EP SG 4 3-0035 Drilling Well Control Manual PDF

Upstream Guide
EP SG 4.1–0035
Drilling Well Control Manual
Issue date 28 March 2012
Next review date 28 March 2015
Content Approval Andy Krieger, VP Wells Operations, GWO Decide
Authorization for Issue Jon Turnbull, Well Engineering Authority, S&OR Agree
Amanda Olson, Counsel, GWO

Legal Agree
Marty Tate, Senior Counsel, GWO
Well Control Director Andry Frazelle, GWO Recommend
Technical Authority Louis Romo, SETA, Well Control, S&OR Input
Area EA S&OR Area Engineers Input
Well Control Technical Specialists GWO Well Control Engineering Team Perform
Copyright © 2012 BP International Ltd. All rights reserved.

This document and any data or information generated from its use, are classified, as a minimum, BP
Internal. Distribution is intended for BP authorized recipients only. The information contained in
this document is subject to the terms and conditions of the agreement or contract under which this
document was supplied to the recipient's organization. None of the information contained in this
document shall be disclosed outside the recipient's own organization, unless the terms of such
agreement or contract expressly allow, or unless disclosure is required by law.
Table of Contents
1 The Origins of Formation Pressure ..................................................................................................... 19
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 19
1.1.1 Subsurface Pressures .......................................................................................................... 19
1.1.2 Pressure Seals ..................................................................................................................... 23
1.1.3 Pressure Gradients .............................................................................................................. 23
1.2 Normal Formation Pressure .......................................................................................................... 24
1.3 Subnormal Formation Pressure .................................................................................................... 25
1.3.1 Causes of Subnormal Formation Pressure .......................................................................... 25
1.3.2 Magnitude of Subnormal Formation Pressures ................................................................... 28
1.3.3 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 28
1.4 Abnormal Formation Pressure ...................................................................................................... 29
1.4.1 Causes of Abnormal Formation Pressure ............................................................................ 29
1.4.2 Magnitude of Abnormal Formation Pressures ..................................................................... 40
1.4.3 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 41
1.5 Shallow Gas .................................................................................................................................. 41
1.5.1 Definition .............................................................................................................................. 42
1.5.2 Origins of Shallow Gas ........................................................................................................ 42
1.5.3 Characteristics of Shallow Gas ............................................................................................ 42
2 Formation Pressure Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 44

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 44
2.2 The Transition Zone ...................................................................................................................... 44
2.3 Formation Pressure Evaluation during Well Planning .................................................................. 46
2.3.1 Offset Well Data ................................................................................................................... 46
2.3.2 Seismic Data ........................................................................................................................ 48
2.3.3 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 62
2.4 Formation Pressure Evaluation While Drilling .............................................................................. 64
2.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 64
2.4.2 Drilling Parameters .............................................................................................................. 64
2.4.3 Drilling Mud Parameters ...................................................................................................... 82
2.4.4 Cuttings Parameters ............................................................................................................ 91
2.4.5 Measurement While Drilling Techniques ............................................................................. 97
2.4.6 Mudlogging Service ............................................................................................................. 98
2.4.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 101
2.5 Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling .............................................................................. 101
2.5.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 101
2.5.2 Formation Pressures from Wireline Logs .......................................................................... 101
2.5.3 Direct Pressure Measurements ......................................................................................... 112
Page 2 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2.5.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 119
3 Fracture Gradients ............................................................................................................................ 120

3.1 General ....................................................................................................................................... 120
3.2 Stresses in the Earth .................................................................................................................. 120
3.3 Fracture Orientation .................................................................................................................... 121
3.4 Fracture Gradient Prediction ....................................................................................................... 121
3.5 Daines’ Method of Fracture Gradient Prediction ........................................................................ 122
3.6 An Example Pressure Evaluation Log ........................................................................................ 125
3.7 Leak-off Tests ............................................................................................................................. 126
3.8 Leak-off and FIT Procedure ........................................................................................................ 127
3.9 Interpretation of Results .............................................................................................................. 129
4 Fundamental Well Equations ............................................................................................................ 132

4.1 General ....................................................................................................................................... 132
4.2 Hydrostatic pressure ................................................................................................................... 132
4.3 Equivalent Mud Weight ............................................................................................................... 132
4.4 Circulating Pressures and Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) .............................................. 135
4.4.1 Calculating the Circulating Pressure Losses ..................................................................... 137
4.5 Swab and Surge Pressures ........................................................................................................ 140
4.5.1 Swab and Surge Calculations ............................................................................................ 142
4.6 Pump Calculations ...................................................................................................................... 145
4.6.1 Pump Outputs .................................................................................................................... 145
4.6.2 Pump Rates ....................................................................................................................... 146
4.6.3 Hydraulic Horsepower ........................................................................................................ 146
4.7 Pump Pressure Relationships .................................................................................................... 147
4.8 Trip Calculations ......................................................................................................................... 150
4.8.1 Drill Collars ......................................................................................................................... 151
4.9 Kill Sheet Calculations ................................................................................................................ 152
4.9.1 Density of Kill Mud ............................................................................................................. 152
4.9.2 Initial Circulating Pressure ................................................................................................. 152
4.9.3 Final Circulating Pressure .................................................................................................. 152
4.9.4 Strokes to Bit ...................................................................................................................... 153
4.9.5 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule (Vertical Well) ....................................................................... 153
4.9.6 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule (Directional Well) .................................................................. 159
4.10 Kick-related Equations ................................................................................................................ 167
4.10.1 Weight of Influx .................................................................................................................. 167
4.10.2 Strokes to Shoe and Surface ............................................................................................. 169
4.10.3 Annulus Pressure Profile ................................................................................................... 171
4.11 Lubricate and Bleed Calculations ............................................................................................... 176
4.12 Bullheading Calculations ............................................................................................................ 180
4.13 Subsea Calculations ................................................................................................................... 184
4.13.1 Calculation of Choke Pressure with Gas at the Surface .................................................... 184
4.14 Pressure Calculations for Well Control Equipment ..................................................................... 190
Page 3 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4.14.1 Calculation of Maximum Anticipated Surface Pressure (MASP) ....................................... 190

4.14.2 Calculation of Maximum Anticipated Wellhead Pressure (MAWHP) ................................. 190
4.14.3 Calculation of Maximum Expected Wellbore Shear Pressure (MEWSP) .......................... 191
4.15 Kick Tolerance ............................................................................................................................ 191
4.15.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 191
4.15.2 Procedure for Kick Tolerance Calculations ........................................................................ 192
4.15.3 Considerations for High-Angle and Horizontal Wells ......................................................... 195
4.15.4 Global Well Engineering Tool Kit Kick Tolerance Calculator ............................................. 196
5 Well Control Drilling Equipment ........................................................................................................ 197

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 197
5.2 Types of Blowout Preventers ...................................................................................................... 197
5.2.1 Diverters ............................................................................................................................. 197
5.2.2 Rotating Heads, Rotating Blowout Preventers .................................................................. 200
5.2.3 Annular Preventers ............................................................................................................ 200
5.2.4 Ram Preventers ................................................................................................................. 207
5.2.5 Types of Ram Preventer. ................................................................................................... 211
5.3 BOP Stack Sizes and Pressure Ratings ..................................................................................... 212
Stack Configurations ............................................................................................................................. 214
5.3.1 5 M Surface BOP Onshore Stack (Figure 5.2) .................................................................. 214
5.3.2 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack (Figure 5.11) .................................................................... 214
5.3.3 Drilling Spools .................................................................................................................... 215
5.3.4 BOP Stack Connections .................................................................................................... 216
5.4 Choke and Kill Lines ................................................................................................................... 219
5.5 Choke Manifold ........................................................................................................................... 220
5.5.1 Pressure Gauges ............................................................................................................... 221
5.6 Mud Gas Separator (MGS) ......................................................................................................... 224
5.6.1 Mud Gas Separator (MGS) Design Considerations ........................................................... 225
5.6.2 Maintenance....................................................................................................................... 229
5.7 Hydraulic Closing Units ............................................................................................................... 229
5.7.1 Accumulators ..................................................................................................................... 229
5.7.2 Accumulator Systems ........................................................................................................ 230
5.7.3 Sizing of Accumulators ...................................................................................................... 232
5.7.4 Subsea Accumulators ........................................................................................................ 235
5.7.5 Control Stations.................................................................................................................. 237
5.8 Auxiliary Equipment .................................................................................................................... 238
5.8.1 Pit Volume Measurement ................................................................................................... 238
5.8.2 Flowline Measurement ....................................................................................................... 238
5.8.3 Trip Tank ............................................................................................................................ 238
5.8.4 Drill string Valves ............................................................................................................... 239
5.9 Subsea Considerations ............................................................................................................... 241
5.9.1 Riser versus Riserless Drilling ........................................................................................... 241
5.9.2 Subsea Stack Configurations ............................................................................................. 241
Page 4 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.9.3 Subsea Choke and Kill Lines ............................................................................................. 248

5.9.4 Subsea Pipework, Hose Bundles and Wiring .................................................................... 248
5.9.5 ROV Intervention Considerations ...................................................................................... 249
5.9.6 BOP Arrangement for Deepwater Operations ................................................................... 250
5.9.7 Deepwater Control System Considerations ....................................................................... 253
5.10 Testing Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 254
5.10.1 BOP Equipment and Wellheads ........................................................................................ 254
5.10.2 An Example Test Procedure .............................................................................................. 255
5.10.3 Pressure Tests of Casing ................................................................................................... 257
5.10.4 Negative Pressure Testing Procedures ............................................................................. 260
6 Well Control Procedures While Drilling ............................................................................................. 263

