adds:
‘Nuns and lay-women were also significant donors with just under half the donations’.
This is particularly true of the building of Amaravati stupa. Records of donations on
inscriptions show that ‘two-thirds of the gifts came from lay worshippers, of whom a large
proportion were women’ (Dehejia, 1997:75). The remaining one-third came from monks
and nuns. It is surprising that there is hardly any mention of any royal patronage for the
construction of either Sanchi stupa or Amaravati stupa.
Particularly problematic are the financial contributions of monks and nuns who were
not supposed to indulge in material pursuits. They lived on alms which offered them a
very simple and modest living. So when and how did they become wealthy enough to
make donations, and where did their wealth come from? What was the motivation of
ordinary men and women to finance art and sculpture? Religious devotion? Or expectation
of better karmas in life after death? These questions deserve a systematic analysis.
The Buddhist religion must have become affluent to be able to afford well-equipped
and spacious monasteries for monks and nuns who no longer lived on alms.[9] But does
this development suggest that Buddhism moved away from the common people?
Having presented a general picture of the sponsorship of Buddhist art, below we
discuss its different aspects: architecture, sculpture and painting.

Buddhist Art

Architecture

Buddhist architecture centres around stupas, monasteries and prayer halls which are
discussed below.
Stupas: One of the most common Buddhist monuments is a commemorative mound
which generally contains relics of Buddha or his disciples. Many stupas were built to
commemorate Buddhist events.
A stupa consists of a hemispheric cupola/dome (or anda) on a base encircled by a
balustrade that may be intersected by four gateways (toranas). A square rests on the cupola
railing or a balcony-like structure (harmika) from which rises a shaft of metal or wood,
supporting umbrellas (see Chapter 5).
The dome was intended to be a replica of the dome of heaven, and the harmika at the
top of the stupa mound may typify the ‘Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods’ located at the
summit of the cosmic peak. Thus, the stupa is seen as a cosmic diagram and perhaps also
as representing the body of Buddha after the attainment of nirvana.
In India, stupas are defined in terms of four categories;

Sarrika: stupas built on the relics of Buddha and his disciples and saints.
Paribhogika: stupas containing objects (such as a begging bowl) used by
Buddha.
Uddesika: stupas commemorating the life of Buddha by narrating incidents.
Votive: small stupas built by pilgrims to commemorate their visits to Buddhist
holy shrines (see Mitra, 1971).

The reliquary and votive stupas are distinguished by size differences. The latter are
generally small such as those at the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3). The
Indian stupas changed form over time and grew in size and height.
 Some observers regard stupas as Buddhist tombs, but they were more like sanctuaries
for storing Buddha relics and as places of worship for both kings and commoners.
Gateways to stupas and railings between them (see Chapter 5) are stone imitations of
earlier wooden portals found at the entrances of old Indian towns. The panels and the
posts in the form of bas-reliefs depict jatakas from Buddha’s various lives.
The forms of stupas vary across Asian countries. For example, in India various
shapes are found in Sarnath, Bodhgaya and elsewhere (Fig. 2). In Myanmar, the stupa is
usually gilded and rests on a high base mounted by stairs. In Cambodia the cupola is
generally bell-shaped. In Tibet, one finds stupas of many doors (sgo-mang) since they
have many chapels attached to them with frescoes depicting various Tantric deities. The
pagodas of China and Japan can be described as ‘turreted stupas’. In China, various types
of pagodas have been found: wooden and masonry pagodas, single-storeyed, multi-
storeyed and multi-eaved pagodas. Although the stupa in its original Indian form was
known in China, it was never transplanted there. It is unclear why. Fig. 3 shows the three
quadrangular pagodas at the foot of Mount Gangshan in the northwest of Dali in Yunnan
(China). The tallest of the three, Qianxun Pagoda, is nearly 70 metres high, has 16 storeys
and a hollow brick structure of beautiful proportions. They were built in AD 836 during
the Tang Dynasty. The complex was an important Buddhist centre for the Bai kingdom of
Nanchao.

Fig. 2 Sarnath stupas, India



Fig. 3 San Fa Si pagodas, Dali, China
In Thailand, the stupas, generally guarded by demons, are highly decorated with blue
ceramic tiles (Fig. 4). However, the earlier ones in Ayutthaya (see Chapter 8) are round at
the bottom. They have a bell-shaped dome with a tapering onion-like finial and are closer
to the original Indian form of votive stupas of Sarnath and Bodhgaya than the later
pagodas of Wat Arun in Bangkok. They also resemble Burmese and Ceylonese pagodas.
The Japanese pagodas usually contain three storeys or five storeys and resemble Chinese
pagodas such as those in Dali. The pagoda at the NikkoToshogu Shrine is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site (Fig. 5).


Fig. 4 A stupa, Wat Arun, Bangkok, Thailand


Fig. 5 A Japanese pagoda, Nikko Toshogu Shrine


How does one explain different architectural styles of the stupas? Does the stupa vary
with the type of Buddhism: Hinayana, and Vajrayana? Do they represent different styles of
architecture? It is plausible that the form of stupa is determined by the type of Buddhism it
represents. However, it is equally likely that they also represent different functions and
styles of architecture.
Viharas. Initially, viharas were simple monastic establishments for accommodating
monks who were expected to live a celibate life. The first viharas were rectangular or
square in shape, with cells built around a large courtyard. They were intended as
temporary retreats for monks during the rainy season when it was not practical for them to
wander around in the forests. Sometimes stupas were built in the centre of such a
courtyard, serving as a place of worship. At other times, special units called dharamshalas
were built for large assemblies of monks.
Indian viharas are examples of sculpture in stone more than those of architecture.
Their interiors are generally very simple with two rows of columns dividing the sanctuary
into one main aisle and two small aisles.
With the passage of time, the architectural forms of viharas underwent considerable
changes depending on the climatic and other requirements and traditions. For example,
viharas in Ajanta were cut into rocks which were generally cooler (see Chapter 6).
However, they were rather small in size as the assemblies of monks at that time were still
small. Their size grew with a rapid growth of the number of monks into large
communities.
When the number of followers grew rapidly, a coherent organisation was required for
them to worship and practise their faith as a community. The common folk started gifting
land for the construction of viharas. The construction of large viharas (mahaviharas)
received a major boost during the reign of Ashoka in around 250 BC. Until then,
Buddhism had remained a parochial sect of monks living together.
Great monasteries grew in the fifth century AD when they served as universities (for
example, Nalanda near Patna in Bihar), which attracted Buddhists from Tibet, China and
elsewhere in Asia. Hinduism was resurgent at this time and these Buddhist institutions
were open to its influence, which may partly explain a gradual weakening of Buddhist
religion and its disappearance from India in the thirteenth century. Until then, the viharas
continued to serve two important functions as centres of Buddhist learning, and as retreats
for meditation.
Chaityas. Chaityas are Buddhist prayer halls and temples as in Ajanta. But they also
refer to ‘sacred buildings or temples generally consisting of a hall containing a sacred
object to be worshipped, such as a small stupa or a Buddha image’ (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1981a:396). A chaitya is generally an apsidal hall with a central
nave flanked by aisles. The apse is usually covered by a half dome with rows of pillars on
either side. A stupa in the middle was built for worship. The prayer halls are generally
quite large to accommodate large congregations of worshippers. Apart from Ajanta,
chaitya halls in India are found in Bhaja, Karla and Bedsa in Maharashtra. Outside India,
they are found in Ceylon, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand. In Burma (for example in
Pagan) their designs were inspired by the eleventh-century Indian design. The chaityas
contained sculptures and paintings describing the earlier incarnations of Buddha (for
example, in the Ananda temple in Pagan).
In the Ajanta chaitya halls, Buddha statues are found, which were missing in the
earlier chaityas built during Ashoka’s reign from the third to first century BC. This earlier
period was one of conservative Buddhism (Hinayana or Theravada) which did not deify
Buddha. Instead, Buddha was represented by symbols.
Temples. Not many Buddhist temples have survived the ravages of time. Many
perished because they were made of wood. Only three temples are intact, namely, the
Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3), the Mulaganluti Temple in Sarnath (see
Chapter 4) and Temple no. 17 in Sanchi (see Chapter 5).
With the arrival of Buddha images grew the need to enshrine them in temples. There
must have been many Buddhist temples in ancient times. Hsuan Tsang claims to have seen
several temples in the seventh century when he visited India. Many archaeological
inscriptions also provide evidence of their existence (Mitra, 1971:15).

Sculpture

Early Indian sculpture was invariably based on religious themes, expressing folk art and
religious cults dedicated to the worship of supernatural powers. The fertility cults were
very popular and sculpture concerned with it showed such male and female divinities as
yaksas and yaksis (for example in Sanchi and Bharhut). Invariably, the images of female
divinities (associated with fertility) showed big breasts and wide hips suggestive of both
beauty and abundance.
In the early stages of Buddhism, Buddha’s presence was illustrated by the following
symbols:

Lotus represented Buddha’s birth.

Footprints and an empty throne showed Buddha’s presence.
Tree indicated Buddha’s enlightenment.
The Wheel of Law symbolised Buddha’s first sermon.
Stupa symbolised Buddha’s nirvana or salvation.

Historical records do not explain why Buddha’s body was never shown in a human
form. Perhaps this approach was logical considering that Buddha had managed to shed his
body when he achieved nirvana. So why show it (Dehejia, 1997:54). There may also be
another reason. Buddha’s personification could have been construed as idol worship
similar to that under Hinduism against which early Buddhism had rebelled. Therefore, the
early form of religion might have shied away from worshipping Buddha’s image.
In Buddhist art, sculpture consisted mainly of Buddha statues, relief panels and
medallions which are discussed below.

Buddha and Bodhisattva Statues

Coins dating back to King Kanishka’s reign suggest the creation of human Buddha
between AD 78 and AD 101 (Ibid.:81). Buddha images first appeared in the second
century in Amaravati, a Buddhist centre in the Deccan.
Buddha images were also discovered in the Gandhara region (northwestern Pakistan
and eastern Afghanistan). The sculptors of this region depicted Buddha like a Greco-
Roman deity, for example, with an Appollo-like face and Roman toga-like robe, broad
forehead, slender nose and the loose knotted hair. A Gandhara statue of seated Buddha
(Fig. 6) shows his emaciated body resulting from his long and unsuccessful ascetic
experiences. On the other hand, Buddha statues found in Mathura (UP) show him as a
yaksa.
 Fig. 6 An emaciated Buddha, Gandhara, Pakistan

Why the Greco-Roman Buddha? The Kushana kings did not have any established
artistic legacy in the Gandhara region which may suggest why they turned to Bactrian
sculptors who were familiar only with the Greco-Roman style. The statues of Greek gods
were well-known during this period. Secondly, India’s trading relations with the
Mediterranean basin in the first and second centuries may partly explain Western

influences. A head of Buddha belonging to the second century Amaravati School shows
some Roman features (stylised curls on the head) and some Dravidian Indian (for
example, elongated face and long distended earlobes). Gousset (1971), a French Oriental
Scholar, describes this Buddha head as a virtual ‘Statue-Portrait of Ancient Rome’.
A large number of Buddha statues excavated in Sarnath belong to the Mathura School
of art rather than the Gandhara School. One of the most well-preserved and beautiful
images of Buddha displayed in the Sarnath Archaeological Museum shows him in a
preaching position. A halo behind the Buddha is richly carved with beautiful floral
patterns.
Buddha statues appeared in different forms and postures: seated and meditating,
standing (Fig. 7) and reclining. The reclining posture (for example, in Thailand)
symbolises the end of his journey on Earth. The standing posture may symbolise teaching
or delivering sermons.
 During the Gupta period workshops developed in Mathura and Sarnath to produce
Buddha statues which showed him with a serene face and slightly smiling lips.
However, the earlier Buddha images pertaining to the first century AD were not what
one would expect of ‘the meditative and compassionate’ Master. Instead, Buddha is
presented as ‘an energetic, earthy being radiating strength and power’ (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1981b:184).
The facial features of Buddha vary from country to country as if the sculptors wanted
to claim him as their own. Thus the Khmer Buddha in Angkor Thom has thick lips (Fig. 8)
(also see Chapter 7). The thick and large lips, flat noses and square faces of the Khmer
Buddha images are indigenous features, quite different from the finer Indian Buddha
images. The four faces of Buddha on each of the towers of the Bayon in Cambodia clearly
depict these features. Some scholars (for example, Bussagli, 1978c) believe that they
represent divine royalty in the form of Bodhisattva Lokesvara, the symbol of universal
compassion in Buddhist philosophy. The size and massiveness of the Buddha statues is
intended to signify supreme power.

Fig. 7 A standing Buddha, Sarnath, India


Fig. 8 A Khmer Buddha, Angkor Thom, Cambodia


Thailand has a large number of Buddha statues ranging from miniatures to giant
images in bronze, wood and stone. The Thai Buddha image has smooth rounded body and
face. The seated cross-legged position of the Thai Buddha suggests the Indian Amaravati
heritage and the later Indian Gupta art. Although the Thai model follows the Gupta idiom,
it tends to be more simplified and less massive.
The Sukhotai model of Buddha tried to follow the early Ceylonese and Dvaravati
tradition in sculpture. It may have also been influenced by the Khmer and Mon features. A
more aesthetic Thai Buddha image is the U Thong model (originally built in Ayutthaya)
based on the original Indian patterns.
From the thirteenth to seventeenth century, the Thai kings tried to go back to the
original tenets of Theravada Buddhism by importing patterns of art from Ceylon. This was
the period when Siamese artists adhered to the original principles without worrying about
artistic considerations and development. A large number of small Buddha images were
multiplied and stored in temples for worship (see Chapters 8 and 9).
Despite the mass production of Buddhas in Thailand, and a resulting lack of
originality, one finds masterpieces of Buddha statues in the temples of Bangkok (for
example, Figs. 54 and 55 of the reclining golden Buddha, Chapter 9).
Bodhisattva figures prominently in the Buddhist Jataka stories about the previous
lives of Buddha. It is a divine being who has not yet attained nirvana and has postponed it
to lead a worldly life of compassion and sympathy for the suffering human beings. He is
not always presented in a human form. For example, he appeared as a Golden Duck in
Ajanta Cave 17.

Buddha Footprints

Buddha footprints have been discovered in Bodhgaya and Amaravati (Fig. 9). Both
footprints show the Wheel of Law (dharmachakra) at the centre of Buddha’s feet. Other
auspicious symbols also appear, namely, tri-ratnas (the Buddha, his teachings and the
community of Buddhist monks), curling svastikas above the toes, and the lotus buds and
flowers surrounding the footprints.

Fig. 9 Buddha footprints, Amaravati, India © Trustees of the British Museum, London
In India, the feet have long been the focus of respect. They represent the grounding of
the transcendent. Even today, the lotus feet of gods and gurus continue to be revered.

Medallions

Medallions were a common form of sculpture in India, especially on the railings of stupas
(for example, in Bharhut and Amaravati). As discussed in Chapter 5, many medallions are
found on cross-bars of stupa railings. In the Bharhut stupa, they were generally round in
the centre of the railing and crescent-shaped at the top and bottom. The subject-matter of
medallions ranged from amorous couples to goddesses and many included lotus flowers
and jataka scenes from Buddha’s earlier incarnations. One Amaravati medallion depicts
the Mandhata jataka about Buddha’s previous life as a rich chakravartin (universal
emperor) who reigned over heaven and earth for a thousand years (Fig. 10). He was still
dissatisfied and continued to feel desire and craving. It shows a scene of his courtly life
with musicians and dancing women. He came back to earth from heaven and died. The
medallion carries a message of Buddha’s teaching that all desires lead to suffering and,
therefore, need to be controlled.

Fig. 10 A medallion showing worship of Buddha relics, Amaravati, India © Trustees

of the British Museum, London

Relief Panels

Relief panels were an important feature of the early and late Buddhist art in India. They
are found in Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Sarnath and in Western India (Maharashtra, for
example). A relief panel shows Buddha worshippers around an empty throne displaying
Buddha’s feet (Fig. 11). An important figure in the panel is that of a serpent king
(nagaraja) standing just behind the relic. The bottom half shows several women who may
belong to the legendary naga kingdom.
 Fig. 11 A relief panel showing worshippers, an empty throne and Buddha’s feet,
Amaravati, India © Trustees of the British Museum, London

The rock-cut sculpture and relief panels of the West are much less profuse than those
in the north. The bas reliefs of the Bhaja monastery are known to depict rain god Indra on
an elephant and the sun god Surya on a chariot. Unlike the northern sculpture, they are not
copies of wooden prototypes but instead, they reflect the terra-cotta tradition of clay.

––-

Indian Buddhist architecture (more appropriately, sculpture) is said to be as

‘conservative as the Indian social and spiritual tradition’ (Zimmer, 1955:248). It evolved
not by eliminating the old elements but instead, as a new superstructure on top of the old.
This is shown in Sarnath, Bodhgaya and other places (see Chapters 3 to 6).

Painting

Buddhist art consisted of mural paintings; the earliest ones in India are associated with
popular festivals during which houses were decorated with paintings and streets with
painted banners. But much evidence of this art is now lost.
The surviving paintings are found in the Buddhist cave temples of Ajanta the walls
and ceilings of which were covered with lavish painted decoration. Several painters and
workshops must have been employed to undertake such a large-scale painting and
decorative work.
The Ajanta murals were painted in tempera technique on smooth plastered surfaces.
First, the painters applied clay mixed with rice husk and gum on the surfaces of walls and
ceilings. Then they applied a coating of lime plaster on these surfaces. Thirdly, the colours
and designs were applied on the plaster. This technique of painting was well developed by
the end of the second century AD.[10]
Outside India, paintings in Buddhist chaityas are found in Burma, Ceylon and
Thailand. In Burma, the art of painting is not as sophisticated and exquisite as found in the
rest of Southeast Asia. Paintings are not original and are confined mainly to the shrines in
Pagan. Rather schematic, they are reminiscent of the eastern Indian Buddhist style. Some
have a sensuous Indian charm suggesting that they might have been painted by Indian
artists. Many older Burmese icons have been gilded and repainted which diminishes their
vitality and exuberance.
A number of paintings have survived in Ceylon, particularly in the rock of Sigiriya
(Fig. 12) which are reminiscent of the Ajanta murals in India. They date from the sixth
century AD and consist mainly of apsaras showering flowers. More recent paintings of the
twelfth or thirteenth century, found in Polonnaruva, were inspired by western Indian and
southern Indian art.

Fig. 12 A rock painting from Sirigiya, Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

Not much is known about Buddhist paintings in Thailand. They have some
resemblance with Burmese paintings found in Pagan. In these paintings one comes across
Khmer and Chinese influences besides the Burmese. The Burmese influence is not
surprising since Burma conquered Siam in the eighteenth century when Thailand might
have adopted the Burmese ornamental style. Chinese influence on Thai painting may be
attributed to a large Chinese expatriate community in Thailand (see Chapters 8 and 9).
There are several types of Thai painting of which murals in Buddhist temples and
monasteries are the most interesting. The subjects of murals include jataka stories (for
example, Fig. 49, Chapter 8, and Fig. 59, Chapter 9), temptation of Buddha by Mara and
scenes of Hell. Other types include those painted on cloth banners and wood. A third type
of Thai painting done on palm leaf generally illustrated sacred manuscripts. Traditional
Thai painting died out in the middle of the nineteenth century when Western oil paintings
were introduced.

Indian Influence on South and Southeast Asian Art

We discussed in Chapter 1 the spread of Buddhism from India to Ceylon, Burma, Tibet,
Cambodia and Thailand. The Buddhist religion carried with it the knowledge and
techniques of Indian art and architecture of that period, for example, fragments of Buddha
statues of AD 300-400 based on Indian prototypes discovered in Burma, Cambodia and
Thailand. Also in Java in the eighth century the central kingdom of Shailendra built the
Buddhist () and Hindu monuments of Borobudur and Lara Jonggrang (Prambanam).
Indian merchants, craftsmen and artists also travelled to Southeast Asia along with their
works dealing, inter alia, with religious themes.

South Asia

Nepal was perhaps one of the first countries outside India where Ashoka introduced
Buddhism which survived there even after disappearing from India. But the form in which
Buddhism was practised in Nepal, namely, Tantrism, is different from either Hinayana or
(see Chapter 1). The three main types of Buddhist art in Nepal consist of: (a) Palm leaf
painting resembling the Bengal school of painting during the Pala dynasty; (b) Hanging
scrolls with magic diagrams and Buddhist gods and goddesses and (c) Bronze and copper
sculpture borrowed from the Indian Pala dynasty. Nepal follows Tantrism which explains
many female deities (such as Taras) and goddesses in its sculpture. This form of Buddhism
represents a mixture of Hindu and Buddhist elements. Thus, statues of goddesses contain
many arms showing extra power.
In Ceylon, Indian influence in the construction of Buddhist stupas and temples is
documented in the Great Chronicle or Mahavamsa. Rowland (1953:209) notes that ‘the
inspiration for both sculpture and architecture came from India; especially […] from the
later Andhra civilization of the eastern coast’. The ancient capital of Anuradhapura
contains several different types and forms of Ceylonese dagobas: bell-shaped, lotus-
shaped and bubble-shaped, which were originally surrounded by Indian-style wooden
railings and toranas.
The earliest Ceylonese sculpture (found in the Kantaka Chaitya in Mihintale, for
example) resembles the Indian sculpture of Sanchi and Amaravati. The seated Buddha
statue discovered in Anuradhapura (the ancient capital of Ceylon) recalls the Indian
Sarnath School of the fifth and sixth centuries in India. Also in Anuradhapura (fifth
century), a Ceylonese replica has been discovered of the semi-circular stepping stone of
the Amaravati stupa.
During the early period (the reign of Ashoka) Buddhist art in Ceylon was inspired by
that in North India. However, in later centuries, South Indian dynasties and those of
Bengal had close relations with Ceylon which may explain South Indian influence there.
For example, in the Ruanweli dagoba the standing figures of Buddha or Bodhisattva
(probably of the second century AD) are related to the Amaravati images of the Deccan
discussed in Chapter 5.
In Burma, Buddhist art was influenced by the Indian. There is evidence of Indians
living in Burma from the first century onwards. In the tenth century, Hindu temples were
built in Pagan such as Nat Hlaung Guyaung and Ngakye Nadaun. The construction of
stupas was undertaken later when both Hinayana and Buddhism became popular. It is
believed that no less than 5,000 stupas (pagodas) were built in Pagan during the reign of
King Anawrahta and his successors. Close relations were maintained between the rulers of
Burma and the Buddhist kingdoms of Bengal.
Chaityas similar to those found in Buddhist India are the main shrines of Theravada
Buddhism in Burma. Burmese sculpture is also profoundly influenced by the Indian.
However, ‘the Burmese images have a grace not found in the Indian images’
(Munsterberg, 1970:219).
Although inspired by the Indian model, the Burmese stupas are somewhat different.
They are more slender than those found in India. Their tapering tops remind one of the
shikaras of the ancient Hindu temples.
Several examples of the Indian influence on Burmese art are worth noting:

A copy of the Mahabodhi temple in Pagan; it was dedicated in 1215.

The Schwesandaw Buddhist chaitya in Pagan (eleventh century). It had Indian-style
brick carvings which are now covered by white plaster.
The Ananda Temple in Pagan which is believed to have been built byIndian
Buddhists during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084-1112). The reliefs in the temple
depict the jataka scenes from Buddha’s life.
Burmese paintings of the early period were influenced by the Tantric paintings of
Bengal, which is particularly true of the thirteenth-century wall paintings.

Connections between India and Burma may have been broken after the disappearance
of Buddhism in India in the thirteenth century. This is the period when the Burmese style
of art emerged. While it had remnants of Indian influence, it developed its own character
of folk art which generally lacked in expression.
Buddhism also spread to Afghanistan (ancient Bactria north of Gandhara). Two sites
of Buddhist sculpture there include (a) Bamiyan where two giant statues of Buddha in the
rocks were destroyed by the Taliban several years ago and (b) Hadda (near modern
Jalalabad) where Greco-Buddhist statues have been found. Unlike the Gandhara sculpture,
that found in Hadda is closer to the Indian sculpture in its sensuousness.
From Afghanistan Buddhism spread to Central Asia and later to the Far East. Central
Asia was an important trade route between China and the Roman Empire and between
China, India and Iran, which may partly explain Greco-Roman and Persian influences on
the Buddhist art and sculpture in India.


