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Engineering Structures
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The 1998 ASCE-ACI Committee 445 on shear and torsion identified researching combined shear and
Received 23 July 2013 torsion as well as giving physical significance for torsion design as an upcoming challenge (ASCE-ACI
Revised 19 February 2014 Committee 445 on shear and torsion, 1998). Most of the previous experimental studies were focused
Accepted 20 February 2014
on reinforced (RC) beams under flexure, shear or torsion. The behavior of inverted T-shaped beams with
Available online 27 March 2014
both web and flange closed stirrups are not fully explored. In this research paper, an innovative test setup
capable of simulating the behavior of inverted T-shaped beams under combined shear and torsion was
Keywords:
developed and implemented. The behavior of three inverted T-shaped beams tested under different
T-beams
Combined loading
values for the ratios of the applied torque to the applied shear force is discussed. The value of the torque
Torsion to shear ratio significantly affects the behavior of the inverted T-shaped beams in terms of cracking pat-
Shear tern; failure mode; strut angle of inclination; cracking and ultimate torque; post-cracking torsional rigid-
Global behavior ity; cracking and ultimate shear; flange and web stirrup strain. The flange stirrup is more efficient in
Flange stirrup resisting torsion moment over shear forces. A model capable of predicting the behavior of flanged beams
under combined actions was developed and implemented. The model showed good agreement with the
experimental results from three different experimental studies.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2014.02.011
0141-0296/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
58 A. Deifalla, A. Ghobarah / Engineering Structures 68 (2014) 57–70
Nomenclature
Ac the gross concrete cross section area ysj distance between the elastic centroid and the center of
Ao the area enclosed inside the center of the shear flow each bar (j)
loop ysk distance between the elastic centroid and the panel (i)
As area of each bar (j) centroid
Ec Young’s modulus of the concrete t the shear stress
fc0 the compressive strength of concrete /d the curvature in the direction of angle h
fy the yield stress of the steel /L the longitudinal curvature
i panel number /t the transversal curvature
k number of concrete strips for moment calculations b1 softening coefficient of the concrete stress
l the length of the panel (i) parallel to the shear plane b2 strain softening coefficient
m number of steel bars c the shear strain of each panel (i)
Mx moment around the x-axis DAci the area of the strip
N the applied axial force on the cross section e0c concrete strain at the peak stress
Nvk the shear contribution from each panel (i) e1 the principal average tension concrete strain
Pc the perimeter of the concrete cross section e2 the average principal compression strain
Po the perimeter of the centerline of the equivalent thin e2s the maximum compression principal strain at the sur-
tube face of the concrete
q the average shear flow of the panel (i) ex the average longitudinal strain
qs the shear flow due to the shear force (V) ey the average transverse strain
qt the uniform shear flow on the panel due to the torsion h the inclination angle of the principal strains
T the applied torsion moment on the whole cross section qh the ratio of the transverse steel per unit length of the
V the applied shear force on the whole cross section span to the gross area of the concrete cross section
Ti the applied torsion moment on the rectangular sub- r0ci the concrete stress at the centroid of the strip
division r0sj stress in the steel longitudinal reinforcement for each
t the effective thickness of each element resisting both bar (j)
shear and torsion r1 the principal average tension stresses
ts the thickness of the element resisting the shear force (Vi) r2 the principal average compression stresses
tt the thickness of the element resisting the torsional mo- rst the steel reinforcement stress
ment (Ti) rx the average longitudinal stress
Vi the applied shear force of each rectangular sub-division ry the average transverse stresses
(i) ui the curvature for each panel
yci distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid W the twist rate
of each concrete panel (i)
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 1. Examples of inverted T-shaped beams under significant torsion.
A. Deifalla, A. Ghobarah / Engineering Structures 68 (2014) 57–70 59
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 2. R and T-shaped beams under torsion (a) isometric; (b) uncracked and (c) cracked.
