Chapter 11

Key issue 3

Air pollution: concentration of trace substances at a greater level than occurs in

average air

Greenhouse effect: increase in Earth’s temperature, caused by CO2 and other

greenhouse gases trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface

Ozone: gas that absorbs ultraviolet solar radiation, found in the stratosphere

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): air polutants such as Freon

Acid deposition: sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, emitted by burning fossil fuels, that
combine with oxygen and water to form sulfuric/nitric acid in the atmosphere

Acid precipitation: conversion of sulfur/nitrogen oxides to acids that return to Earth as

precipitation

Photochemical smog: atmospheric condition formed through a combination of weather

conditions and pollution

Sanitary landfill: a place to deposit solid waste, where a layer of earth is bulldozed
over garbage each day

Point-source pollution: pollution that enters a body of water from a specific source

Non-point source pollution: pollution that originates from a large, diffuse area

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): the amount of oxygen required by aquatic

bacteria to decompose a given load of organic waste; a measure a measure of water
pollution

Text in this format indicates statistics or especially important information

Where Does Industry Cause Pollution?

Industry is a major polluter of air, water, and land; we depend on all of these things to
remove/disperse waste. However, the earth can only handle so much waste before it
starts to seriously pollute the air.
- As a country’s per capita income increases, so does its CO2 emissions
- Some of Europe’s wealthiest countries with high per capita incomes show
declines in CO2
- World’s richest countries (U.S., Southeast Asia) have the highest
emissions

Air Pollution
Earth’s average atmosphere is made up of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent
oxygen, and less than 1 percent argon.
- The remaining 0.04 percent includes several trace gases
- Factories/power plants = sulfur dioxides and solid particulates from coal
- Motor vehicles = CO, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (from burning petroleum)

Global-Scale Air Pollution

Air pollution occurs at three levels— global, regional, and local.

Global Warming
Average temp. of earth’s surface has increased by 1°C (2°F) since 1880
- Earth is warmed by sunlight that passes through the atmosphere, strikes the
surface, and is converted to heat
- When the heat tries to escape back out of the atmosphere, only some of it
actually gets through and the rest is trapped; keeps the temp. moderate
- Burning of fossil fuels leads to CO2 emissions; plants/oceans absorb some
- Increased fossil fuel burning over the past 200 years has increased the
level of CO2 in the atmosphere to increase by ¼
- Global warming of a few degrees melts polar ice caps and raises the sea level
- Coastal cities such as N.Y., L.A., Hong Kong, and Rio de Janeiro would flood
- Productive agri-land such as the U.S. Midwest would dry up and deserts would
receive more rainfall
- These major changes will lead to large migrations and political disputes

Global-Scale Ozone Damage

Earth’s atmosphere has several distinct zones
- Stratosphere (9-30 miles above the surface) contains ozone gas
- Ozone prevents the damaging of plants, skin cancer, and disruption of the food
chain
 - Freon was widely used as a coolant in fridges and ACs
- Leak from these appliances and are released into the atmosphere
- In 2007, countless countries agreed to stop using CFCs (MDCs by 2020 and
LDCs by 2030)

Regional-Scale Air Pollution

Regional: pollution damages vegetation and water through acid deposition
- World’s three principal industrial regions are especially affected by this
- Acid precipitation damages bodies of water, small animals, and plant life
- Marble and limestone architecture also suffer from corrosion
- The worst damage is not experienced at the same location as the emission
- U.S. major generators of acid deposition are Ohio and other Great Lakes
states
- But the severest effects are felt farther east
- U.S. reduced sulfur dioxide emissions significantly during the 20th century

Local-Scale Air Pollution

Severe in places where emissions are concentrated (urban areas with factories, many
vehicles, and other polluters). Urban air pollution has three basic components:
- Carbon monoxide: reduces oxygen in blood, impairs vision and alertness, and
worsens breathing problems
- Hydrocarbons: forms photochemical smog, which causes respiratory
problems, stinging in eyes, and an ugly haze over cities
- Particulates: include dust and smoke; examples or plumes of smoke from
factories and exhaust of diesel trucks
Worst urban air pollution occurs when winds are slight, skies are clear, and temp.
inversion exists.
- When wind blows, pollutants are dispersed, and when it’s calm, they build
- Sunlight provides the energy for the formation of smog
- During temp. inversions (when air is warmer at higher elevations), pollutants are
trapped near the ground
- Worst areas for concentrations of particulates is in SoCal
- 10 most polluted cities are all in LDCs (4 each in Iran and South Asia)
- Mexico City is in an LDC, yet it has improved air quality since the 90s
- Air has improved in MDCs where there are strict regulations enforced
- Limitted emission controls in LDCs are contributing to urban air pollution
- Changes in manufacturing, vehicle engines, and electric generation have helped
- Since the 1970s, CO emissions have been reduced by more than ¾ and nitrogen
oxide/hydrocarbon emissions have been reduced by more than 95 percent
Solid Waste Pollution
Four pounds of waste is generated per person daily in the U.S. (60 percent from
residences and 40 percent from businesses). Paper products like cardboard and
newspapers account for the largest percentage of solid waste in the U.S.