Rest of Asia

As discussed in Chapter 7 on Angkor, Indian architecture and mythology greatly
influenced Khmer/Cambodian temple art and architecture. In Cambodia, both Hindu and
Buddhist influences on art are noticeable. Pre-Khmer art and architecture (fifth to seventh
century) is Indian in origin. The Shiva temple of Bayang on a hilltop could pass for an
Indian temple of Gupta or Pallava period. Other examples of the Indian derivation include
the gestures and postures of statues. The gods and demons, gandharvas, apsaras, nagas and
asuras in Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom appear in almost the same forms as the Indian
counterparts. The nagas and apsaras are based on the Hindu mythology (for more details
see Chapter 7). While Hindus worshipped naga (serpent) gods, Buddhism did not
particularly favour them.
The Khmer ruled Cambodia from the tenth to thirteenth century. Hindu and Buddhist
carvings were produced in Cambodia even before the tenth century when Khmer kings
came to power. Examples of these are to be found in such shrines as Banteay Srei of the
eighth century (Figs. 13 and 14). The profuse sculpture of this shrine is a fine example of
Hindu art outside India. Cambodian sculpture is not voluptuous like the Indian, although it
was inspired by it. Apsaras and gods and goddesses found in Angkor Wat and Angkor
Thom are of a cylindrical shape and more in keeping with the traditions of conservative
Buddhism which did not appreciate sensuousness.
 Fig. 13 Banteay Srei temple, Cambodia

Fig. 14 Stone carvings, Banteay Srei

While Angkor Wat sculpture is of a uniformly high quality (particularly the apsaras,
gods and goddesses, royal processions and Khmer armies on the march, not to speak of the
battle scenes from the Indian epics), those of Angkor Thom are not of consistently good
quality. One reason may be that king Jayavarman VII built too many temples in a very
short time. However, some art critics argue that ‘the images at this site (Angkor Thom) are
among the greatest of all Buddhist icons, equaling the finest statues found, either in India
or in the Far East’ (Ibid.:242). This statement probably refers to the images of the
Bodhisattvas on the four sides of the Angkor Thom towers.
Although Cambodian sculpture is derived from the Indian, its style is distinctly
indigenous. As discussed above, the features of Cambodian Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
(thick lips and flat faces, for example) are clearly Khmer in style and character.
In Cambodia, there is hardly any difference between Hindu and Buddhist art. As
Angkor Wat bears testimony, both religions existed side by side. The lack of any
differences may be due to the fact that the same sculptors were involved in carvings for
both religions.
Cambodian art declined in the thirteenth century when the Thai defeated the Khmer
rulers.
The stupas of Thailand are quite different from those in India in both shape and
decoration. But they have a lot in common with the Burmese and Ceylonese pagodas,
especially the ones dating back to the Ayutthaya period. Therefore, one wonders whether
their construction was inspired by Indian architecture.
A Thai scholar notes: ‘A careful comparison of the Indian stupa and the Pra Chedi or
Thai stupa leaves no doubt that the latter was considerably influenced by the style of the
Indian stupa though the influence was indirect’ (Jermsawatdi, 1979:108). The Thai stupa is
based on the original Indian prototype of Sanchi and Bharhut. However, it did not imitate
the Indian prototype in all respects, which may explain why it looks different.
In sculpture, the sixth-century Thai Buddha images resemble the prototypes of the
Indian Gupta period (for example, Buddha statues found in Ayutthaya, see Chapter 8).
Thai Buddha images also appear in simplified sheath-like robes which must have been
inspired by the Gupta images of Buddha in Sarnath and Ajanta. However, the Indian
system of proportions was not followed. The heads of the Thai Buddha images are too big
in relation to the body.
The nature and extent of the Indian influence on Thai art and sculpture depends on
the period considered. There are five distinct phases of this art:

Dvaravati Phase (sixth to twelfth century): This was Mon art (inspired by the
Gupta art in India) more than Thai. The Mon lived in Burma and Thailand (or
Siam) before the Thai came from southwest China.
Lopburi Phase (twelfth century): This phase relates to the Khmer conquest of
Thailand. Although Indian principles were followed, this art was less sensuous
than Indian. Lopburi statues of Buddha are broader, flatter and less pronounced
in linear detail than the Dvaravati (Mon) statues.
Sukhotai Phase (thirteenth century): This represents the first phase of true Thai
art. Iconography of this phase is derived from Indian sources but the images are
 distinctly Thai. Their features are no longer like those of the Burmese (Mon)
and the Khmer as during the earlier phases. The truly Thai forms are more
elongated, elegant and sophisticated with protuberance on the top of the head.
Their elegance and refinement is shown by delicate hands and slender arms (for
example, Ayutthaya images, see Chapter 8).
Ayutthaya Phase (fourteenth to eighteenth century): This phase represents the
extension of national Thai art which began under the Sukhotai phase (see
Chapter 8). During this phase, the painting of manuscripts suggests the Indian
influence. The Triphoum, a manuscript devoted to Buddhist cosmology, contains
scenes of jatakas in which the figures of gods and goddesses are similar in style
to those in the Indian Ajanta paintings.
Bangkok Phase (eighteenth to twentieth century): This phase relates to the
Chakra dynasty and Rama kings (see Chapter 9). There is less Indian influence
in this phase than during the earlier phases. The Thai style of painting during
this period was influenced more by the Chinese and Western styles than the
Indian. However, Thai Buddhist sculpture was inspired by the Gandhara School
during this period especially during the reigns of Rama V and Rama VI. The
Thai sculptors attempted to humanise the Buddha image.

Craftsmen may have been imported from India. Dvaravati sculpture of Thailand
resembles such Indian styles as Amaravati and Gupta which flourished at the same time.
This art centred on Theravada Buddhism. Excavations have shown assembly halls, bases
of stupas, terra-cotta figures and fragments of decorative designs.
Indian art and culture of Dvaravati came to Western Thailand via Burma and the
three Pagodas Pass during the eighth century when the Takuapa-Chaiya trans-peninsula
route was opened. Three routes brought Indians to Thailand from: (1) the Amaravati
region in South India, (2) the ancient port of Tamluk on the Hooghly River in Bengal, East
India, and (3) the port of Kanchi (Tamil Nadu) during the Pallava rule. Jermasawatdi
(1979:63) notes that:
The Thai workmanship was based on ‘the examples of the art of Amaravati from
South India. But it was mainly indebted both in iconography and sculptural style to the
Gupta and post-Gupta art of India as seen in the cave temples of Ajanta, Kanheri and
Ellora.
Dvaravati was the kingdom of Mon people, which explains the Mon features of the
Thai and the Khmer images of Buddha, for example, lips turned outwards, downward-
curved eyelids marked by double channels. The Dvaravati images of Buddha may have
provided prototypes/models for the later Khmer Buddhas in Cambodia.
In the eleventh century, the Indian influence may have waned when the Khmer
captured Dvaravati. At this point, Khmer art may have replaced Indian. From the
thirteenth to seventeenth century, the Siam city of Sukhotai was the main source and
inspiration for Theravada Buddhist art and culture. The Thai kings turned to Ceylon for
the supply of Buddhist monks and perhaps also craftsmen besides sculptors and architects.
In Java and other parts of present-day Indonesia, old Buddhist and Hindu relics have
been discovered which may belong to the ancient kingdoms of Srivijaya (Sumatra) and
Shailendra (Java). The tjandis (religious structures) during this period (seventh to
thirteenth century) were built on the basis of Indian prototypes. Borobudur is one of the
most well-known examples of the Buddhist tjandis. Built around 800 by an Indian
Shailendra king, it is a step-pyramid style Buddhist stupa with several square terraces. The
top three terraces are circular and the summit has a bell-shaped circular stupa. Each terrace
is lined with relief sculptures and the niches once contained Buddha statues.
Borobudur sculpture represents Indian Gupta art, which is not surprising since the
Shailendra kings originated in India. But the statues found there have local Java features.
[11] Besides, the building material used is a black volcanic stone not found in India.
Furthermore, the forms of statues are also softer and gentler than those of the Gupta
carvers.
In Borobudur many reliefs show figures of women (allowed by Buddhism) reflecting
ordinary Javanese life of this period. These are very different from the Indian female
forms which show exuberance, sensuousness and extravagance. The Javanese female
figures are the ordinary Javanese women without any spiritual powers and symbolism.
Many cult images of Buddha and Buddhist deities have been discovered in Indonesia.
These are close to the images of early Pala period in Bihar (India) which would suggest
close relations between Java and northeastern India, the home of Buddhism.
Although inspired by Indian art, Javan art and sculpture is quite different. It deals
with everyday life unlike Indian art which is shrouded in superhuman mystery.
 Chapter 3

Bodhgaya: The Seat of Enlightenment

Bodhgaya, a small village in Bihar (India), is situated 13 kilometres south of Gaya (a holy
city for the Hindus). It is a sacred place for the Buddhists. Perhaps this name was given to
the place in the eighteenth century in order to distinguish it from Gaya. At the time of
Buddha’s enlightenment, the village was called ‘Uruvela’. In the second century BC, it
was known by different names such as Sambodhi, Mahabodhi or Vajrasana.
Buddha attained enlightenment in Bodhgaya after deserting married life and the
comforts of home. Therefore, it is the most important of the four Buddhist holy sites.[12]
At the time of his death Buddha wished his followers to pay pilgrimage to these places
including Bodhgaya. However, there is no evidence of any religious shrine in Bodhgaya
before the third century BC. At that time, the only shrine was the Bodhi tree under which
Buddha had attained enlightenment. The earliest structure in the form of a religious shrine
is said to date from Ashoka’s reign which is suggested by the polished surface of the stone
slab found under the tree and the floral motifs on it.
Not much is known about the early history of Bodhgaya as a place of Buddha
worship. Scholars have tried to piece together an account based largely on pilgrims from
abroad such as Fa Hsien and Hsuan Tsang from China. Fa Hsien notes having seen three
monasteries (in which Ceylonese monks are known to have lived) in Bodhgaya when he
visited it. His descriptions are rather general and do not point to any particular religious
shrine. Later in the seventh century, Hsuan Tsang visited Bodhgaya. He describes how
Ashoka and his wife destroyed the Bodhi tree before the emperor adopted Buddhism as
his religion. According to legend, the tree did not die but instead its branches and leaves
shone in flames. Having seen this miracle, Ashoka repented and decided to bathe the tree
roots in milk and the tree regenerated in less than a day. At this point, he built a brick
enclosure around the tree.
Both the Chinese pilgrims saw the Bodhi tree as well as several structures (shrines
and viharas) and statues when they visited Bodhgaya. It remains unclear how many
structures that they saw have survived.
Other visitors from abroad were two Buddhist monks, Mahanama and Upa (sena),
envoys of King Meghavarna of Ceylon sent to the court of Indian King Samudragupta to
seek permission to build guest houses in Bodhgaya for the Ceylonese Buddhist pilgrims
(Thakur, 1995:33).
In 1234, a Tibetan monk, Dharmavamin, visited Bodhgaya, when Buddhist monks
frequently travelled between Tibet and India. Many Tibetans studied at Nalanda
University in India. Dharmavamin notes a strong influence of Ceylonese monks in
Bodhgaya in the thirteenth century, perhaps just before the Muslim conquest and
destruction of Buddhist holy places. These Hinayana monks were in charge of the worship
at the Mahabodhi Temple.
Sculpture prospered in Bodhgaya during the reign of the Pala kings who ruled Bihar
and Bengal from the eighth to thirteenth century. A large number of attractive sculptures
dating from this period have been discovered which depict the figures of Buddha sitting
under the Bodhi tree as well as those of the Bodhisattvas.
An inscription dating to 1305 records a visit by a Burmese delegation to Bodhgaya
sent by the king of Upper Burma to repair the temple and other structures, which were
presumably destroyed or damaged by the Muslim invasion. The Burmese involvement in
repair and maintenance continued well into the nineteenth century when the King of
Burma sought permission from the Government of India for the restoration of the temple
and the construction of a monastery for Buddhist monks.
Historical accounts do not make clear whether the Bodhgaya temple suffered from
normal disrepair over time or it was destroyed by the Muslim invaders. Many Buddhist
monks fled Bodhgaya perhaps out of fear of an imminent invasion.
Bodhgaya was deserted in the sixteenth century. During this period when Buddhism
had practically disappeared here, a mahant, a follower of the eighth century philosopher,
Shankaracharya who worshipped Shiva, wandered to Bodhgaya and established a
monastery there. That is how Hindu worship started in Bodhgaya. Evidence of Shiva
worship has also been discovered on the railings. Furthermore, an eighth-century
inscription records the construction of a Shiva lingam in Bodhgaya (Asher, 2008:17).
In the nineteenth century, a number of European visitors to Bodhgaya noted that the
structures and the temple were dilapidated. For example, in 1811 Buchanan-Hamilton[13]
described the site as ‘now mostly reduced to irregular heaps of bricks and stones […] and
the Mahabodhi temple is rapidly hastening to decay’ (cited in ibid.:19). This sorry state of
affairs may have led the British Government to commission repairs of the Mahabodhi
Temple.[14]
Bodhgaya of today is a small town of international significance for the Buddhists
throughout the world. In fact, most of the village is occupied by international Buddhist
temples, guest houses and monasteries built by governments and non-governmental
organizations from Bhutan, Burma (Myanmar), Japan, Thailand and Tibet. The Japanese
contribution to Bodhgaya and the surrounding road infrastructure is particularly
significant. In 1989, the Japanese Buddhist Society from Nagoya built the Giant Buddha
Statue here. There are the also Japanese temples, namely, Indosan Nipponji temple,
Daijokyo temple, a Japanese monastery and international hotels and guest houses for
visiting Buddhists.
Bodhgaya is inhabited by thousands of Buddhist monks who participate in prayers
every day. Every year from November to February, a large number of exiled Tibetans
including the Dalai Lama visit Bodhgaya to attend an international Buddhist conference
and pray at the Mahabodhi Temple.


Buddhist Monuments

The Mahabodhi Temple

The temple is a dominant hallmark of the village of Bodhgaya the exact date of the
construction of which is not known. It is believed that Ashoka built a shrine of sandstone
throne on the site (Vajrasana) consisting of a canopy supported by four pillars. An old
Burmese inscription also ascribes its construction to Ashoka. Cunningham (1892) came
across some remains of the shrine while renovating the temple floor which may belong to
the Ashoka shrine. According to him, the temple was built in around AD 450 (Fig. 15). He
was guided by two considerations. First, when Fa Hsien visited Bodhgaya he mentioned
the existence of the temple and the Bodhi tree at the site. Secondly, the ‘straight sides of
the temple’ like ‘a square truncated pyramid’ suggest an earlier period. The medieval
temples in India and elsewhere had slightly bulging sides.
 Fig. 15 Mahabodhi temple, Bodhgaya

In the seventh century Hsuan Tsang saw the Bodhi tree, Vajrasana and the grand
Mahabodhi Temple.
The present temple is ‘built exactly over the remains of Ashoka’s Temple, so that the
original Vajrasana Throne still retains its old position of Buddha’s seat, and the reputed
centre of the Universe’. He gave the following account of the Mahabodhi Temple:

It is built up of bluish bricks with plaster. It presents several tiers of niches,

each of which holds a gilded statue of Buddha.
On all four sides the walls are covered with beautiful sculpture, festoons of
pearls, figures of rishis. On its summit there is a gilt copper amalaka fruit.
 (cited in GOI, 2002:7)

Hsuan Tsang also describes the front portico of the temple (added later) as a pavilion
of three storeys. He observes that Ashoka built a high stone wall (or a railing) surrounding
the holy pipal tree the remnants of which are found in the Bodhgaya Museum (Fig. 16).
During the Gupta period, the railing was enlarged with the addition of new granite posts
and cross-bars. The railing is built of unpolished coarse granite and depicts such Buddhist
scenes as jatakas, stupas and lotus flowers. Fig. 17 shows the railing as it stands today.

Fig. 16 Granite railing, Bodhgaya Museum

Fig. 17 Current railing around the Mahabodhi Temple
 Many Buddha images, which used to be displayed in the temple niches, were
destroyed by anti-Buddhist elements. One side of the exterior temple wall is known as the
‘Cloister Walk’ or ‘Cankamana’ where Buddha is alleged to have walked up and down
during the third week after his enlightenment.
The temple includes two parts: (1) the Temple building and (2) the Lotus Pond (or
Muchalinda Pond). At the steps leading to the Temple, one finds a pillar marking the spot
of Ajpala Nigrodh (pipal) tree under which Buddha meditated in the fifth week after
attaining enlightenment. On a raised area to the right is the Animeshlochan Chaitya
(Prayer Hall) where Buddha meditated during the second week after enlightenment. Also
in the vicinity are several votive stupas built by kings, princes, noblemen and even lay
persons. A small shrine with a standing Buddha contains his footprints carved in black
stone, presumably dating back to the third century BC when Ashoka declared Buddhism a
state religion. He commissioned the construction of several such footprints in a large
number of places in his kingdom.
A gateway leading to the temple was originally built by Ashoka in the third century
BC but was later rebuilt. A door leads to a small hall beyond which is the sanctum
displaying a gilded statue of Buddha. Another hall contains a second Buddha. Prayers take
place in both halls.
A pathway from the temple leads to the Lotus Pond which forms an integral part of
the Temple Complex. Pilgrims to Bodhgaya take this route to visit the Temple. It is
believed that Buddha spent the sixth week after enlightenment here at the Pond. A violent
storm broke out while Buddha was still meditating. The Naga king of Lake Muchalanda
came out to protect him with his hood (Ibid.:12).
Historical records show that the temple was used for worship in the fourteenth
century, long after the Muslim conquest of northern India. But a Tibetan monk’s account
suggests that local monks at the temple feared the worst and fled. He notes that the place
was deserted when he reached Vajrasana in 1234 (Roerich and Altekar, 1959:64). There
were very few monks left here at the time. Yet, Hsuan Tsang who visited the temple six
centuries earlier reported 1,000 monks living at the site.
The temple underwent several renovations: one of the most significant ones was
undertaken by the Burmese in the thirteenth century. Later, the Ceylonese Buddhists
restored it with the financial assistance of the Buddhists of Japan. The temple structure
standing today was restored by the Archaeological Survey of India in the late nineteenth-
century.
It is built entirely of brick and is one of the earliest surviving brick temples in India.
The central tower of the temple (50 metres high) is surrounded by four smaller towers
built in the same architectural style. It rests on a low basement with mouldings decorated
with honey suckle design and two geese on either side. Above the basement are several
recessed niches in which images of seated or standing Buddhas were kept. There were
more mouldings and chaitya niches at the higher levels. The curvilinear temple tower in
the Hindu tradition rises above the mouldings and niches. It is surmounted by amalaka
and kalasha (pinnacle), the hallmarks of traditional Hindu temples.
Medallions have been discovered at the temple site showing: (i) A Bodhi tree with
umbrellas and garlands, (ii) the Wheel of Law (Dharmachakra), and (iii) Tri-ratna (or
three gems), that is, Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.


International Temples, Statues and Monasteries

Bodhgaya is one of the few Indian villages of historical importance with a vast
international presence of tourists, Buddhists and resident monks in temples and
monasteries. Many monuments in Bodhgaya are financed and managed by governmental
and non-governmental organisations from Asian countries/areas such as Bhutan, Burma,
Japan, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Tibet. These organisations also contribute financially and
materially to the renovation and maintenance of the Temple, which is managed by an
International Advisory Board consisting of representatives of the following
countries/areas: Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim (India) and
South Korea.
Although different Asian countries mentioned above follow different forms of
Buddhism, they all hold Bodhgaya as a sacred place for worship and pilgrimage. This is
evidenced by thousands of Buddhist pilgrims from Asian countries visiting Bodhgaya
every year. Hsuan Tsang noted the importance of Bodhgaya in the following words:
‘Bodhgaya may be said to be the cradle of Buddhism. To the devout Buddhist there is no
place of greater importance and sanctity’ (GOI, 2002:4). This opinion expressed in the
seventh century remains equally valid today.
Below we discuss the various international temples, statues and monasteries built in
Bodhgaya by foreign countries over the past several years.


Japanese Buddhist Monuments

The Great Buddha Statue

The tall Buddha statue built by Daijokyo of Japan was inaugurated by the Dalai
Lama in November 1989 (Fig. 18). It is the first statue of its kind ever built in India. It
took seven years to build involving the use of 120,000 masons. Built of sandstone and red
granite, it is similar to the statue of the Great Buddha of Kamakura, Japan (Fig. 19). Only
a slight variation in the head gear is noticeable. The statue represents Lord Buddha in
meditation (dhyana mudra) seated on a lotus in open air. The ten statuettes lining both
sides of the path leading to the statue are his disciples protecting their Lord.[15]
 Fig. 18 Daijokyo Buddha of Japan, Bodhgaya

Fig. 19 Great Buddha, Kamakura, Japan

Daijokyo is a Buddhist organisation founded in Japan over ninety years ago by the
Most Revered Ms Tatsuko Sugiyama. Its main goal is to apply the Buddhist principle of
‘training through practice’. Of all the Buddhist scriptures Daijokyo reveres the Lotus Sutra
as the most sacred text which is considered to contain ‘Three Virtuous Practices’, namely:
(a) Compassion or Dana (Jihi), (b) Honesty or Sila (Makoto); (c) Patience or Ksanti
(Kannin). Daijokyo preaches that every Buddhist should follow these three practices in
everyday life.
Daijokyo Temple/Monastery

The temple, a three-storey pagoda, was built in 1983 with the construction of its main
building, Shakado. It has the Main Hall on the first floor where the principal images of the
Eternal Sakyamuni along with four attendants are displayed. The Founder’s Hall on the
second floor contains a bronze bust of Tatsuko Sugiyama, the founder of Daijokyo. The
Reliquary Hall on the third floor contains the holy relics of Buddha. Everyone regardless
of religion, creed, colour or nationality is welcome to visit the temple.
The monastery is a symbol of the philosophy and practice of Japanese Zen Buddhism
in India (see Chapter 1).

Indosan Nippon Japanese Temple

The temple, carved out of wood in typical Japanese architectural style, was built in 1972.
Its gardens contain a Bell of Peace and other pagodas. It is one of the 15 Bells of Peace
placed in 15 countries around the world by the World Peace Bell Association.[16] The

temple contains many beautiful Japanese paintings, depicting scenes from Buddha’s life,
for example, Buddha’s pregnant mother, Maya, and the newly born Buddha. The temple
has simple bronze and wooden Buddhas for public worship.
The Japanese Buddhist temples in Bodhgaya are remarkable for their simplicity,
cleanliness and serenity. They present a striking contrast to the rich, colourful and rather
garish Bhutanese and Tibetan temples and monasteries.

__________________

Why would the Japanese government and non-governmental organisations maintain

several Buddhists shrines and monuments in a remote part of India so far from Japan? The
motivation seems to come from devotion to Buddhism, and India is the home of this
religion. Secondly, Bodhgaya is known as the holiest of all places for Buddhists where
Gautama attained enlightenment and became Lord Buddha. Finally, the motivation for the
Japanese presence may also come from the teachings of Tatsuko Sugiyama who pledged
that she would be ‘the sun to light the Embudai, interpreted as the ‘world in which
mankind lives’ or in this particular case, Bodhgaya, the birth of Buddhism. The term ‘be
the sun’ is defined as ‘saving (poor) people’.

Tibetan Temple and Monastery

Buddhist monks from Tibet are omnipresent in Bodhgaya. They have a monastery and a
temple besides a market, which is, in fact, the only major market in Bodhgaya. The
Tibetan monastery is the oldest and the largest in Bodhgaya (Fig. 20). The monastery
complex includes a colourful Buddhist temple and a special Wheel of Law.

Fig. 20 Tibetan temple and monastery, Bodhgaya

It was established in 1934 long before Tibet became a part of the People’s Republic
of China. It is decorated with Tibetan scriptures, thankas and other objects. It acts as a
meditation centre and has a prayer hall for the large community of Tibetan refugees in
India.

Chinese Temple and Monastery

The Chinese monastery, located close to the Mahabodhi Temple complex, was built in
1945 in the Chinese architectural style. The Chinese temple in the monastery was built in
1997 by the Chinese government and the Buddhist monks. It replaced an older structure.
Bhutanese Temple and Monastery

Bhutan has one of the most colourful monasteries and temples in Bodhgaya (Fig. 21).
Some Tantric decorations are found in the temple interior. The monastery is unique as the
wall decorations contain peculiar clay carvings depicting various aspects of Buddhism and
Buddha’s life (Fig. 22).

