The Dammam aquifer in Bahrain – Hydrochemical characterization and
alternatives for management of groundwater quality
Waleed K. Zubari
Abstract Over-abstraction of the Dammam aquifer,
the principal aquifer in Bahrain, by the agricultural and
domestic sectors, has led to its salinization by adjacent
brackish and saline water bodies. A hydrochemical
study identified the locations of the sources of aquifer
salinization and delineated their areas of influence. The
investigation indicates that the aquifer water quality is
significantly modified as groundwater flows from the
northwestern parts of Bahrain, where the aquifer
receives its water by lateral underflow from eastern
Saudi Arabia, to the southern and southeastern parts.
Four types of salinization of the aquifer are identified:
brackish-water up-flow from the underlying brackish-
water zones in north-central, western, and eastern
regions; seawater intrusion in the eastern region; intru-
sion of sabkha water in the southwestern region; and
irrigation return flow in a local area in the western
region. Four alternatives for the management of
groundwater quality that are available to the water
authorities in Bahrain are discussed and their priority
areas are proposed, based on the type and extent of
each salinization source, in addition to groundwater use
in that area. The effectiveness of the proposed manage-
ment options in controlling the degradation of water
quality in the Dammam aquifer should be evaluated
using simulation modeling.
Résumé La surexploitation de l’aquifère de Damman,
principal aquifère de Bahreïn, du fait des besoins agri-
coles et domestiques, a conduit à sa salinisation à partir
d’eaux voisines saumâtres et salées. Une étude hydro-
chimique a identifié les origines de la salinisation de
l’aquifère et a délimité leurs zones d’influence. Les
recherches montrent que la qualité de l’eau souterraine
est modifiée de façon significative pour les écoulements
souterrains dirigés vers les secteurs sud et sud-est et
provenant de la région nord-ouest de Bahreïn, là où
Received: June 1998
Revised: November 1998
Accepted: December 1998
Waleed K. Zubari (Y)
Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program, School of Graduate
Studies, Arabian Gulf University, PO Box 26671
Manama, Bahrain
Fax: c973 272555
e-mail: waleed6agu.edu.bh
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
l’aquifère est alimenté latéralement à partir de l’Arabie
Saoudite orientale. Quatre types de salinisation de
l’eau souterraine ont été identifiés : une drainance
verticale en provenance d’eaux saumâtres sous-jacentes
dans les régions nord-centrales, ouest et est, une intru-
sion marine dans la région est, une intrusion d’eau de
sebkha dans la région sud-ouest, et le retour d’irriga-
tion dans un secteur localisé de la région sud-ouest.
Quatre démarches alternatives de gestion de la qualité
des eaux souterraines, acceptables par les services char-
gés de l’eau à Bahreïn, sont discutées et des zones
d’action prioritaire sont proposées, selon le type et
l’étendue de chacune des sources de salinisation et en
fonction des usages de les eaux souterraines dans
chaque secteur. L’efficacité des options de gestion
proposées pour le contrôle de la dégradation de la
qualité de l’aquifère de Damman devrait être ensuite
évaluée au moyen d’un modèle de simulation.
Resumen El acuífero de Damman, el más importante
de Bahrein, se explota para usos agrícolas y domésticos.
La sobreexplotación del mismo ha provocado su salini-
zación por cuerpos de agua salada y salobre cercanos.
Un estudio hidroquímico identificó las fuentes de sali-
nización y ayudó a dibujar sus áreas de influencia. La
calidad del agua subterránea se modifica significativa-
mente en la dirección del flujo, desde el noroeste del
país, donde las entradas son laterales y procedentes de
Arabia Saudí, hacia el sur y el sudeste. Se han identifi-
cado cuatro tipos de salinización: flujo ascendente de
agua salobre en las regiones norte-central, este y oeste;
intrusión de agua marina en la región este; intrusión de
agua salobre al sudoeste y, finalmente, retorno de riego
en un área local de la región oeste. Se discuten cuatro
alternativas para la gestión del agua y se proponen
áreas prioritarias basadas en el tipo y la extensión de
cada fuente de salinización y en los usos de agua
subterránea en cada zona. La efectividad de las
opciones de gestión propuestas para controlar la
degradación de la calidad del agua en el acuífero
Damman deberá evaluarse mediante simulaciones real-
izadas con un modelo numérico
Key words Bahrain 7 Dammam aquifer 7
hydrochemistry 7 salinization 7
groundwater management
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Introduction
Bahrain consists of an archipelago of 33 islands located
in the Arabian Gulf, about midway between Saudi
Arabia and Qatar. Locations are shown in Figure 1.
