Soil Science and Plant Nutrition

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Evaluation of available silicon content and its

determining factors of agricultural soils in Japan

Junta Yanai, Hiroshi Taniguchi & Atsushi Nakao

To cite this article: Junta Yanai, Hiroshi Taniguchi & Atsushi Nakao (2016) Evaluation of available
silicon content and its determining factors of agricultural soils in Japan, Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition, 62:5-6, 511-518, DOI: 10.1080/00380768.2016.1232601

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SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT NUTRITION, 2016
VOL. 62, NOS. 5–6, 511–518
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00380768.2016.1232601

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Evaluation of available silicon content and its determining factors of agricultural

soils in Japan
Junta Yanai, Hiroshi Taniguchi and Atsushi Nakao
Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Kyoto, Japan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

To evaluate the available silicon (Si) content in agricultural soils in Japan and to investigate the Received 16 April 2016
determining factors of this content, we collected 180 soil samples from the surface layer of paddies Accepted 31 August 2016
and upland fields in Japan and determined their available Si contents. A phosphate buffer (PB; 0.02 M, pH KEY WORDS
6.9) or an acetate buffer (AB; 0.1 M, pH 4.0) was used to extract available Si from the soil samples, and the Acetate buffer extraction;
Si concentrations in the extracts were determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emissions available silicon; pH;
spectroscopy (ICP-AES). The total Si content and selected physicochemical properties were also deter- phosphate buffer extraction;
mined for the soil samples. The median values of the available Si contents by the PB and AB methods soil type
were 48.8 and 79.7 mg kg−1 and corresponded to 0.017% and 0.027% of the total Si content, respectively.
The overall data showed log-normal distributions. The available Si content of the upland soils was
significantly higher than that of the paddy soils by both the PB (p < 0.01) and AB methods (p < 0.05).
The available Si contents by the PB and AB methods had a significant positive correlation (p < 0.01) and
they had significant negative correlation with the total Si content (p < 0.01). The values of the available Si
contents by the PB and AB methods correlated positively with the pH, total carbon (C) content, and
dithionite-citrate bicarbonate extractable iron (Fed) and aluminum (Ald), acid oxalate extractable iron
(Feo) and aluminum (Alo), Fed-Feo and Alo+1/2Feo values (p < 0.01). A multi-regression analysis indicated
that pH, amorphous minerals and crystalline iron (Fe) oxides were the dominant determining factors of
available Si in the soils, and these three variables explained approximately two thirds of the variation of
available Si content in agricultural soils in Japan. In terms of soil type, Terrestrial Regosols, Dark Red soils
and Andosols had relatively high available Si contents, whereas Sand-dune Regosols, Red soils and Gray
Lowland soils had relatively low contents. In terms of region, the soils in the Kanto and Okinawa regions
had relatively high available Si contents and those in the Kinki, Shikoku and Chugoku regions had
relatively low contents. In conclusion, the available Si content and its determining factors for agricultural
soils in Japan were quantitatively elucidated, and this will contribute to the establishment of rational soil
management —including the application of silicate materials, taking into account the Si-supplying power
of the relevant soils—for sustainable and productive agriculture in Japan.