Fig. 21 A Buddha statue and tantric decorations, Bhutanese temple


Fig. 22 Clay carvings, Bhutanese temple


Thai Monastery and Temple

The monastery/temple was built in 1957 by the Government of Thailand at the invitation
of the Government of India to celebrate the Buddha Jayanti. It is supported by the Thai
Royal Embassy in New Delhi and is managed by Thai monks on the spot.
The temple inside the monastery is modelled on Wat Benjamabophit, a nineteenth-
century temple in Bangkok. It contains a golden Buddha in the main Hall. There is also a
walking Buddha in the grounds of the monastery.
 Chapter 4

Sarnath: Site of the First Sermon

Sarnath,[17] a suburb of Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) about 10 kilometres away, is the place
where Buddha delivered his first sermon to his five disciples, namely, Kaundinya, Bashpa,
Bhadrika, Mahanaman, and Ashvajit It is here that he preached the doctrine of peace.
Buddha’s first sermon, delivered in a Deer Park, referred to the Wheel of Law
(Dharmachakra). According to legend, in an earlier incarnation Buddha was a Bodhisattva
in the guise of the lord of a herd of deer roaming in the Park. The name Sarnath derives
from the Deer Park or Saranganatha, the Lord of the Deer.
The ancient names of Sarnath include Mrigadava, Migadaya, Rishipattana and
Isipatana. Buddha mentioned the last as one of the four holy places of pilgrimage for
Buddhists, the other three being: Bodhgaya, Sanchi and Kushinagar.
Buddha came to Sarnath from Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3) after his enlightenment
there. Apparently, his disciples and other followers persuaded him to narrate his
experiences in Bodhgaya and to establish the first Buddhist order (sangha) there. Yasa, the
son of a wealthy banker of Varanasi and his 54 friends, were converted to Buddhism in
Sarnath.
Not much is known about the history of Sarnath except information obtained through
archaeological excavations and accounts of Fa Hsien and Hsuan Tsang. Fa Hsien notes
that he saw four stupas and four monasteries in Sarnath. Hsuan Tsang saw 30 monasteries
accommodating 3,000 monks and displaying a life-sized brass statue of Buddha turning
the Wheel of Law. Their accounts suggest that the heyday of Sarnath was from the third to
seventh century (AD 250-650). This is confirmed by the discovery of sculptures
discovered there.
Hsuan Tsang’s account reads:

In the great enclosure is a vihara about 200 feet high; above the roof is a
golden-covered figure of the Amra […] or mango fruit.
The foundations of the building are of stone, and the stairs also: but the
towers and niches are of brick. The niches are arranged on the four sides in
hundred successive lines, and in each niche is a golden figure of Buddha. In the
middle of the vihara is a figure of Buddha made up of native copper (teou-shin).
It is the size of life and he is represented as turning the wheel of law (preaching).
To the southwest of the vihara, is a stone stupa built by Ashoka-raja. Although
the foundations have given way, there are still 100 feet or more of the wall
remaining. In front of the building is a stone pillar about 70 feet high. The stone
 is altogether as bright as jade. It is glistening and sparkles like light; and all
those who pray fervently before it see from time to time, according to their
petitions, figures with good or bad signs. It was here that Tathagata, having
arrived at enlightenment, began to turn the wheel of law.

(cited in the Benares District Gazetteer, 1922)

The monuments seen by the Chinese pilgrims have now disappeared but their
historical account of that period is a testimony to the significance of Sarnath as an
important Buddhist religious centre. Buddhism must have prospered in Sarnath because of
its proximity to Benaras (Varanasi) where kings and wealthy merchants sponsored many
Buddhist monuments (see Chapter 2).
Sarnath thrived during the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka’s edicts mention that the king
visited Sarnath and other Buddhist holy places and built several stupas and monasteries to
mark his devotion and respect for Buddha and Buddhism. For example, the original
Dhamekh stupa there was built by Ashoka. Superstructures were built on top of the stupa
in later centuries.
The Dhamekh stupa (or Dharmachakra) is the only surviving monument; the others
are largely in ruins. The main ruins at the archaeological site include: Dharmarajika Stupa
(to the west of Shamika stupa); lower portions of the Ashoka Pillar (the capital with four
lions which once had a wheel on top of the lions; is displayed in the Sarnath Museum); the
Bodhi tree and the ruins of railings and pillars.
Modern buildings at the site include: the Mulangandhakuti vihara (built in 1931 by
the International Mahabodhi Society) and Sri Digambar Jain Temple built in 1824.
In the thirteenth century Sarnath faded into oblivion after the decline of Buddhism.
[18] It is not clear whether the Muslim invaders in the twelfth century onwards destroyed
.

the Sarnath monuments to propagate Islam. The Gazetteer of Benares for 1922 notes that
Sarnath (in the outskirts of Benares) thrived until AD 1194 when iconoclastic Muslims
under Qutb-ud-din Aibak devastated the place. It was deserted by the monks and local
population.
It is not until the archaeological excavations in Sarnath by Cunningham (1835-6),
that interest in Sarnath and Buddhist ruins was revived. In 1834, Cunningham visited the
Sarnath site and arranged its renovation in a systematic fashion. Subsequent excavations
were undertaken by other archaeologists namely, Kittoe, Horne, Oertal, Marshall,
Hargreaves and Sahni.[19]
It appears that all different types of Buddhism discussed in Chapter 1 were
worshipped here at one time or another. During Ashoka’s reign, the conservative Hinayana
Buddhism was practised under which Buddha had not yet been deified; no Buddha images
existed during this period (see Chapter 2). The first Buddha images in Sarnath must have
appeared during the phase of Buddhism. A stone inscription records that in 1058, a
Buddhist monk gifted a copy of the Prajna-paramita Sutra to the largest monastery in
Sarnath, suggesting activity there at that time. It is probable that Tantrism was also
practised in Sarnath at some stage as is suggested by the discovery of statues of Heruka
and Arya Tara goddesses.

Royal Patronage

Chapter 2 discussed three types of patronage of Buddhist art: royal patronage, patronage
by rich merchants and patronage by ordinary men and women. There are traces and
historical evidence of such patronage for the construction of Sarnath monuments. The
royal patronage extends to several dynasties, namely, Mauryas, Sungas, Kushanas and
Guptas.
For example, the earliest monuments such as Dharmarajika stupa and monasteries
were built by Ashoka, as noted above. Other monuments attributed to him include the
Ashoka pillar (only the lower portion is in situ) and the monolithic railing of the Chunar
sandstone which was found buried in the foundations of the Main Shrine.[20] The carved

railing pillars (Fig. 26) are attributed to the Sunga dynasty which ruled during the second
to first century BC.
Both Kushana and Pala kings are known to have provided support to Buddhism in
Sarnath. The Kushana kings were responsible for the expansion of the Dharmajika stupa.
Some Buddha statues (for example, a colossal image of standing Buddha of red sandstone
under a stone umbrella) and Bodhisattvas are also attributed to them.
The earlier Gupta kings must have also patronised Buddhist monuments in Sarnath as
the Dhamekh stupa was renovated and rebuilt during the Gupta period. Their other
contributions included the construction of the original Mulgandhakuti Temple, several
stupas and monasteries, carving of a large number of Buddha images and the Sarnath
School of art (see below). Inscriptions on several Buddha statues discovered in Sarnath
testify to their origin in the Gupta period when Sarnath was an important centre of
Buddhist sculpture.

The Sarnath School of Art

Ever since the archaeological excavations in Sarnath, a distinctive and independent style
of art has been recognised which is confined mainly to sculpture. Some of the finest
examples of this art are the Capital of the Ashoka Pillar and the railing surrounding the
Dharmarajika stupa.
Persian and Hellenic influences are reflected in the use of shiny stone polish to
preserve the Ashoka Pillar. However, despite the possible use of foreign techniques, the
carvings on the sculptures were done and the scriptures written by a Buddhist monk who
must have been well-versed in Buddhist texts.
The Sarnath School lasted from AD 350 to 650, a period reflecting India’s Golden
Age which overlaps with the Gupta dynasty (see Table 2.1, Chapter 2). Its influence
spread to other parts of India as well as to such other Asian countries as Cambodia,
Ceylon and Thailand (formerly, Siam). It rivalled that of Mathura and both schools were
known for Buddha sculptures. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1981b:189) claims that
the Mathura School was more prolific in its output than the Sarnath and Sanchi Schools. It
further notes that ‘much of their sculpture (Sarnath and Sanchi) was imported from
Mathura, and the few images they produced locally were strongly influenced by Mathura
work’.
The standard Mathura type of Buddha image is the one produced in Mathura and
displayed in the Sarnath Archaeological Museum. A seated Buddha (also known as the
Katra Buddha) is another example of the Mathura School. Both these images are known to
have strongly influenced the Sarnath School of sculpture.
However, despite the Mathura influences on the Sarnath School, there were wide
differences between the two styles of sculpture which are summarised in Table 4.1

Table 4.1 Differences between Sarnath and Mathura images of Buddha

Sarnath style Mathura style

Round and supple limbs. Flat and Mongolian features.


Absence of drapery on images; replaced by
Folds of drapery on images.
close-fitting and transparent robes.


Bodhisattvas of the period received special
No sign of Bodhisattva images.
attention in sculpture.

Carving of richly decorated halos around Hardly any halos around Buddha
Buddha images. images.


Buddha body slightly broken on its axis to
Rigidity in the position of Buddha
impart certain litheness and moving quality
figure.
(Rowland, 1953:141).

Significant influence on Buddhist sculpture in Some influence on Buddhist
South and Southeast Asia (Ceylon, Cambodia and sculpture in Southeast Asia (in
Thailand). Thailand, for example).

The elegant and graceful Buddha sculptures of the Sarnath School are displayed in
the Sakyasimha gallery in the Archaeological Museum of Sarnath. The statue of the
preaching Buddha in this gallery is one of the most important and graceful images.
The truly independent and distinctive Buddha images of the Sarnath School may
have developed in the fifth century AD. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (Ibid.: 192-3)
recognises this distinctiveness in the following words:

This famous centre of Indian art (Sarnath) developed a sweeter and more elegant
version of the Buddha image than Mathura’s.
Instead of the rather strict frontal posture, the weight of the body is thrown more on
one leg, […]. This lends a certain movement to the figure, so that it does not quite possess
the static, steadfast quality of Mathura […]. The (Sarnath) images have great refinement
even if they do not possess the strength of Mathura.


Examples of Buddhist Art

Dhamekh Stupa

The Dhamekh stupa, still standing today, was probably built in around AD 500 to replace
the earlier stupa at the site. Its upper part is built of redbrick whereas the base is built of
stone (Figs. 23 and 24). Apparently, the basement has survived from the Ashoka period.
Large-sized bricks discovered below the stone drum may belong to an earlier structure,
possibly that built by Ashoka.
 Fig. 23 Dhamekh stupa, Sarnath

Fig. 24 Floral and geometric patterns on the Dhamekh stupa
Earlier the stupa was called Dharma Chakra according to an inscription dated AD
1026 discovered at the archaeological site. Searching for the relic casket, Cunningham
bore a vertical shaft through the centre of the stupa down to its foundation. Local villagers
had told him about a tomb of some prince in ancient times. He found a slab dating back to
the sixth or seventh century with an inscription in Brahmi script. He also found a
foundation of original stupa made of Mauryan bricks.
The foundation of the stupa consists of a circular stone drum. About six metres above
the base, eight niches were discovered which displayed Buddha statues. Below these
niches are stone carvings depicting geometrical designs, svastika, floral patterns and
human figures as well as those of birds (Fig. 24). These carvings show designs and
features common during the Gupta period.
It is unclear who built the current Dhamekh stupa and for what purpose. Some
scholars (such as Rowland, 1953:134) believe that it was intended ‘to commemorate the
ordaining of his successor, Maitreya’.

Dharmarajika Stupa

This stupa lies in ruins. It underwent several enlargements till the twelfth century, which
shows its importance in the Buddhist art and religion.
The stupa once concealed a green marble casket containing human bones and
precious objects such as pearls and gold leaf. It was destroyed at the end of the eighteenth
century. It is not clear how and why it was destroyed. The casket is believed to have been
stolen but it is not known when or by whom. One view is that Jagat Singh, a Rajput
Maharaja who ruled from 1658 to 1684, destroyed it in 1794 (Sahni, 1923:17). Why
would he demolish the stupa and throw away the casket in the river Ganges? Presumably,
as a Hindu he did not like the Buddhist relics. He may have destroyed it to acquire
building materials for his own construction projects. The Gazetteer of Benares District for
1922 notes that Jonathan Duncan, Resident of Benares, who built a new bridge over the
Varna River, used some building materials obtained from the dismantled buildings.
Apart from the casket, an inscribed Buddha image was also discovered the base of
which is displayed in the Sarnath Archaeological Museum. The inscription notes that in
AD 1026 during the reign of king Mahipala of Gauda (Bengal), two brothers (Sthirapala
and Vasantapala) restored the Deer Park as well as the Ashoka stupa (presumably the
Dharmarajika stupa). However, there is no clear-cut historical evidence to support this
view.
The stupa was a hemispherical dome made of bricks with a drum (medhi) forming its
base. The dome was surmounted by several umbrellas (chhatris) presumably to provide
shade to the Buddha statues. The chhatris may have been set within a square railing.[21]
Apparently, the stupa was surrounded by a railing of Chunar sandstone not much of
which remains intact. It is believed that a few richly-carved pillars, still standing near the
main Stupa, belong to this railing.

Monasteries

The tradition of monasteries in Sarnath dates back to the reign of Ashoka in the third
century BC. Fa Hsien saw two monasteries with monks in residence. Hsuan Tsang also
saw several monasteries as noted above. Marshall discovered ‘three monasteries of the late
Kushana period and a fourth and extensive building which was constructed upon the ruins
of the three monasteries in the late medieval period.
The largest monastery was built in the twelfth century by Kumaradevi, the wife of
King Govindachandra who ruled Benares from 1114 to 1154. Not much is left of this and
other monasteries which may have been destroyed by the Muslim invaders in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries.
Did the segment of pediments discovered in the Sarnath ruins (Fig. 25) belong to
these monasteries? In the literature there is no clear-cut answer to this question.

Fig. 25 A decorated pediment, Sarnath

Stone Pillars

Sarnath was not known during the Sunga dynasty although a few railing pillars belonging
to this period have been discovered in good condition (Fig. 26). These pillars may have
belonged to the various monasteries in Sarnath which are believed to have been destroyed
either by the Muslim invaders or by a fire. Another theory is that these pillars formed a
part of ancient railings surrounding the Ashoka Pillar or other monuments. The carvings
on the pillars suggest that they belong to the Gupta period.
 Fig. 26 Round stone pillars, Sarnath

Mulaghanakuti Temple

The temple, built in 1931 (presumably on the foundations of the original temple of the
Gupta period) by the Mahabodhi Society, contains some relics of Buddha. Dharmapala, a
devout Buddhist and his disciples from Ceylon, were responsible for its construction. In
1891 he decided to build a Buddhist shrine on a piece of land which he had bought. The
temple was subsequently expanded with the purchase of additional plots of land by other
Buddhists from Ceylon.
The design of the temple is reminiscent of the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya. It
differs from the latter in that it has a long hall with a colonnaded passage in front. A gilded
bell at the entrance of the Temple is a gift of the Buddhist Society of Japan.
The temple is simple in design without any elaborate decorations. However, there are
some interesting frescoes on its walls. One painting by a Japanese artist (Kosetsu Nosu)
depicts scenes from Buddha’s life.
The temple contains some authentic Buddha relics found in Taxila (North Western
Frontier Province, NWFP, Pakistan).

Monument of the Five Disciples

In front of the Mulaghanaluti Temple is a monument dedicated to the first five disciples of
Buddha.


Buddha Statues

A large number of Buddha statues were discovered at the archaeological site in Sarnath.
Some are displayed in the Sarnath Archaeological Museum and others in the Kolkata
National Museum.
 Chapter 5

The Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati

Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati are known for the three most important stupas dating back
to the Ashoka period. The Great Stupa (or Stupa I) in Sanchi is the only surviving stupa;
the other two are in ruins. The remains of the last two monuments are displayed in
national museums in Kolkata, Chennai and London.
Sanchi is situated at a distance of 70 kilometres from Bhopal in the rural hinterland of
Madhya Pradesh. The discovery of ancient Buddhist ruins there suggests that the place
was an important centre of Buddhism. Yet it was not associated with Buddha’s life in any
way. There is no historical record showing that Buddha ever visited Sanchi or its
neighbourhood. Why did Buddhists choose this site for worship and meditation? There
may be several plausible reasons. First, Sanchi was very close to Vidisha (or Vidishagiri in
ancient days), an important religious centre for Hindu worship. Secondly, it was an
important trading centre at the confluence of Bes and Betwa Rivers. Rich merchants lived
in and near Vidisha who may have been attracted by egalitarian Buddhism. Thirdly, the
relics of Buddhist monks – Sariputta and Mugallana—were brought here, suggesting that
this was a holy place for Buddhists.
The Sanchi stupas and railings are associated with Ashoka which would suggest that
this place was of some importance during his reign. At a young age Ashoka spent several
years in Ujjain as the Viceroy of Malwa. He took keen interest in Sanchi where he
commissioned the construction of the Great Stupa, one of the most well-preserved of all
stupas in India. He married a Devi of Vidisha and his son Mahinda (or Mahindra
according to some authors) spent some time in a Sanchi monastery built by his mother,
which further reinforces the Buddhist credentials of Sanchi (Valisinha, 1948:192).
After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, Sanchi was associated with successive
kingdoms, namely, the Sungas (185-72 BC) and the early Andhras (or Satavahanas) (72-
25 BC) who ruled the Deccan. The four gateways and the railings around the Great Stupa
were added during the reign of the Andhras.
Sanchi remained an important Buddhist centre until the eleventh century when it
became deserted and forgotten till 1818 when General Mark Taylor, a British officer,
discovered it. Historical records do not throw any light on why it was deserted. Neither do
the archaeological excavations give any clue about its fate. Was Sanchi’s decay caused by
Muslim invasions as in the case of Sarnath discussed in Chapter 4? Or was it because of
the remoteness of the place? The remoteness of a hilly area covered by forests may also
explain why the monuments discovered there are in a very good condition. It was in 1912
when Sir John Marshall, the then Director-General of ASI, ordered restoration work at the
Buddhist site in Sanchi.

The Ashoka Empire collapsed in the second century BC when the Sungas (and later
Guptas) took over. However, it is believed that in the third century BC Ashoka had built in
Sanchi an earthen stupa at the same site as the Great Stupa. Later, the Sunga kings built
the Great Stupa in the second century BC on the site. The Andhras built the Stupa
gateways (toranas). Thus, Buddhist art in Sanchi spans four dynasties: Maurya, Sunga,
Andhra and Gupta.
The gateways depict animals, birds, foliage, flowers and plants as well as incidents
from Buddha’s life. Male and female divinities in the forms of yaksas and yaksis appear
on the gateways around the Great Stupa as well as among other pieces of art.
Religious themes invariably dominated Indian sculpture during the reign of Ashoka,
which is understandable since Ashoka adopted Buddhism and followed it during the rest
of his life.
We discuss below the Great Stupa and other monuments.

The Great Sanchi Stupa

The Great Stupa standing today was built by a Sunga king who rebuilt the original Ashoka
stupa, enlarged it and decorated it with balustrades, staircases and harmika on the top (Fig.
27). The gateways were added later. The Sunga king is known to have commissioned
intricate carvings on the gateways during the first century BC.

Fig. 27 Great Stupa, Sanchi

 It is one of the oldest stone structures to be found in India. In its original form, it was
a simple brick structure crowned by a chhatri, symbolising Buddha’s high rank.
Sometime in the second century BC, the Ashoka stupa was destroyed presumably for
acquiring building materials. Historical accounts do not give any indication of either the
name of the culprit or his motive to destroy it. Marshall (1918:36) suggests that the culprit
may have been the Sunga king, Pushyamitra, who ruled at this time. He was an ambitious
commander-in-chief of the Mauryas who ascended the throne by assassinating
Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king. He was known for his hostility towards Buddhism.
Therefore, it is plausible that he ordered the destruction of a Buddhist monument which he
saw as an eyesore.
Who ordered the restoration of the Great Stupa and when is shrouded in mystery.
Marshall believes that Pushyamitra’s son, Agnimitra, may have restored it. What was his
motivation to do so? Was he favourably inclined towards Buddhism? Or was he a
Buddhist himself? The fact that Pushyamitra’s successors in the Sunga dynasty built other
Buddhist monuments such as the Bharhut stupa suggests that the subsequent Sunga kings
not only tolerated Buddhism but actively promoted it.
Equally difficult to decipher is how and when the Buddhist establishment in Sanchi
came to an end. No Buddhist monuments here were found in the thirteenth century
although some Hindu Brahmanical plaques have been discovered. One may conclude that
Hinduism was in the ascendancy during the period and Buddhism was in decline.

Four Gateways and Railing

The four richly carved gateways with attached railings are the main attractions of the
Great Stupa. The first was the Southern gateway followed by the Northern, Eastern and
Western gateways respectively. Each of the four gateways illustrates the events of
Buddha’s life with rich and elaborate carvings. Apparently, the uppermost architraves of
each gateway originally contained a carving of the Wheel of Law. All are now destroyed
except a portion of the wheel which is still intact on the top of the Northern gateway (Fig.
28).


Fig. 28 Northern gateway to the Great Stupa, Sanchi

The Southern gateway, the oldest of the four, illustrates the birth of Gautama
Siddhartha as described in the jataka tales. Four lions figure on each pillar supporting the
architraves.
The Northern gateway with a portion of the Wheel of Law illustrates a miracle
associated with Buddha and numerous other scenes of his earlier life. Other scenes include
a monkey offering a bowl of honey to Buddha who is symbolised by a stupa. Elephants
support the architraves above the columns and horses with riders fill the gaps between
them.
The Eastern gateway shows young Gautama leaving his father’s house on a horse
and relinquishing worldly life. There is no human body on the horse, only empty space
under an umbrella. As noted above, Buddha was not personified in flesh and blood but in
the form of symbols in the early stages of Buddhism.
The Western Gateway depicts pot-bellied dwarfs supporting its architraves. Scenes on
the pillars include the temptation of Mara, and Buddha in seven different incarnations:
three represented by stupas and four by Bodhi tree. It also shows Buddha delivering his
first sermon in Sarnath.
There is some controversy concerning the timing of the gateways’ construction. Were
the four gateways built over a prolonged period? The name of the patron, Balamitra,
appears in both the oldest and the latest gateway which suggests that it may not have taken
too long before all the four gateways were built.
Sculptures on the gateways include figures of animals, for example, elephants,
horses, lions, deer, water buffaloes and monkeys. There are also birds. The Indian natural
landscape is depicted by ornamental trees, waterfalls, pools, mountains and rivers. But
perhaps the most beautiful figures are those of the yaksis who serve as brackets for the
lowest architraves of the gateways.
 The sensuous and amorous scenes on the gateways are inconsistent with Buddha’s
teachings of simple and non-sensuous life for the attainment of enlightenment. Could this
incongruity be due to a lack of any control of the subject matter of the structure and its
quality? Sanchi sculpture did not enjoy any royal patronage. It was sponsored by
donations of the common folk (see Chapter 2) which may explain a lack of adherence to
any strict standards.
Notwithstanding the above, the Sanchi gateway sculpture ‘is marked by its rhythm,
symmetry, decorative beauty and perfect handling of the floral and plant motifs’ (Mitra,
2003:38).


Yaksas and Yaksis

Images of yaksas and yaksis are an important feature of the gateway sculpture. They are
deities from the Indian Hindu tradition usually standing on a pedestal of lotus flower or on
an elephant (as in Bharhut) and representing kings and queens. They often appear side by
side with nagas, another example of the Hindu mythology which predates the Aryan
traditions.
Some yaksis are seen as tree goddesses (like dryads in Greek mythology). Tree and
serpent worship is associated with ancient pre-Aryan religion. The yaksi resting on tree
branches may symbolise not only the life and fertility of trees but also the fact that Buddha
attained enlightenment under a tree.
The yaksis of the north (as in Bharhut, Sanchi and Mathura) are different from those
in the South where they are carved in metal rather than stone. Could the differences in
metalworking and stone-working techniques explain differences in the shape of yaksis? It
seems more plausible that the South Indian yaksis depict a different ethnic group, namely,
Dravidians, who are slimmer, more slender and less voluptuous than the North Indian
yaksis.


Other Monuments in Sanchi

Temples

The pillars in front of the Southern gateway of the Great Stupa are the remains of a
monastery, a chaitya hall or a temple (known as Temple 18). The building resembles the
rock-cut chaitya halls in Karle caves in Maharashtra. The main difference between the two
lies in the nature of the apse. Unlike the cave temple of Karle, the apse in Temple 18 is
surrounded by a solid wall instead of columns. Windows may have been provided to let in
light in the temple’s free-standing structure. However, today nothing remains of these
windows (Marshall, 1918).
The chaitya-griha is built on a raised platform with pillars on the sides and the front.
The standing pillars are square in shape and slightly tapering towards the top. They rest on
stone foundations instead of sinking in the ground. There is a front porch approached by a
flight of steps. There was a stupa within the apse of the temple: in 1851, General Frederick
Charles Maisey allegedly found its remains.
Temple 18 may have been built in the seventh century AD (in around AD 650) by a
Sunga king. There is some evidence that it is built on an earlier structure. A series of floors
have been discovered below the floor of the apse, which would suggest an earlier building.
Temple 17 near Temple 18, one of the earliest Buddhist temples dating back to the
fourth century AD, has simple architecture – a flat roof and a porch with four pillars in
front. The front pillars are carved but the interior is quite plain.
Although an unpretentious building, it represents an intellectual dimension of Gupta
art whose characteristic features, namely well-balanced proportions and ornamentation of
the exterior, have been likened to those of the Athenian architecture of Acropolis, for
example (Ibid.:105). Despite these similarities, it is unlikely that the Gupta artists copied
the temple from western prototypes. Marshall (Ibid:106) notes that ‘this little shrine, in
fact reflects in its every stone the temperament of the people and of the epoch which
produced it, an epoch which was primarily creative and not imitative’.
Close to Temple 17 is the statue of a fertility goddess with a disfigured face.
There are two more temples. Temple 31 is built on a high platform and consists of a
plain pillared chamber with a flat roof. It contains a large Buddha seated on a lotus throne.
Temple 40, an apsidal chaitya hall, was until recently buried underground. According to
Marshall, it resembled the rock chaitya halls of Bhaja (Maharashtra) in western India. The
charred remains of timber found near it suggest that it was built of wood and may have
been destroyed by a fire.
It dates back to the Mauryan period. Its style of architecture and the carvings on
pillars in the early Brahmi script suggest that it was built around the first century BC or
even earlier.
Later buildings include a monastery/temple known as Temple 45 which contained
ornamental doorways and a Buddha with an oval halo.