The climate is characterized by high temperatures,
erratic, often scanty, rainfall (~80 mm/yr), and a high
evapotranspiration rate ( 1 1800 mm/yr), which in
combination create an impossible condition for surface-
water bodies to exist. Water demands are met mainly
by groundwater abstraction and desalination plants.
Groundwater abstraction from the Dammam
aquifer, the principal aquifer in Bahrain, accounts for
more than 75% of the total water consumption in the
country. However, heavy reliance on the aquifer and its
over-abstraction during the last three decades have
caused a rapid decline in its potentiometric levels and a
reversal of hydraulic gradients between the relatively
fresh-water aquifer and adjacent brackish- and saline-
Figure 1 Location of Bahrain and sampling sites for hydrochem-
ical survey
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
water bodies. As a direct consequence, encroachment
of these waters into the aquifer has occurred, causing
its salinization. The deterioration of groundwater
quality has restricted the use of this resource from the
invaded parts of the aquifer, which are estimated to be
more than half the volume of the original groundwater
reservoir, under steady-state conditions, in Bahrain
(Zubari et al. 1993). Unless proper management of
groundwater quality is implemented, the entire aquifer
may be lost to salinization, and remedial measures
would then be difficult to implement and very expen-
sive.
Realizing the present conditions of the groundwater
resource and its limited capacity, the Government of
Bahrain has adopted the policy of using groundwater
mainly for the agricultural sector, and of reducing the
dependency on groundwater for the domestic sector by
constructing additional desalination plants. Further-
more, treated wastewater is expected to supplement
groundwater used in irrigation and to meet additional
requirements for future agricultural development in the
country.
The management options that are presently avail-
able to the water authorities mainly emphasize the
reduction of groundwater abstraction from the
Dammam aquifer for the agricultural and domestic
sectors, which are the main groundwater consumers
(70% and 27%, respectively). Reduction of ground-
water abstraction in the agricultural sector is planned to
be implemented through the gradual replacement of
groundwater used for irrigation, currently about 153
million cubic meters per year (Mm 3/yr), by tertiary-
treated wastewater. Through an ambitious plan, about
73 Mm 3/yr of these waters would be provided by 2004
(ACE 1990a, 1990b, 1997). Presently, only about
13 Mm 3/yr of these waters is being used in irrigation
(Zubari 1997). On the other hand, reduction of ground-
water abstraction in the domestic sector, currently
about 59 Mm 3/yr, is being planned through the
construction of additional desalination plants at various
locations in Bahrain. At present, Bahrain has three
desalination plants operating on the east coast, with a
total output of 56 Mm 3/yr (Zubari 1997). Desalinated
water is blended with groundwater in a one-to-one
ratio and is used to supply most of the population,
except the northwestern area, which depends princi-
pally on groundwater (Zubari et al. 1996a).
Furthermore, beginning in the 1980s, the water
authorities implemented a management scheme that
consists of prohibiting the industrial sector from using
groundwater from the Dammam aquifer and instead to
meet its water demands from the underlying brackish-
water zones (Amiri Decree No. 12/1980, 1980). The
objective of the scheme is two-fold: (1) to control and
decrease the abstraction rates from the Dammam
aquifer by the ever-expanding industrial sector; and (2)
to lower the potentiometric levels in the brackish-water
zones and decrease the vertical hydraulic gradients
between the Dammam aquifer and its underlying
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brackish-water zones, in order to reduce upward migra-
tion of brackish water into the aquifer (GDC 1980,
1983).
The expansion of tertiary-treatment facilities is still
in the planning phase, and hence, the majority of waste-
water is being treated only secondarily, due to environ-
mental considerations, for discharge into the sea. At
present, secondary-treated wastewater is available in
large quantities, as much as about 44 Mm 3/yr (ACE
1997), which represents about 42% of the present
groundwater over-drafting rate in Bahrain. The water
authorities in Bahrain have considered the possibility
of using some of this unused secondary-treated waste-
water, and also, future surplus tertiary-treated waste-
water, to artificially recharge the Dammam aquifer (Al-
Azawi 1989; GDC 1986).
In Bahrain, four possible sources of salinization of
the Dammam aquifer exist: seawater invasion, brackish
water up-flow from the underlying zones, migration of
sabkha water, and irrigation return flows. The location,
magnitude, and a real extent of each salinization source
is the type of information needed by the water authori-
ties (planners and managers) as a first step in the devel-
opment of a groundwater-quality management plan.
This information can be used to define the suitability
and the implementation area of each of the above four
general management alternatives, in order to maximize
their effectiveness in remedying existing degradations
and in preventing future ones.