6.1 Causes of Well Kicks .................................................................................................................. 263
6.1.1 Mud Weight Less Than Formation Pressure ..................................................................... 263
6.1.2 Lost Circulation .................................................................................................................. 263
6.1.3 Mud Cut by Gas, Water, or Oil ........................................................................................... 263
6.2 Kick Detection While Drilling ....................................................................................................... 263
6.2.1 The Early Warning Signs of a Kick .................................................................................... 263
6.2.2 Additional Warning Signs of a Kick .................................................................................... 265
6.2.3 Slow Circulating Rate (SCR) Pressures ............................................................................ 266
6.3 Shut-in Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 267
6.3.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 267
6.3.2 Hard Shut-in ....................................................................................................................... 268
6.3.3 Shut-in Procedure .............................................................................................................. 268
6.4 During Shut-in Period ................................................................................................................. 268
6.4.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 268
6.4.2 Record Pressure Data ....................................................................................................... 271
6.4.3 Influx Migration ................................................................................................................... 273
6.4.4 Control of Influx Migration .................................................................................................. 274
6.5 Conventional Pressure Control Procedures ............................................................................... 274
6.5.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 274
6.5.2 Kick Circulation Methods ................................................................................................... 275
6.5.3 Kill Sheet ............................................................................................................................ 275
6.5.4 Determine the Density of the Kill Weight Mud ................................................................... 277
6.5.5 Calculate Quantity of Barite Required to Weight Up the Mud ........................................... 277
6.5.6 Develop Annulus Pressure Profile ..................................................................................... 278
6.6 Implementation of the Wait and Weight Method ......................................................................... 278
6.6.1 Determine the Circulation Rate .......................................................................................... 278
6.6.2 Calculate the Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP) .................................................................. 278
6.6.3 Calculate the Final Circulating Pressure (FCP) ................................................................. 279
6.6.4 Determine Displacement Times and the Corresponding Pump Strokes ........................... 279
6.6.5 Plot Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ....................................................................................... 280
6.6.6 Procedure for Displacement of the Kick ............................................................................ 280
Page 5 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
6.7 Implementation of the Driller’s Method ....................................................................................... 282

6.7.1 Determine the Circulation Rate .......................................................................................... 282
6.7.2 Calculate the Initial Circulating Pressure ........................................................................... 282
6.7.3 Determine the Displacement Times and Corresponding Pump Strokes ........................... 282
6.7.4 Displacement of the Kick - Driller’s Method ....................................................................... 283
6.7.5 Determine Circulation Rate for the Second Circulation ..................................................... 283
6.7.6 Calculate Initial Circulating Pressure ................................................................................. 284
6.7.7 Calculate the Final Circulating Pressure ............................................................................ 284
6.7.8 Determine Displacement Times and Corresponding Cumulative Pump Strokes .............. 284
6.7.9 Plot Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ....................................................................................... 284
6.7.10 Killing the Well- Driller’s Method ........................................................................................ 284
6.8 Procedures for High-Angle or Horizontal Wells .......................................................................... 285
6.8.1 Kick Prevention and Detection ........................................................................................... 285
6.8.2 Well Shut-in ........................................................................................................................ 285
6.8.3 Implementation of Kick Circulation Methods ...................................................................... 285
6.8.4 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ............................................................................................... 285
6.8.5 Trapped Gas in Inverted or Horizontal Hole Section ......................................................... 288
6.8.6 Free Gas Kicks in Inverted (greater than 90 degrees) Hole Section ................................. 289
6.9 Blind Drilling Operations ............................................................................................................. 289
6.9.1 Potential Well Control Situations While Blind Drilling ........................................................ 289
6.9.2 Precautions While Blind Drilling ......................................................................................... 290
6.9.3 Indications of a Well Kick While Blind Drilling .................................................................... 290
6.9.4 Well Kick While Tripping During Blind Drilling Operations ................................................. 291
7 Well Control Procedures While Tripping ........................................................................................... 292

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 292
7.2 Trip Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 292
7.2.1 Trip Tanks and Trip Sheets ................................................................................................ 292
7.2.2 Trip Preparations................................................................................................................ 295
7.3 Kick Detection while Tripping ...................................................................................................... 295
7.3.1 Causes of a Kick while Tripping ......................................................................................... 295
7.3.2 Indications of a Kick while Tripping .................................................................................... 295
7.4 Example Shut-in Procedures while Tripping ............................................................................... 297
7.5 Special Considerations ............................................................................................................... 305
7.5.1 Pipe Off-Bottom – Drillpipe in the Stack ............................................................................ 305
7.5.2 Pipe Off-Bottom – Drill Collar in the Stack ......................................................................... 305
7.5.3 No Pipe in the Hole ............................................................................................................ 305
7.5.4 A Kick while Running Casing or Liner ................................................................................ 305
8 Special Considerations ..................................................................................................................... 307

8.1 Volumetric Technique ................................................................................................................. 307
8.1.1 Static Volumetric Control Technique (Drillpipe Pressure used to Monitor Bottomhole
Pressure) ........................................................................................................................................... 307
Page 6 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.1.2 Static Volumetric Control Technique (Choke Pressure used to Monitor Bottomhole
Pressure) ........................................................................................................................................... 310
8.1.3 Lubrication Technique (Lube and Bleed) ........................................................................... 312
8.1.4 Dynamic Volumetric Method .............................................................................................. 313
8.2 Annulus Pressure Profiles .......................................................................................................... 313
8.2.1 Displacing a Kick from the Hole ......................................................................................... 314
8.2.2 Factors that Affect Wellbore Pressures ............................................................................. 319
8.2.3 Calculating Annulus Pressure Profiles ............................................................................... 329
8.3 Safety Factors ............................................................................................................................. 336
8.3.1 Annulus Frictional Pressure ............................................................................................... 336
8.3.2 Heavier than Calculated Kill Weight Mud .......................................................................... 336
8.3.3 Additional Choke Pressure ................................................................................................ 338
8.4 Complications in Well Control ..................................................................................................... 338
8.4.1 Plugged Bit Nozzle ............................................................................................................. 338
8.4.2 Plugged Choke................................................................................................................... 338
8.4.3 Cut-out Choke .................................................................................................................... 338
8.4.4 Pump Failure ...................................................................................................................... 338
8.4.5 Pressure Gauge Failure ..................................................................................................... 339
8.4.6 String Washout................................................................................................................... 339
8.4.7 Stuck Pipe .......................................................................................................................... 339
8.4.8 Wellhead Pressures Approach the MAWHP ..................................................................... 340
8.5 Identifying the Influx Type ........................................................................................................... 340
8.6 Bullheading ................................................................................................................................. 342
8.7 Barite Plugs................................................................................................................................. 342
8.7.1 Characteristics of Barite Plugs ........................................................................................... 342
8.7.2 Design of Weighted Plugs (Settling and Non-settling) for Water-based Mud (WBM) ....... 343
8.7.3 Design of Barite Plugs for Oil-based Mud .......................................................................... 345
8.7.4 Dispersants ........................................................................................................................ 345
8.7.5 Pilot Tests .......................................................................................................................... 345
8.7.6 Slurry Volume..................................................................................................................... 345
8.7.7 Pumping and Displacement Rate ...................................................................................... 345
8.7.8 Preparation of a Barite Plug ............................................................................................... 346
8.7.9 After Pumping a Barite Plug ............................................................................................... 346
8.7.10 Barite Plug Procedure-Settling Slurry ................................................................................ 346
8.8 Well Control Considerations in Slim Hole Well ........................................................................... 347
8.8.1 Slim Hole Characteristics ................................................................................................... 347
8.8.2 Kick Detection System ....................................................................................................... 348
8.8.3 Well Kill Technique ............................................................................................................ 348
8.9 Shallow Gas ................................................................................................................................ 350
8.9.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 350
8.9.2 Gas Encountered with a Riser - Bottom Supported Rigs .................................................. 351
8.9.3 Gas Encountered Drilling Riserless- Bottom Supported Rigs .......................................... 352
8.9.4 Onshore Shallow Gas ........................................................................................................ 352
Page 7 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.10 Aspects of Underbalanced Drilling ............................................................................................. 353

8.10.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 353
8.10.2 UBD Well Control Barrier Theory ....................................................................................... 353
8.10.3 UBD Well Control Equipment ............................................................................................. 354
8.10.4 Hybrid SCRs ...................................................................................................................... 360
8.10.5 Practices and Procedures for UBD .................................................................................... 361
8.11 Well Control for Air or Gas Drilling .............................................................................................. 362
8.11.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 362
8.11.2 Shut-in Procedures for Air and Gas Drilling ....................................................................... 364
8.11.3 Down-hole Fires ................................................................................................................. 367
8.11.4 Contingent Barriers for Air Drilling ..................................................................................... 369
9 Subsea Well Control ......................................................................................................................... 370

9.1 General ....................................................................................................................................... 370
9.2 Deepwater Considerations: Well Control Prior to BOP Installation ............................................ 370
9.2.1 Shallow Water Flows ......................................................................................................... 370
9.2.2 Approaches to Drilling SWF Zones .................................................................................... 370
9.2.3 Procedures for Mitigating SWF Challenges While Drilling ................................................. 372
9.2.4 Other Procedures and Observations ................................................................................. 373
9.2.5 Drilling Riserless from a Floating Rig ................................................................................. 373
9.2.6 Drilling with a Riser from a Floating Rig ............................................................................. 374
9.3 Subsea Wellheads ...................................................................................................................... 375
9.3.1 Casing Hangers ................................................................................................................. 375
9.3.2 Seal Assembly ................................................................................................................... 375
9.3.3 Stack Connector................................................................................................................. 375
9.3.4 Permanent Guide Base ...................................................................................................... 377
9.4 Shut-in Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 377
9.4.1 Annular Shut-in versus Ram Shut-in ................................................................................. 380
9.4.2 Shut-in While Drilling .......................................................................................................... 381
9.4.3 Shut-in While Tripping ........................................................................................................ 382
9.4.4 Shut-in during a Connection .............................................................................................. 383
9.4.5 Shut-in with Bit above the BOPs ........................................................................................ 383
9.4.6 Shut-in While Running Casing or Liner .............................................................................. 384
9.4.7 Masking of Casing Pressure by Gel Strengths in Choke and Kill Lines ............................ 384
9.4.8 Hang-off Guidelines ........................................................................................................... 385
9.5 Chokeline Implications for Well Killing ........................................................................................ 386
9.5.1 Monitoring with the Kill Line ............................................................................................... 388
9.5.2 Higher Choke Pressures .................................................................................................... 392
9.5.3 Choke Manipulation – Gas Entering Chokeline ................................................................. 393
9.5.4 Choke Manipulation – Mud Following Gas into Chokeline ................................................ 395
9.6 Circulating Kill Methods .............................................................................................................. 395
9.6.1 Driller’s Method .................................................................................................................. 395
9.6.2 Wait and Weight Method .................................................................................................... 396
Page 8 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.6.3 Typical Circulating Well Kill Procedure .............................................................................. 396