1. Introduction
Silicon (Si) is an important beneficial element for gramineous
plants including rice (Oryza sativa L.), and it endows plants
with increased photosynthesis efficiency, pest and pathogen
resistance, drought and heavy metal tolerance and, accord-
ingly, higher quality and yields of agricultural crops (Epstein
1994; Ma et al. 2001). Si in soil is basically the dominant source
of Si for plants, and Si is the second most abundant element in
soil next to oxygen (Bowen 1979); however, the availability of
Si in soil is generally low. This is because the Si concentration
in soil solutions, the direct source of Si absorbed by plants, is
regulated by the type of minerals through dissolution and
adsorption/desorption reactions (Sposito 2008; Hiradate
2012). Consequently, in the evaluations of the Si-supplying
power of soils, it is mainly the available Si that has been
determined (Kyuma 2004; Sauer et al. 2006; Matsumori and
Gunjikake 2013).
Against this background, several methods have been pro-
posed to evaluate the available Si content in paddy soils: the
acetate buffer extraction method (Imaizumi and Yoshida 1958;
Kitta and Mizuochi 1997), the submerged incubation method
(Takahashi and Nonaka 1986), the successive supernatant
method (Kitada et al. 1992), the readily dissoluble silica eva-
luation method (Sumida 1991), and the phosphate buffer
extraction method (Kato 1998; Shigezumi et al. 2002).
Among them, the acetate buffer extraction method and the
phosphate buffer extraction method have been the most
widely used in Japan, because their data showed a significant
positive correlation with Si content in rice straw (Imaizumi and
Yoshida 1958; Shigezumi et al. 2002) and because they are
suitable for routine analyses based on their time- and labor-
efficient procedures. The acetate buffer extraction method
was designed to extract soluble Si and some of the exchange-
able Si by dilute acid dissolution, and the phosphate buffer
extraction method was designed to extract such fractions by
the displacement of adsorbed silicic acid with phosphate ions
(Shigezumi et al. 2002). However, limited information is avail-
able on the available Si content of paddy soils in Japan on the
national scale, especially in relation to their soil type and
region. Also, almost no information is available on the

CONTACT Junta Yanai yanai@kpu.ac.jp Laboratory of Soil Chemistry, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University,
Shimogamo Hangi-cho 1-5, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8522, Japan
© 2016 Japanese Society of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition
512 J. YANAI ET AL.

available Si content of upland soils in Japan, even though this
content may affect the yield of some gramineous upland
crops such as sugarcane (Saccharum officianum L.). In addition,
there is insufficient information about the determining factors
for the available Si content of agricultural soils in Japan,
especially on the national scale. Such information, obtained
via extensive investigations of soils considerably influenced by
volcanic materials under subtropical, temperate and subarctic
climates, will lead to a better understanding of available Si in
agricultural soils not only in Japan but also around the world.
The objectives of our present study were thus to: (1) evalu-
ate the available Si concentrations of agricultural soils collected
in sufficient number from all over Japan by performing the
phosphate buffer and acetate buffer extraction methods; (2)
determine the relationship between the Si concentration values
obtained by the two methods; (3) identify the determining
factors for Si concentrations in relation to the physicochemical
properties of the soils; and (4) evaluate the Si concentrations
with reference to the soil types and regions in Japan.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Soil samples
We used 180 soil samples that were collected in 1997–1999
from the surface layer (0–15 cm) of agricultural fields all over
Japan, i.e., from 38 of Japan’s 47 prefectures ranging from
Hokkaido to the north to Okinawa in the south. Ninety-six
samples were collected from paddy fields and 84 samples
were from upland fields. The number of the samples corre-
sponded to approximately one sample per 275 km2 of the
paddies and one sample per 261 km2 for the upland fields,
based on the total areas of paddies (2.64 × 104 km2) and
upland (2.19 × 104 km2) in Japan in 2000.
The soil samples were classified into 16 soil types
(Cultivated Soil Classification Committee 1995). The numbers
of samples for each soil type, land use and region are listed in
Table 1. A detailed map of the soil sampling sites was pro-
vided by Yanai et al. (2012). For the chemical analysis, the soil
samples were air-dried, disaggregated using a porcelain pestle
and mortar, and sieved to < 2 mm before the analysis. The soil
samples used in the present study are thought to be ade-
quately representative of the agricultural soils in Japan, as
discussed by Yanai et al. (2012) and Sano et al. (2004).
2.2. Analytical methods
2.2.1. The determination of the available and total Si
contents in the soil samples
We determined the available Si content in two ways: the phos-
phate buffer (PB) extraction method and the acetate buffer (AB)
extraction method. We analyzed the available Si content deter-
mined by the PB method based on the report by Shigezumi
et al. (2002). A 2.0-g portion of a 2-mm-sieved air-dried soil
sample was mixed with 20 mL of 0.02 mol L−1 phosphate buffer
solution (sodium dihydrogenphosphate (NaH2PO4) : disodium
hydrogenphosphate (Na2HPO4) = 50:50, pH 6.9) in a 40-mL
centrifugation tube and kept in a water bath at 40°C for 5 h.
The centrifugation tube was reciprocally shaken 10 times at
40–50 cm width at the beginning of the water bath and again
at 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 h after the start of the bath. The solution
was then filtered with a filter paper (Toyo No. 6) and a Millipore
filter (Advantec DISMIC 25CS045AN), and the Si concentration
of the solution was determined by inductively coupled plasma-
atomic emissions spectroscopy (ICP-AES) (SPS-1500VR Plasma
Spectrometer, Seiko Instruments, Tokyo).
We analyzed the available Si content obtained by the AB
method by performing the method described by Kitta and
Mizuochi (1997), which was modified from the original
method reported by Imaizumi and Yoshida (1958). A 2.0-g
potion of a 2-mm-sieved air-dried soil sample was mixed
with 20 mL of 0.1 mol L−1 acetate buffer solution (pH 4.0) in
a 40-mL centrifugation tube and kept in a water bath at 40°C
for 5 h. The centrifugation tube was reciprocally shaken 10
times at the width of 40–50 cm at the beginning of the water
bath and 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 h after the start of the bath. The
solution was then filtered with a filter paper (Toyo No. 6), and