Stupas

There are two stupas, numbered 2 and 3, situated not far from the Great Stupa. A striking
feature of stupa 2 is the surrounding circular stone balustrade which is decorated with
hundreds of round and semi-circular medallions. It is older than the Great Stupa.
Stupa 3 is situated in the northeast of the Great Stupa. Its hemispherical dome is
crowned with a polished stone umbrella which is of special religious significance because
it contained the relics of two well-known Buddha disciples, namely, Sariputta and
Mugallana. Its architecture suggests that it may have been built some time during 150-140
BC. The stupa has only one gateway unlike the Great Stupa, which has four. One
architrave of the gateway shows fertility goddesses, demons and floral patterns. Another
shows worshippers and Bodhi trees symbolic of Buddha’s presence.
Stupas 2 and 3 are similar in architectural style except that the former does not have
any gateway decorating any of its four entrances. There is a sharp contrast in stupas 1 and
3 between the plainness of the dome surface and the profuse decoration of gateways and
railings.
A combination of local folk art (expressed in yaksas and yaksis and images of many
donors) and Buddha’s teachings are found on all the three stupas discussed above.

Ashoka Pillar

As in Sarnath, Sanchi has an Ashoka Pillar with four lions which was probably built in the
third century BC. However, this pillar is different from that in Sarnath in that the lions are
not supporting the Wheel of Law.

Bharhut Stupa and Railings

Bharhut, where the stupa was discovered, is about 14 kilometres from the Satna railway
station in Madhya Pradesh. It was built by the Sunga kings.
In 1873, during his first visit to Bharhut, Cunningham (1879:4) saw a flat-topped
mound with the ruins of a small Buddhist vihara and three pillars of a railing and
connecting rails or cross-bars. On his second visit, accompanied by Beglar, his assistant,
he managed to salvage some portion of the railings and the Eastern gateway from the site.
[22] They dug up the space inside the railings and found portions of the stupa covered with

plaster on the outside. Realising that these objects would not be safe in Bharhut, they were
moved to the National Museum in Kolkata.
Reliefs on the Bharhut stupa dating back to the middle of the second century BC, are
perhaps the earliest and among the most important pieces of Buddhist art. Sivaramamurti
(1978a:61) notes: ‘No other monument in India, except the rail from Amaravati, has
provided such a wealth of scenes from the Jatakas, as well as scenes from the life of the
Buddha, as the rail from Bharhut.’
The Bharhut gateways and railings imitate the wooden structures and sculpture
popular during that period. The tradition of wooden sculpture found in Bharhut must have
preceded the Bharhut stupa. No traces of it have survived which is not surprising since
wood rots and does not last as long as stone.
 The Bharhut railing sculpture consists of the following:

Yaksas and yaksis.

Medallions containing amorous couples, overflowing pots of flowers and other
symbols of abundance.
Jataka tales of Buddha’s life.
Lotus motifs and other crescent-shaped decorations of flowers, jewels and fruits.

The four stupa gateways are characterized by:

Square posts with capitals supporting a triple architrave.

Voluted ends (in the shape of a spiral, scroll-shaped ornament).
Top crowned with Buddhist symbols.
Bracket figures in the form of yaksis provide additional supports (see The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1981b:187).

Bharhut sculpture symbolises different forms of abundance, for example,

overflowing flower pots, lotus flower, buds and leaves, clothes, jewellery and fruit. This
style of sculpture spread to different parts of north India. For example, it is found in
Mathura in UP and Bodhgaya in Bihar as the remains of monuments there suggest.
Cunningham discovered two posts, which led him to believe in the existence of an
outer railing built at a later date. However, Mitra (1971:93) argues that ‘the stylistic
considerations of the figures on these posts do not suggest a much later date for them as
postulated by Cunningham’. He believes that the ‘pieces of the railing formed part of the
balustrade around the upper processional path above the drum of the stupa’.
Unlike the Sanchi stupa, very few scenes from the jatakas are found in the Bharhut
stupa railings which have round and semi-circular medallions. Many railings have full
medallions in the middle (for example, the monkey chief and the king of Varanasi) and a
half medallion on the top and the bottom.
The reliefs on the pillars include several yaksis whose names are indicated as well as
those of donors who financed their construction. Six yaksas and yaksis were discovered at
different entrances to the stupa courtyard (Fig. 29). Only one gateway to the Bharhut stupa
was discovered. The gateways were added many years later by Dhanabhuti, the grandson
of King Visvadeva during the reign of the Sungas (Ibid.: 95).
 Fig. 29 A Bharhut yaksi


Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that the art work of the Bharhut
stupa was financed through collective donations of Buddhists. A large number of names
and sometimes even donor figures appear in its sculpture (as is the case in the Karle rock
temple).

Amaravati Stupa and Railing

There is controversy about the date of origin of the Amaravati stupa. Some observers (for
example, Knox, 1992) believe that it is the oldest of the three stupas, built in the third
century BC during the reign of Ashoka. Others (Barrett, 1954; Dehejia, 1997) claim that it
dates back to the first century AD. However, one thing is clear: there was a Buddhist
monument in Amaravati before the Andhra rule. Sarkar and Nainar (1992) note that the

history of Amaravati stupa (or Maha-chaitya) extended over a millennium. They believe
that its first phase dates back to the Ashoka period when Mahadeva was sent as a
missionary to the Amaravati region who may have laid the foundations of a Buddhist
complex which developed much later. This view finds archaeological support in the
discovery of a fragment of a polished pillar bearing an Ashokan edict.
The expansion and reconstruction of the Amaravati stupa was completed in AD 200
during the reign of the Andhras. The subsequent periods witnessed expansion, renovation
and replacement of the granite railing by a limestone railing.[23] The railings, pillars and
stupa drum are richly decorated. All relate to Buddha’s life in one way or another.
The Amaravati Stupa is considered one of the most important examples of Buddhist
art in South India. In the nineteenth century, it was discovered by European archaeologists
who could only conjecture what it might have looked like. It is believed to have been quite
similar to the Great Stupa of Sanchi in size, decoration and other architectural features.
The casing slab of the stupa is displayed in the Chennai Museum. The cross-bars and the
medallions on the gateways and railings are displayed in the British Museum, London.
Excavations at the site in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries suggest that a large
number of sculptures were stolen and were used in various local building projects. Little is
known about the exact location of various artefacts as no detailed records were kept.
Notwithstanding, scholars have speculated about the form and location of the original
stupa and its railings. It is believed that the original dome of pale green limestone was
painted with bright colours. Fragments of plaster garlands discovered at the site probably
belong to the upper portions of the dome. In those days during festivals, garlands of vines
and flowers were used to decorate buildings.
The excavations have led to the discovery of the following artefacts:

Drum of the brick stupa.

Circular alignment of the railing.
Railing pillars depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
Round medallions (presumably on the railings as in the Bharhut stupa) with
carvings of the jatakas Mandhata, for example).
Drum slabs showing Buddha and Bodhisattvas, stupas and lions.
Relief panels.
Statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

Various pillars and drum slabs illustrate stories from Buddha’s life. For example, one
limestone pillar (Fig. 30) depicts the conversion to Buddhism of Buddha’s half brother,
Sundarananda (or Nanda). The figure under the roof supported by columns is that of
Sundari, Nanda’s consort. The relief shows Nanda looking back at his wife, Sundari, to
suggest that he was leaving her reluctantly. The pillar is also carved on the reverse;
carvings on the back depict Buddha’s life including enlightenment. A lime stone drum slab
shows the scene of the Great Departure (Fig. 31). Another pillar shows detail of floral
decorations (Fig. 32).
 Fig. 30 A limestone pillar showing the conversion of Nanda, Amaravati
©Trustees of the British Museum, London



Fig. 31 Great departure of Prince Siddharatha, Amaravati
©Trustees of the British Museum, London








Fig. 32 Details of floral patterns on a railing pillar, Amaravati
©Trustees of the British Museum, London


Some Amaravati reliefs reflect non-Indian elements. Others, based on North Indian
style, are indigenous. Zimmer (1955:81) remarks:‘…with its fluid, masterful handwriting
and the suppleness of its gracefully restless forms, Amaravati stands at the threshold of the
golden age of the Gupta period and is a true forerunner of the brilliant achievements of the
subsequent Middle and South Indian styles’.

Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Bodhgaya: A Comparison

Amaravati and Sanchi sculptures represent the early Indian tradition of art. During this
early phase, the main emphasis was on landscape and animal motifs. A deliberate attempt
was made not to crowd the scenes with human figures which appeared later during the
mature period of Amaravati sculpture.
 The Great Stupa in Sanchi carried to perfection the Bharhut style of sculpture. But
there are differences between the narrative reliefs of Bharhut and those of Sanchi (see
Table 5.1). In the Sanchi stupa the reliefs show greater depth and more crowded
composition on the four gateways, for example. The Bharhut railing is carved on both
sides whereas the Sanchi railing is bare. While the figures show no emotion (they look sad
and indifferent) in the Bharhut stupa, those of the Sanchi stupa look happy and animated
as is shown by vivid gestures and movement. Although the yaksi goddesses are the same
in Sanchi and Bharhut, in the former they are shown in a very different style. There is
greater concern here for the charms of the body.

Table 5.1 Characteristics of the railings in Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Bodhgaya

Amaravati (Andhra
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) Bharhut (Madhya Bodhgaya
Pradesh) Pradesh) (Bihar)

Mauryas (third century BC); toranas Sungas (middle of Andhras (second century (second
Mauryas
Origin added around the middle of the first
second century BC). AD).
century BC. century BC).

Quality Inferior to
of Advance over Bharhut. Good but heavy. Very good. Bharhut and
sculpture Sanchi.

Carvings No carvings (bare). Carvings on both sides. Carvings on both sides. carvings.
Some
on railing

Shape of Round. Square. Square, rectangular. Square,
railings rectangular.

The Wheel,
statues,
Types of The Wheel, the tree, the stupa. The Wheel, turbaned Lotus flower, animals, yaksas,
yaksas, scenes from human figures, Buddhist
motifs
Buddha’s life. legends. scenes from
Buddha’s life.

There is one major difference between the monuments in Sanchi and those in
Bharhut. While the former remained most well-preserved (perhaps thanks to thick forests,
remote hilly location and sand storms which covered them for centuries), those in Bharhut
were destroyed and looted by the local villagers. Also very few jataka carvings were
discovered on the railings or pillars of the Bharhut stupa whereas those of the Sanchi stupa
are full of jatakas narrating Buddha’s earlier incarnations.
However, there are also similarities. In both Sanchi and Bharhut stupas, the
compositions are similar, and they are arranged in horizontal rows. They both show the
sculptor’s love and eye for detail. Cunningham (1879:11) notes that the Bharhut railings
‘are of the same pattern as those of the Buddhist Railings at Buddha Gaya, Bhilsa and
Mathura’.
The styles of Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Bodhgaya (Mahabodhi Temple) are
compared in Table 5.1. Although all four belong to more or less the same period the style
of Bodhgaya is of much poorer quality. Bodhgaya scultpture lacks the ‘rich proliferation’
found in others.[24]
The differences in the quality of workmanship of the different types of railings may
be explained by the artisans’ professional experience and qualifications. The Sanchi stupa
received royal patronage of the kings who hired highly trained artisans. On the other hand,
the railings built in Bodhgaya and Bharhut may have been the work of individual artisans
who did not enjoy any royal patronage or may not have possessed the requisite skills.
They may have worked happily out of religious zeal and devotion. Inscriptions on some
sculptures note the names of ordinary citizens as well as monks and nuns who made
donations.

Concluding Remarks

In this chapter, we have discussed three of the finest Buddhist monuments from ancient
India: Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati. While the first two are located in the north of India,
the third is located in the south.
A comparison of the three stupas shows that sculpture of all three is of very high
artistic quality although that of Sanchi tends to be a bit heavy. Their sculpture is superior
to that of Bodhgaya discussed in Chapter 3. Yet the four types of sculpture and stupas
belong to more or less the same period.
Although there is controversy about the origin of the three stupas, all three are
generally attributed to Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire which collapsed in the early years
of the second century BC. With this collapse, Buddhist art and sculpture also disappeared.
Sculpture of the mid -second century BC is quite different from that of the third
century BC. As is shown by the discoveries in Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Mathura and Sanchi,
several schools of art and sculpture developed in northern India. For example, in the third
century BC figures carved in the round medallions of stone or metal were quite popular.
However, this type of sculpture seems to have disappeared in the second century BC.
 Chapter 6

The Cave Temples of Ajanta, Ellora and Karle

Ajanta, Ellora and Karle in Maharashtra, situated near Aurangabad, are known for the
rock-hewn temples and monasteries dating back to centuries before Christ and extending
into the seventh and ninth centuries.
While Ajanta temples are entirely Buddhist (30 cave temples including two
unfinished ones),[25] those in Ellora have 12 Buddhist temples/viharas, and a few Jain and
Hindu temples. The earliest in Ajanta are caves 9 and 10 dating back to the first and
second centuries BC (others in Ajanta were built in the fifth and sixth centuries). The
Karle caves are said to have been excavated in around AD 100-150 (some argue that they
date back to pre-Christian era). The last to be built were the Buddhist caves in Ellora,
excavated in the seventh or eighth century.
The world owes its gratitude to British officers of the 28 Madras Cavalry who
discovered the Ajanta caves by chance in 1819 when they were hunting tigers. They saw
an animal going into a cave and thus found the cave temples and monasteries.
The cave temples and monasteries were excavated primarily for the accommodation
of monks during the rainy season when the valley was often flooded. From time
immemorial, Indian ascetics meditated and worshipped in caves which offered permanent
abode compared to perishable wooden huts.[26] In Nepal and parts of Tibet, Lama
Buddhists continue to meditate in rock-cut monasteries in caves which offer other
advantages as well. They are cool in summer and dry during the monsoon rains which
may at least partly explain why cave temples were popular in ancient India (Buddhist
caves were also built in China and Central Asia).
The caves of western India (mainly Maharashtra) represent the early phase of Andhra
(Satavahana) sculpture and architecture.[27] The Deccan Andhras were known for the
patronage of art as were the Gupta rulers in the north. As discussed in Chapter 2, the
Andhras and Guptas were Hindus following Brahmanical faith, but they tolerated
Buddhism. Ajanta art is attributed to the Vakatakas who were the successors of the
Andhras.
Since many Buddhist monuments were built during the reigns of the above two
kingdoms, their rulers are believed to have patronised their construction. However,
historical records do not throw much light on who actually patronised and built the Ajanta
cave temples. Some inscriptions suggest that some individual families financed at least
some sculptures and paintings. But it would seem inconceivable that such a large number
of cave temples could be built without collective or royal patronage.
There was no preplanning of the general cutting of caves. So the cave temples sprang
up sporadically without following any time sequence. Original staircases which led to
them have since disappeared.
The Ajanta and Ellora cave temples are actually chaitya-grihas, places of worship as
well as viharas for the accommodation of Buddhist monks. There are five chaityas (Caves
9, 10, 19, 26 and 29) and 24 viharas. One of the first chaityas (Cave 10) dates back to the
second century BC as the palaeographical records suggest (Mitra, 1971:175). The other
temples are more recent, built between the fifth and seventh centuries.
The Ajanta caves are unique in presenting a combination of three arts, namely,
painting, sculpture and architectural design. It is very rare that these three arts are found in
a single historical monument.
The Ellora Buddhist cave temples are not decorated with paintings on walls or
ceilings unlike the Ajanta temples. But they contain many sculptures of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas. It is possible that these temples/viharas were also originally painted, but no
remains of any painting are visible today.
The temples found in the southernmost group were built from the sixth to eighth
century during the reigns of early Western Chalukyas and of Rashtrakutas who succeeded
them.

Ajanta

Ajanta village is situated about ten kilometres from the site of the cave temples which are
located at a distance of about 100 kilometres from Aurangabad. It is a hilly region with
Sahyadri hills separating the coastal region from the mainland. The hills are built of basalt
rock considered ideal for carving.

Paintings

It is believed that all the Ajanta caves and sculptures were painted at one time, but very
few traces of this paint remain now. Generally, the walls and ceilings were painted. The
remains of the paint on walls and ceilings have survived in Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17. Caves 2
and 17 have painted ceilings.
Prehistoric paintings have not survived in India since the material used was
perishable and thus could not withstand the ravages of time. The earliest paintings
belonging to the second and first centuries BC are reminiscent of the relief sculpture of
Sanchi (Chapter 5). The most significant amongst ancient Indian paintings are those found
on the walls and ceilings of the Ajanta cave temples and monasteries.
Ajanta mural paintings inspired similar paintings of damsels in Sigiriya in Ceylon
(Sri Lanka) (see Fig. 12, Chapter 2). The latter are almost copies of Ajanta murals in
respect of the technique, colour and theme. The cave paintings of Bamiyan in Afghanistan
and others in Central Asian monasteries also reflect the Ajanta tradition.
The Ajanta murals spanned two periods, namely:

Second and first centuries BC: Some remnants of the paintings are found in Caves 9
and 10, which are perhaps the earliest to have survived in India. The themes of the
murals in Cave 10 include worship of the Bodhi tree, Sama Jataka (Sama looking
after his blind parents even when he was wounded) and the Chhaddanta Jataka (the
noble elephant who gave one of his six tusks to the wicked hunter who wounded
him). These are stories of love, compassion and non-violence preached by Buddhism.

Fifth to eighth century: Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17 contain remnants of murals which

coincided with the spurt of architectural activity during these centuries. The earlier
period of these murals coincides with the reign of the Vakatakas of the Deccan.
Therefore, they are often called the Vakataka paintings.

Vakataka art of Ajanta paintings (see Sivaramamurti, 1978:120) has six features:

Variety of form (rupabheda).

Correct proportion (pramana).
Depiction of emotion (bhava).
Infusion of grace (lavanya-yojana).
Verisimilitude (sadrisya).
Mixing of colours to produce a modelling effect (varnika bhanga).

The artistic quality of murals started declining from the sixth century onwards. The
narrative scenes became more repetitive and the later paintings lacked the earlier vigour,
delicacy and imagination (Deshpande, 1967:39).
The Ajanta paintings were done in the tempera technique on smooth plaster surfaces.
Two coats of plaster were applied. The first coat, coarse in texture, consisted of a layer of
ferruginous earth and clay mixed with vegetal fibres or paddy husks. The second coat of
lime was applied to smoothen rough plaster. Drawings were then outlined and filled with
different colours (yellow, red, blue, white, black and green). Glue was used as a binding
medium. The blue colour, lapis lazuli, was imported from Iran.
 The themes of the murals include:

Contemporary economic, social and cultural life as depicted in scenes of palaces and
courts as well as villages and hamlets.
Dress code, ornaments, musical instruments and weapons.
Jatakas, or stories of Buddha’s life before and after enlightenment.
Religious divinities, gods and semi-gods, Buddha, Bodhisattvas, nagas, apsara
dancers, and yaksas.

The paintings on ceilings include flowers, plants, birds, fruit, animals, human and
divine figures. However, most of the wall paintings carry religious themes which generally
centre on Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
During the first period (second and first centuries BC) Buddha is shown in the form
of a Bodhi tree or a stupa (for example, in Caves 10 and 19). The second type of murals,
dating back to the fifth and sixth centuries, personify Buddha as a human body introduced
by the form of Buddhism. The also promoted the idea of the Buddhist paradise indicated
in the Ajanta murals by the flying celestial beings amidst clouds, as for example, in Caves
1 and 17.
Some examples of the themes of particular mural paintings in the Ajanta cave
temples are presented below.

A. Floral Decorations

The paintings of the ceilings are largely decorative and floral showing birds, animals,
flowers and other vegetation. Examples include decoration of a ceiling of the inner shrine;
and a floral decoration in Cave 2 (Fig. 33); and part of a ceiling decoration in Cave 17.
Some of the best murals are indeed found in Caves 2 and 17.
 Fig. 33 Round floral decorations, Ajanta ©Archaeological Survey of India, New
Delhi


B. Scenes from Buddha’s Life

The Temptation of Buddha (Cave 1): This is the story of temptations of Mara and her
daughters who tried to distract Buddha from meditating under the Bodhi tree. It is believed
that Mara tried in vain to use her three daughters, Rati (lust), Trishna (thirst) and Arati
(delight) to seduce Buddha with their charm.
Miracle at Sravasti (Cave 2) shows several Buddhas in different symbolic gestures
(mudras). Some persons in Buddha’s audience were critical of him. To silence his critics,
Buddha performed a miracle: he multiplied himself causing embarrassment to the critics.
Scene of Buddha preaching shows a section of a large congregation (including
foreigners) listening to Buddha preaching the Dharma.
Entrance to the monastery (Cave 17): Over the monastery door there are eight
compartments each containing a yaksa couple. Above these is a row of seven past
Buddhas and Maitreya, the future Buddha. A sculptured figure of a deity on makara
(crocodile) flanks each side of the doorway.
Story of the Hamsa Jataka (Cave 17): This jataka story depicts a fowler catching
the Golden Goose, which is in fact a Bodhisattva in disguise. The other geese of the flock
fly away in panic.[28]
Story of the Simhala Jataka (Cave 17) depicts part of the story of Sinhalavadana.
King Simhala, under an umbrella, sets out from the city gate on a white elephant at the
head of an army to conquer demons. The accompanying vassals under umbrellas are also
riding on elephants. The fluttering flags and the swinging trunks of elephants provide a
forward movement to the procession.
Story of the Mahajanaka Jataka (Cave 1) Mahajanaka’s father (the King of
Mithila) was killed by his brother who usurped the throne. Mahajanaka sailed for
Suvarnabhumi with his merchandise but was shipwrecked. A goddess brought him back to
Mithila where he married the usurper’s daughter and became a king. Eventually he
decided to become a recluse.

C. Bodhisattvas and Apsaras

Many murals in the Ajanta cave temples depict bodhisattvas in one form or another. As
noted above, a Bodhisattva was disguised as a Golden Goose. Another example is that of a
standing bodhisattva with a lotus in his hand (Cave 1): It is the figure of Padampani. One
is struck by its size and the setting: a dark princess, attendants, peacocks and gandharvas.
Zimmer (1983:187) finds ‘an intimacy of atmosphere in this fresco that is akin to the
quality of book illustrations or larger miniatures…’ Professor Lorenzo Cecconi of Italy
observes:

the painting ‘evinces a surprising portrayal of art on account of its pictorial

qualities; this painting recalls to memory the figures of Michael Angelo in the
Sistine Chapel; the design and the expression of the face are exceptionally
surprising…’
(cited in Valisinha, 1948:196)[29]

Fig. 34 shows a close-up of a nymph with rich ornaments and tassels on her forehead.
It is part of a scene of flying apsara couples and other celestials going for the worship of
Buddha.

Fig. 34 A close-up of an apsara (Cave 17), Ajanta ©Archaeological Survey of India,
New Delhi
Sculpture

Ajanta sculpture of today is different from its original form in plaster paint discovered in
Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17. It is closely connected with the architecture of the time.
Even the earliest Ajanta Caves 9 and 19 do not contain any early sculpture dating
from the second century BC to the second century AD. This early sculpture was
discovered in the rock caves of Karle, Bhaja, Kanheri and Nasik about 70 kilometres
southwest of Ajanta caves.
The impressive facades of Caves 19 and 26 (Fig. 35), especially the standing figure
of Buddha in Cave 19, clearly show the influence of Mathura School of Art.

Fig. 35 Carvings on the facade of Cave 19, Ajanta

Cave 9 is a small chaitya hall with a well-balanced facade showing standing Buddhas
and a ribbed chaitya-window on the second floor. Originally the window was decorated
with wooden lattice-work as is suggested by the motifs above the cornice. The chaitya hall
is believed to have been built during the first century BC. In the interior of Cave 9, the
ornaments of female figures as well as their coiffures and costumes, are similar to those of
the Sanchi reliefs (see Chapter 5). A gateway through the walls also reminds one of the
Sanchi gateways.
The facade of Cave 19 is profusely carved with the images of seated and standing
Buddhas besides a chaitya window. A yaksa figure is found on either side of the chaitya
window. In addition, on the wall to the right of the entrance is the sculpture of the
Nagaraja with his consort, both seated on a rocky platform (Fig. 36).

Fig. 36 Nagaraja and his consort (Cave 19), Ajanta

Both the facade and the interior of Cave 19 adhere to the earlier architectural plans
although the cave temple was built at the end of the fifth or the beginning of sixth century.
The characteristic features of the facade are:

Profuse carving on pillars and pilasters.