In this study, the hydrochemistry of the groundwater
in the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain is characterized
using a countrywide hydrochemical survey. The back-
ground major-ion chemistry is identified, and the
graphical presentation of the hydrochemistry is used to
identify the locations of the contamination sources indi-
cated above and to delineate their areas of influence.
Based on the type and the extent of each contamina-
tion source, in addition to groundwater use in that area,
alternatives for management of groundwater quality
are discussed and their priority areas are proposed.
Hydrogeologic Setting
The Dammam aquifer, a confined coastal aquifer, is
developed in the limestone and dolomite members of
the Dammam Formation (early to middle Eocene). The
aquifer represents the only natural, relatively fresh-
water source available for Bahrain. Abstraction from
the aquifer at present (1995/96) is about 218 Mm 3/yr
and accounts for about 76% of the country’s total
consumption (agricultural, domestic, and industrial
uses), with the remainder provided by desalination
plants and recycled treated wastewater (Zubari 1997).
In Bahrain, the Dammam aquifer is a small part of
an extensive regional aquifer system, termed the
eastern Arabian aquifer, that extends from central
Saudi Arabia, where the aquifer crops out and its main
recharge area is located, to the Arabian Gulf, including
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
199
Bahrain, Kuwait, and southern Qatar. The Dammam
aquifer in Bahrain receives its water mainly by under-
flow from this regional aquifer, with additional, insig-
nificant amounts by rainfall recharge, averaging about
0.5 Mm 3/yr (GDC 1980). According to many
researchers (Al-Noaimi 1993; Zubari 1987; GDC 1980;
Wright 1967), the steady-state rate of underflow from
eastern Saudi Arabia to Bahrain ranges from
100–112 Mm 3/yr. A comparison between the present
abstraction rates from the Dammam aquifer (218 Mm 3/
yr) and the approximate recharge rate by underflow
indicates that the aquifer is being over-drafted by a rate
of about 105 Mm 3/yr.
The Dammam aquifer system in Bahrain islands,
which is an anticlinal structure, consists of two aquifer
zones, designated the ‘A’ and ‘B’ zones, developed in
the Alat (15–25 m thick) and Khobar (40–49 m thick)
limestone members of the Dammam Formation,
respectively. Stratigraphic relationships are shown in
the hydrogeologic section of Figure 2. In the core of the
anticline, at the center of Bahrain main island, the
rocks of the Dammam Formation are completely
eroded (Figure 1), exposing the rocks of the underlying
Rus Formation (early Eocene). The Dammam aquifer
system is confined in most of Bahrain from above by
the claystones of the Neogene Formation (10–60 m
thick), and from the base by the shale beds of the
Sharks Tooth Shale Member (8–20 m thick) of the
Dammam Formation, in addition to the anhydrite and
shale deposits in the upper part of the Rus Formation.
The two aquifer zones are separated by the Orange
Marl Member (9–15 m thick) of the same formation. In
the western part of Bahrain island, at the locality of
Hamalah, the Neogene claystones and parts of the Alat
limestone are eroded due to a structural high that exists
at that locality, and the aquifer is unconfined (Figures 1
and 2).
The ‘A’ aquifer zone has an average transmissivity
of about 350 m 2/d. The ‘B’ aquifer zone, developed in
highly fractured limestones and dolomites, is the prin-
cipal aquifer in Bahrain, where it provides more than
70% of the total groundwater abstraction. This is due
to the high transmissive properties (average transmis-
sivity is about 10,000 m 2/d) of the aquifer. Due to the
presence of a semi-confining layer between the two
zones and to improper well-completion practices, in
which both aquifers are tapped by most wells, little
variation of water chemistry exists between the ‘A’ and
‘B’ aquifer zones (GDC 1980). Therefore, in this hydro-
chemical survey, the two are considered together to
represent the Dammam aquifer.
A third aquifer zone, termed locally as ‘C’, is devel-
oped in the Rus Formation and the upper parts of the
Umm Er Radhuma (UER) Formation (Paleocene to
early Eocene). The Rus Formation is composed princi-
pally of fractured chalky dolomitic limestone, with
subsidiary shale and anhydrite intercalations in its
upper section. The Rus Formation in the central and
eastern parts of Bahrain has undergone extensive solu-
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Figure 2 Hydrogeologic
section across Bahrain
tion of its anhydrite (Figure 2), which has led to the
collapse of the overlying rocks, and more importantly,
has reduced the effectiveness of its upper confining
layer, which causes a relatively easier migration of its
water into the Dammam aquifer in those areas (GDC
1983). Groundwater in the ‘C’ aquifer zone occurs in
the form of a brackish-water lens (8000–15,000 mg/L) in
Bahrain main island (Figure 2), with total water
reserves of about 10,000 Mm 3.