9.7 Bullheading ................................................................................................................................. 397
9.7.1 Dynamic Volumetric Control .............................................................................................. 398
9.8 Trapped Gas Cleanout ............................................................................................................... 399
9.8.1 Field Test Results .............................................................................................................. 400
9.8.2 Equipment Considerations for Gas in the BOP ................................................................. 400
9.8.3 Operational Considerations for Gas in the BOP ................................................................ 400
9.8.4 Removing and Venting Trapped Gas................................................................................. 401
9.8.5 Gas in Riser: Riser Diverter ............................................................................................... 409
9.9 Hydrates ...................................................................................................................................... 410
9.9.1 Potential Hydrate Formation .............................................................................................. 413
9.9.2 Inhibiting Drilling Mud with Salt .......................................................................................... 413
9.9.3 Hydrate Removal ............................................................................................................... 414
9.9.4 External Hydrates in the Wellhead Connector ................................................................... 415
9.9.5 Removing Wellhead Connector Hydrates .......................................................................... 415
9.10 Emergency Procedures .............................................................................................................. 416
9.10.1 Use of Shear Rams ............................................................................................................ 416
9.10.2 Emergency Disconnect ...................................................................................................... 416
9.10.3 Adverse Weather ............................................................................................................... 417
9.11 Plug and Abandon Issues ........................................................................................................... 417
9.11.1 Perforating Prior to Squeezing ........................................................................................... 418
9.11.2 Casing Cutting.................................................................................................................... 418
9.11.3 Seal Assembly Removal .................................................................................................... 418
10 Well Monitoring and Fingerprinting ................................................................................................... 419

10.1 Well Monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 419
10.1.1 Mud Logger - General Standing Orders ............................................................................ 419
10.2 Fingerprinting .............................................................................................................................. 420
10.2.1 Fingerprinting During Drilling Operations ........................................................................... 421
10.2.2 Making Routine Connections ............................................................................................. 422
10.3 Variations in Hole Fill-up on Trips ............................................................................................... 424
10.4 Ballooning Hole ........................................................................................................................... 425
11 Relief Well Planning .......................................................................................................................... 429

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 429
11.2 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 429
11.3 Local Legislation, BP Defined Practices and Guidance ............................................................. 429
11.4 Field and Well Data .................................................................................................................... 429
11.5 Well Integrity ............................................................................................................................... 429
11.6 Reservoir Characteristics ............................................................................................................ 430
11.6.1 Blowout Fluid Properties .................................................................................................... 430
11.6.2 Potential Flowrate based on Reservoir Characteristics ..................................................... 430
11.6.3 Flow Path ........................................................................................................................... 430
11.6.4 Kill Point Formation Properties .......................................................................................... 431
Page 9 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
11.6.5 Blowout Modelling Results ................................................................................................. 431

11.6.6 Common Process and Project Management ..................................................................... 431
11.6.7 Technology Considerations ............................................................................................... 431
11.6.8 Number of Relief Wells ...................................................................................................... 432
11.7 Relief Well Planning Basis of Design ......................................................................................... 432
11.7.1 Directional Design .............................................................................................................. 432
11.7.2 Directional Drilling Constraints Specific to Relief Wells ..................................................... 432
11.7.3 Selection of Surface Locations .......................................................................................... 433
11.7.4 Wellbore Positioning .......................................................................................................... 434
11.7.5 Relief Well Trajectory ......................................................................................................... 435
11.7.6 Formation Drillability .......................................................................................................... 437
11.7.7 Casing Detection (“Ranging”) Instruments ........................................................................ 438
11.7.8 Kill Point ............................................................................................................................. 440
11.7.9 Establishing Hydraulic Communication ............................................................................. 440
11.7.10 Interception in Cased Hole ................................................................................................. 440
11.7.11 Interception in the Reservoir .............................................................................................. 441
11.7.12 Interception in Open-Hole .................................................................................................. 441
11.8 Kill Techniques............................................................................................................................ 441
11.8.1 Dynamic Kill ....................................................................................................................... 441
11.8.2 Overbalance Kill ................................................................................................................. 442
11.8.3 Momentum Kills.................................................................................................................. 442
11.8.4 Hydraulic Horsepower Necessary...................................................................................... 443
11.8.5 Kill Mud Volume Necessary ............................................................................................... 443
11.9 Casing Design for Relief Well ..................................................................................................... 443
11.9.1 Kill String Diameter Constraints ......................................................................................... 443
11.10 Regional Planning ....................................................................................................................... 444
11.10.1 Well Specific Planning ....................................................................................................... 444
11.10.2 Relief Well Statement of Requirements ............................................................................. 444
Annex 1 List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................................... 447
Annex 2 Well Control BOP Drills ............................................................................................................... 451
Annex 3 Blank Forms and Worksheets ..................................................................................................... 457
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Types of Formation Pressure Seals............................................................................................ 23
Table 1.2 Average Normal Formation Pressure Gradients ......................................................................... 25
Table 2.1 Techniques used to Predict, Detect and Evaluate Formation Pore Pressures .......................... 45
Table 2.2 Calculation of Depths and Interval Transit Times ....................................................................... 56
Table 2.3 General Mudlogging Sensor Specifications .............................................................................. 100
Page 10 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 3.1 Poisson's Ratio for Different Lithologies ................................................................................... 123
Table 4.1 Formulae in Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ................................................................................. 155
Table 4.2 Calculations of Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ............................................................................. 156
Table 4.3 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ...................................................................................................... 157
Table 4.4 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ...................................................................................................... 159
Table 4.5 Directional Data for Example Problem ...................................................................................... 162
Table 4.6 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Directional Well ...................................................................... 165
Table 4.7 Expanded Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Directional Well ..................................................... 166
Table 5.1 Packing Unit Selection (from Hydril) ......................................................................................... 202
Table 5.2 Ram Preventer Opening and Closing Ratios ............................................................................ 209
Table 5.3 Blowout Preventer Specification - Differing Vendors ................................................................ 213
Table 9.1 Approaches to Drilling SWF Zones ........................................................................................... 371
Table 9.2 Procedures for Mitigating SWF While Drilling ........................................................................... 372
Table 9.3 Pre-drill Preparation .................................................................................................................. 379
Table 9.4 Annular Shut-in Versus Ram Shut-in ........................................................................................ 381
Table 9.5 Shut-in While Drilling ................................................................................................................. 382
Table 9.6 Shut-in While Tripping ............................................................................................................... 383
Table 9.7 Shut-in with Bit above the BOPs ............................................................................................... 384
Table 9.8 Procedure to Break Gel Strength .............................................................................................. 385
Table 9.9 Hanging Off the Drillstring ......................................................................................................... 386
Table 9.10 Estimated Chokeline Losses (psi) for Differing Chokeline Lengths (3 in ID) .......................... 387
Table 9.11 Factors Related to Methods of Circulating a Kick to Surface ................................................. 395
Table 9.12 Operational Example - Stack Sweep Procedure .................................................................... 401
Table 9.13 Alternative Hydrate Inhibition Methods ................................................................................... 414
Table 9.14 Procedures for Removing Wellhead Connector Hydrates ...................................................... 415
Table 10.1 Temperature Effects on Completion Brines ............................................................................ 421
Table 10.2 Example Calibration Sheet for Fingerprinting Flowback ......................................................... 424
Table 10.3 Example trip sheet .................................................................................................................. 425
Page 11 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Composite Overburden Load for Normally Compacted Formations ......................................... 21
Figure 1.2 Schematic Diagrams of Subsurface Pressure Concepts .......................................................... 22
Figure 1.3 Relationship Between Piezometric Surface and Ground Level for an Aquifer System ............. 26
Figure 1.4 Temperature-Pressure-Density Diagram for Water Illustrating Subnormal Pressures Caused by
Cooling an Isolated Fluid............................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 1.5 Formation Foreshortening ......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 1.6 Typical Formation Pressures Caused by Compaction Disequilibrium ....................................... 30
Figure 1.7 Interlayer Water and Cations Between Clay Platelets ............................................................... 31
Figure 1.8 Reaction of Montmorillonite to Illite ............................................................................................ 32
Figure 1.9 Water Distribution Curves for Shale Dehydration ...................................................................... 33
Figure 1.10 Diagenetic Stages in the Alteration of Montmorillonite to Illite ................................................ 33
Figure 1.11 Abnormal Formation Pressures Caused by Tectonic Compressional Folding ........................ 35
Figure 1.12 Abnormal Pressure Distribution Around a Piercement Salt Dome .......................................... 36
Figure 1.13 Diagram of a Mud Volcano ...................................................................................................... 37
Figure 1.14 Abnormal Pressure Due to Reservoir Structure ...................................................................... 38
Figure 1.15 Diagram Illustrating Osmotic Flow ........................................................................................... 40
Figure 2.1 Pressure/Depth Plot ................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 2.2 Diagram Illustrating Seismic Reflection System and Seismic Traces ....................................... 49
Figure 2.3 Diagram Showing Common Depth Point Seismic Ray Paths ................................................... 50
Figure 2.4 Plot of Offset versus Two-way Travel Time for Common Depth Point System ......................... 51
Figure 2.5 Example Seismic Velocity Analysis Plot .................................................................................... 53
Figure 2.6 Example of Stacking Velocity Data on a Seismic Section ......................................................... 54
Figure 2.7 Seismic and Sonic ITT Versus Depth Plots for Abnormally Pressured Well ............................. 58
Figure 2.8 Log-log Plot of Seismic Interval Transit Time ............................................................................ 59
Figure 2.9 ITT Departure versus Formation Pressure Gradient ................................................................. 60
Figure 2.10 ITT Ratio Versus Formation Pressure Gradient ...................................................................... 61
Figure 2.11 Example of Drilling Hazard Log Over Shallow Section ........................................................... 63
Figure 2.12 Example Showing Increase in Penetration Rate on Entering an Abnormal Pressure Zone ... 65
Figure 2.13 Effect of Lithology Variation on Penetration Rate .................................................................... 66
Figure 2.14 Effect of Bit Condition on Penetration Rate When Drilling into an Overpressured Zone ........ 67
Figure 2.15 Diagram Showing Typical Response of Corrected d-exponent in Transition and
Overpressured Zones ................................................................................................................................. 69
Figure 2.16 Normal Diagrams Showing Typical dc-exponent Responses ................................................. 70
Figure 2.17 Diagram Showing dc-exponent Response to Over-compaction Caused by Ice Sheet Loading
.................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Page 12 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.18 Example of Formation Pressure Determination from the dc-exponent Plot Using the ‘Ratio
Method’........................................................................................................................................................ 73
Figure 2.19 Example Showing the Equivalent Depth Method for Formation Pressure Determination from
dc-exponent Plots ....................................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 2.20 Example Showing Formation Pressure Determination from the dc-exponent Plot Using Lines
Constructed from the Eaton Equation ......................................................................................................... 78
Figure 2.21 Example Showing Normalized Penetration Rate Method form Determination of Formation
Pressures .................................................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 2.22 Diagram Showing Mud Gas Levels as an Indicator of Formation Pressures .......................... 83
Figure 2.23 Example of Mud Gas Levels Showing TG, Kelly Gas (Kelly Cut) and Recycled TG .............. 85
Figure 2.24 Diagram Showing Theoretical Geothermal Gradients and Temperature Profile through an
Overpressured Zone ................................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 2.25 Diagram Showing Expected Flowline Temperature Response on Drilling Through an
Overpressured Zone ................................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 2.26 Example Flowline Temperature Plots Showing Raw Data Plot, End-to-end Plot and Trend-to-
trend Plot ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 2.27 Example “Horner” Temperature Plot for Estimation of True BHT ............................................ 90
Figure 2.28 Example of Typical Response of Differential Mud Conductivity/Delta Chlorides .................... 91
Figure 2.29 Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plot ................................................................................................. 92
Figure 2.30 Variable Density Column for Measuring Shale Bulk Density ................................................... 93
Figure 2.31 Response of Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plots in Overpressures Caused by Different
Mechanisms ................................................................................................................................................ 94
Figure 2.32 Shale Factor/Depth Response to Overpressure Caused by Compaction Disequilibrium and
Clay Diagenesis .......................................................................................................................................... 95
Figure 2.33 Characterization of Shale Cavings Caused by Underbalanced Conditions and Stress Relief 96
Figure 2.34 Mudlogging Unit Functions and Information Flow Diagram ..................................................... 99
Figure 2.35 Diagram Showing the Operating Principle of the Sonic (BHC) Logging Tool ....................... 102
Figure 2.36 Diagram Showing Shale Sonic Interval Transit Time Response in Overpressures .............. 103
Figure 2.37 Shale Resistivity/Depth Plot Showing Response in Overpressures ...................................... 107
Figure 2.38 Shale Resistivity/Depth Plot Illustrating the Challenges Associated with Formation Pressure
Interpretation ............................................................................................................................................. 108
Figure 2.39 Empirical Correlations for Estimation of Formation Pressures from Shale Resistivity Ratio. 109
Figure 2.40 Log-derived Shale Bulk Plot on Semi-logarithmic Scales ..................................................... 111
Figure 2.41 Diagram Showing the RFT Pre-test and Sampling Principle ................................................. 113
Figure 2.42 Diagram Showing the Operation of the RFT Sample Probe ................................................. 114
Figure 2.43 Example of an RFT Analogue Pressure Recording............................................................... 114
Figure 2.44 Example of a Typical Drillstem Test String (for a High-Pressure Gas Well) Showing Position
of Gauges .................................................................................................................................................. 116
Figure 2.45 Example of a Typical Pressure Chart from a Mechanical Gauge Placed Below the Tester
Valve in the DST String ............................................................................................................................. 118
Page 13 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 3.1 Principal Stress Orientation ..................................................................................................... 121