Table 1. Soil samples in terms of soil type, land use and region in Japan.
Hokkaido Tohoku Kanto Hokuriku-Chubu Kinki Chugoku Shikoku Kyushu Okinawa Total
Soil typea Relevant soil typeb (Paddy/upland) Total
Peat soils Hemists 4/3 1/0 5/3 8
Sand-dune Regosols Psamments 0/1 0/1 1
Volcanogenous Regosols Vitrands 0/2 1/2 1/4 5
Wet Andosols Aquands 1/3 1/0 2/3 5
Non-allophanic Andosols Udands 3/1 0/1 1/1 4/3 7
Andosols Udands 1/18 1/2 3/10 0/3 0/3 5/36 41
Lowland Paddy soils Aquepts 8/0 5/0 5/0 10/0 9/0 3/0 2/0 6/0 48/0 48
Gley Lowland soils Aquents 4/2 6/1 2/0 9/0 3/0 1/0 25/3 28
Gray Lowland soils Aquents 1/0 0/2 2/1 3/3 6
Brown Lowland soils Ochrepts 0/12 0/1 0/1 0/14 14
Gray Upland soils Aquepts 0/2 0/2 0/2 2
Terrestrial Regosols Orthents 0/2 0/2 2
Dark Red soils Udalfs 0/2 0/2 2
Red soils Udults 0/1 0/1 1
Yellow soils Udults 1/2 0/2 1/0 1/2 3/6 9
Brown Forest soils Ochrepts 0/1 0/1 1
Total 18/42 16/6 10/10 20/5 9/2 8/4 3/2 11/6 1/7 96/84 180
Total 62 22 20 25 11 12 5 17 8 180
a
By classification of cultivated soils in Japan (3rd approximation).
b
By soil taxonomy (dominant type is indicated).