Standing figures of yaksa (Kubera) on either side of the chaitya window. The
guardian yaksas standing in a tribhanga posture with tight belts around their bellies
are carved in the classical Gupta-Vakataka style.
Carved Buddhas in the niches.
Standing Buddha with a begging bowl carried by his son, Rahula, with his mother,
Yasodhara, by his side. There is also a painting of the same scene in Cave 17.
Nagaraja and his consort (Fig. 36).
 The interior chaitya hall is adorned by a stupa (more developed and sophisticated
than the stupa in Cave 10, with Buddha standing in front.) (Fig. 37)

Fig. 37 Chaitya interior with a standing Buddha (Cave 19), Ajanta

The facade of Cave 26 is similar to that of Cave 19; so is the interior prayer hall. But
Cave 26 is much larger; also in the prayer hall Buddha is seated, not standing. Unlike in
Cave 19, the stupa here is relegated. The emphasis is on the seated Buddha image under a
pavilion. There is also profuse sculptural decoration on the facade which has roof panels
showing Buddha flanked by attendants, flying figures, lion heads and foliage.
In general, sculpture on the facades is heavy and unrefined. It lacks the spiritual
expression and sensitivity. In contrast, in the inner shrines the Buddha images with
spiritual expression look more refined.

Noteworthy sculpture of Cave 26 in the interior prayer hall includes:

Assault and Temptation of Mara: Buddha is shown seated under a Bodhi tree. On the
left is Mara (Buddha’s cousin) riding an elephant accompanied by her demon forces
attacking Buddha.
 Colossal figure of Buddha reclining (carved on the left wall) on a couch between two
trees.

Ellora

Ellora (or Verule) is situated at a distance of about 25 kilometres northwest of
Aurangabad. It is quite close to the site of the Ajanta caves. The ancient village of
Ellapura included ten settlements named after King Ela. It was a holy place which was
sacred due to the location there of a Hindu phallus in the form of fire (Jyotir linga).
According to legend, King Ela was cured of an incurable disease after bathing in Ellapura.
So his queen decided to build a Shiva temple there (Dhavalikar, 2003b).
The Buddhist temples in Ellora consist mainly of monasteries and prayer halls which
can be divided into two groups: (a) the Dhadwada group consisting of Caves 1 to 5, and
(b) Caves 6 to 12 which belong to a later period. Some monasteries have two storeys (for
example, Cave 11), others three (such as Cave 12).
The origin of the Ellora Buddhist cave temples is uncertain. Some believe that they
were the first to be built in late sixth century before the Hindu and Jain cave temples.
Others (for example, ibid.:9) claim that they were built after the Hindu and Jain temples.
They are known only for their sculpture (there were no paintings) the main theme of
which consisted of Buddha and Bodhisattvas, male and female devotees and celestial
nymphs or apsaras. Buddha images are generally presented in three states (mudras) of
Buddha: (a) meditating, (b) preaching and (c) touching the ground with the index finger of
his right hand.
Cave temples 2, 10, 11 and 12 are the most interesting examples of Buddhist
sculptures. The facade of Cave 2 is flanked by guardians (dvarapalas) wearing head
dresses. A female figure between them and the door is that of Tara, the Buddhist goddess.
The temple has a hall with columns and galleries along each side which are covered with a
row of large figures of preaching Buddha accompanied by several Bodhisattvas.
Cave temple 10 was apparently frequented by carpenters and is, therefore, known as
the carpenters’ workshop (Fig. 38) In the prayer hall it has a stupa known as the ‘Lord of
the Arts (Visvakarma). It is a two-storey cave temple like the Ajanta Cave temples 9 and
19. There is a veranda at the lower level. It differs from the Ajanta cave temples in the
sense that it has a shrunken chaitya window, not a broad one as in Ajanta. The decorative
window has flying apsaras or nymphs on either side. The Cave interior is adorned with a
large Buddha with two Bodhisattvas by his side.
 Fig. 38 Facade of Cave 10 (Carpenters’ cave), Ellora


Karle

Karle is a town in Maharashtra situated near Lonavale about 60 kilometres from Pune. The
Buddhist rock-cave temples were built here over two periods: from the second century BC
to second century AD, and from the fifth century to tenth. Historians associate the temple
complex with the Mahasamghika sect of Buddhism which was popular in the region at the
time. The date of its construction is a subject of controversy, however. Most probably it
was built in the early second century (Béguin, 2009:68), thus making it much older than
most of the Ajanta and Ellora cave temples.
The Karle monastery is a multi-storey building with large images of loving couples
(mithunas), presumably donors who financed the construction of the monastery (Fig. 39).
Six sets of these mithunas adorn the front wall of the veranda, representing highly
sensuous sculpture (voluptuous women with well-endowed breasts and bottoms),
something rather inappropriate for a Buddhist temple (see Chapter 2). The worship of a
fertility goddess in those days may explain sculpture’s voluptuousness. Similar sculpture
also appears on the gateways of the Sanchi stupa (see Chapter 5).
Fig. 39 A loving couple on the facade of the Karle monastery © Archaeological
Survey of India, New Delhi
 The facade of the Karle monastery is not as well-proportioned and well-balanced as
that in Bedsa and Ajanta Cave Temple 19. Its unsymmetrical shape may have been due to
‘a flaw or fall in the rock face […] as much of the right side of the facade has become
completely obscured’ (Brown, 1956:30).
Two pillars, detached from the main facade with lion capitals, decorate the entrance
to the Karle temple. This practice of placing pillars at the front of a temple building was
not peculiar to Buddhism. It dates back to the Egyptian pharaohs who built obelisks at a
temple entrance (for example, at Luxor temple).
Although Buddhism did not recognise the caste system or social inequalities among
its followers, some signs of social hierarchy among the Buddhist monks is indicated by the
different types of accommodation for the ordinary monks and superior priests. While the
former were accommodated in large dormitories, single chambers were built for those of
superior rank (for example, Vihara no. 4 in Cave 10).
With the discussion of Ajanta, Ellora and Karle cave temples and monasteries in this
chapter, we come to the end of a review of Buddhist art in India. Our next task is to
discuss the nature and extent of the Indian influence on Buddhist art in Southeast Asia.
Case studies are presented of Cambodia (Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom and other shrines)
and Thailand (Ayutthaya and Bangkok) in Chapters 7 to 9.
 Chapter 7

The Temples and Sculptures of Angkor

‘Angkor was not only a city; more important, it was an immense technological
achievement, from which the agricultural prosperity of the whole Cambodian plain
derived […] It was ‘essentially an elaborate system of artificial lakes, canals and radiating
irrigation channels that watered a huge acreage of rice paddy […] it was the basis for the
strength and prosperity of the Khmer Empire’ (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica,
1981c:260).
The Khmer kings built several artificial mountains in the plains of Angkor in keeping
with the Indian mountain mythology.[30] Each was crowned with a shrine containing
images of gods and kings and their families. Shrine architecture is based on Indian ideas.
Yet one does not find any such parallel in India. The apsaras at Angkor Wat (see below)
are also rooted in the Indian mythology.
A distinctly Khmer art developed under King Indravarman I (877-889) who was
responsible for an initial plan for the city of Angkor. For several centuries, ruins of this
city were lost in the thick jungle which is not surprising because rain and termites in open
buildings in tropical countries lead to prolific vegetation. In 1855 or 1860, a French
missionary (Father Charles Emile Bouillevaux) and a French archaeologist (Henri
Mouhot) discovered them (Coedès, 1969:19).
Controversy surrounds the nature and purpose of various buildings in Angkor. Were
they palaces for the Khmer kings? Or were they built as temples for worship? If temples,
why so many over such a large area which must have drained the resources of the Khmer
empire? The Khmer kings may have built them as tombs which is confirmed by the royal
ashes found in the bases of the statues (Ibid.:21).
Another controversy concerns the interpretation of a large number of statues
discovered in Angkor. Some believe they represent Hindu and Buddhist deities. Others
argue that they represent the portraits of kings and princes since the Khmer kings saw
themselves as gods or their personification.[31] This concept of god king is peculiar to the
Khmers with no parallel among Hindu or Buddhist kings in India.
Indian Influence

Chenla and Funan were the two early Indianised states in Southeast Asia. In around AD
550, King Bhavavarman of Chenla annexed the kingdom of Funan and founded the
Khmer kingdom. The founder of Funan, the earliest kingdom in the first century in the
lower Mekong River basin, is known to be a Brahmin trader from western India.
According to local legend, he married the daughter of a local serpent deity (serpents were
the spiritual patrons of water in the Indian mythology), thus establishing the ruling family.
This kingdom laid a basis for the later developments of a system of waterworks, canals
and irrigation channels.
Funan and later Chenla kings worshipped Hindu deities, Shiva and Vishnu.
Sometimes both deities were combined into a single figure called Harihara, which
presented the right side of the body as Shiva and the left as Vishnu.
The loss of Funan resulted in the loss of sea routes which may have reduced trade
contacts with India. Furthermore, China and Islam provided a formidable force to counter
the Indian influence in the Khmer kingdom.
King Jayavarman II returned from exile in Java and unified Khmer (Cambodia) out
of the hitherto small independent kingdoms. He founded the Angkor dynasty and built the
famous Angkor Wat.
Apsaras and nagas are the two important examples of the Hindu influence found in
abundance in sculptures at Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. Apsaras are celestial nymphs
carved on the walls of Angkor Wat. They are shown as courtiers and dancing girls wearing
some kind of a headdress or a tiara decorated with jewellery which varies from apsara to
apsara. The significance of different headdresses is not clear. It is also not clear whether
the apsaras represent different regions or periods during which sculpture was built?
However, one thing is certain, that is, that those at Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom display
the charm of Cambodian womanhood. Their headdresses provide models for those of
modern Cambodian dancers.
The naga, or a serpent god, one of the most significant and ubiquitous features of
Khmer architecture, appears on the pediments and balustrades throughout the kingdom,
notably at Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom (Figs. 40 and 41). A naga is an Indian Hindu
divinity which also appears in Ajanta sculpture and paintings (see Chapter 6). The nagas
are closely associated with yaksas. The naga king Muchalinda (see Chapter 3 on
Bodhgaya) is known to have protected Buddha by coiling around his body and spreading
his hood over his head.[32]
Fa Hsien mentions that the Buddhists of Sankisa dedicated a shrine to a naga who
had given peace and security to monks. But Hsuan Tsang does not refer to any naga cult in
India. But he does note naga as ‘the assiduous guardian of the relics of the Holy One’
(cited in Zimmer, 1955:353).
 Fig. 40 A naga hood, Angkor Thom



Fig. 41 Nagas on a pediment, Banteay Srei


There is no clearcut evidence that the naga worship was accepted under Buddhism.
Opinions vary on this point. It is most likely that Buddhists did not picture nagas as
objects of worship although they might have regarded them as protectors of Buddha and
Buddhism (Robinson and Johnson, 1997:80).

Hindu and Buddhist Art

Early Hindu and Buddhist shrines in Cambodia date back to the ninth century. They are
found in Roulos (near Angkor, capital of the kingdom before Angkor), Banteay Srei,
Bakong and Bakheng. These were temple-mountains in keeping with the Hindu
mythology. A Hindu shrine in Banteay Srei, built by a Brahmin of royal family, is a small
temple compared to Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. But the quality of its sculpture is
impressive (see Figs. 13 and 14, Chapter 2). Almost all the temple walls are profusely
carved and beautifully decorated.
Many scholars find art and architecture of the ninth-century shrines superior to that of
Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom built in the twelfth and thirteenth century respectively.
Groslier and Arthaud (1957:55) note that ‘Khmer architecture had now (Tenth century)
reached its standard of perfection’. The beauty of these old buildings may have been
enhanced by profuse sculptures and bas reliefs. The decorative motifs did not form a part
of the architectural conception; instead, they were mainly symbolic. The nature of the
sandstone may not have lent itself to sharp engraving. The small size of the ninth to tenth-
century shrines may have also facilitated sculpture which became more difficult in the
later massive Angkor temples.
Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom symbolise the Hindu and Buddhist art traditions.
They are also living symbols of massive political power of the Khmer kings. Royal
patronage at that time was essential for the promotion of art in the kingdom.
Religion and national history were the predominant themes of Angkor art and
architecture. Religious beliefs were expressed in the forms of Hindu gods and Buddha
statues. In the temples, the Jatakas about Buddha’s different lives are presented on stones.
Scenes are depicted from the Hindu and Buddhist texts, showing demons and dragons,
flying horses and apsaras. In addition, the nine-headed serpent regarded as a superhuman
spirit, lined the passageway to Angkor Wat. Serpents are shown as guardians of the
temple.[33]
There are several other signs of the Hindu influence in Cambodia. For example, the
Hindu epic Ramayana influenced the styles of dance and pantomime shows. Recitations
from the Ramayana formed part of the Brahmanic worship from the fourth century
onwards.
Table 7.1 presents the names of temples in the Angkor Wat style (for example,
Angkor Wat, Banteay Samre and Beng Melea) and those of Bayon in Angkor Thom (for
example, Bayon, Banteai Prei and Preah Khan). The Angkor Wat temple-mountain style
includes concentric galleries, courtyards, terraces, corridors and galleries of bas reliefs.
Bayon is the most important temple mountain with a circular central mass, several towers,
the causeways of giants, demons and gods as well as nagas and lions.
 Table 7.1 Temples of Angkor


Name of temple Location Period (date of construction) Patron king


I. Angkor Wat


Suryavarman
Angkor Wat Siem Reap Early-mid-twelfth century
II


East of East Suryavarman
Banteay Samre Mid-twelfth century
Mebon II


Suryavarman
Beng Melea Early eleventh century
II


Near Siem Reap Suryavarman
Chau Say Tevoda Early twelfth century
town II


Late eleventh-early twelfth Suryavarman
Thma Bay Kaek Siem Reap
century II


Late eleventh early twelfth Suryavarman
Thommanon Siem Reap
century II


Suryavarman
Wat Athvea Siem Reap Late eleventh century
II


II. Angkor Thom


Jayavarman
Angkor Thom Siem Reap Twelfth -thirteenth century

VII

Banteay Prei Siem Reap Late twelfth-early thirteenth

Jayavarman
century VII


Jayavarman
Bayon Angkor Thom Late twelfth century
VII


Jayavarman
Krol Ko Angkor Thom Late twelfth century
VII


Jayavarman
Neak Pean Angkor Thom Late twelfth century
VII


Jayavarman
Prasat Prei Angkor Thom Late twelfth century
VII


Jayavarman
Prasat Top (East) Angkor Thom Late thirteenth century
VII


Jayavarman
Preah Khan Angkor Thom Late twelfth century
VII


Late twelfth early thirteenth Jayavarman
Preah Palilay Angkor Thom
century VII


Mid- tenth and late twelfth
-
Jayavarman
Srah Srang Angkor Thom
century VII


Jayavarman
Ta Nei Angkor Thom Mid-twelfth century
VII


Mid-twelfth -early thirteenth Jayavarman
Ta Prohm Angkor Thom
century VII

 Jayavarman
VII
Ta Prohm Kel Angkor Thom Late-twelfth century

Jayavarman
Ta Som Angkor Thom Late-twelfth century
VII


Jayavarman
Tep Pranam Angkor Thom Ninth century
VII


Terrace of the Jayavarman
Angkor Thom Late twelfth century
elephants VII


Terrace of the Leper Jayavarman
Angkor Thom Late twelfth century
king VII

Source: Internet; The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1981c: 261).

Evolution of Cambodian Art

The history of Cambodian art can be divided into the following three phases:

Phase I: The Indo-Mon-Khmer period lasting from the first to eighth century when
both Hindu and Buddhist art works inspired by the Indian Gupta style, were produced. In
the eighth century the Brahmin deities of the South Indian Pallava style were added.
Phase II: The National Khmer Style started in the ninth century and culminated in the
temples of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.
Phase III: The Period of Decline started in the fourteenth century when Khmer art
was replaced by Siamese art following wars with the Thai.

Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, representing the heyday of Cambodian art, are
described below.
Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat was a palatial temple complex for the kings (Fig. 42) containing several inner
courtyards and galleries. It was built by King Suryavarman II and his successors.
Suryavarman was responsible for the unification of the country and for the campaigns
against Vietnam. He extended the Khmer influence to Malaya, Myanmar and Siam.

Fig. 42 General view of Angkor Wat

Originally, Angkor Wat was built as a sanctuary to Hindu gods Vishnu and Shiva.
Some scholars (for example, Coedès, 1969) believe that it was more a sanctuary for the
god King Suryavarman II. After his death, the King was identified with the Hindu god
Vishnu.
Bas-reliefs depicting several scenes from the Hindu religion leave no doubt that the
temple complex was meant for Hindu worship. However, it is unclear when it became
dedicated to Buddha. For how long was it a Hindu temple before Buddhist images arrived
is anyone’s guess. In the temple galleries and shrines, Buddha continues to be worshipped
even today.
The Buddha statues appear to have been transported to the ‘Hall of the Thousand
Buddhas’ from somewhere else. It is not known from where they came and who brought
them and when. Did the later Khmer kings (for example, Jayavarman VII) or the Chinese
or the Thai bring the Buddha sculptures to Angkor Wat? There is no definite answer to this
question.
In Cambodia Hinduism and Buddhism developed side by side. Although Hinduism
was the dominant religion from the sixth to twelfth century, Buddhism was not abandoned
altogether (see Coral-Rémusat, 1951:18). Buddhist inscriptions and statues dating back to
the seventh century have been discovered at Prah Krabas. Khmer Buddhism of this period
is most probably that of the Hinayana form. The form appeared much later, towards the
end of the seventh century.
Angkor Wat is surrounded by a moat and a lake. It is approached by a long road built
on a causeway which is lined with colossal balustrades carved in the likeness of a cosmic
serpent. The temple complex has three concentric enclosures consisting of central shrines
subdivided into small decorated courts and smaller shrines. Originally, there were nine
towers—only five remain intact.
In ancient times the interior walls, ceilings and columns of Angkor Wat were painted
in bright colours which have disappeared. Today only a few signs of such paint remain
(Fig. 43). The doorways are richly carved and decorated.

Fig. 43 Painted ceilings and columns, Angkor Wat

The temple is a classic example of Indian cosmology depicted in architecture not
seen in any Indian (Hindu) temple in India. There are no temples in India which symbolise
Meru, the temple mountain. According to this cosmology, there is a close relation between
microcosm and macrocosm, and between the human world and the universe. The central
shrine of Angkor Wat indicates the hub of the universe, while its surroundings - the gate
complex, the cloister, the city of Angkor itself - represent the successive outer envelopes
of cosmic reality.

Examples of Sculptures and Reliefs

1. Apsaras. A rich variety of apsaras at Angkor Wat in different dresses and tiaras
 decorate the temple walls, apparently for the pleasures of the gods (Fig. 44). They
are generally shown in groups as chorus girls similar to Cambodian dancers in the
royal court. Single apsaras are probably meant to provide a graceful background to
the royal processions, assemblies and dances which took place in the residential
quarters of the temple complex.

Fig. 44 A group of dancing apsaras, Angkor Wat


The Indian (Hindu) mythology inspired apsara sculpture. But the apsara dresses
and bodily shapes represent the royal Cambodian bellerinas of the time rather
than any Indian figures. They exude charm and grace rather than sensuous
voluptuousness of Indian figures.
Are the Cambodian apsaras simply dancers and not the celestial nymphs as in the
Hindu mythology? It seems that they are both considering that they appear on the walls
and gateways of sacred temples.[34]

2. Churning of the Milky Ocean, an event from the Hindu mythology, appears in
several scenes showing the universal strength of Vishnu in the human form of Cosmic
tortoise and Cosmic snake. The gods and demons are shown as grasping the giant cosmic
snake and using it as a churning string. Presumably, churning of the Cosmic Ocean was
meant ‘to extract the beverage of immortality’ (Zimmer, 1983:208). Goddess Lakshmi was
one of the objects that arose from the waters during this operation.

3. Scenes from Mahabharata and Ramayana. The two Hindu epics, Mahabharata and
Ramayana, are the sources of several battle scenes depicted on the temple walls.
Angkor Thom

Angkor Thom, the first Buddhist city and temple complex, was built 100 years after
Angkor. Its towers have large figures which could be those of Shiva, Buddha or
Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (or Lokesvara). The most plausible is the figure of a
Bodhisattva as King Jayavarman VII was a devout Buddhist and a monk who twice
refused the throne. But in the end he became one of the most powerful Khmer rulers.
The entrance to Angkor Thom is decorated with a naga balustrade on one side of
which are the gods holding the naga, and on the other, the demons and guardians (Figs. 45
and 46).

Fig. 45 Demon gods, Angkor Thom



Fig. 46 Bodhisattvas as guardians, Angkor Thom
 In the Hindu mythology, a rainbow represents a bridge between human beings and
gods. The naga balustrades on each side of the bridge leading to Angkor Thom may
symbolise a double rainbow between heaven and earth. According to the mythology,
Buddha descended from a staircase from the heaven at 33rd station to the summit of
Mount Meru to preach the Wheel of Law (Coedès, 1969:47).
King Jayavarman VII was a great patron of Buddhism in Cambodia. There was a
violent Brahmin reaction against Buddhism after his death. The Bayon and other Buddhist
monuments were vandalised by Brahmins who destroyed the Buddha images and replaced
them by lingas symbolic of Shiva (Ibid.:66-7).
But later there was a revival of Buddhism of a more conservative type practised in
Ceylon which did not approve of the individual cult of god king promoted by Jayavarman
VII.


Bayon

At Angkor Thom, Bayon, the central temple, is the largest with several smaller temples
around it. Its towers have four faces looking East, North, West and South, suggesting that
Buddha, Bodhisattva or the king himself is looking out and overseeing all four corners of
the world. The colossal images of Lokesvara in four different directions at the entrance of
Bayon are designed to demonstrate compassion and power of the Bodhisattva and the
king.
As Jayavarman VII was a Buddhist, he broke with Khmer traditions of Hinduism and
adopted as his deity a Buddhist bodhisattva, Lokesvara. Hinduism was the state religion
when Jayavarman VII ascended the throne although Buddhism had prospered until then
throughout Indo-China. After his death, Bayon remained the State temple of many Khmer
kings. However, all his successors did not follow Buddhism, for some were Hindus, which
may explain both Buddhist and Hindu themes, deities and bas-reliefs juxtaposed in the
various temples.
Bas reliefs at Bayon in the inner and outer galleries differ significantly: Those in the
inner gallery represent the world of gods and those in the outer, real men in actual
historical events (Ibid.:62).
The Bayon bas reliefs and sculptures have different themes from those of Angkor
Wat. As King Jayavarman VII fought several battles (particularly against the Chams) to
restore the Khmer kingdom and expand his territory, many walls are decorated with
military parades and battle scenes. One bas-relief depicts a military procession in which
the royal crown features prominently, suggesting that the king himself is leading the army
procession (Fig. 47). The battle scene may refer to the last quarter of the twelfth century
and beginning of the thirteenth. Besides, there are scenes of everyday life of the Khmer in
those days.
There are also devatas in the central sanctuary (Fig. 48).
 Fig. 47 Khmer army marching into battle, Bayon

Fig. 48 A devata from the central sanctuary, Bayon
Other Temples

Jayavarman VII built several Buddhist shrines in Angkor Thom besides Bayon. The
quality of these shrines is inferior as the king went after size and quantity unlike his
predecessors. The standard of sculpture may have deteriorated because the sculptors were
called upon to produce a vast quantity of shrines in a short period of time. However, the
conceptualisation of the king’s architects in making an overall plan of Angkor Thom on
the basis of mythical imagery is commendable. The world (cosmos) spreads out from the
central mountain tower (Meru of the Hindu mythology). Two roads lead from the tower:
they are lined with gigantic deities and demons as well as multi-headed nagas.
Angkor declined in importance with the death of Jayavarman VII in around 1219.
The Thai pushed the Khmer towards the Mekong Delta and introduced the more
conservative form of Buddhism.


Ta Prohm

The temple is unique as it is swallowed by the jungle. Thick and extensive roots of trees
entangle the various shrines and bas-reliefs. The jungle vegetation has caused the green
lichen and moss to appear on its walls and bas reliefs. Built in 1186 by King Jayavarman
VII (1181-1219), it was dedicated to the king’s mother and was originally named
‘Rajavihara’, the ‘monastery of the King’. It was founded as a Buddhist monastery. Its
main divinity was the ‘Mother of the Buddhas’ (Prajnaparamita), sculptured in the image
of the king’s mother who practised Buddhism (Jacques and Freeman, 1997:205).
The temple complex is too large to be just a religious shrine. It was also a monastery
and a Buddhist university. The stele records boast a large number of inhabitants (over
12,500 high priests and dancers among others) and temple wealth in the form of gold,
pearls and silks. The temple is built of a flat design. Unlike Angkor Wat and Bayon it has
no temple mountains or temple pyramid. A central sanctuary is surrounded by five
rectangular walls. Several pavilions were built to provide entrances to the temple. The
inner enclosures include galleries, corner towers and libraries which may have been added
later.
Ta Prohm has face towers like those of Bayon. They are said to have been added in
the thirteenth century. The architectural features of the temple include the Hall of Dancers
showing apsaras, a pair of devatas and scenes from Buddha’s life. A bas-relief depicting
the Great Departure of Siddhartha is in a dilapidated condition. Not much is left of other
bas-reliefs which may have been destroyed by the Hindu iconoclasts after the death of
King Jayavarman VII. However, some statues of both male and female temple guardians
remain intact. Sculptures of devatas, guardians and door keepers (dvarapalas) are found at
the Ta Prohm temple as at the Bayon.