The salinity of groundwater in the aquifer gradually
increases with depth. In central Bahrain island, salinity
increases from about 8000 mg/L at the water table, at
about 5 m elevation above mean sea level, to about
15,000 mg/L at a depth of about 150 m below mean sea
level. The brackish-water lens is underlain by brine
with a salinity of more than 40,000 mg/L. Due to its
high salinity, utilization of groundwater from the ‘C’
aquifer is restricted to industrial purposes in the north-
central region and to supplying desalination plants on
the eastern coast of Bahrain main island; total abstrac-
tion is about 30 Mm 3/yr (Zubari and Khater 1995).
Hydrochemistry
Groundwater Sampling
This paper incorporates results of a countrywide hydro-
chemical survey of the Dammam aquifer that was
carried out from August 1990 to May 1992. Ground-
water sampling sites (254 wells) are in usable areas of
the aquifer in Bahrain and are shown in Figure 1.
Groundwater samples from the north-central parts of
Bahrain were somewhat limited, because most produc-
tion wells in these parts have been abandoned. Aquifer
salinity had reached about 11,000 mg/L by 1978/79
(GDC 1980). Out of the total 254 water samples, 110
samples were analyzed for major cations (Na, K, Ca,
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
Mg) and major anions (Cl, SO4, HCO3, CO3), total
alkalinity (as CaCO3), total hardness (as CaCO3), pH,
electrical conductivity (EC, mmhos/cm), and total
dissolved solids (TDS, mg/L). The rest of the water
samples (144) were only analyzed for EC, and their
TDS was calculated from an established relationship
between the TDS and EC measured in the other 110
samples.
Prior to this survey, a general survey on the quality
of groundwater was conducted in 1990 (Raveendran
and Madany 1991a) to investigate the possibility of
groundwater pollution by septic tanks and cesspools in
Bahrain. The survey included 57 samples from selected
areas in Bahrain, where the chemical species of
nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, and phosphates were deter-
mined in addition to the major cations, major anions,
EC, TDS, and pH. The results indicate that nutrient
contents are generally low in the Dammam aquifer, and
thus it was concluded that the aquifer is free from
pollution by nutrients. Some of the results of this
survey (37 wells) are used to complement the present
study in the statistical analysis section.
Summary Statistics
A summary of the results of the survey is given in
Table 1, and results are plotted in the percentage
frequency diagrams of Figure 3. The relative content of
a cation or an anion is defined as the percentage of the
milli-equivalent per liter (meq/L) of total cations or
total anions, respectively (Sen and Al-Dakheel 1986).
Table 1 indicates that the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain
contains brackish to saline waters (TDS is
2100–6600 mg/L), and Figure 3 illustrates that two ions
are dominant in the Dammam water, Na c and Cl –;
they are the only ions that extend to the zone of domi-
nance (meq/L% 1 50%). Although not reaching a
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Table 1 Statistical summary

Constituent N Mean SD Minimum Maximum
of concentrations of chemical
constituents, Dammam aquifer
TDS, mg/L 291 4611 2639 2120 16,640
EC, mmhos/cm 291 6919 3350 3250 16,460
pH 147 7.20 0.25 6.35 7.76
Total alkalinity, mg/L 147 178 21 115 262
Total hardness, mg/L 147 1296 580 760 3115
Na c, mg/L 147 1005 822 421 5819
K c, mg/L 135 52 36 24 321
Ca 2c, mg/L 147 354 189 177 1172
Mg 2c, mg/L 147 139 86 57 667
Cl –, mg/L 147 1944 1602 788 10,615
HCO3 –, mg/L 147 232 55 104 610
SO4 2–, mg/L 147 787 490 225 3293
CO3, mg/L 147 0.0 - - -

dominance level, the Dammam water contains large
percentages of Ca 2c and SO4 2– ions, whereas the Mg 2c
and HCO3 – ions are considerably below the dominance
level (~50%). Groundwater in the Dammam Forma-
tion is thus principally of NaCl facies and has a
tendency toward CaSO4 facies.
A general similarity in the above characteristics
exists between the groundwater in the eastern parts of
Saudi Arabia and that encountered in the northwestern
parts of Bahrain. The former has a TDS of
1800–2000 mg/L, and of mainly Na-Cl and Na-Ca-Cl
facies (Sen and Al-Dakheel 1986; Hassan and Cagatay
1994). The above hydrochemical characteristics are
common features of dolomitic limestone aquifers in
arid zones and indicate the absence of recent recharge
and the old age of the groundwater (Al-Ruwaih 1995a,
1995b; Nativ and Nissim 1992; Sen and Al-Dakheel
1986).