the Si concentration of the solution was determined by ICP-
AES with the SPS-1500VR plasma spectrometer. The same
period of time and the same temperature were applied for
the PB and AB extraction methods to enable the direct com-
parison of the extraction power of the two buffer solutions.
We calculated the total Si content in the soil (Yanai et al.
2012) based on the method explained by Kato et al. (2000):
the SiO2 content was calculated by subtracting the sum of the
contents of Al2O3, Fe2O3, K2O, Na2O, CaO, MgO, TiO2, P2O5 and
MnO, microelements (Ba, V, Sr, Zn, Cu and Ni), and the loss of
ignition from the total content. Here, total contents of Al, Fe,
Ca, Mg, Ti, P, Mn, Ba, V, Sr, Zn, Cu and Ni were determined by
ICP-AES and those of K and Na by atomic absorption spectro-
photometry after wet digestion of the finely ground samples
with nitric acid (HNO3), hydrofluoric acid (HF) and perchloric
acid (HClO4). The Si content was then converted from that of
SiO2.
2.2.2. The determination of selected physicochemical
properties
We determined selected physicochemical properties of the
soils in order to evaluate the relationships between these
properties and their available Si contents. The total C content
was determined by the dry combustion method (Sumigraph
NC-analyzer NC-800, Sumika Chemical Analysis Service, Osaka,
Japan) (Sano et al. 2004). The contents of dithionite-citrate
bicarbonate extractable iron (Fed) and aluminum (Ald) were
determined with an SPS-1500VR plasma spectrometer after
extraction with a solution of 0.3 mol L−1 sodium citrate and
0.1 mol L−1 sodium bicarbonate plus 1 g of hydrosulfite
(Na2S2O4) for 30 min at 80°C 3 times (Mehra and Jackson
1960). The contents of acid oxalate extractable iron (Feo) and
aluminum (Alo) were determined by ICP-AES after extraction
with an acid ammonium oxalate solution for 4 h in darkness
(Blackmore et al. 1981; Sano et al. 2004). The contents of sand,
silt and clay were determined by sieving and sedimentation
after organic matter removal (Sano et al. 2004). The pH was
determined electrochemically (Yamada et al. 2009).
2.3. Statistical analyses
Descriptive statistics were calculated for the overall data set of
the available Si contents, total Si content and selected physi-
cochemical properties of the soils. Statistical differences
between the average values of paddy and upland were exam-
ined by Student’s t-test. A correlation analysis was carried out
among the available Si contents, total Si content and selected
Table 2. The available silicon (Si) content of agricultural soils in Japan (median, arithmetic mean, geometric mean, maximum and minimum values).
Total (n = 180)
PBa ABb
−1
(mg kg ) (mg kg )
Median 48.8 79.7
Arithmetic mean 58.0 126
Geometric mean 48.6 83.8
Maximum 182 729
Minimum 7.77 12.0
a
PB: Phosphate buffer extraction method.
b
AB: Acetate buffer extraction method.
SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT NUTRITION 513
physicochemical properties of the soils. We performed a multi-
regression analysis with available Si contents as the depen-
dent variable and the selected physicochemical properties as
independent variables. The SYSTAT 13 software program was
used for the analyses (SYSTAT, Chicago, IL).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Descriptive statistics of the available Si content of
agricultural soils in Japan
Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics, i.e., median, arithmetic
mean, geometric mean, maximum and minimum values of the
available Si contents of agricultural soils in Japan obtained by
the PB and AB methods. For the overall 180 samples, the
available Si content determined by the PB method ranged
from 7.77 to 182 mg kg−1 with median, arithmetic mean and
geometric mean of 48.8, 58.0 and 48.6 mg kg−1, respectively,
whereas the contents obtained by the AB method ranged
from 12.0 to 729 mg kg−1 with median, arithmetic mean and
geometric mean of 79.7, 126 and 83.8 mg kg−1, respectively.
The histograms of the available Si contents obtained by the
two methods indicated that the distributions were consider-
ably skewed and data approximated log-transformed normal
distributions. Judging from the previous finding that the med-
ian of the total Si content of the 180 soil samples was
291 g kg−1 (Yanai et al. 2012), the relative ratios of available
Si contents revealed by the PB and AB methods to the total Si
content were calculated as 0.027% and 0.017%, respectively,
suggesting extremely low ratios of the available Si fraction to
the total.
The median values of the available Si contents shown by
the PB and AB methods for the 96 paddy soils were 40.2 and
61.8 mg kg−1 and those for the 84 upland soils were 66.0 and
101 mg kg−1, respectively. The median value of 61.8 mg kg−1
for the paddy soils obtained by the AB method was almost the
same as the value 70.1 mg kg−1, which was reported as the
median value of 858 paddy soil samples collected nationwide
in a national survey (Oda et al. 1987). In the present study, the
available Si contents of the upland soils were significantly
higher than those of the paddy soils in both the PB and AB
determinations (p < 0.01, p < 0.05, respectively). We suspect
that this result was due to the difference of soil type rather
than the land management because there was no significant
difference among 25 sets of paddy and upland soil samples
that were collected from the same locations with almost
identical soil types.
Paddy (n = 96) Upland (n = 84)
PBa ABb PBa ABb
−1 −1 −1 −1
(mg kg ) (mg kg ) (mg kg ) (mg kg−1)
40.2 61.8 66.0 101
44.2 107 73.7 148
39.4 69.3 61.8 104
149 729 182 572
12.9 13.4 7.77 12.0
514 J. YANAI ET AL.