Preah Khan

The temple was built by King Suryavarman VII on the site where he defeated the invading
Chams in 1191. Preah Khan was a city consisting of monasteries, temples and a Buddhist
university. The outer walls of the city show garudas holding nagas. Each entrance to the
town has causeways with nagas, devas and asuras such as those found in Angkor Thom.
One of the principal entrances to the temple has statues of lions guarding it.
Empty niches in the Hall of the Dancers once contained Buddha statues which were
removed on the orders of King Jayavarman VIII, a fanatic Hindu who replaced them by
Hindu linga (Ibid.:280-3).
It was Buddhist par excellence although both Hindu and Buddhist deities were
worshipped. It contained a statue of Boddhisattva Lokesvara (which has since been
replaced by a stupa). The statue resembled Jayavarman’s father, suggesting that the temple
was dedicated to him.
It contained Buddha images in numerous niches which were destroyed by anti-
Buddhist elements. Besides the central Buddhist temple, there were many Hindu temples
dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva.
One of the unique features of Preah Khan is a two-storey building with round
columns which has no staircase leading to the second floor. The building is still standing,
but its purpose remains unknown. It does not look like a place of worship and may have
been a granary for storing rice as is suggested by Jacques and Freeman (Ibid.). This
hypothesis is plausible considering that Preah Khan was a university town consisting of a
population of several thousand inhabitants.
King Suryavarman VII placed his own statues in the Buddhist temples in Preah Khan
the most cited example of which is his head, probably carved when he was around 50
(Groslier, 1962:170). He may have lived here (between 1165 and 1180) in semi-exile
while waiting to take over the throne.

Neak Pean

It is a small temple in the middle of an artificial lake as a subsidiary shrine of Preah Khan,
symbolising paradise floating on the ocean. Groslier (Ibid.:181-2) notes that ‘it is the
symbol of a miraculous lake in the Himalayas where all the ills were cured. Thus the king
enabled his subjects to come to the capital and be cured of all their sicknesses in a magic
replica of the holy place which the Indians themselves had only vaguely imagined’.


Banteai Kdei

The temple, built on the ruins of a former Buddhist shrine, is sometimes called the
‘Eastern Buddha’. Single devatas decorate the central shrine and the sculptures of Buddha
disciples, the temple pediments.

Ta Som

The temple, built by King Jayavarman VII in the late twelfth century, is dedicated to his
father, Dharanindravarman II, who ruled the Khmer Empire from 1150 to 1160. It is
surrounded by a moat and laterite walls which have two sets of pavilions carved with four
faces of Buddha or Bodhisattva.
The temple has three characteristic features: (1) a big fig tree dominating the eastern
pavilion and almost strangling it, (2) bas-reliefs of rows of Buddha disciples, and (3)
Buddha faces in the temple mountain similar to those at Bayon. Its inner portion consists
of the main shrine and two small libraries.
Little restoration was undertaken at the temple until the 1950s. Growth of trees and
other vegetation led to a near collapse of the temple. In 1998, the World Monuments Fund
undertook some urgent stabilisation of fragile structures to prevent their total collapse.


The Baphuon

The temple, built in the shape of a high pyramid mountain, must have been a Buddhist
shrine as it contained the statue of a reclining Buddha. But it may have become a place of
Hindu worship during the Hindu revival in the second half of the thirteenth century.
Zhou Daguan, a Chinese traveller, who visited the temple in the thirteenth century,
called it ‘the copper tower‘, suggesting that at that time it wasgilded.

Phimeanakas

It is a three-storey monument with staircases leading to the top. It is known as the

‘celestial palace’ the origin and purpose of which remains unclear. One theory is that it
was a temple mountain built by Yasovarman I (Rowland, 1953:230). But did it actually
serve as a royal temple? It is doubtful that a small monument like this one would have
been the main temple of the Khmer Empire.

Concluding Remarks

Both Cambodia and Thailand were strongly influenced by Buddhist art in India. Having
reviewed the architecture of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom in this chapter, we can
confirm that this was indeed the case. This influence, visible in sculptures and bas-reliefs
as well as in painting, also pervades the very concept of temple mountain (Meru) which is
Indian in origin.
The workmanship and design of architecture in Angkor is less attractive than that of
Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati, for example. Groslier and Arthaud (1957:198) conclude:
‘Taken in detail Khmer art is always a little disappointing’. It does not match the beauty
and richness of Indian Buddhist art. Khmer art suffers from a lack of originality, poor
workmanship, especially at Angkor Thom, and a blind imitation of wooden art in stone.
However, the workmanship and sculptures of such pre-Angkor temples as Banteay
Srei, built in the ninth century, are far superior to those of either Angkor Wat or Bayon.
Indian art influenced these temples more directly since a few were actually founded by
Hindu kings from India.
Our next task is to examine in Chapters 8 (Ayutthaya) and 9 (Bangkok) whether our
assessment of Khmer art also applies to Buddhist art in Thailand.
 Chapter 8

The Temples and Paintings of Ayutthaya

Ayutthaya is the ancient capital of Thailand and remained its capital for over four
centuries. It was built by King Ramathibodi I (1351-69) (or U Thong, a Chinese son-in-
law of the king) in the fourteenth century who named it after the city of Ayodhya in India,
the birth place of Rama. Thailand has been divided into the north and south from time
immemorial. Ayutthaya was the capital of the south and Chiengmai of the north.
In the eleventh century, Ayutthaya originated as a Khmer outpost. In the late
thirteenth century, this province of Suphan Buri depended on the kingdom of Lopburi
which became independent on the death of its king, Ram Kamhaeng. However, it lacked
political leadership until the middle of the fourteenth century when U Thong came to
power. In the consolidation of his power U Thong was helped by his wife’s brother and his
son who later ruled Lopburi.
The kingdom of Ayutthaya grew rapidly with the expansion of trade and commerce.
It became an important centre of trade with China and other neighbouring kingdoms. The
Europeans started coming to Ayutthaya from the sixteenth century onwards when trade
with the West expanded. However, European culture did not influence local culture much.
Similarly, Western art was present but was not absorbed into local art, sculpture and
architecture (Moore et al., 1996a).
According to foreigners’ accounts, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
Ayutthaya was known as one of the principal and fascinating cities in Asia. Its strategic
commercial location attracted Japanese and European trading companies to establish
offices there.
Ayutthaya was ruled by thirty-six kings who wielded divine power in the Khmer
tradition. As in the Khmer kingdom, Brahmin rituals were performed at the royal
coronation ceremonies for the Ayutthaya kings.[35] Each king left his legacy behind by
building Buddhist temples and palaces.
For centuries, the Burmese waged war against Ayutthaya in an attempt to gain
territory. In 1549, the King of Pegu invaded Ayutthaya but failed to conquer it. However,
two decades later it fell to the Burmese who captured the Siamese king, Mahachakrapat.
Its sovereignty was restored in 1584 when Siam regained control of the territory. However,
the Burmese threat remained constant until 1769 when Ayutthaya was conquered and
destroyed.

Hindu and Buddhist Influences

Indian art exercised a significant influence on Thai art (see Chapter 2). Signs of this
influence are visible in many places. A religious art between the sixth and eleventh
centuries was discovered in central Thailand. Thai Buddhist sculpture, a key feature of this
art, illustrates its dependence on the Gupta prototypes from India. This Indianised culture
is attributed to the eastern Mon kingdom of Dvaravati founded in the sixth century. The
discoveries include stupa bases which were found at the Wat Phra Meru in Nagara
Pathama (Nakhon Pathom) and in Ku Bua and Puthong. Dvaravati sculptures closely
resemble the Indian styles of Amaravati, Gupta and post-Gupta periods.
Dvaravati sculptures were discovered in Ayutthaya, for example, seated and standing
Buddha images in bronze and stone, showing Mon features such as lips turned outward
and downward-curved eye lids. These images may have served as models for the later
Khmer art and sculpture in Cambodia (see Chapter 7).
The Indian influence on Buddhist art in Thailand can be summarised as follows:

Art - Amaravati, Gupta and Pallava Schools.

Architecture - Peninsular South India (Chalukyas, Pallavas and
Pandyas).
Sculpture - Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati and the Classical art
of the Gupta period.
Painting - Gandhara, Mathura and the Classical Gupta art.

Notwithstanding, some typical Siamese characteristics are noticeable in Thai

sculpture. For example, the heads of Buddha images are too large in proportion to the
body suggesting that the Indian principles of proportion were not followed. Other Thai
features include flat nose and full lips and snail-shell curls covering the head. The
sculptors may have used local features in an attempt to claim Buddha as their own.
From the thirteenth to seventeenth century, the Thai kingdom developed around the
city of Sukhotai which lies between Chiengmai in the north and Ayutthaya in the south.
During this period, active contacts were maintained with Ceylon, the main centre of
Theravada Buddhism at that time. Thai kings invited learned monks from Ceylon in an
attempt to wean their people off the worship of spirits. In the Thai temples, Buddha icons
were introduced as objects of worship.
To conclude, it may be true to say that Buddhist art in Thailand ‘owes more to India
than to any other country, but it seldom drew its inspiration directly from there’
(Jermsawatdi, 1979:59). The Indian influence was inextricably mixed with that from other
Asian sources, notably, Mon-Khmer, Sinhalese and Chinese.

The Ayutthaya School of Art

Most Indian and other influences on Thai art were adapted during the Dvaravati period
which was characterised more by Mon art than Thai art. The pre-Thai schools of art -
Dvaravati, Srivijaya and Lopburi - did leave their traces in new Thai art that followed. As
discussed in Chapter 2, there are several schools of Buddhist art one of which is the U
Thong or Ayutthaya School. Historians generally divide the Ayutthaya School into four
periods, namely:

From the foundation of Ayutthaya as the capital in 1350 during the reign of King
Borom Trailokanath (1448-88) to the beginning of the Ayutthaya style.
From the installation of King Borom to the end of King Chao Song Tham’s reign
(1610-28). This period witnessed the revival of the Sukhotai style and the
strengthening of religious links with Ceylon which influenced the Ayutthaya artistic
style.
From the accession of Chao Prasat Thong (1630-56) to the throne to the reign of
King Chao Tai Sa (1709-33). This period witnessed the revival of the Khmer style of
Buddhist art.
From the reign of King Boromokot (1733-58) to the destruction of the capital
(Ayutthaya) by the Burmese. This was the peak of the Ayutthaya school.

Various art styles, developed between the sixth and twelfth centuries, are attributed to
the changing composition of Ayutthaya’s population. Different ethnic groups lived there
which explains different types of art: Indian immigrants introduced Gupta art in the south;
Mon-Khmer brought Khmer art to the centre; and the Burmese and Javans introduced their
art in the north. The Thai style of art became established only when Ayutthaya became
stable.

Sculpture

There is a lack of proper understanding of the history of Ayutthaya art and sculpture for
several reasons. First, Ayutthaya kings very rarely commissioned inscriptions in stone.
Most of their edicts were recorded on such perishable materials as leaves and wood which
have disappeared. Secondly, the destruction of Ayutthaya by the Burmese led to the loss of
whatever archives were available. Thirdly, late Southeast Asian art has a reputation for
mediocrity, which explains why one needs to look for some anchor points. Two such
anchor points used by McGill are: (1) the collection of bronze statues cast in the reign of
King Borom Trailokanath (1448-88) and (2) chronicles of Ayutthaya and Chiengmai,
which suggest that the bronze statues narrating the jatakas were produced to promote
Buddhism and gain merit in the next birth by so doing.[36]
 The Buddhist sculptors in Siam made every attempt to adhere to the old Buddha
images. In the beginning, they were not particularly interested in artistic development
which might explain why there was no tradition in Theravada Siam resembling that of art
in Cambodia or Indonesia, for example. In Siam, Buddhist statues, produced in large
numbers for worship rather than for art, were intended to remind the population about the
Buddhist doctrine. Thus Thai Buddhist sculpture was content with repeating the
standardised types of Buddha images.
Many Buddhist statues were discovered in the crypt of Wat Ratchaburana
(Ayutthaya). Several are older than the Wat itself which was built in 1424. Their discovery
helps us to speculate that the U Thong style of Buddha images precedes that of the
Ayutthaya style (Boisselier, 1974:161).
Sukhotai Buddha statues belonged to an earlier period the production of which
depended on supernatural considerations which were not so important in the Ayutthaya
period (Buribhand and Griswold, 2001:23).
A large number of Ayutthaya-style Buddhas exist in stone and are similar to the
bronze statues of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They show different Buddha
positions, namely, massive seated images with elongated faces (influenced by Ceylon),
and walking Buddhas influenced by the Sukhotai school.

Architecture

Ayutthaya kings were conquerors of Angkor. Therefore, it is logical to expect some

Khmer influence on Ayutthaya architecture. Some prangs (pagodas with a rectangular or
polygonal base) from the early period were derived from the Khmer tower sanctuary, but
they have been modified to include columned halls found in Wat Buddha Svarya, the
oldest building in Ayutthaya (Groslier, 1962:216).
Cylindrical shrines crowned with stupas which appeared in the fourteenth century are
Sukhotai type of buildings. As in India, the stupas had secret chambers containing votive
objects intended to accompany the souls of the deceased. This custom was also common
among the Chinese and Romans who buried the dead with personal belongings and
precious objects useful for after-life (Bhalla, 2009). The stupas were intended to contain
the ashes of Buddhist holy figures and those of Thai kings.
Later in the seventeenth century, the Ayutthaya style of architecture incorporated the
Khmer models from Angkor. King Prasat even built a miniature Angkor Wat (Phra
Nakhon Luong).
Painting

Thai paintings discovered so far relate to the second phase of the Ayutthaya style. As
discussed in Chapter 2, most paintings have perished, which makes it difficult to
determine their origin and characteristics. The oldest Thai paintings, recovered in
damaged form, come from the Silpa cave in Yala.
Many Thai paintings of the period were inspired by Burmese art. Others show
Chinese influence (some may even have been painted by Chinese artists), for example, in
the inner chambers of Wat Mahathat and Wat Ratchburana. It is reflected in the natural
background of the skies, clouds and animals grazing in meadows. Khmer painting may
have also influenced the Ayutthaya style of painting. Rows of Buddha images as well as
those of worshippers (for example, at Wat Ratchburana), bright colours and monks in
yellow robes, with touches of green, red and gold, are the main features of the Khmer
style. Thai painting was also derived from Buddhist painting of India and Ceylon
(Jermsawatdi, 1979:77-80).
Nevertheless, the original techniques and themes were adapted to the local Thai ideas
and materials. The Thai art of painting became particularly popular during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries when it was almost unique to Thailand. Jermsawatdi (Ibid.:77)
believes that during this period ‘only by subject-matter and superficial generalities can it
be connected with the painting of other Buddhist countries’.
Evolution in the techniques of painting in Thailand occurred mainly from the
fourteenth to eighteenth century. The composition of figures during the first (1350-1488)
and second (1491-1628) Ayutthaya periods were generally in single colours. However, in
the third Ayutthaya period (1630-1732) mixed colour composition (polychrome) began to
be used. This composition consisted of the painting of small groups of figures (Ibid.:94).
A painting of a jataka scene found in the upper crypt of the main reliquary tower of
Wat Ratchaburana, depicts several rows of worshippers against a uniform background
(Fig. 49). It was the first time that the painting of figures was undertaken on a fresco
surface.
The following were the main forms of traditional Thai painting:

The vihara wall paintings intended to illustrate the scenes of Buddhist history.
Dry fresco murals found in temples.
Paintings on cloth banners.
Paintings on Koi paper in religious manuscripts or Samut Thai.


Fig. 49 A jataka scene on a wall painting, Wat Ratchaburana, Ayutthaya


To conclude, the traditional view of Thai art and sculpture is that it is not of high
quality, that it is repetitive and mass produced and that it is hierarchical. However, this
view does not do justice to the legacy of fourteenth to seventeenth-century Thailand.

Ayutthaya Temples [37]

At the height of its glory, Ayutthaya boasted a large number of temples (wats) most of
which are now in ruins. The ransacking of the ancient capital city took its toll.
Nevertheless, apart from Wat Na Phra Men, which has remained intact, many other ruined
temples are a mixture of different styles of architecture and sculpture. Below we describe
a selected number of temples of historical and architectural interest.

Wat Chaiwatthanaram

The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site on the west bank of Chao Phraya river
outside Ayutthaya island. It was built by King Prasat Thong in 1630 as a memorial to his
mother who lived there. It was a royal temple where kings and princes and princesses had
prayed. Prince Damrong Rachanuphap observed its similarity to Angkor Wat (Cambodia)
and believed that the temple was built to commemorate the king’s victory over Cambodia.
Designed in the Khmer style, it has a 35-metre prang (pagoda) with four smaller
prangs on a rectangular platform. The central platform is surrounded by eight chedi-
shaped chapels connected by a rectangular passage. Originally the passage was covered by
a roof which has disappeared. There were 120 sitting Buddhas (painted in black and gold)
which have not survived either.
The interior and exterior walls of the chedis showed paintings depicting jatakas from
Buddha’s life. Very few such paintings have survived.


Wat Mahathat

The origin of the temple, situated in the heart of Ayutthaya, is open to controversy (Fig.
50). One view is that it was built by King Rachatirat in 1384 to keep a Buddha relic.
Others believe that it was built during the reigns of King Boromaraja I (1370-88) and King
Ramesuan (1388-96). The temple is now in ruins; the top of the Khmer-style prang
collapsed in 1625 during the reign of King Songham but was renovated and restored
during the reign of King Prasat Thong (1630-56).

Fig. 50 Wat Mahathat behind a meditating Buddha, Ayutthaya

The main prang of the temple collapsed again in around 1911 when its treasurers
were looted. In 1956, the Thai Fine Arts Department excavated the central area of the
prang and discovered Buddha relics in a stupa within a seven-layer reliquary. Other
antiques have also been found such as Buddha images, votive tablets and golden plaques
in the form of animals. These objects are displayed in the Chao Sam Phraya National
Museum in Bangkok.
It is one of the biggest temples in Ayutthaya. Its central prang was renovated and
remodelled several times during the late Ayutthaya period. Many chedis were added to it
within the cloistered area during different periods. Traces of mural paintings featuring
Buddha images were discovered in one of the chedis.

Its interesting features include:

A secret chamber containing gold jewellery, fine tableware and a gold casket
containing a Buddha relic.
A Buddha head in a tree trunk; other headless Buddhas were found on the site.
Two tall towers which are still standing.
Four porticos of the main prang were added during the reign of King Boromokot
(1732-58).

Wat Ratchaburana

Built by King Boromchathirat II, the temple is situated at the site where his two elder
brothers (Chao Ai and Chao Yi, sons of King Intharachathirat) killed each other in a battle
over accession to the throne. It was designed to keep the burial remains of the brothers.
Two chedis were built specially for this purpose.
It is characterised by a Khmer-style tower (prang) (Fig. 51). Its main prang with
stucco decoration of nagas and garudas has survived. The Indian (later Khmer) concept of
the temple-mountain (Meru) is its main architectural feature. There is a two-level crypt
inside the prang. At the lower level, the fifteenth-century Chinese style mural paintings are
displayed whereas the upper level displays jatakas of Buddha’s life.
It was built in the fifteenth century, that is, the late Ayutthaya period. In 1957, during
excavations and renovations, archaeologists found valuable artefacts, including Buddha
images, gold jewellery and votive gold tablets. In 1958, the Thai Fine Arts Department
built a staircase leading to the crypt where a number of old paintings have been found.
 Fig. 51 Khmer-style central tower of Ratchburana, Ayutthaya



Fig. 52 Stupas of Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya


The stupas found in it around the central prang are built in the old tradition of
Sukhotai and Ceylon architecture (Fig. 52).


Wat Lokayasutharam (Temple of the Reclining Buddha)

The temple, built in the early Ayutthaya period, is situated behind the Royal Palace. It
contains a brick and mortar image of a reclining Buddha, which suggests he has reached
the state of nirvana. The Buddha statue is 42 metres long and 8 metres high, which was
originally housed in a vihara with several octagonal pillars. The vihara was destroyed
during the Burmese attack. The Buddha feet are inscribed with 108 characteristics. The
eyes and feet are decorated with mother-of-pearl inlay. The statue is always covered in
bright saffron-coloured cloth. A large number of smaller Buddha statues (presumably
obtained from the ruins of former capitals, namely, Ayutthaya and Sukhothai) have been
found at the site of the temple.

Wat Na Phra Men

Originally called Wat Phra Meru Rachikaram, it is the only temple which survived the
Burmese invasion. It is well-preserved and continues to be used for public worship.
Apparently, it survived because the cannon pointing at it exploded and fatally wounded
the Burmese king.
 Its Ordination Hall consists of (1) the carved gable with lacquer and glass mosaic
depicting Vishnu riding Garuda, (2) twenty-six wooden angels and (3) the Buddha image
in a royal attire. The roof structure is supported by eight pairs of octagonal columns with
tops of lotus buds.
It is an example of the typical Ayutthaya style and contains a famous Buddha statue
known for its royal attire (Fig. 53). Buddha images in royal attire are associated with the
late Ayutthaya period.

Fig. 53 Golden Buddha statue in royal attire, Wat Na Phra Men, Ayutthaya

The ubosot of the temple, built during the middle of the Ayutthaya period, is in a
remarkable state of preservation despite the ransacking of the city. This rectangular
building was probably built during the reign of King Prasat Thong. Its architectural style
suggests early Ayutthaya art—small balustrade windows letting in very little light, multi-
tiered roof with ceramic tiles and a mini portico. However, its interior decorations on the
main gable for example, are indicative of a later period. The smaller gables on each side of
the main gable were added during the reign of King Rama III of the Bangkok Chakra
dynasty.
A seated Buddha image in a temple nearby belongs to the Dvaravati Mon period. It
has some distinctive features, which are more Chinese than Thai, not seen in other Mon
works of art. For example, Buddha’s two hands rest on knees unlike other Thai postures.
Secondly, a short hemline in his clothing exposes the left knee in a style reminiscent of the
Tang period in China. Thirdly, the halo around Buddha’s head depicts tongues of fire often
seen in Chinese works of art rather than in those of Thailand.
The temple was renovated twice during the reign of King Rama III, which may partly
explain the juxtaposition of the different styles of art, architecture and interior decorations.
It is located on the banks of the Sa Bua canal. According to legend, King Ramathibodi II
had a concubine (Pra-ong In) who built the temple in 1504 and named it Wat
Pramerurachikaram. It was only later that it was renamed Wat Na Phra Men, which
literally means a temple in front of the crematorium. It is not clear which king or prince
had a crematorium next door. Royal annals suggest that in 1549 King Mahachakrapat built
a temporary pavilion near the temple in order to sign a peace treaty with the Burmese
king.

Wat Phra Si Sanpet

It is one of the oldest temples dating back to the founding of the city of Ayutthaya. It was
built in the compound of the Royal Palace some time during the reigns of King
Ramathibodi I (1350) and King Sam Phraya (1448). In 1448, King Borom Trailokanath
commissioned the building of a monastery. The royal estate was donated to the monastery
and the Palace was moved further north near the river.
It is identified by the columns of two viharas flanked by three bell-shaped chedis
along a long terrace. The chedis served as royal tombs for the king and his sons. In ancient
times, the cloister galleries were adorned by Buddha images.

The temple complex consists of several structures the most important of which are:

The main vihara where an enormous image of standing Buddha was kept in a brick
and mortar rectangular building. In 1500, this image was commissioned by King
Ramathibodi II. It is 16 metres high and is covered with gold. It was the main object
of worship in the Royal Palace.
Two large chedis built by King Ramathibodi II in 1492, one for keeping his father’s
relics and another for his brother’s.
The ubosot and the Chom Thong Pavilion.
The bell tower.
The three mondops sandwiched between the main chedis.

Gold covering the standing Buddha was looted when the Burmese ransacked
Ayutthaya. During the reign of King Rama I (1782-1809) (Ratanakosin Period) the inner
core of Buddha (Phra Buddha Chao Si Sanphet) was transferred from Ayutthaya to Wat
Phra Chetuphon in Bangkok. It was placed in a chedi specially built for the purpose.
 This is one of the most important temples of Ayutthaya. In 1932, on this site several
bronze figures were discovered which might have formed a part of the bronze set
attributed to King Borom Trailokanath. Are the figures those of Buddha or Bodhisattvas?
It is rare to find any bronze statues which are not of Buddha or of a Hindu deity. However,
McGill (1993:439-40) remarks that considering their size, they may ‘represent kings or
nobles, hermits, a dog, a monkey, and probably Brahmins—all forms the Bodhisattvas
assumed in previous lives…’

Wat Phra Ram (Temple of Rama)

There is a controversy about who built this temple. One royal annal suggests that it was
built by King Ramesuan in 1369 on the site of the crematorium for his father U Thong. As
this king ruled for only one year, it is almost certain that the construction of the temple
was completed during the reign of his successor, King Borom Rachathirat I (1370-88).
Other accounts suggest that it was built much later by King Borom Trailokanath (1448-88)
in the fifteenth century.
Its dominant structure is a corn-shaped tall tower which is still standing. The main
shrine consists of a prang on a square base, which was a common form of temple shrines
in the early Ayutthaya period. Its entrance arch was destroyed during the Burmese attack.
Besides the main entrance, there were also side entrances to it. Also there were smaller
prangs and chedis in addition to the main large prang. The main prang and chedis were
enclosed within a gallery.