Figure 3.2 A Typical Fracture Test ............................................................................................................ 131
Figure 4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure ............................................................................................................... 133
Figure 4.2 The Effect of Flowline Elevation - Shown in Relation to Calculation of Formation Pressure .. 134
Figure 4.3 Example Calculation of the ECD ............................................................................................. 136
Figure 4.4 Theoretical Variation in Swab and Surge Pressure - when Tripping Pipe at Constant Speed 141
Figure 4.5 Pressure Surges Associated with Lowering Pipe into a Borehole ........................................... 142
Figure 4.6 Pressure Losses in a Well ....................................................................................................... 148
Figure 4.7 Pressure Losses in a Well Plotted on Log-Log Paper ............................................................. 148
Figure 4.8 Plot of Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Example Problem ...................................................... 166
Figure 5.1 0 to 3500 Surface BOP Stack .................................................................................................. 198
Figure 5.2 5 M Surface BOP Stack ........................................................................................................... 199
Figure 5.3 Grant Rotating Head ................................................................................................................ 200
Figure 5.4 Annular Preventer Sealing Elements ....................................................................................... 203
Figure 5.5 Hydril Annular Preventer Type MSP ........................................................................................ 204
Figure 5.6 Hydril Annular Preventer Type GK .......................................................................................... 205
Figure 5.7 Hydril Annular Preventer Type GL ........................................................................................... 206
Figure 5.8 Shaffer Annular Preventer ....................................................................................................... 207
Figure 5.9 Secondary Rod Seal - Cameron Type U ................................................................................. 208
Figure 5. 5.100 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack ........................................................................................ 215
Figure 5.11 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack .............................................................................................. 215
Figure 5.12 API Specifications for BOP Flanges, Ring Gaskets, Flange Bolts and Nuts ................ 218
Figure 5.13 5 M Drilling Choke Manifold (Land) ....................................................................................... 221
Figure 5.14 5 M Drilling Choke Manifold (Offshore) ................................................................................. 222
Figure 5.15 HPHT Drilling Choke Manifold ............................................................................................... 223
Figure 5.16 Choke Manifold Header ......................................................................................................... 224
Figure 5.17 Suggested Mud Gas Separator Design Criteria .................................................................... 225
Figure 5.18 Inputs into the GWETK MGS Design Model .......................................................................... 228
Figure 5.19 Compressibility Factor - Nitrogen .......................................................................................... 233
Figure 5.20 Typical Trip Tank Hook-up..................................................................................................... 239
Figure 5.21 4-Ram Moored Subsea BOP Stack ....................................................................................... 244
Figure 5.22 5-Ram Moored Subsea BOP Stack ....................................................................................... 245
Figure 5.23 5-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack .............................................................................................. 246
Figure 5.24 6-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack .............................................................................................. 247
Figure 5.25 Choke Manifold Schematic .................................................................................................... 256
Figure 5.26 Example Configurations for Negative-Testing ....................................................................... 261
Page 14 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 6.1 SCR Pressure Plot ................................................................................................................... 267