physical knowledge and information about the behavior of the sys- of the web and 2–15 M + 4–10 M (i.e. 2 bars 15 mm and 4 bars
tem studied [53,54]. Moreover, test results are essential in verify- 10 mm diameter) in the flange. The transverse reinforcement was
ing analytical models such as (1) the skew bending theory determined to be 10 M @ 170 mm (i.e. 10 mm stirrup every
models based on an inclined plane failure [7–13]; (2) the space hol- 170 mm). The clear length of the central region was 1400 mm, as
low tube truss models [14–18,6,19–25]; (3) the finite element and shown in Fig. 4, to ensure that at least one complete spiral crack
the finite difference numerical models [26–28]; and (4) the empir- would occur within the central region. At the two ends of the test
ical models developed by fitting experimental data [29–33]. region, an end block was created with a rectangular section having
A milestone point in the analysis of RC beams under combined a total depth of 350 mm, a width of 450 mm, and a length of
shear and torsion was the work presented by both Hsu, and Rahal 250 mm. These two end blocks were used to apply torsion at one
and Collins [34,17]. Hsu presented a unified theory for combined end (active frame) and to restrain the torsion at the other end
shear and torsion ‘‘Softened Truss Model’’ that was based on: (1) (reactive frame). To apply the required load and the proper bound-
equilibrium equations; (2) compatibility equations; (3) the soft- ary condition far from the test region, the beam was extended at
ened constitutive laws of concrete [34]. Rahal and Collins [17] up- both ends. The extensions were either for applying load (loading
dated the existing space truss model to include; (1) concrete arm) or for applying the end restraints (roller arm). The loading
softening; (2) tension stiffening; (3) improved modeling for the arm was 900 mm long while the roller arm was 750 mm as shown
cover spalling; and (4) an equivalent uniform stress distribution in Fig. 6. To ensure that failure would occur within the test region,
block for the concrete strut. Another key point in the history of both arms had additional longitudinal and transverse reinforce-
RC beams under combined actions was the work by Greene and ment. The shear reinforcement was 10-M @ 70 mm, the bottom
Belarbi [21]. They presented a ‘‘Combined-Action Softened Truss reinforcement was 6–20 M, and the top longitudinal reinforcement
Model,’’ which was based on the ‘‘Softened Truss Model’’ by Hsu was 4–10 M + 2–15 M.
and Mo for pure torsion with improvements over existing models The concrete mix was designed using Type 10 cement, sand, and
[17,16]. More recently, Bernardo and co-workers studied the mod- 10 mm aggregate. The results from the compression testing of
eling of RC beams under torsion [19,24,25]. Their work focused on standard concrete cylinders are shown in Table 1. The 28-day con-
comprehensively examining previous experimental and analytical crete compressive strength was 25.6 MPa. Compression tests con-
models to verify and improve existing analytical models. Ulti- ducted on the same day of the beam testing showed a
mately, a modified version of the ‘‘Variable Angle Truss-Model’’ compressive strength of 35.9 MPa for beams TB3 and TB1, and
by Hsu and co-workers [34,16,22] that is capable of predicting 33.6 MPa for beam TB2. The longitudinal and transversal steel bars
the behavior of the beams for all loading stages was presented. were ribbed high strength steel. The tensile testing of coupons
Moreover, they indicated that the next step would be dealing with made from the reinforcement bars showed that 10 M bars yielded
special beams under combined straining actions. at 465 MPa, while the 15 M and 20 M bars yielded at 450 MPa.
The behavior of RC inverted T-shaped beams is different from Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) were used to
RC rectangular beams. The cross-section shape can have a signifi- measure displacements at different locations of the beam. Ten
cant effect on the behavior and design, as shown by several LVDTs measured the vertical displacements at five sections of the
researchers [26,27,5,31,46]. In addition, the inverted T-shaped beam—two at each section. The two LVDTs at the tip of the flange
beams with flange stirrups are an asymmetricaly-reinforced sec- of each section were used to calculate the rotation and the average
tion. Moreover, there is no unified approach for the design of RC in- vertical displacement. Strain gauges were used to measure the
verted T-shaped beams under combined loading. The first step in strain in the longitudinal and transversal reinforcement at differ-
reaching a unified approach is to conduct an experimental program ent locations, as shown in Fig. 5. Strain in the longitudinal rein-
in order to identify the significance of the contribution of various forcement was measured at the maximum and at the zero
parameters to the behavior. moment section. Strain in the transverse reinforcement was mea-
sured at the beginning, middle, and the end of the test region area.