Wat Phra Chao Phya-thai

The temple (also known as Wat Yai Chai-Mongkol) is located in the southeast of
Ayutthaya. Its large chedi is visible from afar. Its monastery was built by King U Thong in
1357 for monks returning from Ceylon after their religious training. The monastery was
originally known as Wat Po Kaeo and was renamed Wat Chao Phya-thai (or Temple of the
Supreme Patriarch) following the title of ‘Somdej Phra Vanarat’ (The Patriarch on the
Right Hand Side) which was conferred on the king.
King Naresuen the Great built a large Chinese-style chedi (pagoda) on the site to
celebrate his victory over a Burmese leader in a hand-to-hand combat over an elephant’s
back. He built a second chedi known as Phra Chedi Chai Mongkol (or Chedi of the
Auspicious Victory), also called the Great Pagoda. The two distinctive structures of the
temple/monastery site are: a seated Buddha image in front of the chedis and a row of
Buddhas in front of the ruins of a chedi.


Chapter 9

The Temples of Bangkok

Bangkok became the capital of Thailand after Ayutthaya was destroyed by the Burmese in
1769. First, for a brief period, King Taksin chose Tonburi as his new capital after defeating
the invaders. Rama I (1782-1809), the first king of the Chakra dynasty, succeeded Taksin.
He decided to build a new capital (Bangkok) to recapture the glory of Ayutthaya. Bangkok
has been the capital ever since.
Early buildings in Bangkok reproduced the Ayutthaya style. Rama I gave a high
priority to the building of temples and monasteries and brought Buddha statues from
Ayutthaya to be displayed in the new temples. Prang and chedi in the Ayutthaya style of
architecture remained popular. However, in the nineteenth century, Chinese influence on
Thai architecture became significant. It was at this time that a distinctive Thai style
developed, combining the Chinese, Burmese and Khmer influences. The Chinese
influence may have occurred following the arrival of Chinese refugees in Thailand in the
wake of Mongol invasions and political troubles with the seizure of power by the Ming
dynasty.
At the beginning (before 1768) Bangkok was a small trading and military town with
two forts, one on either side of the river. The town expanded when several thousand
people moved from Ayutthaya and settled in the Thonburi-Bangkok area. Bangkok’s
development accelerated when it became the capital of the Chakra dynasty, which has
survived until today. It consists of several Rama rulers, namely: Rama I (1782-1809),
Rama II (1809-24), Rama III (1824-51), Rama IV (1851-68), Rama V (1868-1910) and
Rama VI (1910-25), Rama VII (1925-34), Rama VIII (1934-46) and Rama IX (1946 to
date) (King Bhumibol).
The Chakra dynasty made significant contributions to Thai art in Bangkok. As noted
above, Rama I, the founder of Bangkok, strived to restore the glory of Ayutthaya by
preserving its art and culture. He restored several Bangkok temples and built new ones.
Rama II, who restored such temples as Wat Phra Phutthabat (Sara Buri) and Wat Arun
(Bangkok), is also known for the patronage of art and culture, which were further
patronised by Rama III who founded several Buddhist monasteries.
From the sixth to twelfth century, Thailand was a melting pot of different art styles
which is not surprising considering that different ethnic groups inhabited the country—the
Khmers, the Indian immigrants, the Mon and the Burmese. Wars between the Khmer and
the Thai in the fourteenth century led to a decline in the importance of the Khmer style
and ascendancy of the Siamese style.
 Subsequently, Thai art absorbed the European and Chinese influences (Griswold,
1960:154). Rama IV (King Mongkut) was one of the first kings to open his country to
foreign influences. As an ardent Buddhist, he had spent many years as a monk. Rama V
(King Chulalongkorn), who travelled to Europe, was further inspired to modernise the
country and its capital city. In Bangkok, he built new palaces in neo-Classical style
besides improving the road and canal infrastructure.
There are three distinct art styles in Thailand: (1) the Burmese, (2) the Khmer and (3)
the Siamese (see Chapter 2), which changed with the changing political fortunes of
different dynasties. The art styles were predominantly Buddhist rather than Hindu. Far
more Buddhist images have been discovered than those of Hindu deities. While the
Burmese were known primarily for their temple architecture, Thai art consisted mainly of
sculpture which remained prominent till modern times.
The earliest phase of Buddhist art dates from the Dvaravati dynasty (sixth to twelfth
century). The Mon of Burma (and not the Thai) were responsible for Thai Buddhist art
during this period. The Thai came later as invaders from southern China. Indian Gupta art
inspired the Mon style of Buddhist sculpture.
The second Khmer phase (the Lopburi period) of art in southern Thailand coincides
with the Khmer conquest of large parts of Thai territory. Some Indian influence on art of
this period is visible, but, it put greater emphasis on ‘the plastic form and less on the
feeling for sensuous beauty so typical of the Indian images’ (Munsterberg, 1970:222). The
Lopburi images mark a change in racial features—now the faces become flatter and
broader and the linear detail less pronounced. But there was little change in the
iconography since Hinayana Buddhism was still prevalent.
During the Siamese (Bangkok) period in the nineteenth century, the first magnificent
edifices were erected, including the Great Palace and the Wat Pra Keo for displaying the
Emerald Buddha. At the Wat, Rama built a replica of the royal prayer-house of Ayutthaya.

The Bangkok School of Art

The Bangkok School of Art, more popularly known as the Ratankosian (ancient Thai for
Bangkok) School, is the last phase of Thai art. Generally the Bangkok School is
characterised by two phases:

The first phase of Rama I period (1782-1809) especially during fifteen years of
Thonburi as the capital before Bangkok was founded. During this period, the earlier
(Ayutthaya period) traditions of art and sculpture were maintained. The destruction of
Ayutthaya, defeat at the hands of the Burmese and the subsequent dislocation, was
too traumatic an experience to allow any new innovative activity. Siamese art and
architecture did not change much following the foundation of Bangkok. No
noticeable artistic revival took place in Siam: the sculptors continued to imitate
Khmer and Srivijaya art styles[38]which is not surprising, considering that the main
preoccupation of King Rama I was to defend the country against Burmese attacks.
 The second phase started in the middle of the nineteenth century with the reign of

King Rama IV or Mongkut. This period witnessed the modernisation and

Westernisation of Thailand and its art and architecture. The Prasat, based on the
original Khmer model, became popular during this period.

The building architecture during the Bangkok period did not contain anything new.
Stupas were built in the Ayutthaya style. However, one novelty of Bangkok art lies in the
temple roofs of colourful glazed tiles and lacquered doors. Buildings often consisted of
courtyards and assembly rooms decorated with frescoes. The main temple buildings
contained rows of small Buddha statues as well as a large one meant for worship.
Another novelty was the prasat which flourished during the Bangkok period. Prasat
is a sort of miniature palace with a prang at the intersection of its roofs. Generally, prasats
were meant to commemorate those kings who adopted Buddhism and donated their
palaces (for example, Bang Pa-in built by King Rama I) to the Buddhist religious order.
Stupas and prangs became the two popular architectural forms during the Bangkok
period (see for example, the imposing prang of Wat Arun). When he was still a monk,
King Rama IV brought to Bangkok the famous round Sukhotai chedi from the northern
region of Thailand.
Another popular architectural form is the mondop a special feature of which (unlike
its equivalent in India) is the wooden superstructure decorated with gilded carvings and
glass mosaics. The mondop generally holds Buddhist holy relics.
Like architecture, sculpture during the Bangkok period did not change much. Most
Buddha images belonged to the earlier styles, namely, Sukhotai, U Thong and Ayutthaya.
King Rama I did not commission any new Buddha images. Instead, he ordered over a
thousand bronze Buddhas (left behind after the wars between Burma and Thailand)
brought to Bangkok from Ayutthaya. These images were restored and distributed to
monasteries in and around Bangkok. Any new images created were in the Ayutthaya style
as the king wanted to restore the ancient glory of that kingdom.
Buddha sculptures produced during the reigns of Rama II and Rama III were very
similar. However, there was some change in their art form during the reign of Rama IV.
The Buddha images now were influenced by Western culture. Buddha’s human form
included robes as well as skull protuberance (usnisha). Surprisingly, the Thai sculptures
began to be influenced by the Gandhara School in India. The Buddha statues with skull
protuberance became popular particularly during the reigns of King Rama V and Rama
VI.
During the Bangkok period, painting became more refined and sophisticated than that
during the Ayutthaya period. It was considered a visual aid to religious education. As
such, murals decorated the walls of temples and monasteries the themes of which related
to Buddha’s life, the jataka stories (similar to the ones found in Ajanta cave temples in
India) and Buddhist cosmology. In those days, painting was not seen as an art form but as
a medium of religious instruction among the largely illiterate population.
A rapid expansion of Bangkok and the construction of a large number of new temples
and monasteries generated a significant demand for murals. Very few paintings from
Ayutthaya could be transported to Bangkok as most of them had been destroyed. An
attempt to meet this rising demand quickly may have sacrificed the quality of Thai
painting during this period.
The Chinese influence on art and painting was visible particularly during the reign of
Rama III. It is noticeable in murals of flowering trees and rocks. The patterns for murals
may have been taken from the blue porcelain imported from China.
An attempt to blend Western influence with the Thai art of painting during the reign
of Rama IV was unsuccessful, considering that interest in such mural paintings waned
after the reign of Rama V.

Indian Influence

There was little direct Indian influence on Thai Buddhist art during the Bangkok period.
However, some indirect influence was visible through a carry-over from the earlier
Ayutthaya period. As noted above, the beginning of the Bangkok period followed the
devastation caused by the Burmese invasion. Therefore, the main objective was
consolidation rather than innovation. The Rama kings of the Chakra dynasty wanted to
relive the Siamese glorious past by re-enacting Ayutthaya monuments and restoring
Buddha statues discovered in Ayutthaya.
Far more important an influence during the Bangkok period was that of Ceylon,
China and Western Europe. The only exception was the Gandhara school of Indian
sculpture which influenced the Thai sculpture during this period as noted above.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the Gandhara school of sculpture depicts Buddha as a
Greco-Roman deity looking like Appollo. The Buddha images found in the Gandhara
region present him in thin toga-like robe with loose knotted hair. According to a Thai
scholar (Jermasawatdi, 1979:102), contacts with many countries including India may have
encouraged Thai artists ‘to humanise Buddha image as much as possible by trying to
follow the Gandhara School of Buddha image of India’.
During the reign of King Rama V, an image was cast of Buddha calling down the
rain. In this image, Buddha wears a wavy and folded robe and has curly hair, which
suggest the Gandhara influence.[39]
However, the Thai artists found it difficult to imitate the Appollo-like image of
Buddha so typical of the Gandhara sculpture.
The Grand Palace and Temples

Bangkok has a large number of Buddhist temples, notably, Wat Pra Keo, Wat Po, and Wat
Arun besides a large palace complex along the Chaophraya River. These examples of Thai
architecture are discussed below.

The Grand Palace

Built by Rama I, the Grand Palace is surrounded by walls on all four sides. The complex
includes not only the king’s private residential quarters, but also government offices, a
ministry and a private Royal Chapel where emerald Buddha is displayed. The two earliest
royal residences in the palace are the Dusit-Mhaprasad and the Mahamontien. The former
includes an audience hall with a mother-of-pearl throne and a Pavilion. The latter contains
an audience hall of Amarindra where Court ceremonies are held and a Paisal Hall for the
coronation of a monarch.
The terrace of the palace complex contains four monuments, namely, a reliquary (a
golden chedi), a Repository of the Canon of Buddhism, a model of Angkor Wat presented
to King Mongkut, and the Royal Pantheon containing statues of former kings.
The galleries in the palace grounds contain murals depicting different scenes from the
Ramayana (or Ramakien) such as the campaigns of Ravana.

Wat Po

The temple, also known in Thailand as Wat Phra Chettuphon, is situated next to the Royal
Palace (Figs. 54 and 55). It is one of the largest and oldest Bangkok temples with an area
of 80,000 square metres. Originally, a centre of education for traditional Thai medicine
was built on the site of the temple which explains why until today the centre has several
massage pavilions. The temple is a seat of learning for Thai medicine, literature, astrology
besides being a place of worship.
It is divided into two compounds. The northern compound displays the reclining
Buddha (Fig. 54). The massage school is also located in this compound. The southern
compound, Tukgawee, is a Buddhist monastery inhabited by monks with a school attached
to it.
 Fig. 54 A close-up of reclining golden Buddha, Wat Po

Fig. 55 Buddha’s feet with mother-of-pearl inlay, Wat Po
The temple was originally built in the seventeenth century before Bangkok was
founded. The name Wat Po comes from its original name, Wat Potaram. King Rama I, the
founder of Bangkok, enlarged and renovated it and installed many Buddha statues
recovered from Ayutthaya. Several seated Buddhas are displayed along its outer wall. In
1801, it was renamed Wat Phra Chetuphon. In the early nineteenth century, Rama II
commissioned the building of a large prang (tower) and four smaller ones which were
completed by his successor, Rama III. However, the original temple is much older and
dates back to the Ayutthaya period. Rama III undertook its restoration and expansion. He
placed in it a number of plaques containing medicinal texts, thus converting it into a seat
of learning, essentially the first university in Thailand. Rama III was also responsible for
commissioning the statue of reclining Buddha.

The temple is characterised by the following features:

A large golden reclining Buddha which barely fits into the vihara in which it is
located. His eyes and soles of feet are decorated with mother-of-pearl inlay. The soles
are intricately decorated with 108 auspicious signs in Chinese and Indian styles (Fig.
55).
Over a thousand Buddha statues many of which were brought from Ayutthaya.
A large number of square pagodas which differ from the more common bell-shaped
pagodas.
Three-dimensional ceramic tiles and pieces forming floral patterns in the chedis.
Temple guardians as in Wat Arun (for example, Fig. 57).

The Buddha statues in the corridor in Wat Po look like innumerable copies of the
same model. As discussed in Chapter 2, with few exceptions the Thai sculpture of recent
centuries is standardised and repetitive without much imagination.

Wat Arun

The temple is named after Aruna, the Hindu god of Dawn (Figs. 56 and 57). Other signs
of the Hindu influence include two temple guardians from the Hindu epic Ramayana. The
four statues of Hindu god Indra riding on Erawan over its second terrace is the third sign
of Hindu influence. It belongs to the Ayutthaya period during which it was called Wat
Makoki (Olive Temple). King Taksin changed the name of the temple to Wat Chaeng
when Thanburi became the capital of Thailand.
For a brief period, the temple contained the revered Emerald Buddha after its
recapture from Laos. In 1784, the Emerald Buddha was moved to Wat Phra Keo.
 Fig. 56 Wat Arun from the river, Bangkok

Fig. 57 Temple guardians, Wat Arun, Bangkok
King Rama II enlarged the central prang of the temple and changed its name to Wat
Arunratchatharam. Work on the prang was completed by Rama III. The Phra prang with a
height of nearly 82 metres and a width of 234 metres is an important and imposing feature
of the temple. Wat Arun is known for its tall central Khmer and Thai blend of pagoda
which is visible from afar. It symbolises the legendary Mount Meru (the centre of the
universe) of the Hindu mythology. Its corners are surrounded by four smaller pavilions
depicting different phases of Buddha’s life—birth, enlightenment, first sermon and
nirvana. Its several terraces at different levels are decorated with statues. They are
narrower at higher levels, tapering towards the top.
Prangs are unique in design as well as decoration. The core material used in their
construction is brick with a thick layer of plaster on which pieces of Chinese porcelain and
glazed ceramic tiles are pasted. The use of Chinese porcelain is not surprising since the
Chinese ships used to call on the Thai capital of Bangkok in its early days.
Monks continue to live in a monastery attached to the temple. The King visits the
temple every year to present saffron robes to them.

Wat Phra Keo (The Temple of Emerald Buddha)

The temple was built to display the Emerald Buddha statue which is highly revered in
Thailand. Its construction began in 1782 along the shores of the Chao Phraya River. Rama
I built it ‘as a replica of the royal prayer house in Ayutthaya’ as it was the Royal Chapel
(Fig. 58). The subsequent kings expanded its size manifold.

Fig. 58 General view of Wat Phra Keo, Bangkok

It is located in the compound of the Royal Palace and is encircled by a cloister in the
shape of a polygon. It is built of white-washed brick covered with red tiles. The emerald
Buddha statue made of a single piece of jade is placed on a high gilded pedestal. There is a
seven-tiered umbrella at the back of the statue, which is decorated with a golden jewel-
studded robe changing colour with every season. The king himself changes the robe at the
beginning of spring, summer and winter.
A mural painting depicting a scene from Buddha’s life is an example of the Indian
influence on Thai Buddhist art (Fig. 59).

Fig. 59 A mural painting depicting a scene from Buddha’s life, Bangkok
© Audio-Visual Department, Library of the City of Chaux-de-Fonds, Fernand Perret Fund,
Switzerland
 The temple is unusual in that it has no resident monks, presumably because it is in the
compound of the Grand Palace and is a private royal chapel. Thus it is not a seat of
Buddhist learning as are the other Bangkok temples. However, architecturally it looks like
a monastery even though monks do not live there.
The Emerald statue has a chequered history. It was first discovered in 1434 by a
monk in Chieng Rai, a northern province of Thailand. At that time, Chieng Rai was under
the administrative control of Chiengmai. The then ruler of Chiengmai ordered the transfer
of the statue to Chiengmai where the statue remained for nearly one hundred years. It was
then moved again to Vientiane (Laos). In 1778, Rama I conquered Laos and brought the
statue to Wat Arun in Bangkok. It finally found a permanent home with the construction of
the new temple.
The rectangular hall of consecration (ubosot) is built on a marble platform decorated
with gilded figures. Other embellishments of the temple include:

mother-of-pearl doorways.
coloured glass mosaics on the facade.
mural paintings depicting scenes from the Ramayana; and garudas and nagas.

The temple encompasses all the major styles of Thai architecture, namely, chedis,
prangs, mondops and viharas, which are well decorated and ornamented. The mondop on
the upper terrace has an elaborate roof and a slender spire. It is used as a library holding
the sacred Buddhist scriptures.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we have described principal temples of Bangkok which represent the
Bangkok Period of Thai Buddhist art. This period cannot claim any originality or beauty
in Thai art especially when it is compared with that of the Ayutthaya period. The building
architecture and sculpture of this period borrowed heavily from the earlier Ayutthaya
period, which is not surprising considering that the Bangkok period was a consolidation
phase in which the founding of a new capital was designed to restore the glory of art
represented by Ayutthaya.
Thai art witnessed changes in the middle of the nineteenth century when Rama IV
opted for the Westernisation of Bangkok and the country as a whole. However, the process
of modernisation and its reconciliation with traditional Thai values in art and architecture
as well as in social life accelerated later under Rama V (Chulalongkorn), the first king to
travel abroad.
The Bangkok Period was less rich than the Ayutthaya Period in respect of both
sculpture and architecture. It was perhaps for this reason that the Ramas longed for the
glory of Ayutthaya. As discussed in Chapter 8, the Ayutthaya School of art is an amalgam
of various styles, namely, the Indian, Khmer, Mon, Burmese and Ceylonese. Much of what
later became a distinctive Thai style of art is essentially an extension of this earlier fusion.
Some observers argue that the art of painting during the Bangkok period was more
sophisticated than that during the Ayutthaya period. However, it is rather difficult to make
any serious comparison since very few paintings of the earlier period have survived.
One of the aims of the book is to trace the Indian influence on Buddhist art and
architecture in Southeast Asia. Was the Bangkok school affected much by Indian Buddhist
art? With the exception of the Gandhara School, the Indian influence during this period
was much less marked than the Chinese, Ceylonese and European. Here the Bangkok
period differs from the Ayutthaya period during which the Indian (both Hindu and
Buddhist) influence was more significant. During this later period Thai art was inspired by
the Indian Amaravati, Gupta and Pallava schools. The Thai architecture followed the
South Indian traditions and styles of Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas. The Thai sculpture
was inspired by the Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati schools.
Thus the Indian influence on Buddhist art in Southeast Asia depends on the period
considered. This is equally true of such influence on Khmer art, a classical example of
which is the temple of Banteay Srei, which was built during the pre-Angkor period (ninth
and tenth centuries). It is superior to Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, which were built
during the twelfth and thirteenth century respectively. Angkor Thom sculpture is rather
disappointing. Is it really art, one may ask? It would be more appropriate to call it the
mass production of Buddha sculptures as well as those of Bodhisattvas, devatas and
dancing apsaras.
Buddhist art in Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand but also to a lesser extent in
Cambodia, had more to do with Buddha images for religious purposes. This explains their
mass production more for worship and religious instruction than for art per se. Therefore,
it may not be far from the truth to say that at least in Thailand Buddhist art was religion
and religion was art.
Glossary

Anatta Soul
Anda Hemispherical dome of the
Buddhist stupa
Apsara Standing female divinities; a
celestial nymph; divine dancing girls
Apse A large semi-circular or
polygonal recess in a Buddhist temple or a
church
Arati Delight

Architrave A main beam resting on
tops of columns; the moulded frame around a
doorway or window
Arhat An enlightened being, mystic
or sage
Asuras Divine beings (in the Vedic
period); demons involved in fights with the
devas
Atman Soul

Banteai (y) (Khmer) Fortress; citadel

Baray (Cambodia) Reservoir
Bhakti Devotion
Bhikshu or
Bhikhu A disciple; monk
Bodhi Enlightenment
Bodhisattva A being who refrains
from entering nirvana in order to save others
Brahmi The earliest known and
deciphered Indian script

Chaitya A prayer hall; Buddhist

shrine
Chaitya-grihas Places of worship as
well as monasteries
Chakra Wheel
Chakravartin World emperor
Champa Indianised state
neighbouring Cambodia in the area now
called South-Central Vietnam
Chauri A fly whisk
Chedi Thai chaitya shrine containing
Buddha relic; reliquary
Chhatri Umbrella; canopy
Cittas States of consciousness
Coping Capping on the top course of
a stupa

Dagoba Sinhalese stupa (pagoda)

Devata A deity
Devi A goddess
Dharma The religious and social
order
Dharmachakra The Wheel of Law,
emblem of Buddhist Dharma (Law)
Dhayana Yoga meditation
Dryad A nymph (Greek mythology)
inhabiting a tree
Dukkha Suffering
Dvarapalas Gatekeepers

Erawan (Thai) A white 33-headed

elephant serving as a vehicle for god Indra

Firman An oriental sovereign’s edict

Gandharvas Heavenly musicians and

dancers married to yaksas; spirits of the
clouds and waters
Garuda A mythical deity appearing
as half man and half bird
Gopura Entrance pavilion; stone
platform in front of a Khmer temple

Harmika Railed balcony surrounding

a stupa dome
Hinayana The second major
Buddhist sect

Jatakas Birth stories of the Buddha

Kalasha Pinnacle
Kami (Japan) Sacred symbols of
Shinto; spirit
Khmer Ethnic group and language of
Cambodia
Lingam Phallic object as a symbol of
Shiva
Lintel A horizontal support (of wood,
stone or steel) across the top of a door or a
window
Lokesvara Compassionate
bodhisattva of Buddhism

Mahant Priest of a temple

Mahavamsa The Great Chronicle of
Ceylon
Mahavihara Large monasteries
A major sect of Buddhism
Maitreya The Buddha who will
appear in the future
Makara A sea monster with an
elephant head
Marga Path
Medhi Base of a stupa; High circular
terrace
Meru The world mountain of Indian
and Buddhist cosmology
Mithuna A loving couple
Mondop (Thai) Square structure
often crowned by a tiered roof
Mudra Symbolic gesture of Buddha’s
hands
Muni Sage

Naga Mythical multi-headed snake

or serpent; snake god
Nagaraja King of the nagas
Nirvana Salvation; release from re-
birth

Pagoda Tall temple of roofs of

several tiers; a stupa
Pediment The triangular upper part
of a building surmounting a portico of
columns
Phnom (Khmer) Hill, mountain
Pipal Ficus-religiosa tree
Pralamb-pada Pose of Buddha seated
with feet resting on a lotus
Prang Siamese pagoda with a
rectangular or polygonal base; Khmer Prasat
Prasat Khmer (Cambodian)
sanctuary tower
Preah Sacred (Khmer)

Rati Lust
Rishi Brahmin ascetic

Sakyamuni Buddha; the sage of the

Sakyas
Sangha Buddhist Order or Council
Sgo-mang
(Tibet) Stupas with many doors
Shamanism Belief in a world of
unseen gods, demons and spirits responsive
only to Shamans (priests)
Shikara Tower surmounting the
temple spire
Shinto
(Japanese) Native pre-Buddhist
beliefs in Japan
Sopanas Staircases leading to the
terraces of stupas
Stambhas Pillars of stupa railings
Stupa A relic (funeral) mound
Svastika An ancient symbol in the
form of an equal-armed cross