Sanitary Landfill
Most common strategy for disposal of solid waste in the U.S. More than ½ of the
country’s waste is trucked to landfills.
- Number of landfills in the U.S. has declined by three-fourths since the 90s
- One popular alternative is incineration; reduces bulk by ¾ and the
remaining ash demands less space; can also provide energy

Hazardous Waste
Includes heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, zinc, PCB oils, cyanids, strong solvents,
acids, and caustics).
- 3.93 billion lbs of toxic chemicals were released into the environment in
2010
- Mining is the biggest polluter; Ohio has 10 of the 100 largest polluting firms
- If harmful residuals are not handled properly, they may leak into the earth

Water Pollution
Industries such as the aluminum industry use a lot of water. They locate near dams to
take advantage of cheap hydroelectric power
- Alcoa, the world’s largest aluminum producer, owns dams in NC and Tenessee
- Average American consumes 1,400 gallons of water per day (180 gallons are
used for drinking, cooking, and bathing)
- Pollution is rampant because it’s easy to dump waste in bodies of water

Water Pollution Sources

Sources of water pollution can be divided into two types: point sources and non-point
sources.

Point Sources
Smaller in quantity and easier to control. Originates from a specific point; two main ones
are manufacturers and sewage systems.
- Water-using manufacturers: steel, chemicals, paper products, and food
processing are major polluters; each makes a lot of wastewater; for example,
 food processors use water to clean fruits and vegetables and remove
unnecessary parts; pollution can also occur because of accidents
- Municipal sewage: in MDCs, sewers carry wastewater from households to
treatment plants were most pollutants are removed; the treated water is dumped
into a body of water; the U.S. Clean Water Act requires thorough treatment; in
LDCs, sewer systems are rare and wastewater/drinking water is untreated;
causes cholera, typhoid, and dysentery

Nonpoint Sources
Pollute in larger quantities and harder to maintain; agriculture is the main source.
Fertilizers and pesticides are carried into bodies of water; destroys aquatic life.
- Aral Sea in former USSR; divided by Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan
- World’s fourth largest lake in 1960 (26,000 sq. miles)
- Shrunk to 2,000 sq. miles in 2010; might disappear by 2020
- 1975: early stages of destruction; small islands barely visible in center
- 1989: large island formed in the middle; all fish dead by now
- 2003: divided into two portions, eastern and western
- 2009: eastern portion dried up into a wasteland of salt
- Happened because the USSR diverted its tributary rivers (Amur Dar’ya and the
Syr Dar’ya) to irrigate cotton fields; cotton is now withered

Impact of Water Pollution on Aquatic Life

Putting too much waste in water makes it oxygen-starved, leading to dying fish.
- Happens when water is loaded with sewage or industrial waste
- The pollutants consume a lot of oxygen
- Fertilizer in water leads to excessive growth of algae, which deplete oxygen
- The pollutants are concentrated in the fish, making them unsafe to consume
- For example, salmon from the Great Lakes have pesticides in them, which are
unfit for consumption
- Factories use water for cooling then release the warm water in bodies of water;
may be harmful to fish used to colder temperatures

Key issue 4

Right-to-work law: requires a factory to maintain an “open shop” and prohibits a

“closed shop”; essentially, workers cannot be forced to join unions

New International Division of Labor: companies transfer low-skill jobs to LDCs to pay
lower wages, and operations that require high skill are transferred to MDCs
Outsourcing: turning over much of the responsibility for production to independent
suppliers (opposite of vertical integration)

Vertical integration: a company controls all phases of a highly complex production

process (traditional; opposite of outsourcing)

Maquiladoras: plants in Mexico near the U.S. border

Fordist Production: when factories assign each worker on a specific task to perform
repeatedly

Post-Fordist Production: lean and flexible production approach where employees are
assigned to different groups that perform varying tasks according to what is needed

Just-In-Time Delivery: shipment of parts and materials to arrive at a factory moments

before they are needed

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Changes within Developed Regions

In MDCs, industry is starting to spread to other non-traditional areas.

Shifts Within the U.S.

NE U.S. lost 6 million jobs in manufacturing between 1950 and 2010.
- Largest declines recorded by NY and Pennsylvania
- 2 million manufacturing jobs added in South and West (CA and TX mostly)
- South was ignored by industrialization in the 18th-19th century because of its
post-Civil War condition and lack of proper infrastructure (poorest region)
- Since the 1930s, the government has made efforts to help the South
- Added electricity, more roads, and ACs to much of the South
- Major industries are scattered across the South, looking for a labor force
- Gulf Coast is an important industrial area because of its natural resources

Right-to-work Laws
Twenty-three U.S. states have right-to-work laws.
- Make it difficult for unions to function properly, pay expenses, and gain strength
- Companies are attracted by the South’s lack of unions
Textile Production
Especially prominent in lower-wage regions, not so much in higher-wage ones.
- First concentrated in the northeast in early 20th century, now in South and West
- Moved to the southeast U.S. during the mid-20th century
- Favored sites were small towns in Appalachian, Piedmont, and Ozark mountains
- This area is home to 99 percent of U.S. hosiery and sock production (half in NC)
- Mid-20th century: southeast wages were much lower

Interregional Shifts in Europe

Manufacturing diffused from northwestern Europe to Southern/Eastern Europe.
- European policies encouraged this diffusion (contrast to U.S.)
- EU Structural Funds provide assistance to two types of regions
- Convergence regions: Eastern and Southern Europe where incomes are
behind the European average
- Competitive and employment regions: Western Europe’s traditional
core industrial areas, which had losses in manufacturing jobs recently
- Western EU country with most manufacturing growth in 20th century is Spain
- Has the second-largest motor vehicle industry in Europe (behind Germany)
- Catalonia, centered on Barcelona, is the leading industrial area
- Severe recession of the 21st century has hit its economy especially hard
- Poland, Czech Republic, and Hungary have had the most industrial development
of Central Europe
- Attractive because it’s close to Western Europe’s large markets and have a good
amount of skill for the wages they demand (fair balance)