In order to identify the contamination sources for
the Dammam aquifer and to delineate their areas of
influence, the hydrochemistry was analyzed graphically,
by means of contour maps of TDS and major ions, Stiff
diagrams, trilinear diagrams, distributions of the ratios
of some major-ion concentrations, and mineral satura-
tion ratios. In this paper, only the methods most helpful
in identifying and delineating the areas of influence of
the contamination sources are presented.
Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids and Sources of
Salinization
Figure 4 shows the distribution of TDS of groundwater
in the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain for 1992. In order
to visualize the spatial distribution of groundwater
salinity with respect to groundwater flow paths, the
distribution of elevation of the potentiometric surface
for the same year is superimposed (Zubari et al. 1993).
The distribution of potentiometric head indicates that
the general groundwater flow direction is from the
northwestern part of Bahrain toward the southern and
southeastern parts. In the north-central parts of
Bahrain island, potentiometric head is anomalously
high, about c2.5 m. These contours represent the areas
of active brackish water up-flow from the underlying
Rus Formation. A simple relation exists between the
aquifer potentiometric surface and its salinity: as the
potentiometric head declines, the water quality in the
aquifer degrades. Better quality water (TDS of
2200–2500 mg/L) in the Dammam aquifer flows toward
Bahrain from the northwest, where the aquifer is
recharged by lateral underflow from its extension in
eastern Saudi Arabia. If this relatively fresh water in
the northwestern and northern parts of Bahrain is
considered to be the reference water quality, then
except for the northern and northwestern coastal strip,
salinization is widespread in most of Bahrain.
At the east coast and Sitrah Island, seawater intru-
sion was recognized as early as the 1940s by many
hydrogeologists (Hurry 1940; Gulmon 1941; Steineke
1942), when the equilibrium system between the
aquifer water and seawater was disturbed by artificial
abstraction. Wright (1967) studied the chemistry of
groundwater in the vicinity of Sitrah Island and
concluded that a saline wedge was developing across
the island. He also suggested the possibility of seawater
entry through the aquifer outcrops located offshore,
east of Bahrain islands, and through the offshore
outlets of springs.
GDC (1980) confirmed Wright’s observations by a
thorough hydrochemical study at Sitrah Island.
Previous studies of salinization in north-central
Bahrain were reviewed (Wright 1967, 1977; Italconsult
1971;) and here, the aquifer water had reached a
salinity of 11,000 mg/L. A detailed study was conducted
on this degradation mechanism which concluded that
the aquifer was affected by the upward migration of the
deeper brackish water from the Rus Formation,
because the hydraulic gradient between the Dammam
aquifer and the underlying Rus Formation had
reversed due to the reduction of the potentiometric
levels in the Dammam aquifer.
In the southwestern part of Bahrain main island, an
increase in groundwater salinity was first reported in
the 1960s (Hamilton 1965). The increase in salinity was
interpreted to have been caused by the lateral migra-
tion of sabkha saline waters (TDSp10,200 mg/L),
where an extensive sabkha overlies the aquifer (GDC
1980). (A sabkha is a saline mudflat, or playa.)

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Figure 3 Percentage frequency distribution of TDS and ion Zubari et al. (1997) indicated that in western
concentrations Bahrain, contamination by irrigation return flow and/or
domestic wastewater is possible, due to the presence of
hydraulic conditions that are favorable for surface-

Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208 Q Springer-Verlag


Figure 4 Distribution of TDS and potentiometric head in the
Dammam aquifer, 1992
derived contamination. The Dammam aquifer occurs in
most of Bahrain under confining conditions. These
conditions are assumed to protect the aquifer from
surface sources of contamination. However, in west
Bahrain at the locality of Hamalah, where the ’B’
aquifer crops out, an anomalous increase in salinity of
groundwater derived from some of the wells, about
6000 mg/L, has been observed. In this area, intensive
agricultural activities are taking place; these include
flood irrigation, frequent washing of soil due to its
salinization, lack of efficient drainage system due to
low surface elevation (~5 m), and heavy application of
fertilizers. Furthermore, heavy abstraction of the
Dammam aquifer in that locality has caused the poten-
tiometric head to decline to mean sea level (Figure 4),
making the aquifer susceptible to downward migration
of surface water.
The determination of the precise origin of saliniza-
tion and its area of influence is difficult using the TDS
distribution alone, because more than one potential
source exists that could increase the salinity level of
groundwater. Therefore, expert judgment should be
employed, taking into account the previously known
spatial positions of these sources and aided by other
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
203
hydrochemical differentiation techniques, in order to
identify the factors responsible for the deterioration in
water quality.
