MEASUREMENT AND INSPECTION

• Metrology
• Inspection Principles
• Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages
• Measurement of Surfaces
• Advanced Measurement and Inspection Techniques
 Measurement Defined
A procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared
to a known standard, using an accepted and
consistent system of units
• The measurement may involve a simple linear rule to
scale the length of a part
• Or it may require a sophisticated measurement of
force versus deflection during a tension test
• Measurement provides a numerical value of the
quantity of interest, within certain limits of accuracy
and precision
 Inspection Defined
A procedure in which a part or product characteristic,
such as a dimension, is examined to determine
whether or not it conforms to design specification
• Many inspection procedures rely on measurement
techniques, while others use gaging methods
 Gaging determines simply whether the part
characteristic meets or does not meet the design
specification
 Gaging is usually faster than measuring, but not
much information is provided about the actual
value of the characteristic of interest
 Metrology

Defined as the science of measurement

• Concerned with six fundamental quantities:
 Length
 Mass
 Time
 Electric current
 Temperature
 Light radiation
 Metrology - continued

• From these basic quantities, most other physical

quantities are derived, such as:
 Area
 Volume
 Velocity and acceleration
 Force
 Electric voltage
 Heat energy
 Manufacturing Metrology

• In manufacturing metrology, the main concern is with

measuring the length quantity in the many ways in
which it manifests itself in a part or product
 Length and width
 Depth
 Diameter
 Straightness, flatness, and roundness, etc.
 Surface roughness
 Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy - the degree to which the measured value

agrees with the true value of the quantity of interest
• A measurement procedure is accurate when it is
absent of systematic errors
 Systematic errors are positive or negative
deviations from the true value which are
consistent from one measurement to the next
Precision is the degree of repeatability in the
measurement process
• Good precision means that random errors in the
measurement procedure are minimized
Figure 44.1 - Accuracy versus precision in measurement:
(a) high accuracy but low precision;
(b) low accuracy but high precision; and
(c) high accuracy and high precision
 Two Dominant Units Systems
in the World
• Two systems of units have evolved into
predominance in the world:
1. U.S. customary system (U.S.C.S.)
2. SI (for Systeme Internationale d'Unites) - the
“metric system”
 Types of Inspection

• Inspection involves the use of measurement and

gaging techniques to determine whether a product,
its components, subassemblies, or starting materials
conform to design specifications
• Inspections divide into two types:
1. Inspection by variables - product or part
dimensions of interest are measured by the
appropriate measuring instruments
2. Inspection by attributes - parts are gaged to
determine whether or not they are within
tolerance limits
 Manual Inspection

• Inspection procedures are often performed manually

• The work is boring and monotonous, yet the need for
precision and accuracy is high
• Hours may be required to measure the important
dimensions of only one part
• Because of the time and cost of manual inspection,
statistical sampling procedures are often used to
reduce the need to inspect every part
 Sampling Inspection

• When sampling inspection is used, the number of

parts in the sample is usually small compared to the
quantity of parts produced
 The sample size may be 1% of the production run
• Because not all of the items in the population are
measured, there is a risk in any sampling procedure
that defective parts will slip through
 The risk can be reduced with a larger sample size
 But the fact is that less than 100% good quality
must be tolerated as the price of using sampling
 100% Inspection

• Theoretically, the only way to achieve 100% good

quality is by 100% inspection
 Thus, all defects are screened and only good
quality parts are passed
 Manual 100% Inspection

• However, when 100% inspection is done manually,

two problems are encountered:
1. The expense - the unit inspection cost is applied
to every part in the batch
2. In 100% manual inspection, there are almost
always human errors
• Therefore, 100% inspection using manual methods
is no guarantee of 100% good quality product
 Automated 100% Inspection
and Corrective Action
• Automated 100% inspection can be integrated with
the manufacturing process to accomplish one or
both of the following corrective actions:
1. Parts sortation - separating parts into two or
more quality levels, such as acceptable and
unacceptable
2. Feedback of inspection data to the upstream
manufacturing operation to allow compensating
adjustments in the process to reduce variability
and improve quality
 Conventional Measuring Instruments
and Gages
• Precision gage blocks
• Measuring instruments for linear dimensions
• Comparative instruments
• Fixed gages
• Angular measurements
 Precision Gage Blocks