Figure 6.2 Kick While Drilling, Land Rig, Hard Shut-in ............................................................................. 270
Figure 6.3 Shut-in Pressure Buildup Curve - Showing the Effect of Influx Migration ............................... 271
Figure 6.4 Well Control Operations Log .................................................................................................... 272
Figure 6.5 An Example of the Increase in Wellbore Pressure Due to Influx Migration ............................. 273
Figure 6.6 Example of Completed Kill Sheet ............................................................................................ 276
Figure 6.7 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule .................................................................................................... 280
Figure 7.1 Typical Offshore Trip Tank ...................................................................................................... 294
Figure 7.2 BP Trip Sheet - Example of a Completed Sheet ..................................................................... 296
Figure 7.3 Stripping Worksheet ................................................................................................................ 302
Figure 7.4 The Effect of the Pipe or BHA Entering the Influx ................................................................... 303
Figure 7.5 Typical Schematic Layout of Volumetric Stripping Using the Annular Preventer .................... 304
Figure 8.1 GWETK Volumetric Data Sheet ............................................................................................... 310
Figure 8.2 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure - First Circulation of the Driller's Method ................................. 316
Figure 8.3 Pit Gain - First Circulation of the Driller's Method .................................................................... 316
Figure 8.4 Shoe Pressure - First Circulation of the Driller's Method ......................................................... 317
Figure 8.5 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure - Second Circulation of the Driller's Method ............................ 317
Figure 8.6 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure Profile - Wait and Weight Method ............................................ 318
Figure 8.7 Shoe Pressure - Wait and Weight Method .............................................................................. 319
Figure 8.8 Choke Pressure - Driller's Method with Differing Influx Volumes ............................................ 320
Figure 8.9 Choke Pressure - Wait and Weight Method with Differing Influx Volumes ............................. 320
Figure 8.10 Shoe Pressure - Driller's Method with Differing Influx Volumes ............................................ 321
Figure 8.11 Shoe Pressure - Wait and Weight Method versus Driller's Method with Differing Influx
Volumes .................................................................................................................................................... 321
Figure 8.12 Choke Pressure - During Displacement of a Gas Kick Using the Driller's Method with Various
Kick Intensities .......................................................................................................................................... 322
Figure 8.13 Choke Pressure - Wait and Weight Method with Different Influx Volumes ........................... 323
Figure 8.14 A Comparison of the Choke Pressure - During Displacement Using the Driller's and Wait and
Weight Methods with Gas Kicks of Different Intensities ........................................................................... 323
Figure 8.15 A Comparison of the Shoe Pressure during Displacement Using the Driller’s Method and the
Wait and Weight Method with Gas Kicks of Different Intensities .............................................................. 324
Figure 8.16 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during Displacement of a 20 bbl Gas Kick with Differing
Shoe Depths ............................................................................................................................................. 325
Figure 8.17 A Comparison of Shoe Pressure during Displacement of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at 9 843 ft
.................................................................................................................................................................. 325
.................................................................................................................................................................. 326
Page 15 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
.................................................................................................................................................................. 326
Figure 8.20 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during Displacement of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at
4 912 ft ...................................................................................................................................................... 327
Figure 8.21 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during Displacement of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at
3 281 ft ...................................................................................................................................................... 327
Figure 8.22 Choke Pressure during Displacement of a Water Kick using the Wait and Weight Method . 329
Figure 8.23 Annulus Pressure Worksheet ................................................................................................ 330
Figure 8.24 Annulus Pressure Worksheet (cont'd) ................................................................................... 331
Figure 8.25 Graph of Pseudo-crucial Temperature and Pressure for Hydrocarbons ............................... 334
Figure 8.26 Compressibility Factors for Natural Gas ................................................................................ 335
Figure 8.27 Choke Pressure for Various Mud Weights using the Wait and Weight Method .................... 337
Figure 8.28 Shoe Pressure During Displacement of a Gas Kick with Overbalanced Mud ....................... 337
Figure 8.29 Determing Influx Type ............................................................................................................ 341
Figure 8.30 Design of Barite Plug for WBM .............................................................................................. 344
Figure 8.31 Height of a 10 bbl Gas Influx in Annulus ............................................................................... 349
Figure 8.32 Reduction in Bottomhole Pressure due to a 10 bbl Gas Influx .............................................. 349
Figure 8.33 Annular Friction Pressure Drop. ............................................................................................ 350
Figure 8.34 Swab Pressure in a 1 000 ft Hole .......................................................................................... 350
Figure 8.35 Rotating Control Head ........................................................................................................... 355
Figure 8.36 Rotating Blowout Preventer ................................................................................................... 356
Figure 8.37 An Example BOP Stack for UBD ........................................................................................... 357
Figure 8.38 Atmospheric Phase Separation System ................................................................................ 358
Figure 8.39 Four-phase Separator Vessel ................................................................................................ 358
Figure 8.40 Float Valves ........................................................................................................................... 359
Figure 8.41 Drill String Floats for Air Drilling: Fire Stop and Fire Float Valves ......................................... 360
Figure 8.42 Surface Rig-up ....................................................................................................................... 364
Figure 8.43 Air Drilling Well Control (One Float Valve) ............................................................................ 366
Figure 8.44 Air Drilling Well Control (Two Float Valves) ........................................................................... 367
Figure 8.45 The Influence of Pressure on the Combustible ..................................................................... 368
Figure 9.1 Typical Sub-Sea Wellhead ..................................................................................................... 376
Figure 9.2 Kick While Drilling, Floating Rig, Hard Shut-in ........................................................................ 378
Figure 9.3 Use of Kill Line to Monitor for Wellhead Pressure on Rig with Subsea Stack ......................... 389
Figure 9.4 The Effect of Chokeline Losses – Casing Pressure After Initial Circulation is Greater than
Chokeline Pressure (Case A).................................................................................................................... 390
Figure 9.5 The Effect of Chokeline Losses – Casing Pressure After Initial Circulation is Less than
Chokeline Loss (Case B) .......................................................................................................................... 391
Page 16 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 9.6 Comparison of Choke Pressures - During Displacement of a Gas Kick on a Surface BOP and
Subsea BOP ............................................................................................................................................. 392
Figure 9.7 Choke Pressure for Differing Water Depths ............................................................................ 393
Figure 9.8 Determination of the Necessary Rate of Choke Manipulation for a Deepwater Subsea Well. 394
Figure 9.9 Dynamic Volumetric Method - Kill Line Pressure Schedule .................................................... 399
Figure 9.10 Subsea BOP Stack Prior to Removing Gas from Below the Preventers ............................... 403
Figure 9.11 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack – Lower Pipe Rams Closed, Hang-off Rams
Opened...................................................................................................................................................... 404
Figure 9.12 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Kill and Chokelines Displaced to Kill Weight Mud
.................................................................................................................................................................. 405
Figure 9.13 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Choke and Kill Lines Displaced to Water ........ 406
Figure 9.14 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack – Gas Pressure Bled Down, Gas Occupies
Chokeline .................................................................................................................................................. 407
Figure 9.15 Removing Gas from a Subsea Stack - Diverter is Closed, the Annular is Opened and the Gas
is Displaced from the Stack....................................................................................................................... 408
Figure 9.16 Temperature and Pressure at which Gas Hydrates will Form (Katz) .................................... 411
Figure 9.17 Natural Gas Expansion - Temperature Reduction Curve (NATCO) ...................................... 412
Figure 10.1 Deepwater 200°F BHT surface density14,8 ppg CaBr2/ZnBr2 14,88 ppg Equivalent Static
Density ...................................................................................................................................................... 422
Figure 10.2 Flow-back is Influenced by Circulating Rate and Hole Depth ............................................... 423
Figure 10.3 Flowback Determination ........................................................................................................ 426
Figure 10.4 Deciding between Flowback and a Real Kick ........................................................................ 427
Figure 10.5 Flow Chart for a Bleed-off Test .............................................................................................. 428
Figure 11.1 Example Overlay Plot for an Offshore Well ........................................................................... 434
Figure 11.2 Example Relief Well SOR ...................................................................................................... 445
Figure 11.3 Example Relief Well SOR (cont’d) ......................................................................................... 446
Figure A.4 Example of Standing Order for Driller while Tripping .............................................................. 453
Page 17 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Preface
The purpose of a well control program is to help assure a well is drilled, completed, produced and
ultimately abandoned with no unplanned influx, surface pressure or discharge. As the complexity
of drilling and production processes has increased, the challenges encountered while achieving
these goals have evolved and gained additional importance.
This is the second revision of the BP Well Control Manual (WCM) and reflects BP’s commitment
to personnel and environmental safety, and provides useful guidance for achieving these
objectives. This WCM primarily addresses drilling operations and provides a “how-to” description
for conformance with BP’s well control-related engineering technical practices. The theory behind
the guidance is also provided in certain areas to better illustrate key points. This manual does not
contain requirements and it is not auditable by Safety and Operational Risks (S&OR).
Discussions within this document of procedures and similar examples are presented only for
illustrative purposes to show guidance on a particular subject. They are not meant to demonstrate
requirements. It is intended to be used in conjunction with the BP Engineering Technical
Practices (ETPs) that supply the mandated requirements with regards to well control.
This manual is intended to provide useful guidance for BP Well Site Leaders (WSL), managers,
engineers, and others but can also be used as a training manual for operational personnel or as
general information guide concerning well control and blowout prevention. This guidance
assumes a preliminary knowledge of drilling practices and well control.
The structure of this volume is intended to provide a comprehensive description of well control
challenges and practices. The first three sections address the primary down-hole characteristics
that affect well control. A working knowledge of the content in these sections will provide the
reader with the background required and some of the challenges that formations present.
Section 4 presents the fundamental well equations that are used in well control planning and
operations.
Section 5 is a discussion of well control equipment and the requirements for its use.
Sections 6 and 7 provide guidance for drilling operations.
Section 8 details special considerations and Section 9 exclusively addresses subsea well control
and the specific challenges it presents.
Section 10 provides guidance on well monitoring and fingerprinting. Section 11 discusses the
methodology and considerations for planning a relief well.
Annex B provides examples of well control drills. Annex C contains blank forms that are used
throughout the document.
This document is intended to provide useful information and guidance to support conformance
with the requirements in applicable series 10 Engineering Technical Practices with respect to well
control. This document does not contain requirements and is not auditable by Central S&OR.
Refer to specifications for all vendor tools and equipment referenced in this document and consult
the appropriate vendor regarding suitability of such vendor tools and equipment for specific
applications. BP Well Control Technical Specialists are available for guidance when assessing
specifications and suitability of vendor tools and equipment.
 This guide facilitates standardisation to enable a consistent outcome.
 This guide is a vehicle to allow lessons learned to be codified, captured and shared with the
wider global wells organisation (GWO).
 This guide is applied by an engineer to facilitate achieving the objectives of a well.
 It is the responsibility of the Engineer and Engineering Manger to apply this guide in
achieving the well objectives.
Page 18 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
1 The Origins of Formation Pressure

1.1 Introduction
All formations penetrated while drilling a well exert pressures of varying magnitudes. To gain an
understanding of the origins of these pressures, this section defines and explains certain
subsurface pressure concepts.
1.1.1 Subsurface Pressures
Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the unit weight and vertical height of a
fluid column. The size and shape of the fluid column do not affect the magnitude of this pressure.
Mathematically:
P=ρxgxD (Equation 1-1)
Where:
P = hydrostatic pressure
ρ = average fluid density
g = gravitational acceleration
D = vertical height of fluid column
Relating this to drilling operations and commonly used oilfield units gives:
P = C x MW x D (Equation 1-2)
Where:
P = hydrostatic pressure (psi)
C = conversion constant (psi/ft per lb/gal)
MW = fluid density or mud weight (lb/gal or ppg)
D = vertical depth (ft)
The constant, C, is required to allow the use of oilfield imperial units (psi, ft, lb/gal). It has a value
of 0,052 psi/ft per lb/gal and is derived as follows:
2 3
Using consistent units (pressure in lb/ft , length in ft, and density in lb/ft ) and rearranging
Equation 1-2, C would be numerically equal to 1:
P
C  1 lb/ft2 /ft per lb/ft3
D x MW
2 2 3
Substituting the standard conversion constants of 144 in /ft and 7,48 gal/ft gives:
7,48 lb/ft2 ft 2 /in2

C 1x x
144 ft x lb/ft3 ft 3 /gal
3 3
Note: 1 ft =7,48 gal/ft
lb/in2
C  0,052
ft x lb/gal
C = 0,052 psi/ft per lb/gal
Page 19 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
So, in Imperial oilfield units (psi, ft, lb/gal), Equation 1-2 becomes:
P = 0,052 x MW x D (Equation 1-3)
Overburden Pressure
Overburden pressure is the result of the combined weight of the formation matrix (rock) and the
fluids (water, oil and gas) in the pore space overlying the formation of interest.
The average density of a thick sedimentary sequence is equivalent to a density of 19,27 lb/gal.
The overburden pressure (S) is given by:
S = 0,052 x MW x D (Equation 1-4)
Where:
MW = fluid density (ppg)
D = vertical depth (feet)
The Overburden Pressure Gradient (OPG) is given by:
S
OPG   0,052 x MW (Equation 1-5)
D
OPG = 0,052 x 19,2 = 1,0 psi/ft
For the average onshore case of 19,27 lb/gal
Page 20 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 1.1 Composite Overburden Load for