Distribution of Major Ions
The spatial changes in groundwater quality and pattern
changes of the major ions in the Dammam aquifer are
illustrated in Figure 5 by the distribution of Stiff
diagrams (Zaporozec 1972) of some selected sampled
wells. Typical Stiff diagrams of seawater, Rus brackish
water, and agricultural drainage water are also shown.
Analysis of the patterns and their comparison with the
patterns of the salinization sources indicate that most
groundwater in the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain has
been affected by mixing with brackish water from the
Rus Formation, including large parts of the eastern
coastal areas, which were previously known to be
affected by seawater intrusion. Seawater intrusion in
the east coast is also clearly identified in three wells
located in eastern Bahrain main island. Pollution of the
Dammam aquifer by irrigation return flow is difficult to
recognize from the major-ion concentration, because
groundwater from the Dammam aquifer is used for irri-
gation. However, an increase in the TDS (about
5000 mg/L) occurs near the western outcrop areas at
Hamalah locality. Although not conclusive, sabkha
saline-water intrusion, which has characteristics similar
to seawater intrusion, is indicated in one sample in the
southwestern locality of Zallaq.
Calcium /Magnesium Ratio
Analysis of the data set and relations among various
chemical components indicate that Ca and Mg are good
indicators of the origin of salinization of the Dammam
aquifer. Figure 6 is a scatter-of the relation between Ca
and Mg (mg/L) in groundwater. Uncontaminated
groundwater in the Dammam aquifer evolves in the
direction of the Rus Formation brackish waters and the
agricultural drainage water, with some tendency toward
seawater. The majority of the samples is affected by the
Rus brackish water (area within the dotted oval,
Figure 6).
The relative concentration of Mg in seawater is high
compared to its Ca concentration; the Ca/Mg ratio in
seawater is about 0.2. In uncontaminated groundwater,
this ratio ranges from 1.45 (Umm Na’asan Island) to
1.75 (Manama and west Muharraq Island). In the Rus
Formation brackish water, this ratio ranges from
1.5–3.7 and increases with depth (GDC 1980, 1983).
Thus, the greater the degree of vertical contamination
by the Rus Formation brackish water, the higher is the
expected ratio. Therefore, an increase in the ratio indi-
cates mixing with groundwater from the Rus aquifer,
whereas a decrease in the ratio indicates mixing with
seawater and sabkha water.
Figure 7 is a contour map of the Ca/Mg ratio for
groundwater from the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain.
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Figure 5 Stiff diagrams of groundwater samples from selected
wells, Dammam aquifer, 1992
The low Ca/Mg ratio values (0.3–1.5) in eastern
Bahrain indicate that seawater intrusion is the domi-
nant process, whereas in central and western Bahrain
high ratio values (1.5–2.0) indicate that contamination
by brackish water up-flow is the dominant process. To
the southwest, the Ca/Mg ratio decreases to about 1.2,
indicating mixing with sabkha water, which has charac-
teristics similar to those of seawater.
In the locality of Hamalah, in northwestern Bahrain,
the Ca/Mg value decreases to about 1.3 and TDS values
are greater than 5000 mg/L; these values coincide with
the outcrop areas of the Dammam aquifer. Agricultural
drainage water in this locality has a Ca/Mg ratio
ranging from 1.18–1.74, with an average value of about
1.35 (Raveendran and Madany 1991b). The decrease in
the Ca/Mg ratio is interpreted to be due to downward
contamination by agricultural drainage water.
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
Anhydrite Saturation Ratio
The calculated logarithmic anhydrite activity product
(APAnh) of groundwater from the Dammam aquifer
has a mean of –5.045, a minimum of –5.589, a maximum
of –4.322, and a standard deviation of 0.265 (Np147).
The logarithmic solubility product value for anhydrite
(KAnh) is –4.5 (Stumm and Morgan 1970). The degree
of saturation of groundwater with respect to anhydrite
was measured by the ratio APAnh/KAnh. If the ratio for
anhydrite is greater than 1, the solution is over-satu-
rated and the mineral is being deposited; if the ratio
less than 1, it is under-saturated and the mineral is
being dissolved; and if it is equal to 1, the solution is in
equilibrium with respect to the mineral.
Figure 8 shows the anhydrite saturation patterns for
groundwater in the Dammam aquifer. The map indi-
cates that groundwater approaching Bahrain Islands
from the northwest is highly under-saturated in anhy-
drite (0.15–0.2). This condition agrees with that
reported by Hassan and Cagatay (1994) for the
Dammam aquifer in eastern Saudi Arabia. As this
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Figure 6 Relation between calcium and magnesium concentra-
tions, Dammam aquifer
water moves toward the southeast, it becomes progres-
sively saturated with anhydrite and approaches over-
saturation with anhydrite (reaching a maximum of 1.1)
in the central, western, and eastern parts of Bahrain.