Information on the available Si contents of the upland soils
will be valuable first because Si improves the yield of another
gramineous plant, sugarcane (Fox et al. 1967), and secondly
because Si may provide beneficial effects even for some non-
gramineous plants such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum),
cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and strawberry (Fragaria)
(Korndörfer and Lepsch 2001).
materials such as calcium silicate may be applied to some of
the paddy soils, and second that the AB method may over-
estimate the available Si in the soil by extracting not only the
available Si derived from the soil materials but also a part of
the nonavailable Si derived from silicate materials, as reported
(Takahashi and Nonaka 1986; Kato 1998; Shigezumi et al.
2002).

3.3. The relationship between the available Si content

3.2. The relationship between the available Si content and the total Si content
values obtained by the PB and AB methods
There were significant negative correlations between the avail-
As shown in Table 3, there was a significant positive correlation
able Si content obtained by the PB or AB method and the total
between the value of the available Si content obtained by the
Si content for the overall samples (r = −0.58 for PB and r =
PB method and that obtained by the AB method for the overall
−0.39 for AB, p < 0.01), as reported for the AB method by
samples (r = 0.71, p < 0.01). Figure 1 summarizes the relation-
Kawaguchi and Kyuma (1977). Judging from the findings that
ship between the available Si contents determined by the PB
a positive relationship is generally observed between available
and AB methods for the upland and paddy soils. It is clear that
and total contents for most of the nutrients, this result suggests
the relationship was almost linear for the upland soils (r = 0.92,
that in the case of Si the total amount was not the main
p < 0.01) and the data of the upland soils can be reasonably
determining factor of the available fraction in the soil, reflecting
converted with each other using the equation y = 2.15x.
relatively low solubility of the main Si-containing minerals such
In contrast, the relationship was more irregular for the
as quartz and phyllosilicates. Figure 2 illustrates the relationship
paddy soils (r = 0.51, p < 0.01), with several outliers (Fig. 1).
between total Si content and available Si contents obtained by
This would suggest first that a high amount of silicate
the PB method for the upland and paddy soils. There were
significant negative correlations for both the upland and
Table 3. Correlation coefficients between available silicon (Si) content, total Si paddy soils (r = −0.56 and r = −0.44, p < 0.01), even though
content and selected physicochemical properties of the soils. their distributions were considerably different.
Total (n = 180) Paddy (n = 96) Upland (n = 84)
PBa ABb PBa ABb PBa ABb
a
Available Si (PB ) 1 1 1
3.4 The estimation of the determining factors of the
Available Si (ABb) 0.71** 1 0.51** 1 0.92** 1 available Si contents in the soil
Total Si −0.58** −0.39** −0.44** −0.11 −0.56** −0.59**
pH 0.43** 0.60** 0.41** 0.69** 0.42** 0.53** Table 3 provides the correlation coefficients between the
Total C 0.26** 0.23** 0.34** 0.16 0.15 0.25* available Si contents and selected physicochemical properties
Sand content −0.24** −0.11 −0.22* 0.01 −0.31** −0.25*
Silt content 0.14 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.26* 0.18
of the soils. For the overall 180 soil samples, the available Si
Clay content 0.27** 0.09 0.28** −0.06 0.30** 0.25* content determined using the PB method was positively cor-
Fed 0.63** 0.48** 0.66** 0.33** 0.58** 0.58** related with the pH, total C content, clay content and Fed, Ald,
Ald 0.61** 0.51** 0.49** 0.36** 0.55** 0.63**
Feo 0.61** 0.41** 0.51** 0.10 0.64** 0.66**
Feo, Alo, Fed-Feo and Alo+1/2Feo (p < 0.01), and negatively
Alo 0.67** 0.55** 0.47** 0.36** 0.66** 0.70** correlated with the sand content (p < 0.01). On the other
Fed-Feo 0.43** 0.35** 0.54** 0.38** 0.33** 0.31** hand, the available Si content shown by the AB method was
Alo+1/2Feo 0.69** 0.55** 0.53** 0.34** 0.67** 0.71**
a
positively correlated with the pH, total C content and Fed, Ald,
PB: Phosphate buffer extraction method. Feo, Alo, Fed-Feo and Alo+1/2Feo (p < 0.01). Similar
b
AB: Acetate buffer extraction method.