The standards against which other dimensional

measuring instruments and gages are compared
• Usually square or rectangular in shape
• Measuring surfaces are finished to be dimensionally
accurate and parallel to within several millionths of an
inch and are polished to a mirror finish
• Precision gage blocks are available in certain
standard sizes or in sets, the latter containing a
variety of different sized blocks
 Measuring Instruments for
Linear Dimensions
• Divided into two types:
 Graduated measuring devices include a set of
markings (called graduations) on a linear or
angular scale to which the object's feature of
interest can be compared for measurement
 Nongraduated measuring devices possess no
such scale and are used to make comparisons
between dimensions or to transfer a dimension for
measurement by a graduated device
Figure 44.2 - Two sizes of outside calipers (courtesy of L.S. Starrett Co.)
Figure 44.5 - External micrometer, standard one-inch size with
digital readout (courtesy of L. S. Starret Co.)
 Mechanical Gages: Dial Indicators

• Mechanical gages are designed to mechanically

magnify the deviation to permit observation
• The most common instrument in this category is the
dial indicator, which converts and amplifies the linear
movement of a contact pointer into rotation of a dial
 The dial is graduated in small units such as 0.001
inch (or 0.01 mm)
 Applications: measuring straightness, flatness,
parallelism, squareness, roundness, and runout
Figure 44.6 - Dial indicator: top view shows dial and graduated
face; bottom view shows rear of instrument with cover plate
removed (courtesy of Federal Products Co., Providence, RI)
Figure 44.7 - Dial indicator setup to measure runout; as part is
rotated about its center, variations in outside surface relative to
center are indicated on the dial
 Electronic Gages

A family of measuring and gaging instruments based on

transducers capable of converting a linear
displacement into an electrical signal
• The electrical signal is then amplified and
transformed into suitable data format such as a digital
readout
• Applications of electronic gages have grown rapidly
in recent years, driven by advances in
microprocessor technology
• They are gradually replacing many of the
conventional measuring and gaging devices
 GO/NO-GO gages

So-called because one gage limit allows the part to be

inserted while the other limit does not
• GO limit - used to check the dimension at its
maximum material condition
 This is the minimum size for an internal feature
such as a hole, and it is the maximum size for an
external feature such as an outside diameter
• NO-GO limit - used to inspect the minimum material
condition of the dimension in question
Figure 44.8 - Snap gage for measuring diameter of a part; difference
in height of GO and NO-GO gage buttons is exaggerated
 Measurement of Surfaces
• Two parameters of interest:
 Surface texture - geometry of the surface, most
commonly measured as surface roughness
 Surface roughness - small, finely-spaced
deviations from nominal surface determined by
material and process that formed the surface
 Surface integrity - deals with the material
characteristics immediately beneath the surface
and the changes to this subsurface resulting from
the manufacturing processes that created it
 Measurement of Surface Roughness

• Three methods to assess surface roughness:

1. Subjective comparison with standard test
surfaces
2. Stylus electronic instruments
3. Optical techniques
 Stylus Instruments for
Surface Texture Measurement
• Similar to the fingernail test, but more scientific
• In these electronic devices, a cone-shaped diamond
stylus is traversed across test surface at a constant
slow speed
• As the stylus head is traversed horizontally, it also
moves vertically to follow the surface deviations
• The vertical movement is converted into an electronic
signal that represents the topography of the surface
Figure 44.13 - Sketch illustrating the operation of stylus-type
instrument. Stylus head traverses horizontally across surface,
while stylus moves vertically to follow surface profile. Vertical
movement is converted into either: (1) a profile of the surface, or
(2) the average roughness value
 Advanced Measurement and Inspection
Technologies
• Substituting for manual measuring and gaging
techniques in modern manufacturing
• Include contact and non-contact sensing methods:
1. Coordinate measuring machines
2. Lasers
3. Machine vision
4. Other non-contact techniques
 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