Normally Compacted Formations
Page 21 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Because the degree of compaction of sediments varies with depth, the OPG is not constant.
Worldwide experience indicates the probable maximum overburden gradient in classic rocks
(fragmental sedimentary rocks i.e., sandstone, shale) may be as great as 1,35 psi/ft.
Onshore, with more compact sediments, the OPG may be assumed to be close to 1 psi/ft.
Offshore overburden gradients at shallow depths will be much less than 1 psi/ft due to the effect
of the depth of sea water and large thickness of unconsolidated sediment. Figure 1.1 shows
average overburden gradient for different areas.
Figure 1.2 Schematic Diagrams of Subsurface Pressure Concepts
Page 22 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pore Pressure
Pore pressure is pressure acting on fluids contained in the pore space of the rock. This is the
classical meaning of what is generally referred to as formation pressure, which is related to
overburden pressure as follows:
S = Pf + M (Equation 1-6)
Where:
S = overburden pressure (total vertical stress)
Pf = formation pressure (pore pressure)
M = grain-to-grain pressure (matrix stress)
All sedimentary rocks have porosity to some extent. If the pore spaces of the rocks are freely
connected to surface, then the formation pressure at any depth will be equal to the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the fluid occupying the pore spaces. In this ‘normal’ pressure situation, the
matrix stress (grain-to-grain contact pressure) supports the overburden load. Any departure from
this situation will give rise to ‘abnormal’ formation pressures. Formation pressures less than
hydrostatic pressure are called subnormal (subpressures) and formation pressures greater than
hydrostatic pressure are termed abnormal formation pressures (surpressures) (refer to Figure
1.2).
1.1.2 Pressure Seals
For abnormal pressures to exist there must be a permeability barrier which acts as a pressure
seal. This seal restricts or prevents the movement of pore fluids and thus separates normally
pressured formations from abnormally pressured formations.
The origins of a pressure seal may be physical, chemical or a combination of the two. The types
of formation pressure seals are listed below in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Types of Formation Pressure Seals
Type of Seal Nature of Seal Examples

Vertical Massive siltstones Gulf Coast, USA
Shales Zechstein in North Germany,
Massive salts North Sea, Middle East,
Anhydrite USA, Russian Federation
Gypsum
Limestone, marl, chalk
Dolomite
Transverse Faults Worldwide
Salt and shale diapirs
Combination Worldwide
1.1.3 Pressure Gradients

It is common practice to express subsurface pressures in terms of pressure gradients, or
pressure per unit depth, psi/ft. Densities such as mud weights in lb/gal, also express pressure
gradients. These units can easily be converted to psi/ft using the conversion constants of
0,052 psi/ft per lb/gal. Rearranging Equation 1-3 gives:
Page 23 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
P
PG   0,052 x MW (Equation 1-7)
D
Where:
PG = pressure gradient (psi/ft) at depth D (feet)
By converting subsurface pressures to gradients relative to a fixed datum, we can directly
compare formation pressures, fracture pressures, overburden pressures, mud weights, and
Equivalent Circulating Densities (ECDs) on the same basis. The datum chosen is usually sea or
ground level for initial planning purposes. Once a rig has been allocated for the well, the datum
chosen for final well planning and while drilling is the rotary table level (since mud hydrostatic
pressure starts from just below this level).
During drilling operations, it is standard practice to express all pressure gradients in terms of
Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW) in lb/gal. This allows direct comparison of down-hole pressures to
the weight (density) of the mud in use. EMWs can be calculated from rearrangements of Equation
1-7:
P (psi)
EMW (lb/gal) (Equation 1-8)
0,052 x D (ft)
Note: From this point on, ‘ppg’ will be used instead of lb/gal as the abbreviated version of
pounds per gallon.
Example: For a formation pressure of 5 980 psi at 11 500 ft Below Rotary Table (BRT),
what is the Formation Pressure Gradient (FPG) in psi/ft? What is the equivalent
mud weight in ppg?
pressure
FPG 
depth
5 980
FPG   0,052 psi/ft
11 500
Equivalent mud weight from Equation 1-8:

5 980
EMW   10,0 ppg
0,052 x 11 500
1.2 Normal Formation Pressure

Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of a column of water extending
from the surface to the subsurface formation. The normal formation pressure gradient in any area
will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the water occupying the pore spaces of the
subsurface formations in that area.
The magnitude of the hydrostatic pressure gradient is affected by the concentration of dissolved
solids (salts) and gases in the formation water. Increasing the dissolved solids (greater salt
concentration) increases the formation pressure gradient while an increase in the level of gases
in solution will decrease the pressure gradient.
For example, formation water with a salinity of 80 000 ppm sodium chloride (salt) at a
temperature of 77°F (25°C), has a pressure gradient of 0,465 psi/ft. Freshwater (zero salinity) has
a pressure gradient of 0,433 psi/ft.
Temperature also has an effect as hydrostatic pressure gradients will decrease at elevated
temperatures due to fluid expansion and a subsequent decrease in density.
In formations deposited in offshore and coastal environments, formation water density may vary
from slightly saline (8,50 ppg, 0,44 psi/ft) to saturated saline (9,9 ppg, 0,515 psi/ft). Salinity varies
Page 24 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
with depth and formation type. Therefore, the average value of normal formation pressure
gradient may not be valid for all depths. For instance, local normal pressure gradients may reach
0,515 psi/ft and exist in formations adjacent to salt formations where the formation water is
completely salt saturated.
Table 1.2 gives examples of the magnitude of the normal formation pressure gradient for different
areas. In the absence of accurate data, 0,465 psi/ft is often taken to be the normal pressure
gradient.
Table 1.2 Average Normal Formation Pressure Gradients
Formation Water Pressure Density Example Area

Gradient (ppg)
(psi/ft)
Fresh water 0,433 8,34 Rocky Mountains and

Mid-continent, USA
Brackish water 0,438 8,42
Salt water 0,442 8,50 Most sedimentary basins
worldwide
Salt water 0,452 8,70 North Sea, South
China Sea
Salt water 0,465 8,95 Gulf of Mexico (GoM), USA
Salt water 0,478 9,20 Some areas of
GoM
Note: at standard temperature and pressure (60F 14,7 psi)
1.3 Subnormal Formation Pressure
Subnormal formation pressure is defined as any formation pressure that is less than the normal
regional pore fluid hydrostatic pressure.
Subnormal formation pressures are often termed subpressures.
1.3.1 Causes of Subnormal Formation Pressure
Subnormal formation pressures occur less frequently than abnormal formation pressures. They
may have natural causes related to the stratigraphic, tectonic, and geochemical history of an
area, or may be caused artificially by producing reservoir fluids.
Depleted Reservoirs
Producing large volumes of reservoir fluids causes a decline in pore fluid pressure unless
compensated for by a strong water drive. Depleted reservoirs may have pore pressures less than
hydrostatic pressure.
For example, the original reservoir formation pressure in one particular field was 3 215 psi at a
depth of 7 135 ft subsea. This equates to a formation pressure gradient of 0,451 psi/ft, which is
the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient. After 12 years of production, the reservoir formation
pressure dropped to approximately 2 750 psi even with the use of water injection. This gives a
subnormal pressure gradient of 0,385 psi/ft.
Page 25 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Piezometric Surface
A piezometric or potentiometric surface is an imaginary surface representing the static head of
ground water and is defined by the level to which the ground water will rise in a well. For
example, the water table is a particular potentiometric surface.
In very arid areas such as the Middle East, the water table may be deep. The hydrostatic
pressure gradient commences at the water table giving a subnormal pressure gradient from the
surface.
A piezometric surface is dependent on the structural relief of a formation and can result in
subnormal or abnormal formation pressures. The piezometric surface for an aquifer system is
shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Relationship Between Piezometric Surface and

Ground Level for an Aquifer System
Drilling activities in mountainous areas may encounter subnormal pressure gradients due to the
surface elevation being greater than the water table elevation or formation water potentiometric
surface.
Temperature Reduction
A reduction in subsurface temperature will reduce the pore pressure in an isolated fluid system
where the pore volumes (and thus fluid density) remain constant. This may cause subnormal
pressures.
The temperature-pressure-density diagram for water shown in Figure 1.4 illustrates this concept.
Both temperature and pressure are dependent on depth. For a normal fluid (non-isolated) which
is allowed to expand and contract freely, a temperature reduction associated with a depth change
would follow the path indicated (which in this example corresponds to a temperature gradient of
1,4°F/100 ft). A lower pressure would result but it would still be equal to the normal hydrostatic
pressure. In an isolated fluid system (i.e., completely sealed shales), cooling must take place
along a constant density path as shown. The pressure corresponding to the lower temperature is
thus subnormal.
If gas is present in the pores, the effects of temperature reduction will be greater as gas pressure
is much more sensitive to temperature changes than water.
Mechanisms which may create a reduction in subsurface temperature include uplift, erosion or a
combination of uplift and erosion.
Page 26 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 1.4 Temperature-Pressure-Density Diagram for Water Illustrating

Subnormal Pressures Caused by Cooling an Isolated Fluid
Decompressional Expansion
Decompressional expansion is the term used to describe the combined effects of uplift and
erosion. In shales, uplift and overburden removal by erosion may cause a reduction in pore fluid
pressure. This reduction may be due to an increase in pore volume and removal of free water
from the pore space by adsorption in clay minerals as the overburden pressure decreases. Water
adsorption due to mineral transformations (e.g., illite to montmorillonite) may also occur due to
the decrease in temperature.
Page 27 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
This pressure reduction may be great enough to cause subnormal pressures which would be
transmitted to any reservoir rocks associated with the shales.
Formation Foreshortening
Formation foreshortening is a tectonic compression mechanism. It is suggested during a lateral
compression process acting on sedimentary beds, upwarping of the upper beds and
downwarping of the lower beds may occur. The intermediate beds must expand to fill the voids
left by this process, as shown in Figure 1.5. In this case more competent intermediate beds, such
as shales, may have subnormal pressures due to the increase in pore volume.
This mechanism is thought to occur in areas of recent tectonic activity, such as along the flanks of
the Rocky Mountains.
Figure 1.5 Formation Foreshortening