Strain gauges were installed at the same location in all the tested
3. Testing inverted T-shaped beams
beams.
subjected to combined shear and torsion while the torque to shear load step, the beam was inspected for cracks and any possible signs
ratio was kept fixed throughout the test by controlling the three of failure. During the tests, it was possible to maintain good control
different applied loads. After installing the T-beams in the test set- over the torque to shear ratio all the way to near failure of the
up and attaching the instruments to the data acquisition system, beam. Fig. 7 shows a photo for the test setup with a specimen in
the beam was loaded with low-level load combinations within place. Four load cells (L1, L2, L3, and L4) were used in the test
the elastic range of concrete. Measurements from this test were set-up. Three of the load cells (L1, L2 and L3) were used to measure
verified to ensure that all the instruments were correctly installed the actual applied loads at Points A, D and E on the beam. The
and functioning properly. The load values L1, L2, and L3 that give fourth load cell (L4) was used at point F to measure the reaction
the desired shear and torsion combination were calculated from at the support of the beam. Fig. 8 shows the boundary conditions
simple structural analysis. The loads were applied in small steps at points F, D, E and A. Due to the complexity of the test set-up,
of 2 kN in order to exercise better control over the loading values the assumptions made concerning the beam boundary conditions
and achieve the required torque to shear force ratio. After each were verified. This was done by comparing the measured values
62 A. Deifalla, A. Ghobarah / Engineering Structures 68 (2014) 57–70
TB3) were tested under torque to shear ratios of 0.5 m, 1.0 m and
0.1 m, respectively. The torque to shear ratio was chosen to cover
a wide range of practical shear torsion interactions. In addition, Ta-
ble 2 shows the ratio of the applied torque to shear ratio to the ulti-
mate torque to shear ratio, which was chosen to vary from 1 to 10.
Based on this range, the applied torque to shear ratios were chosen
to be either 0.1 m, 0.5 m, or 1.0 m.
4. Experimental results
The concrete cracking pattern for beams TB1, TB2, and TB3 are
shown is Figs. 11–13, respectively. In addition, the failure modes
are listed in Table 3. For beam TB1 (T/V = 0.5 m), the onset of crack-
ing was observed at the bottom of the web at a total load value of
56 kN. Afterwards, more diagonal cracks were initiated within both
the web and the flange, which were spiral and uniformly distrib-
uted, as shown in Fig. 11(a–d). Before failure, significant concrete
cover spalling from the flange (as shown in Fig. 11b and c) and
additional longitudinal cracks in the flexure compression zone side
were observed, as shown in Fig. 11a and b. These additional longi-
tudinal cracks are due to the diagonal compression stress from the
shear and torsion, and that from the flexure. The major diagonal
cracks were formed at an average angle of inclination with the lon-
gitudinal axis of the beam (h) value of 51°. Beam TB1 failed due to
stirrup yielding before concrete compression at a load value of
162 kN.
For beam TB2 (T/V = 1.0 m), the onset of cracking occurred at an
Fig. 6. Schematic structural system and interal forces for the tested beams. applied load of 33 kN. The cracks propagated in a helical form
around the beam in a similar manner to those of beam TB1 (as
shown in Fig. 12a–d), where concrete cover spalling from both
Table 1
the flange and the web was observed. However, on average, the
Concrete strength at different dates.
major cracks formed at an average (h) value of 55°, which is steeper
Batch I Batch II than beam TB1. Beam TB2 failed due to stirrup yielding before con-
Date fc0 (Mpa) Date fc0 (Mpa) crete compression at a load value of 75 kN. In comparing Fig. 11b
7 days 17.7 28 days 25.6 and Fig. 12b, it is clear that beam TB2 exhibited significant web
28 days 25.6 TB3 35.9 spalling with respect to beam TB1.
TB1 35.9 TB2 33.6 For beam TB3 (T/V = 0.1 m), the onset of cracking was observed
at a load value of 130 kN. Significant diagonal cracks were ob-
served in the web compared to that in the flange, as shown in
Fig. 13a–d. The cracking pattern varied along the test region and
F
E H between both sides of beam TB3. For the web side, where the shear
stresses due to the torsion and shear were added together, the
average (h) for the cracks was 30°, which is lower than that of
B
C G
A the other web side, where shear stresses due to the torsion and
D shear will subtract. Beam TB3 failed due to diagonal concrete com-
pression before stirrup yielding at a load value of 342 kN. Compar-
ing Fig. 13(a–d) with Fig. 11(a–d) and Fig. 12(a–d), the angle of
inclination of the cracks of beam TB3 was lower than those of
either beam TB1 or TB2. The spacing between the cracks of beam
TB3 was smaller than that of either beam TB1 or TB2. The cracking
patterns of beams TB1, TB2, and TB3 were significantly influenced
by the torque to shear ratio.
Fig. 7. The test setup with a specimen in place.