Measuring machine consisting of a contact probe and a

mechanism to position the probe in three-dimensions
relative to surfaces and features of a workpart
• The probe is fastened to a structure that allows
movement relative to the part
• Part is fixtured on worktable connected to structure
• The location coordinates of the probe can be
accurately recorded as it contacts the part surface to
obtain part geometry data
Figure 44.14 - Coordinate
measuring machine
(courtesy of Brown &
Sharpe Manufacturing
Company)
 CMM Probes

• Modern "touch-trigger" probes with sensitive

electrical contact that signals when the probe is
deflected from neutral position in the slightest amount
 On contact, the coordinate positions are recorded
by the CMM controller, adjusting for overtravel and
probe size
 CMM Advantages

• Higher productivity - a CMM can perform complex

inspection procedures in much less time than
traditional manual methods
• Greater inherent accuracy and precision than
conventional methods
• Reduced human error
• Versatility - a CMM is a general purpose machine
that can be used to inspect a variety of part
configurations
 Measurements with Lasers

• Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated

emission of radiation
• Lasers for measurement applications are low-power
gas lasers that emit light in the visible range
• Laser light beam is:
 Highly monochromatic - the light has a single
wave length
 Highly collimated - the light rays are parallel
• These properties have motivated many applications
in measurement and inspection
 Scanning Laser Systems

Uses a laser beam deflected by a rotating mirror to

produce a beam of light that sweeps past an object
• A photodetector on the far side of the object senses
the light beam during its sweep except for the short
time while it is interrupted by the object
• This time period can be measured quickly with great
accuracy
• A microprocessor system measures the time
interruption related to the size of the object in the
path of the laser, and converts it to a linear dimension
Figure 44.15 - Scanning laser system for measuring diameter of
cylindrical workpart; time of interruption of light beam is
proportional to diameter D
 Machine Vision

Acquisition, processing, and interpretation of image

data by computer for some useful application
• 2-D systems view the scene as a plane
 Examples: dimensional measuring and gaging,
verifying presence of components, and checking
for features on a flat surface
• 3-D vision systems are required where contours or
shapes are involved
• The majority of current applications are 2-D
Figure 44.17 - Operation of a machine vision system
 Image Acquisition and Digitizing - Step 1

• Accomplished by a video camera connected to a

digitizing system to store the image data for
subsequent processing
• With the camera focused on the subject, an image is
obtained by dividing the viewing area into a matrix of
discrete picture elements (pixels)
 Each pixel assumes a value proportional to the
light intensity of that portion of the scene
 Image Acquisition and Digitizing -
continued
• In a binary vision system, the light intensity is
reduced to either of two values
 Black or white = 0 or 1
• Each set of pixel values is a frame, which is stored in
computer memory
 Reading the pixel values in a frame is performed
at 30 Hz in U.S., 25 Hz in European systems
 Figure 44.18 - Image acquisition and digitizing:
(a) the scene consists of a dark-colored part against a light background;
(b) a 12 x 12 matrix of pixels imposed on the scene
 111111111111
111111111111
111111111111
111111100011
111111011011
111110011011
111100000011
111000000011
111010000011
111100000011
111111111111
111111111111

Pixel values in a binary vision system for the image in Figure 44.18
 Image Processing and Analysis - Step 2

• The data for each frame must be analyzed within one

scan (1/30 or 1/25 s)
• Techniques to analyze image data:
1. Edge detection - determining locations of
boundaries of an object
 Done by identifying contrast in light intensity
between adjacent pixels at borders
2. Feature extraction - determining feature values of
an image, such as area, length, width, diameter,
perimeter, and aspect ratio
 Interpretation - Step 3

Concerned with recognizing the object

• Identifying the object in the image by comparing it to
predefined models or standard values
 Accomplished using extracted features
 One common technique is template matching,
which refers to methods that compare one or more
features of an image with corresponding features
of a model (template) stored in computer memory
 Machine Vision Applications

1. Inspection
2. Part identification
3. Visual guidance and control
4. Safety monitoring
 Machine Vision Inspection

• Most important category - accounts for about 90% of

all industrial machine vision applications
• Most applications are in mass production where high
cost of programming and installation can be spread
over many units
• Typical tasks:
 Dimensional measurement or gaging
 Verification functions
 Identification of flaws and defects