The increase in anhydrite saturation to over-saturation
is attributed to the presence of large quantities of anhy-
drite in the Rus aquifer (Figure 2); CaSO4 is being
actively introduced to groundwater in the Dammam
aquifer by upward migration of water from the Rus
aquifer. The main areas of upward migration and the
area of influence of this process are delineated from
Figure 8.
The anhydrite saturation decreases in the southeast,
where seawater is in direct contact with groundwater,
and in the southwest, where sabkha water is in direct
contact with the groundwater. In the Hamalah locality,
a low value of anhydrite saturation occurs, interrupting
the general trend of increasing anhydrite saturation due
to brackish-water up-flow. This anomaly is interpreted
to be the result of the downward migration of irrigation
return flow into the aquifer.
Alternatives For Management of Groundwater
Quality
The results of this study provide information that can
be useful for the management of the groundwater
resources in Bahrain, especially with respect to sources
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
205
Figure 7 Distribution of Ca/Mg ratio, Dammam aquifer
of salinization and their areas of influence. Figure 9
shows options for various parts of Bahrain. The results
indicate that the brackish Rus Formation is the main
source of contamination of groundwater in the
Dammam aquifer in Bahrain. Contamination by
brackish water occurs over most of north-central
Bahrain. Efforts at managing groundwater quality,
therefore, should be concentrated on reducing the
upward migration of the brackish water from the Rus
Formation into the Dammam aquifer; this reduction
can be achieved either by increasing the potentiometric
head in the Dammam aquifer or by decreasing it in the
Rus brackish-water zones.
This approach suggests that the present policy of
supplying the industrial sector with brackish water from
the Rus Formation should be continued. This abstrac-
tion should be encouraged in the north-central area,
where maximum upward migration is taking place. The
extraction would help to lower the potentiometric
levels in the Rus Formation and would consequently
reduce the large vertical gradients that exist between
the two aquifers.
Most of the traditional agricultural lands in the
north-central area have been abandoned due to major
groundwater salinization; TDS is more than 10,000 mg/
L in those areas (Zubari et al. 1996b), and pumping of
groundwater has almost completely ceased since the
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late 1980s. The first phase in the utilization of tertiary-

Figure 8 Distribution of anhydrite saturation ratio, Dammam
aquifer
treated wastewater for irrigation has concentrated on
some of these areas (ACE 1984), and this has helped in
the reclamation of some of these abandoned lands.
These reclamation efforts should continue in most of
the agriculturally abandoned lands in north-central
Bahrain at later stages of the project for the utilization
of wastewater in irrigation.
Reduction of groundwater abstraction should also
be concentrated in the areas that have shown major
deterioration. The selection of an alternative or supple-
mentary source of water would depend on the main
water use in the area. The western and southwestern
localities, which are affected by the upward migration
of brackish water, intrusion of sabkha water, and
possibly by irrigation return flows, are principally agri-
cultural areas. Tertiary-treated wastewater should be
used in these areas to replace, partially or completely,
groundwater presently used for irrigation. Due to the
marginal quality (4000–7000 mg/L TDS) of ground-
water in these two areas, the acceptance level of treated
wastewater as a substitute for the groundwater is
expected to be relatively high. Moreover, the replace-
ment of groundwater used for irrigation by tertiary-
treated wastewater in these two areas would reduce
groundwater abstraction amounts and help increase the
potentiometric surface, which in turn would reduce the
volumes of irrigation return flows into the aquifer.
In the northern and northwestern areas, which are
affected mainly by brackish-water up-flow, ground-
water is mainly used for agricultural and domestic
purposes. In these areas, new desalination plants
should be the alternative source that would replace the

Figure 9 Proposed schemes

for managing groundwater
quality in Bahrain

Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208 Q Springer-Verlag


wellfields for domestic water supply. Groundwater
from the Dammam aquifer should be used exclusively
for agricultural activities in these areas. This approach
is in accordance with the general policy of the govern-
ment. These areas should be given the lowest priority
in the management scheme for the utilization of waste-
water, because they have the best groundwater quality,
supplied by underflow from eastern Saudi Arabia. The
presence of groundwater of relatively good quality in
the northern and northwestern coastal strip
(~3000 mg/L TDS) makes the use of treated waste-
water unattractive to farmers in these areas and would
therefore continue to be one of the constraints on the
effective use of treated wastewater in Bahrain (Zubari
1997).