Fig. 8. Details of the test setup; (a) roller support at point F, (b) actuator used to apply load at points D and E and c) actuator used to apply load at point A.
120
160
Calculated reaction force, R1(kN )
120 80
100
60
80
60 40 TB1 (0.5 m)
40
TB2 (1.0 m)
20
20
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 5 10 15 20 25
Measured reaction force, R1 (kN) Torque, T (kN. m)
Fig. 9. Physical verification of the test setup. Fig. 10. The applied shear and torsion.
64 A. Deifalla, A. Ghobarah / Engineering Structures 68 (2014) 57–70
Table 2
Selected torque to shear ratios. C B
(V - T)
(T/Tult)/(V/Vult) (T/V) (m)
(V - T)
1 0.1
5 0.5
10 1.0
(a)
(V - T)
(V - T) (V + T)
(V + T)
C
B B C
(b)
(a)
(V + T) (V + T)
B
C
B C
(c)
(b)
B
C
C B
(c) (d)
Fig. 12. Cracking pattern for TB2 (1.0); (a) south, (b) north, (c) bottom and (d) top.
B C
B
C (V - T)
(d) (V - T)
Fig. 11. Crack pattern for TB1 (0.5); (a) south, (b) north, (c) bottom and (d) top.
(a)
the cracking torque and corresponding twist for all the tested (V + T) C
beams are shown in Table 3. After cracking, the behavior of beams
(V + T)
TB1 and TB2 was similar because they were subjected to high tor-
B
que to shear ratios. However, the behavior of beam TB3 was differ-
ent compared to beams TB1 and TB2. In examining Fig. 15, it can be
seen that the average post-cracking torsional rigidity of beam TB3
was higher than that of either beam TB1 or TB2 that is due to wider (b)
cracks associated with the high torsion to shear ratio for beams
TB1 and TB2. This is commonly observed after steel yielding, which
C
is the case for both TB1 and TB2. The value of the ultimate strength B
was taken as the maximum strength observed during the testing of
the beam. Table 3 shows the ultimate torque and the correspond-
ing twist for all the tested beams. As shown in Table 3, the shear– (c)
torsion interaction affected the value of the ultimate torque.
B
4.3. Shear behavior C
Table 3
Summary of the experimental results.
Beam T/V Cracking torque Twist at cracking Cracking shear Ultimate torque Twist at ultimate Ultimate Observed failure mode
(m) (kN m) (deg/m) force (kN) (kN m) (deg/m) shear (kN)
TB1 0.5 11.6 0.25 17 23 2.82 46 Stirrup yield before
concrete crushing
TB2 1.00 11 0.33 11 22.7 3.16 21.4 Stirrup yield before
concrete crushing
TB3 0.1 4 0.13 42 10.8 0.5 105 Concrete diagonal crushing
the onset of cracking for all tested beams is shown in Table 3. The
25 value of the ultimate shear strength for all tested beams is also
TB1 (0.5 m)
shown in Table 3. It is clear in the table that the shear–torsion
20 TB2 (1.0 m) interaction affected the ultimate and cracking shear force.
Torque, T (kN. m)
Fig. 16a shows a plot for the observed absolute values of the
10 cracking and the ultimate shear forces versus the torsion moment.
TB3 (0.1 m)
We can see that the relationship is not linear and there is a clear
5 curvature in the interaction. Huang et al. proposed a circular
dimensionless relationship for the torque–shear interaction based
on the theory of plasticity [30]. In an attempt to quantify the
0 shear–torsion interaction, the shear forces and torsion moments
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
were normalized and compared with the interaction relationship
Angle of twist (deg/m) proposed by Huang et al. and are shown in Fig. 16b [30]. We can
Fig. 14. Torsional behavior. see that the experimentally observed values agreed fairly well with
the relationship, with an error less than ±10%.
TB3 (0.1 m) Fig. 17 shows the transverse steel strain for the flange and web
100
stirrups versus the total load. In case of beam TB2 (high torque to
Shear force, Q2 (kN)
shear ratio), the strain measured in the flange was similar to the
80
strain measured in the web. However, in the case of beam TB3
60 (low torque to shear ratio), the strain in the web was larger than
the strain in the flange. The flange was more effective in cases of
40 TB1 (0.5 m) higher torque to shear ratios.
TB2 (1.0 m)
Fig. 18 shows the relationship between the flange stirrup strain
20 at both the top and bottom branch versus the total load. The strain
gauges were installed as shown in Fig. 5, with the exception of
0 beam TB1, where the bottom strain gauge was installed in the mid-
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 dle of the bottom branch within the overlapping zone of the flange
Stirrup strain at the mid of the test zone (1000 microstrain) stirrup. The strain of beam TB1 (under low torque to shear ratio)
was significantly lower than that of TB3, which agrees well with
Fig. 15. Shear behavior.
the assumption that the flange stirrup primarily carries forces from
torsion.