Tantric A religious cult

Tara Female Buddhist deity
Tathagata An horrific title of a
Buddha
Thankas Tibetan scriptures
Theravada One of the two main
Buddhist sects
Thom (Khmer) Great, large
Tjandis Javan religious structures
Torana Gateway to a stupa
Tribhanga Triple bend posture
Triphoum Manuscript devoted to
Buddhist cosmology
Tri-ratna Three jewels of Buddhism:
Buddha, Dharma and Sangha
Trishna Thirst

Ubosot Thai Buddhist sanctuary or

main chapel
Usnisha Coping or crown; diadem,
turban

Vajrasana An unbreakable throne;

Buddha seat under a tree in deep meditation
Vassa Rainy season
Vedika Railing around a stupa
Vihara A Buddhist temple or
monastery

Wat Modern Buddhist pagoda or

temple

Yaksa A male deity
Yaksi A female deity
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 Illustration Credits

Figs.1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 35, 36, 37, 38, 43,
51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57
Photographs by A.S. Bhalla, the author

Figs. 6, 8, 13, 14, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50
Courtesy of Ranjan Bhalla


Fig. 42
Courtesy of Rajgopalan Sampatkumar


Figs. 5, 19
Courtesy of Sandra Zysset

Index

Afghanistan
- Bamiyan statues of Buddha 49, 95

- Hadda statues 49

Agnimitra 80
Aibak, Qutb-ud-din 69
Ajanta 93-
106
- cave temples 93-94
- paintings 95-99
- sculpture 100-103
Alam, Shah 56
Altekar, A.S. 61
Amaravati 86-90
- railings
86-87
- stupa 86-
90
- vs Bharhut, Bodhgaya and Sanchi 91-92
Ananda 62
Ananda Temple, Pagan 38, 49
Angelo, Michael 98
Angkor
107-24
- Bayon
119-20
- Hindu and Buddhist art 111
- Indian influence 108-10
- other temples 121-
23
- sculptures and reliefs 115-20
- Thom 117-
20
- Wat 113-
16
Anuruddha 62
Apsaras 50,
51, 98, 99, 108, 115-16
Archaeological Survey of India 7, 14, 61, 78, 97, 99,
105
Architecture
- Mathura style 71
- Sarnath style 71
Arthaud, J. 27, 111,
123
Asher, F.M. 56
Ashvajit 68
Avalokitesvara 18,
19, 32, 41, 117
Ayutthaya 125-37
- architecture 128-29
- Hindu and Buddhist influences 126
- painting
129-30
- School of Art 127-
30
- sculpture 127-28
- temples
130-37

Balamitra
Bangkok
138-50
- Golden Buddha 143
- Grand Palace 142
- School of Art 139-
41
- temples
142-50
Banteay Srei 50, 51,
110, 111, 124, 150
Barrett, D.E. 86
Barua, B.
20, 29
Bashpa 68
Beglar, J. D. 85
Béguin, Gilles 129
Bhadrika 68
Bhalla, A.S. 129
Bharhut 85-
87
- vs Amaravati and Sanchi 92-93

Bhutan 23,
56, 62, 66-67
Bodhgaya 55-67
- Bhutan monastery/temple 66-67

- Great Buddha statue 63

- Mahabodhi Temple 57-62

Bodhisattvas 98, 118

Boisselier, J. 129
Borobodur (Indonesia) 48, 53,
54
Bouillevaux, Father Charles Emile 107
Brihadratha 80
British Museum, London 7, 43, 44, 45,
78, 88, 89, 90
Brown, Percy 106
Buchanan, Francis (later Hamilton) 56
Buddha
- footprints 43
- Great of Kamakura 63
- medallions 44,
85,86, 87
- relief panels 88, 89,
90
Buddhism
- decline in India 21-

22
- principles of 15-16

- spread in India 22-27

- spread in the rest of Asia 22-27

- types of 17-

19
Buddhist Architecture
- prayer halls (chaityas) 30, 38, 95, 105

- stupas 33-38

- temples 38-

39
Buddhist Art
- Indian influence on 47-48

- painting 46-

47
- patronage of merchant class 32

- patronage of ordinary people 33

- royal patronage 29-

32
- sculpture 39-

46
- South Asia 48-49

- Southeast Asia 49-54

Buribhand, L.B. 129

Burma
22, 23, 34, 38, 46, 47, 48, 49,
52, 56, 62
Bussagli 41

Cambodia
- Angkor 107-

24
- Bayon 119-

20
- Influence of Hindu and Buddhist art 108, 111-13

- Temples

115-16
Cambodian Art 52, 108-11,
113
Cecconi, Professor Lorenzo 98
Ceylon
- rock paintings 46-47

Channa 15
Chen 20
China 18,
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 34, 35,
36, 66, 108, 138, 141, 150
Coedès, G. 107, 114,
119
Coral-Rémusat, G. 114
Count Orsini 98
Cunningham, Alexander 57, 69, 74,
84, 85, 92

Daibutso 26
Daijokyo Temple, Bodhgaya 64
Dalai Lama 24, 57,
62
Dali, China 34, 35
Dehejia, V. 29, 33,
86, 93
Deshpande, P.Y. 96
Dhamekh Stupa 72, 73
Dhanabhuti 85
Dharampala (Hewavitarana, David) 56
Dharma 15,
16, 17, 18, 62, 97, 98
Dharmachakra (Wheel of Law) 43, 62, 68, 69,
Dharmavamin 55, 56
Dhavalikar, M.K. 103
Eightfold Path 16
Ellora 105-6

Fahr-Becker, G. 25, 54
Faircloth, Terence 7
Four Truths 16
Freeman, M. 121,
122

gateways to Sanchi stupa 80-82

Gautama
15, 65, 81
Ghosh, A. 7
Giri, Gosain Ghamandi 56
Gong 20
Gousset, J-R. 40
Great Buddha of Kamakura, Japan 63
Griswold, A.B. 128, 138
Groslier, B. 27, 111,
123,

Hamilton, F. (earlier Buchanan) 56

Hargreaves, H. 69
Harihara
108
Heruka 70
Horne, C.
69
Hsien, Fa (Gong) 20, 55, 57,
68, 75, 108
India
- Buddha statues 39-

41, 101, 102, 105

- Buddhist cave paintings 39-41

- Chaityas 94

- decline of Buddhism 21-22

- spread of Buddhism 22-27

- stupas 34-

35, 72-75, 78-92

- temples 38-

39, 57-62, 77, 82-83, 94-

106
Indonesia
13, 21, 24, 25, 53, 54, 128,
Indosan Nipponji Temple 64
Indra 46

Jacques, C. 121, 122

Japan 13,
14, 26, 34, 36, 37, 56, 57,
61, 62-65, 77

Jatakas 34,
52, 59, 84, 85, 87, 91, 96,
111, 128, 131, 132

Java
25, 47, 53, 54, 108
Jermasawatdi, P. 53, 129, 141
Johnson, W.L. 110

Kanthaka 15
Karle 104-6
Kaundinya 68
Khan, Guuhri 24
King Anawrahta 23, 48
King Ashoka 13, 19,
20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26,
27, 29, 30, 38, 48, 55, 57, 59,
61, 68, 69-72, 74,
75, 76, 78,
79, 80, 84, 86, 87, 92
King Bhavavarman 108
King Bhumibol (Rama IX) 125, 138
King Borom Rachithirat 137
King Borom Trailokanath 127, 137
King Boromokat 127
King Boromoraja 131
King Brahmamitra 20
King Brihadratha 80
King Chandragupta 19
King Chao Prasat Thong 127
King Chao Song Tham 127
King Chao Tai Sa 127
King Chulalongkorn 24, 52, 138, 140,
141, 149
King Dhammazedi 23
King Dharanindravarman II 123
King Ela
103
King Elara 22
King Govindachandra 75
King Indragnimitra 20
King Indravarman I 107
King Intharachathirat 132
King Jayavarman II 107
King Jayavarman VII 24, 51, 112, 114,
117, 119,
121, 123
King Jayavarman VIII 122
King Kanishka 23,
31, 39
King Kyanzittha 49
King Mahachakrapat 125, 136
King Mahipala 74
King of Mithila 98
King Mongkut 140, 141,
142, 149
King Muchalinda 108
King Naresuen 137
King Prasat Thong 131, 135
King Rachathirat 131
King Rama I 25,
137, 138, 140, 144, 146
King Rama II 140,
142, 146, 148
King Rama III 136,
138, 140, 141, 146
King Ram VI 138,
140
King Rama VII 138, 140
King Rama VIII 138, 140
King Ramathibodhi I 125
King Ramathibodhi II 136
King Ramesuan 131, 138
King Ram Kamhaeng 125
King Sam Phraya 135
King Samudragupta 20, 55
King Simhala 98
King Songhan 131
King Suryavarman II 113, 114
King Suryavarman VII 21, 122
King Taksin 140,
144
King Tissa 22
King U Thong
125,137
King Visvadeva 85
King Yasovarman I 123
Kittoe, Major Markham 69
Knox, R. 86
Kolkata National Museum 7, 77, 78, 84
Korea 26,
62
Kosiki 20
Kubera 102
Kurangi 20

Lahore Museum 7, 14
Lipton, B. 23
Listopad, John 7
Lokesvara 18, 41,
117, 119, 122

Mahabodhi Temple, Pagan 49

Mahakaccana 62
Mahakassapa 62
Mahamogalana 62
Mahanaman 68
Mahavamsa 48
Mahayana 17-18, 20-
22, 25, 31, 37, 48,
54, 70, 71, 96, 114, 119, 121,
128, 139
Mahinda (or Mahindra) 78
Maisey, General Frederick Charles 83
Manjushri 18
Mara 103
Marshall, John 78,
80
Mathura School of Art 40, 100
Maya 64
McGill, F. 137
medallions 44, 62,
83, 85, 87, 92
Mitra, Debala 34,
39, 82, 84, 85, 94
Moore, E.
125
Mouhot, Henri 107
Mugallana 78, 83
Munsterberg, H. 49, 139

Nagadevi 20
Nagaraja
45, 101, 102
nagas 49,
50, 82, 96, 108, 109, 110,
121, 122, 132, 149
Nainar, S.P. 86
Nakagawa, Chiyoji 64
Nepal 15,
19, 22, 23, 30, 48,
62, 93
Nichiren 26
Nosu, Kosetsu 77

Oertal, F.O. 69

painting
 - mural 32,

47, 96, 100, 133, 142,

149-50
- rock

46
- tempera technique of 46, 96

Pakistan 7,
14, 39, 40, 77
Pra-ong In 137
Prince Chao Ai 132
Prince Chao Yi 132
Prince Damrong Rachanuphap 131
Punna 62
Pushyamitra 80

Qianxun Pagoda 34

Ragnubs, N.D. 23
Rahula 62,
102
Rashtrakutas 94
Robinson, R.H. 110
Roerich, G. 61
Rohatgi, K. 69
Rohatgi, S.P. 69
Rowland, B. Jr 29,
31, 48, 71, 74, 93, 123

Sahni, D.R. 68, 70,

74
Sakyamuni 64
Sanchi 78-
84
- Ashoka pillar 84
 - gateways and railings 79-82
- Great Stupa 79-82
- Stupas 2 and 3 83-84
- temples 82-
83
- yaksas and yaksis 82
San Fa Si Pagodas 35
Sangha 15,
16, 17, 25, 62, 68
Sariputta
62, 78, 83
Sarkar, H. 86
Sarnath 68-
77
- Archaeological Museum 41, 69, 71, 77
- Dhamekh Stupa 72-74
- Dharmarajika Stupa 74-75
- examples of Buddhist Art 73
- monasteries 75
- Monument of the five disciples 77
- Mulaghanakuti Temple 77
- Sarnath School of Art 70-72
- stone pillars 76
sculpture
13, 40-47, 72, 116, 141, 151
Shankaracharya 56
Shiva 24,
49, 56,
Sidharatha, Gautam a 15, 80
Singh, Jagat 74
Sirigiya rock paintings (Ceylon) 46
Sivaramamurti, C. 84, 95
Sthirapala 74
stupas
- Amaravati

86-90
- Bharhut 85-

87
- Dhamekh

 72-74
- Dharmarajika 74-75

- Sanchi 79-

84
Subhuti 62
Sugiyama, Tatsuko (Ms) 64
Sumatra 25,
53, 139
Sundarananda (or Nanda) 88
Sundari 46

Tagore, Rabindranath 54
Taishi, Prince Shotoku 26
Tantrism
18-19, 20, 22, 23, 48, 70
Tara, the Saviouress 70, 104
Taylor, General Mark 78
Thai Art 52,
126, 127, 129, 130, 138,
139, 141, 149, 150
Thailand
- Buddhist art 127-30,

139-41
- Indian influence 126, 141,

147-48
- Paintings

129-30, 147-48
- Sculpture

127-28
Thakur, U. 55
Thapar, Romila 19, 21, 22, 33
Theravada 17, 18,
22-25, 39
Tibet 13, 19,
23, 24, 34, 38, 47, 55,
56, 57, 61, 62, 64, 65, 93
tri-ratna 15,
43, 62
Tsang, Hsuan (Chen) 20, 39, 55, 59,
61, 62, 68, 75,
108

Upali 62
Usnisha 140

Vajrasana
55, 57, 59, 61
Vajrayana 18, 23
Vakatakas 94, 95
Valisinha, D. 69, 78,
99
Vasanthapala 74
Vietnam 24,
25, 115
viharas 16,
28, 32, 37-38, 55, 93, 94,
136, 149
Vishnu 108,
116, 122, 136
Visvakarma 104

Wheel of Law 16,

43, 62, 65, 68, 70, 80, 81,
84, 91, 120
Win, General Ne 23

Xavier, Francis 26

Yaksas and yaksis 39, 82, 84,

97
Yoshida, T. 64

Zen Buddhism 26,

64
Zhou, Daguan 123
Zimmer, H. 29, 46,
90, 98, 108, 109, 110,
116, 118,

[1] Fa Hsien is a title. His real name was Gong.

[2] Hsuan Tsang is a title. His real name was Chen.
[3] Barbara Lipton and Nima Dorjee Ragnubs (Treasures of Tibetan Art, Oxford, 1997), p.19, note that Lamaism is ‘an
anachronistic and pejorative term that mistakenly suggests that the religion of Tibet is not Buddhism’. Indeed, Tibetan
Buddhism is a valid religious tradition whose influence extended well beyond the national boundary.

[4] The head of one religious order – Dge-Lugs-Pa – known as the Dalai Lama, approached a Mongol chieftain, Güühri
Khan, for help against a rival group— Karma Pa, a sect patronised by the rulers of Gtsang. When Khan defeated the
Gtsang forces, he awarded Tibet to the Dalai Lama. Thus from 1642 till the Chinese Communist rule in 1951, the Dge-
Lugs-Pa has been the dominant sect in Tibet (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, London, 1981a), p. 388.

[5] Prior to the arrival of Buddhism, Hinduism had spread to Cambodia. It had also spread to Indonesia and Thailand.
[6] Many Buddhist sutras were translated into Chinese during the Han dynasty.
[7] Francis Xavier introduced Christianity to Japan in 1549.
[8] Bernard Philippe Groslier and Jacques Arthaud (The Arts and Civilization of ANGKOR, New York, 1957), p.15,
note: ‘The distinguishing mark of Indian expansion was that it was peaceful and at first almost unnoticed, in complete
contrast with the contemporary southward drive of the Chinese which, at any rate in Indo-China, constituted a regular
process of colonization on the Roman model’.

[9] Romila Thapar (History of India, London, 1990), p.129, notes: ‘Gone were the days when the Buddhist monks lived
entirely on alms […] they ate regular meals in vast monastic refectories […]. Secluded monasteries were sufficiently
well-endowed to enable the monks to live comfortably’. She argues that the ‘Buddhist Order thus tended to move away
from the common people and isolated itself, which in turn diminished much of its religious strength, a development
which one suspects Buddha would not have found acceptable’ (Ibid).

[10] In Europe, the technique of tempera painting was used from the twelfth to fifteenth century. Egg yolk was used
instead of rice husk and gum. Painting was done usually on wood panels. Painters started using oil in the fifteenth
century.

[11] On his visit to Indonesia, Tagore, the famous Indian poet and Nobel Laureate in Literature, noted: ‘I see India
everywhere but I can’t recognize it any more’ (cited in Gabriele Fahr-Becker, editor, The Art of East Asia, Cologne,
1998, vol. I), p. 326.

[12] The other three being Lumbini in Nepal where Buddha was born, Sarnath in India where he delivered his first
sermon, and Kushinagar in India where he died.

[13] Francis Buchanan adopted his mother’s maiden name, Hamilton, after inheriting her estate.
[14] In 1891, David Hewavitarana (also known as Dharampala) visited the town. His efforts to recover the Mahabodhi
temple from a Hindu mahant, Gosain Ghamandi Giri, and restore Buddhist authority were unsuccessful. The mahant
claimed Bodhgaya including the Mahabodhi temple. Shah Alam, one of the last Mughal emperors, supported the
mahant’s claim in a firman. Nevertheless, Hewavitarana continued his campaign of ‘Bodhgaya for the Buddhists’ and
succeeded in raising funds to establish a Mahabodhi Society which was eventually entrusted the management of the
Mahabodhi Temple.

[15] The names of the ten disciples are: Sariputta, Mahamogalana, Mahakassapa, Subhuti, Punna, Mahakaccana,
Anuruddha, Upali, Rahula and Ananda.

[16] In June 1954, Chiyoji Nakagawa presented the first Japanese Peace Bell to the United Nations Headquarters in
New York on behalf of the United Nations Association of Japan. In 1982, Tomijoro Yoshida founded the World Peace
Bell Association in Tokyo to carry on Mr. Nakagawa’s work for world peace.

[17] According to inscriptions found on site, Sarnath was invariably called ‘the Dharmachakra’ or the ‘monastery of
the turning of the Wheel of Law’ (Daya Ram Sahni, Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath, Simla, 1923), p. 1.

[18] Devapriya Valisinha (Buddhist Shrines in India, Colombo, 1948), p.89, notes that ‘from the 12 th
to the 17th century
we have no knowledge again as to the events at Sarnath’.

[19] Kamla Rohatgi and S.P. Rohatgi (Buddhism and Sarnath, Delhi, 1991) argue that Sarnath was accidentally
discovered in the eighteenth century.

[20] Hsuen Tsang describes seeing a magnificent temple which was the main shrine of Sarnath at that time. It contained
a life-size brass image of Buddha turning the Wheel of Law. It also contained a stone stupa and a pillar known to have
been built by Ashoka. Daya Ram Sahni (Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath, Simla, 1923), p.5, believes that Tsang
describes the temple later known as the Main Shrine.

[21] Daya Ram Sahni (Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath, Simla, 1923), p.18, notes that a small piece of an
umbrella typical of the Mauryan style was discovered in 1906-7 which may well belong to the umbrella on top of the
Dharmarajika stupa.

[22] Debala Mitra (Buddhist Monuments, Calcutta, 1971), p. 92, states: ‘But the monuments at Bharhut were
completely razed to the ground; the materials of the foundations even were utilized by the villagers in their
houses. When Cunningham discovered the site in 1873, the major portion of the priceless railing of the stupa had
been damaged and carted away by the local people’.

[23] The renovation process went through four different phases. The first Ashokan phase is marked by a modest stupa
built duing his reign. The second post-Ashoka phase consisted of the building of several monasteries in the Amaravati
region. It is not certain whether the Amaravati stupa was enlarged during this period. The third Andhra phase was of
great artistic and architectural development. During this phase the simple stupa railing was replaced by a richly carved
railing containing beautiful reliefs and designs. The final Pallava phase extending from the fourth to fourteenth century
witnessed the heyday of Amaravati as an important centre of Buddhism in South India where many Buddha statues were
found which suggests the existence of several shrines besides the main stupa. But none of these shrines has been
discovered (H. Sarkar and S.P. Nainar, Amaravati, New Delhi, 1992).

[24] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (London, 1981b), p.187, notes: ‘The artistry of Bodhgaya, however, is of
lower level of achievement than at either Bharhut or Sanci: the relief is deeper than that at Bharhut but shallower than
that at the Great Stupa of Sanci; and crowded compositions are lacking, as are the clear and precise ornament and the
rich floral motifs’.

[25] Unfinished caves offer a clue to the method of excavation. Excavation work generally started from the ceiling
first. After the ceiling was finished, the builders would cut deep alleys downwards with such instruments as pick axes
and chisels. Then the intervening ridges would be broken leaving some solid blocks out of which pillars would be
carved. Finally, the floor would be reached (Debala Mitra, Ajanta, New Delhi, 1956), p. 6.

[26] Even Buddha himself is said to have meditated in caves (see Vidya Dehejia, Indian Art, London, 1997), p.103.
[27] The Andhra dynasty, which came to power in the south after Ashoka’s death, promoted art and architecture in the
Deccan. The two dynasties represent the ‘Early Classic’ period of art, representing a gradual transition from the archaic
phase of Indian art to its final maturity in the same way as the Greek sculpture did during the Transitional period from
480 BC to 450 BC (Benjamin Rowland, The Art and Architecture of India, Baltimore, 1953), p.51. Historians generally
divide the Andhra period into two phases—the early Andhra phase from 72 to 25 BC and the later Andhra phase from 25
BC to AD 320. The flourishing tradition of art during the reign of the Andhras in the first century BC included Buddhist
chaitya halls in Kanheri and Nasik besides Ajanta.

[28] Depiction of jataka stories in early Buddhist art did not start with Ajanta. This tradition of stories preceded Ajanta
in the earlier art in Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi and Amaravati (see Chapters 3 to 5).

[29] Professor Lorenzo Cecconi and Count Orsini, two Italian specialists, restored Ajanta paintings from 1920 to 1922
by ‘removing the old varnish, dirt and smoke from the surfaces, with breathtaking results’. (see ‘Ajanta, Maharashtra,
India’ in International Dictionary of Historic Places, vol. 5 on Asia and Oceania, (Chicago, 1996), p.14.

[30] The cosmic mountain, Meru, is the source of all creation and the divine origin of water in the Hindu mythology.
[31] In 1186, the Khmer king, Jayavarman VII, built Ta Prohm in memory of his mother and her spiritual master. Five
years later (in 1191), he built Preah Khan for his father (George Coedès, Angkor: An Introduction, London, 1969), p.23.

[32] Lalitavistara’, a classical Sanskrit version of the Buddha legend, describes in detail how Muchalinda protected
Buddha by spreading his hood as an umbrella when the weather was bad and a storm was imminent (cited in Heinrich
Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, Princeton, 1955), pp. 64-5.

[33] Naga worship represents the Hindu religion and tradition. It may also be interpreted as a local tradition of
worshipping snake-dragon as a god of fertility.

[34] Heinrich Zimmer (The Art of Indian Asia, Princeton, 1955), p. 151, suggests that the Cambodian dancers are
simply that and no more. Yet a little later in the same paragraph, he admits that they were meant ‘to represent—and so to
incarnate—heavenly beings, immaculate mistresses. They are not frail mortals, but the functionaries of a divine
beatitude’.

[35] This practice has continued till today. Hindu Brahmins are invited by the current king of Thailand, Bhumibol
Adulyadej (Rama IX) for performing royal ceremonies. Recently, the government of Thailand issued postage stamps
depicting scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharta.

[36] Jean Boisselier (La sculpture en Thailande, Fribourg, 1974), p.176, a historian of Thai art, believes that the statues
were intended to celebrate the bi-millennial anniversary of the Buddhist religion which corresponded to the founding of
the monastery of the seven-spired monument in Chiengmai. The monument is a copy of the Mahabodhi Temple in
Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3).

[37] This section draws on Elizabeth Moore et al. (Ancient Capitals of Thailand, London, 1996). It has also benefited
from documents of the Department of Fine Arts of the Government of Thailand obtained from the Internet.

[38] The Srivijaya period refers to a maritime empire (seventh to thirteenth century) based in Java and Sumatra islands
(present-day Indonesia), which ruled Southern Thailand. Archaeological excavations show that the empire was
influenced by both Hindu and Buddhist religions.

[39] A Thai scholar (Promsak Jermasawatdi, Thai Art with Indian Influences, New Delhi, 1979), p.131, concludes: ‘All
the features of Gandhara Buddha were copied and imitated in all aspects by the Thai artists during the Bangkok period in
order to create a new type of Buddha image. Thus it may be termed as the re-birth of Indian art in the creation of
sculpture in Buddhist art of Thailand’.
 Table of Contents
List of Figures and Tables
Preface
Chapter 1
Buddhism in India and Abroad
Chapter 2
Buddhist Art in Asia
Chapter 3
Bodhgaya: The Seat of Enlightenment
Chapter 4
Sarnath: Siteof the First Sermon
Chapter 5
The Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati
Chapter 6
The Cave Temples of Ajanta, Ellora and Karle
Chapter 7
The Temples and Sculptures of Angkor
Chapter 8
The Temples and Paintings of Ayutthaya
Chapter 9
The Temples of Bangkok
Glossary
Bibliography
Illustration Credits
Index