Figure 1. The relationship between the available silicon (Si) contents obtained Figure 2. The relationship between the total silicon (Si) content and the avail-
by the phosphate buffer (PB) and acetate buffer (AB) extraction methods. able Si contents obtained by the phosphate buffer (PB) extraction method.
 SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT NUTRITION 515

relationships were generally observed for the upland soils and

for paddy soils except for the paddy soils evaluated by the AB
method. Poor correlations for available Si content in paddy
soils by the AB method would be due to the effect of silicate
materials application, which was not directly related to the soil
properties.
There was a significant positive correlation between the avail-
able Si content and pH (p < 0.01) by both the PB and AB
methods. The observed increase of available Si content in accord
with a pH increase (Fig. 3) corresponded to the reported finding
that the adsorption of monosilicate by soil minerals increases
with soil pH from 4.0 to 9.0–10.0 or close to the pK value of silicic
acid of 9.83 (Jones and Handreck 1963; Obihara and Russell 1972;
Wada and Inoue 1974), suggesting that pH is one of the main
determining factors of the available Si content in soils.
The positive correlation with clay content and the negative Figure 4. The relationship between Alo+1/2Feo and the available silicon (Si)
correlation with sand content suggest that the available Si is contents obtained by the phosphate buffer (PB) extraction method.
essentially released from finer fractions of soils, as reported by
Makabe et al. (2009). Our finding that the available Si content
had a significant positive correlation with Alo+1/2Feo, an
index of amorphous minerals (p < 0.01, Fig. 4), strongly sug-
gests that amorphous minerals such as allophone and imogo-
lite that have high adsorption capacity for monosilicate (Wada
and Inoue 1974; Makabe et al. 2009) are among the main
sources of available Si in soils. The available Si content also
had a significant positive correlation with Fed-Feo, an index of
crystalline Fe oxide (p < 0.01, Fig. 5), implying that crystalline
Fe oxides such as hematite and goethite are also among the
sources of available Si in soils, as suggested by Jones and
Handreck (1963) for pure minerals.
Based on these findings, we performed a multi-regression ana-
lysis with the available Si content values obtained by the PB and AB
methods as dependent variables and the pH, Alo+1/2Feo and Fed-
Feo as independent variables. The following equations were
obtained: Figure 5. The relationship between Fed-Feo and the available silicon (Si) con-
tents obtained by the phosphate buffer (PB) extraction method.
Available Si content ðPB methodÞ ¼ 1:46  ðAlo þ 1=2FeoÞ
þ 1:30  ðFed  FeoÞ
Available Si content ðAB methodÞ ¼ 3:84  ðAlo þ 1=2FeoÞ
þ 18:8  ðpHÞ  76:2

þ 3:36  ðFed  FeoÞ
R2 ¼ 0:69; p < 0:01
þ 98:0  ðpHÞ505:8


R2 ¼ 0:65; p < 0:01

These equations directly indicate that 69% or 65% of the

Figure 3. The relationship between pH and available silicon (Si) contents
obtained by the phosphate buffer (PB) extraction method.
variation in the available Si content in agricultural soils in
Japan is explained by only three soil chemical variables: pH,
Alo+1/2Feo and Fed-Feo. Judging from the finding that the
arithmetic means of pH, Alo+1/2Feo and Fed-Feo were 5.75,
13.12 g kg−1 and 5.50 g kg−1, the main determining factor was
pH, followed by amorphous minerals (Alo+1/2Feo) and then
crystalline Fe oxides (Fed-Feo). Here, we regarded the multi-
collinearity among pH, Alo+1/2Feo and Fed-Feo as relatively
low because the correlations between pH and Alo+1/2Feo
(r = 0.07) and pH and Fed-Feo (r = 0.10) were insignificant,
and that between Alo+1/2Feo and Fed-Feo was relatively low
(r = 0.18, p < 0.05). Figure 6 illustrates the relationship
between the measured and estimated available Si contents
obtained by the PB method, suggesting the reasonable relia-
bility of this estimation.
516 J. YANAI ET AL.

Figure 7. The relationship between pH and available silicon (Si) contents

obtained by the phosphate buffer (PB) extraction method among the soil
groups.
Figure 6. The relationship between the measured and estimated available
silicon (Si) contents evaluated by the phosphate buffer (PB) extraction method.