(a) (b)
Fig. 16. Ultimat and cracking experimentaly observed shear–torsion interaction (a) absolute and (b) normalized.
66 A. Deifalla, A. Ghobarah / Engineering Structures 68 (2014) 57–70
400 (3) The direction of the principal stresses at any point in the
plane is coincident with the direction of the principal strain
350
evaluated at the same point in the plane [35].
300 (4) The torsional behavior is dominated by Saint–Venant’s tor-
sion, which indicates that the torsion will be resisted by
250 shear flow in the perimeter of the cross section [34,17,23].
(5) The effective thickness of the diagonal concrete struts is
200
function of the external loading [33,35] which is similar to
150 beams subjected to bending where the effective depth is
function of the bending moment.
100
(6) The equivalent hollow tube is being divided into four panels;
50 each panel is subjected to uniform bi-axial stresses
[33,17,18,23,21].
0 (7) The diagonal compressive strain distribution within the con-
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 crete diagonal struts is assumed to be linear and conse-
Strain (1000 microstrain) quently the diagonal compressive stress is assumed to be
non-uniform [33,35,20,23].
Fig. 18. Flange stirrup strain versus total applied load (L1 + L2 + L3).
(8) The torsion stresses and the uniform shear stresses are being
replaced by one equivalent uniform stress block as shown in
5. Analytical model
Fig. 19 [17].
yes
Input average shear stress and
Calculate using Eq. (18-20) longitudinal strain
Vi e2
qs ¼ ð5Þ r2 ¼ b1 fc0 if P1 ð24Þ
l b2 e0c
qt t t þ qs t s
q¼ ð6Þ 0:9
t b1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð25Þ
1:0 þ 400e1
q
m¼ ð7Þ
t 1:0
b2 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð26Þ
1:0 þ 500e1
5.3. Mohr circle for the average concrete strains of each panel
r1 ¼ Ec e1 ð27Þ
2ðe2 þ ex Þ 0:33fc0
c¼ ð8Þ r1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð28Þ
tanðhÞ 1 þ 500e1
c rs ¼ Es es 6 fy ð29Þ
ey ¼ e2 ð9Þ
2 tanðhÞ
A flow chart for the solution technique is being shown in Figs. 21
e1 ¼ e2 þ ex þ ey ð10Þ and 22. A force driven solution technique is being used limiting the
model predictions to the ultimate strength.
rx ¼ r2 ry r1 ð11Þ Three rectangular RC beams (N1, N2, and N3) were found in
the literature. The beams were tested under combined significant
r2 rx
tan2 ðhÞ ¼ ð12Þ
r2 r1
15
Experimental [52]
1
r2 ¼ s tanðhÞ þ r1 ð13Þ Anaylitical
tanðhÞ
10
e2s
t ti ¼ ð16Þ
ui 5
2
/d ¼ /t sin ðhÞ þ /L cos2 ðhÞ þ w sinð2hÞ ð17Þ
X
k X
m X
4
15
r0ci DAci þ r0sj Asj ¼ N þ Nv k ð21Þ
i¼1 j¼1 k¼1
10
Experimental
X
k X
m X
4
Solution I
ðr0ci DAci Þyci þ ðr0sj Asj Þysj ¼ M x þ Nv k ysk ð22Þ 5 Solution II
i¼1 j¼1 k¼1
Solution III
0
5.6. Material modeling 0 1 2 3 0.0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0.00 0.25 0.50
Angle of twist (deg/m)
" 2 #
r2 ¼ b1 fc0 2
e2 e2
0 if
e2
61 ð23Þ
(a) (b) (c)
e0c ec b2 e0c
Fig. 24. Torque versus angle of twist for (a) TB1; (b) TB2 and (c) TB3.
A. Deifalla, A. Ghobarah / Engineering Structures 68 (2014) 57–70 69
6. Conclusions
Table 4
Strength and deformation predicted using the proposed model with solutions I, II, and III versus measured.
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