Osmosis
Osmosis is the flow of water from a more dilute to a more concentrated solution when the two are
separated by a semi-permeable membrane.
In the subsurface environment, clays and clayey siltstones can act as semi-permeable
membranes. If salinity differences exist between the fluids in the sediments on either side of clay
beds, then osmotic flow can occur. If the flow is from a closed volume, the pressure will decrease
and may become subnormal. Likewise, if the flow is into a closed volume, abnormal pressures
may result.
1.3.2 Magnitude of Subnormal Formation Pressures
By definition, subnormal formation pressures must be lower than the normal hydrostatic pressure
for the location. In terms of pressure gradients, subnormal pressures will have gradients less than
normal (0,433 to 0,465 psi/ft depending on the particular area).
As stated earlier, the previously discussed field is now subnormally pressured at 0,385 psi/ft.
Subnormal gradients of 0,36 to 0,39 psi/ft have been quoted for areas of the Texas Panhandle
(northwest Texas) with one case at 0,23 psi/ft thought to be the result of a reduced piezometric
surface. One of the lowest formation pressure gradients encountered is 0,188 psi/ft which was
recorded in the Keyes gas field in Oklahoma.
1.3.3 Summary
The different suggested causes of subnormal formation pressures can be classed as ‘artificially
caused’ or ‘naturally caused’.
‘Depleted reservoirs’ and ‘piezometric surface’ (where pressure regime depends on the surface
location of the well) may be classed as artificial causes, since these subnormal pressures do not
originate in the subsurface formation, but are externally influenced.
Page 28 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Subnormal pressure as a result of temperature reduction, decompressional expansion, formation

foreshortening and osmosis has its origins in the formation itself and can be thought of as being
naturally caused. It is unlikely any one of these processes may be the sole cause of subnormal
pressures in any particular area. A number of processes have possibly contributed to produce the
subnormal pressures, particularly in light of the dependency of the processes on depth and
temperature.
1.4 Abnormal Formation Pressure
Abnormal formation pressure is defined as any formation pressure greater than the hydrostatic
pressure of the water occupying the formation pore spaces. Abnormal formation pressures are
also termed surpressures, overpressures, and sometimes geopressures. More often, they are
simply called abnormal pressures.
1.4.1 Causes of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Abnormal formation pressures are found worldwide in formations ranging in age from the
Pleistocene age (approximately 1 million yr) to the Cambrian age (500 to 600 million yr). They
may occur at depths as shallow as only a few hundred feet or exceeding 20 000 ft and may be
present in shale or sand sequences and/or massive evaporite-carbonate sequences.
The causes of abnormal formation pressures are related to a combination of geological, physical,
geochemical, and mechanical processes, as discussed in the following paragraphs.
Depositional Causes
Compaction Disequilibrium
Compaction disequilibrium is also known as ‘undercompaction’ or ‘sedimentary loading’. It is the
process whereby abnormal formation pressures are caused by an imbalance between the
compaction of the clay as a result of sediment deposits (burial of the clay) and the rate of
expulsion of the pore fluids within the clay from the compaction.
Freshly deposited clays have adsorbed water layers and the solid clay particles do not have
direct physical contact. The pore pressure is hydrostatic pressure as the pore fluid is continuous
with the overlying sea water. As sedimentation proceeds, a gradual compaction occurs and as
the clay particles are pressed closer together, pore water is expelled. The clay sediment has
substantial porosity and is permeable in this initial state. So, as long as the expelled water can
escape to surface or through a porous sand layer, pore pressures will remain equal to the normal
hydrostatic pressure gradient of the geology of interest.
For this equilibrium to be maintained, a balance is required between the rate of sedimentation
and burial, and the rate of expulsion and removal of pore fluids. If the rate of sedimentation is
very slow, then hydrostatic pressures will be maintained.
The initial porosity of clays is 60 to 90%, depending on the type of clay, whereas compacted
clay/shale has a porosity of less than 15%. Thus a vast amount of water must be removed from
clay sediments during burial. If the equilibrium between rate of sedimentation and rate of fluid
expulsion is disrupted so fluid removal is impeded, then an increase in pore pressure will result.
This could occur either by an increase in the rate of sedimentation or by a reduction in the rate of
fluid removal (caused by a reduction in permeability or by the deposition of a permeability barrier
such as limestone).
The ‘excess’ pore fluids help support the increasing overburden load, thereby retarding
compaction further, and resulting in abnormal pressured formations. Abnormal pressures
resulting from this process will have a gradient no greater than the overburden gradient. This is
because these pressures are produced by the excess overburden load being supported by the
pore fluids.
Page 29 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
If beds of permeable sandstone hydraulically connected to zones of lower fluid pressure are
present within an overpressured zone, adjacent clays will dewater to the sand bed. The adjacent
clays will compact and decrease in permeability and porosity thus restricting further dewatering of
the clay beds. The local pressure gradient across these clay/sand boundaries will be greater than
the overall pressure gradient, but are caused purely by ‘leakage’ from the clays to the sand.
Figure 1.6 illustrates typical overpressures caused by compaction disequilibrium.
Areas in which abnormal formation pressures associated with large sedimentation rates have
been encountered include the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf of Papua.
Figure 1.6 Typical Formation Pressures

Caused by Compaction Disequilibrium
Rock Salt Deposition

Continuous rock salt deposition over large areas can cause abnormal pressures that may
approach overburden pressure. Salt is totally impermeable to fluids and behaves plastically at
reduced temperatures and pressures, thereby exerting pressures equal to the overburden load in
all directions. The fluids in the underlying formations cannot escape as there is no communication
to the surface, thus the formations become overpressured.
Massive rock salt deposits are commonly found in the southern North Sea with abnormal
formation pressures sometimes being encountered in formations below or within these massive
salts. For instance, one BP southern North Sea well required mud weights up to 16,2 ppg
(0,84 psi/ft) to control a saturated salt water flow from an anhydrite formation at the boundary
between the Z2 and Z3 Units of the Zechstein halite formation.
Page 30 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the alteration of sediments and their constituent minerals during burial after
deposition. Diagenetic processes include the formation of new minerals, the redistribution and
recrystallization of the substances within the sediments, and lithification (sediments turning into
rocks).
Clay Diagenesis
The major constituents of marine shales are bentonitic clays of which montmorillonite is by far the
most common. Montmorillonite has a swelling (expanded) lattice structure and contains
approximately 70 to 85% water at initial burial in sea floor sediments. This water is present in the
form of at least four layers of molecules adsorbed between clay platelets and up to 10 layers held
on the outside of the platelets. The clay platelets have a negative charge imbalance due to their
structure. This causes the adsorption of interlayer water together with different cations (positively
charged ions), principally sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca++). The interlayer water is shown
schematically in Figure 1.7.
The environment at this initial burial stage would be alkaline, rich in calcium and magnesium (and
of course sodium from salt water), but poor in potassium.
After further burial, compaction expels most of the free pore water (non-adsorbed) and the water
content of the sediment is reduced to approximately 30%. As burial progresses and the
temperature increases, eventually all but the last layer of structured (adsorbed) water will be
desorbed to the pore spaces. This causes the clay lattice to collapse and with the availability of
potassium, montmorillonite diagenesis to illite occurs. This reaction is shown in Figure 1.8. It
involves adsorption of potassium at the interlayer and surface sites as well as the release of a
small amount of silica.
Figure 1.7 Interlayer Water and Cations

Between Clay Platelets
Page 31 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 1.8 Reaction of Montmorillonite to Illite

The reaction is temperature (and hence depth) dependent. Initial dehydration may occur at
temperatures approaching 43°F. Most of the interlayer water is liberated between 210°F and
480°F, but some of the more structured water remains until the water reaches approximately
570°F. Water distribution curves showing shale dehydration stages are shown in Figure 1.9.
At the second dehydration stage (refer to Figure 1.9), the water is released and expands due to a
density reduction from the structured phase to the pore phase. Abnormal pressures may result,
particularly if the rate of expulsion of free pore water from the clay body is less than the rate of
water release from the clay interlayers. Figure 1.10 is a diagram showing the stages of alteration
of montmorillonite to illite.
If water escape from the clay body is restricted, the silica released in the diagenetic process will
precipitate in the pore spaces. This may further reduce permeability aiding development of
abnormal pressures.
Page 32 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 1.9 Water Distribution Curves for Shale Dehydration
Figure 1.10 Diagenetic Stages in the Alteration

of Montmorillonite to Illite
Page 33 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Sulphate Diagenesis
Diagenesis in sulphate formations (gypsum, anhydrite) may cause abnormal pressures by
creating permeability barriers, a fluid source and/or a rock volume change. Carbonate reservoirs
are commonly overlain by evaporite sections (salt, anhydrite).
Anhydrite (calcium sulphate, CaSO4) is formed by the dehydration of gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O)
which liberates large amounts of water. There is 30 to 40% shrinkage in formation thickness
associated with this process. If this occurs at depth and in the presence of a permeability barrier,
abnormal formation pressures may result. (The anhydrite itself is totally impermeable and may act
as a vertical permeability barrier.)
This process may have been the cause of the salt water flow discussed under section 1.4.1, sub-
sub-section ‘Rock Salt Deposition’. Here, a mud weight of 16,2 ppg (0,84 psi/ft) was required to
control a saturated salt water flow from an anhydrite section sandwiched between massive salt
sections.
The process is reversible. Anhydrite can take on water to form gypsum. There is an intermediate,
semi-hydrate stage (CaSO4•2H2O) in which the rock volume would increase by 15 to 25%. If such
rehydration was to occur at depth in a closed system, abnormal pressures could be developed.
Diagenesis of Volcanic Ash
Diagenesis of volcanic ash results in three main products: clay minerals, methane, and carbon
dioxide. Formations originally contained large amounts of volcanic ash may become
overpressured due to the production of gases from the volcanic ash.
Areas in which this process has occurred include the northwest coast of the United States and
areas of the South China Sea region (Java as an example).
Tectonic Causes
Compressional Folding
Tectonic compression is a compacting force applied horizontally in subsurface formations. In
normal pressure environments, clays compact, and dewater in equilibrium with increasing
overburden pressures. In a tectonic environment, the additional horizontal compacting force
(tectonic stress) squeezes the clays laterally. If the pore fluids can still escape, then pore fluid
pressures will remain normal. It is more likely the increase in stress will cause disequilibrium. The
pore fluids will not be able to escape at a rate equal to the reduction in pore volume, resulting in
an increase in pore pressure.
Abnormal pressure distribution within a series of compressional folds is shown in Figure 1.11.
Abnormal pressures occur initially within the hinge portion of each compressional fold in a thick
clay sequence.
Page 34 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 1.11 Abnormal Formation Pressures Caused

by Tectonic Compressional Folding
An example of overpressures associated with steep tectonic folding is the oilfields of Southern
Persia where the local pressure gradients may reach 1,0 psi/ft. In the tectonically folded
Himalayan foothills in Pakistan, a pore pressure of 1,3 psi/ft has been recorded.
Faulting
Faults may cause abnormal formation pressures in the following ways:
 Slippage of formations along a fault may bring a permeable formation, e.g., a sand bed
laterally against an impermeable formation such as a clay. The flow of pore fluids through the
permeable zone will be inhibited and abnormal formation pressures may result.
 Non-sealing faults may transmit fluids from a deeper permeable formation to a shallower
formation. If this shallower formation is sealed, then it will be pressured up by the deeper
formation.
Uplift
If a normally pressured formation is suddenly uplifted, abnormal pressures may be generated.
Uplift is not a unique cause of abnormal pressure, as the process that uplifts a buried formation
will also uplift the overburden. For abnormal pressures to occur there must be a concurrent
geological process that reduces the relief between the buried formation and the surface. Such
processes may be piercement salt domes, shale diapirs, faulting, or erosion.
Note: Uplift and erosion may also cause subnormal formation pressures, depending on the type
of formation and the amount of cooling the formation undergoes as previously discussed
under Temperature Reduction (Section 1.3.1).
Salt Diapirism
Diapirism is the piercement of a formation by a less dense underlying formation. Salt will behave
plastically at elevated temperatures and pressures, and due to its lower density will move
upwards to form piercement salt domes in overlying formations. This upward movement disturbs
Page 35 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
the regular layering of sediments and overpressures can occur due to the associated faulting and
folding action. Additionally, the salt may act as an impermeable seal and inhibit lateral dewatering
of clays thereby further contributing to the generation of abnormal pressures.
The typical distribution of abnormal pressure zones around a piercement salt dome is shown in
Figure 1.12.
Abnormally high formation pressures associated with salt domes have been encountered
worldwide, both onshore and offshore.
Figure 1.12 Abnormal Pressure Distribution