3.5. Available Si content in relation to soil type

Evaluations of the available Si contents of agricultural soils in
Japan with reference to the soil type and region will be valu-
able in practice, for the sustainable and rational management
of agricultural soils in Japan.
Table 4 provides the arithmetic means of available Si con-
tents determined using the PB and AB methods and selected
physicochemical properties (pH, Alo+1/2Feo and Fed-Feo) for
each soil type. Arithmetic means are used instead of medians
hereinafter because the former were thought to be more Figure 8. The relationship between Alo+1/2Feo and the available silicon (Si)
reliable if the number of samples for each group was rather contents obtained by the phosphate buffer (PB) extraction method among the
soil groups.
restricted when samples were classified into many groups. In
the overall 180 samples, the available Si content was relatively
high for Terrestrial Regosols (PB method arithmetic mean:
152 mg kg−1), Dark Red soils (123 mg kg−1) and Andosols The relatively high available Si contents in the Andosols
(94.1 mg kg−1), and relatively low for Sand-dune Regosols would be because they had extremely high amounts of amor-
(12.8 mg kg−1), Red soils (28.7 mg kg−1) and Gray Lowland phous minerals in accord with their high Alo+1/2Feo values. In
soils (34.4 mg kg−1). Terrestrial Regosols and Dark Red soils contrast, the Sand-dune Regosols had extremely low Alo+1/
tended to have higher available Si contents because they had 2Feo and Fed-Feo values, suggesting low amounts of amor-
relatively high pH and Fed-Feo values, reflecting their parent phous minerals and crystalline Fe oxides. The Red soils had
materials with alkaline characteristics (marl and limestone). very low pH values, suggesting low levels of Si adsorption by

Table 4. Arithmetic means of available silicon (Si) content and selected physicochemical properties in relation to soil type.
Total (n = 180) Paddy (n = 96) Upland (n = 84) Total (n = 180)
PBa ABb PBa ABb PBa ABb pH Alo+1/2Feo Fed-Feo
Soil type (mg kg−1) (mg kg−1) (mg kg−1) (mg kg−1) (mg kg−1) (mg kg−1) (g kg−1) (g kg−1)
Peat soils 40.4 51.7 42.1 58.4 37.4 40.5 5.42 7.55 2.88
Sand-dune Regosols 12.8 16.2 12.8 16.2 6.71 1.27 2.52
Volcanogenous Regosols 49.7 93.8 51.6 94.6 49.3 93.7 5.66 16.0 0.29
Wet Andosols 76.6 128 95.6 168 64.0 101 5.59 17.7 12.3
Non-allophanic Andosols 40.4 106 42.0 123 38.2 82.9 5.59 15.4 5.22
Andosols 94.1 223 73.1 246 97.1 220 5.83 35.2 6.50
Lowland Paddy soils 40.5 107 40.5 107 5.73 5.20 3.02
Gley Lowland soils 46.6 81.4 41.7 69.1 87.3 183 5.56 5.95 3.29
Gray Lowland soils 34.4 49.1 38.6 38.8 30.2 59.3 5.71 4.26 2.19
Brown Lowland soils 46.9 64.5 46.9 64.5 5.79 6.26 4.00
Gray Upland soils 39.2 47.6 39.2 47.6 5.68 3.25 2.87
Terrestrial Regosols 152 286 152 286 8.02 3.94 7.83
Dark Red soils 123 280 123 280 7.29 4.01 33.3
Red soils 28.7 21.6 28.7 21.6 3.96 1.66 52.9
Yellow soils 54.1 149 52.5 292 54.9 78.4 5.86 2.75 14.3
Brown Forest soils 73.2 88.9 73.2 88.9 5.52 3.03 23.2
a
PB: Phosphate buffer extraction method.
b
AB: Acetate buffer extraction method.
 SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT NUTRITION 517