Seawater intrusion is the second major source of
groundwater degradation, and it occurs mainly in the
eastern area. At present, the eastern coast of Bahrain is
an industrial area with some urban settlements and
large, abandoned agricultural lands. The abandonment
of the agricultural lands started in the early 1970s and
was the direct result of seawater intrusion in the
eastern coast, where the salinity of the groundwater
reached over 15,000 mg/L in that period (Zubari et al.
1994). In this area, industrial activities should continue
their dependence on the Rus Formation brackish
water, and domestic supply should continue its reliance
on desalinated water. In addition, the abandoned agri-
cultural lands should be restored and rejuvenated by
utilizing tertiary-treated wastewater for irrigation.
Furthermore, at present, about 44 Mm 3/yr of unused
secondary treated wastewater is being discharged to the
sea along the east coast, where the treatment plant is
located. As a complementary management option to
the ones indicated above, recharging of the Dammam
aquifer on the east coast by parts of these unused
volumes should be considered, in order to form a
hydraulic barrier against seawater intrusion.
Conclusions and Recommendations
This paper presents general guidelines and proposes
priority areas for the effective implementation of four
groundwater management options available for the
water authorities in Bahrain by utilizing the hydro-
chemical characteristics of the Dammam aquifer. These
are: (1) reduction of abstraction of groundwater for
agricultural use through its gradual replacement by
tertiary-treated wastewater; (2) reduction of abstrac-
tion of groundwater for domestic use through its
replacement by desalinated water; (3) lowering the
potentiometric levels of the underlying brackish-water
zones through abstraction by the industrial sector; and
(4) artificial recharge of the Dammam aquifer by
unused secondary-treated wastewater.
The hydrochemical investigation indicates that the
Dammam aquifer water quality is significantly modified
Hydrogeology Journal (1999) 7 : 197–208
207
as groundwater moves from the northwestern parts of
Bahrain, where the aquifer receives its water by lateral
underflow from eastern Saudi Arabia, to the southern
and southeastern parts. Degradation of the aquifer
water quality is caused by four sources of contamina-
tion: (1) brackish water up-flow from the Rus aquifer in
the north-central, western, and eastern regions; (2)
seawater intrusion in the eastern region; (3) intrusion
of sabkha water in the southwestern region; and (4)
irrigation drainage water in a local area in western
Bahrain. The spatial distribution of TDS, Stiff
diagrams, Ca/Mg ratios, and anhydrite saturation ratios
were used to identify the locations of these four
contamination sources and to delineate their areas of
influence. The study illustrates that the upward migra-
tion of brackish water is the main cause of the degrada-
tion of groundwater in the Dammam aquifer in
Bahrain.
The proposed gradual replacement of abstracted
groundwater used in irrigation by tertiary-treated
wastewater should be given top priority in two agricul-
tural areas. These are the western area, which is princi-
pally affected by the upward migration of brackish
water, and the southwestern area, which is affected by
intrusion of sabkha water. The marginal groundwater
salinity in these two areas (4000–7000 mg/L) results in a
high acceptance level of treated wastewater by the
farmers. A vast area of agricultural lands has been
abandoned in the north-central and eastern parts of
Bahrain due to severe salinization of groundwater. The
introduction of treated wastewater for irrigation should
be implemented in these two areas in the later stages of
the management scheme, in order to restore the land
for agriculture. This utilization should be given the
lowest priority in the agricultural lands in the northern
and northwestern areas, because they have the best
groundwater quality (~3000 mg/L), making the treated
wastewaters unattractive to the farmers and thus
hindering their effective utilization.
The present policy and management scheme of
meeting the industrial-sector water needs with the
underlying brackish-water zones should continue. This
utilization should be especially encouraged in the
north-central area, where maximum upward migration
of brackish groundwater is occurring. Furthermore,
artificial recharge of the Dammam aquifer using parts
of the unused secondary-treated wastewater should be
carried out in the eastern coastal area, in order to form
a hydraulic barrier against seawater intrusion.
Considerably more attention should be focused on
the vulnerability and contamination of the Dammam
aquifer by return irrigation water and other hazardous
substances originating from the surface, in order to
prevent further degradation of groundwater quality.
The concept of protective confining conditions of the
aquifer should be examined by undertaking more
rigorous monitoring and investigation of potential
surface contamination sources for the aquifer at west
Bahrain, especially since most of the domestic water
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needs in that area are met presently by withdrawal
from the Dammam aquifer.
Simulation modeling should be performed to eval-
uate the effectiveness of the proposed management
options in controlling the degradation of the quality of
groundwater in the Dammam aquifer, and if possible,
in improving its water quality.
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