Table 5. Arithmetic means of available silicon (Si) content and selected physicochemical properties in relation to region.
Total (n = 180) Paddy (n = 96) Upland (n = 84) Total (n = 180)
PBa ABb PBa ABb PBa ABb pH Alo+1/2Feo Fed-Feo
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Region (mg kg ) (mg kg ) (mg kg ) (mg kg ) (mg kg ) (mg kg ) (g kg ) (g kg−1)
Hokkaido 58.9 97.2 41.8 59.5 66.2 113 5.59 13.8 3.34
Tohoku 58.3 147 50.1 128 80.3 199 5.69 12.8 5.32
Kanto 89.1 206 59.6 121 119 290 5.91 31.7 9.11
Hokuriku-Chubu 48.1 104 36.3 70.9 95.4 237 5.84 7.96 4.62
Kinki 30.3 84.8 30 89.2 31.8 65.2 5.84 3.94 2.08
Chugoku 39.0 88.1 40.5 111 36.1 42.2 5.64 6.78 3.47
Shikoku 35.0 136 40.7 189 26.5 58.1 6.25 2.75 3.99
Kyushu 57.0 140 55.3 145 60.0 130 5.70 15.1 4.80
Okinawa 86.3 239 46.6 729 92.0 169 6.31 3.04 26.1
a
PB: Phosphate buffer extraction method.
b
AB: Acetate buffer extraction method.

soil minerals, although the Fed-Feo level was considerably
high. It should also be emphasized that alluvial soils such as
Lowland Paddy soils, Gley Lowland soils and Gray Lowland
soils have relatively low available Si contents, reflecting low
Fed-Feo and Alo+1/2Feo values, even though these soils have
supported paddy rice production in Japan for more than 2000
years. Our finding that the alluvial soils generally do not have
high Si-supplying power to paddy rice should be taken into
account for the sustainable production of rice, which needs
high amounts of Si as a beneficial element. Figure 7 illustrates
the relationship between the pH and the available Si content,
and Fig. 8 shows that between the Alo+1/2Feo content and
the available Si content, confirming the influence of pH and
Alo+1/2Feo on the available Si content in relation to the type
of the soils investigated.
3.6. Available Si content in relation to the region
soils. Further research is needed to elucidate the details of
these relationships.
In contrast, the Kinki, Chugoku and Shikoku regions tended
to have relatively low amorphous minerals and crystalline Fe
oxides, as shown by the low Alo+1/2Feo and Fed-Feo values.
The application of silicate materials would thus be a feasible
option, especially in these regions, to supplement the rela-
tively low Si-supplying power of the soils for the sustainable
production of agricultural crops.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Naoto Kato, National Agriculture and Food Research
Organization (NARO), and Dr. Teppei Komiyama, National Federation of
Agricultural Cooperative Associations (Zen-noh), for their valuable com-
ments on available Si in agricultural soils; and Dr. Shuji Sano, Research
Institute of Environment, Agriculture and Fisheries, Osaka Prefecture, for
his collaboration in collecting the soil samples and for valuable informa-
tion on the soil samples.

Table 5 provides the arithmetic means of the available Si

content and the selected physicochemical properties of the
soils for each of the nine regions in Japan. The available Si
contents obtained by the PB method were relatively high for
the Kanto and Okinawa regions and relatively low for the Kinki
and Shikoku regions, whereas the contents revealed by the AB
method were relatively high for the Okinawa and Kanto
regions and relatively low for the Kinki and Chugoku regions.
The Kanto region, with the highest available Si content, was
characterized by very high Alo+1/2Feo values, suggesting a
strong influence of volcanic ash in this region. Similarly the
Hokkaido, Tohoku and Kyushu regions with relatively high
available Si contents had relatively high Alo+1/2Feo values,
suggesting considerable effects of volcanic activities on the
soil formation. Amorphous minerals would be the main deter-
mining factor of available Si contents in these regions, as
reported for soils in Kumamoto Prefecture by Matsumori and
Gunjikake (2009). The Okinawa region was characterized by
very high pH and Fed-Feo values, suggesting the importance
of pH and crystalline Fe oxides in the regulation of the amount
of available Si contents in this region. It should also be noted
that the available Si contents of the Terrestrial Regosols
(Jahgaru) and Dark Red soils (Shimajiri-mahji) were relatively
high and that those of the Red and Yellow soils (Kunigami-
mahji) were relatively low, suggesting the importance of
rational management in Okinawa in relation to the type of
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