Around a Piercement Salt Dome
Page 36 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 1.13 Diagram of a Mud Volcano
Shale Diapirism
As with salt diapirism, this mechanism refers to the upward movement of a less dense plastic
formation. In this case, elevated porosity (large water content) shales behave plastically causing
the formation of shale diapirs called ‘mud volcanoes’ (refer to Figure 1.13).
In practice, wherever mud volcanoes occur, there has been rapid Tertiary and/or late Cretaceous
sedimentation. This rapidly loads underlying shales originally having reduced shear strength thus
causing the formation of mud volcanoes. Then formation pressures become abnormal. For
example, pressure gradients of 0,9 psi/ft have been measured around mud volcanoes on
Absheron Peninsula in Azerbaijan.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes may result in compression in subsurface formations which causes a sudden
increase in pore fluid pressures. For example, the 1953 earthquake in California caused
production in the nearby Mountain View oil field to double over a period of several weeks after the
earthquake.
Structural Causes
Piezometric Surface
As previously discussed in section 1.3.1, Subnormal Pressures, a regionally high piezometric
surface such as that caused by artesian water systems will result in abnormal pressures as
shown in Figure 1.3. Artesian systems require a porous and permeable aquifer sandwiched
between impermeable beds. The abnormal pressure is a result of the hydrostatic pressure head
caused by the elevated aquifer intake area.
Examples of areas where abnormal pressures are caused by artesian systems are the Artesian
Basin in Florida and the Great Artesian Basin in Queensland, Australia.
Page 37 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Reservoir Structure
In sealed reservoir formations containing fluids of differing densities (i.e., water, oil, gas),
formation pressures that are normal for the deepest part of the zone will be transmitted to the
shallower end where they will cause abnormal pressures. Examples of such formation are
lenticular reservoirs, dipping formations and anticlines.
Abnormal formation pressures will only be generated if fluids less dense than the pore water are
present, such as in hydrocarbon reservoirs. The pressure at the top of a fluid zone is given by:
PfT = PfB – [Gf x (DB x DT)] (Equation 1-9)
Where:
PfT = formation pressure at top of zone (psi)
PfB = formation pressure at bottom of zone (psi)
Gf = pressure gradient of fluid in zone (psi/ft)
DT = vertical depth to top of zone (ft)
DB = vertical depth to bottom of zone (ft)
In the example shown in Figure 1.14, the formation pressure at the oil/water contact is normal
hydrostatic pressure with a gradient of 0,452 psi/ft. Using Equation 1-9, the pressure at the gas/oil
contact is 4 850 psi which gives an abnormal formation pressure gradient of 0,462 psi/ft.
Similarly, the pressure at the top of the reservoir is 4 784 psi giving an abnormal gradient of
0,486 psi/ft.
In very large structures, especially in gas/water systems with long gas columns, the
overpressures developed at the top of the gas column may be great. One documented example
in Persia quotes a pressure gradient of 0,9 psi/ft (approaching overburden gradient) at a depth of
only 640 ft.
Figure 1.14 Abnormal Pressure Due to Reservoir Structure
Page 38 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Charged Formations
Normally pressured, or low-pressured porous and permeable formations at shallow depths, may
be pressured up by communication with deeper, over-pressured formations. This ‘charging’ of the
shallower formations may take place by fluid communication along non-sealing faults, behind
casing in old wells, or wells with faulty cement jobs, and while drilling a sequence of permeable
formations with very large differences in pore fluid pressures (causing recharge salt water flows).
Abnormal pressures caused by recharge can be very large, especially if gas is the medium that
transmits the pressure (same mechanics as gas reservoir in Reservoir Structure, but over greater
depth differences). Mud weights equivalent to 19 ppg (0,988 psi/ft) have been quoted as
sometimes required for drilling through shallow charged zones.
Thermodynamic Effects
Thermodynamic processes may be considered as contributing factors in most of the causes of
abnormal formation pressure already discussed. Formation temperature increases with depth in
any geological system and if the system is basically closed, thermodynamic effects will add to the
build-up of abnormal pressures.
Aquathermal Pressuring
Referring to the temperature-pressure-density diagram for water (Figure 1.4), a temperature
increase in an isolated fluid system must take place along a constant density path. The increase
in pressure is very rapid and only small increases in temperature are required to produce large
overpressures.
Shales are not totally impermeable and the time taken to heat the shales during burial should be
long enough to allow most of the excess pressures developed to leak away. The main effect of
heating during burial is to retard compaction, and aquathermal pressuring is not thought to be a
major cause of abnormal formation pressures.
Thermal Cracking
At elevated temperatures and pressures caused by deep burial, complex hydrocarbon molecules
will break down into simpler compounds. Thermal cracking of hydrocarbons will increase the
volume of the hydrocarbons. If contained in an isolated system, this would result in overpressures
being developed. There is no conclusive evidence thermal cracking is a cause of abnormal
formation pressures.
Permafrost
In arctic regions, drilling and production operations may cause extensive thawing of the
permafrost. If this thawed permafrost refreezes later in the life of the well, ‘freezeback’ pressures,
large enough to damage the casing, may result. This situation may be addressed through diligent
well planning and casing design.
Freezeback pressure gradients ranging from 0,66 psi/ft to 1,44 psi/ft have been recorded in
Alaska.
Osmosis
The flow of water from a more dilute to a more concentrated solution when the two are separated
by a semi-permeable membrane is osmosis which is shown in Figure 1.15.
For a given solution, the osmotic pressure (differential pressure across the membrane) is almost
directly proportional to the concentration differential; and for a given concentration differential the
osmotic pressure increases with temperature. Osmotic pressures of up to 4 500 psi can be
produced across a semi permeable membrane with solutions of 8,51 ppg NaCl in water and
saturated NaCl brine.
Page 39 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Clay and clayey siltstone beds can act as semi-permeable membranes. If salinity differences
exist in the sediments above and below such beds, then osmotic flow can occur. If the flow is into
an isolated system, then a pressure increase will occur in this system. Alternatively, the osmotic
pressure developed across these beds may inhibit the vertical flow of water from compacting
shales, thereby contributing to the development of abnormal pressures.
The efficiency of clay beds as semi-permeable membranes in the sub-surface environment is
unknown. It is currently believed osmosis is a minor cause of abnormal formation pressures.
Figure 1.15 Diagram Illustrating Osmotic Flow

1.4.2 Magnitude of Abnormal Formation Pressures
The magnitude of abnormal formation pressures must be greater than the normal hydrostatic
pressure for the area, and may be equal to the overburden pressure. Abnormal pressure
Page 40 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
gradients will thus be between the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient (0,433 to 0,465 psi/ft)
and the overburden gradient (generally 1,0 psi/ft).
Locally confined pore pressure gradients exceeding the overburden gradient by up to 40% are
known in areas such as Pakistan, Persia, Papua New Guinea, and the Russian Federation.
These superpressures can only exist because the internal strength of the rock overlying the
superpressured zone assists the overburden load in containing the pressure. The overlying rock
can be considered to be in tension.
In the Himalayan foothills in Pakistan, formation pressure gradients of 1,3 psi/ft have been
encountered. In Persia, gradients of 1,0 psi/ft are common and in Papua New Guinea, a gradient
of 1,04 psi/ft has been reported. In one area of Russia, local formation pressures in the range of
5 870 to 7 350 psi at 5 250 ft were reported. This equates to a formation pressure gradient of 1,12
to 1,4 psi/ft.
In the North Sea, abnormal pressures occur with widely varying magnitudes in many geological
formations.
The tertiary sediments are mainly clays and may be overpressured for much of their thickness.
Pressure gradients of 0,52 psi/ft are common with locally occurring gradients of 0.8 psi/ft being
encountered. An expandable clay (gumbo) also occurs which is of volcanic origin and is still
undergoing compaction. The consequent decrease in clay density would often indicate an
abnormal pressure zone but this is not the case. In some areas, mud weights of the order of
0,62 psi/ft (11,9 ppg) are required to keep the wellbore open because of the swelling nature of
these clays. This is almost equal to the overburden gradients in these areas.
In the Mesozoic clays of the Central Graben, overpressures of 0,9 psi/ft have been recorded in
the North Sea region. One BP well encountered a formation pressure gradient of 0.91 psi/ft in the
Jurassic section. In the Jurassic of the Viking Graben, abnormal formation pressure gradients up
to 0,69 psi/ft have been recorded.
In Triassic sediments, abnormal formation pressures have been found in gas bearing zones of
the Bunter Sandstone in the southern North Sea. Also in the southern North Sea, overpressures
are often found in Permian carbonates, evaporates and sandstones sandwiched between
massive Zechstein salts.
1.4.3 Summary
Of all the processes responsible for causing abnormal formation pressures, it is unlikely any one
will be the sole cause in any particular area. The effects of several processes will probably
combine to cause the observed abnormal pressure.
Some of the processes discussed above are not typically important causes of abnormal pressure.
The primary cause of abnormal formation pressures in depositional basins is compaction
disequilibrium, with aquathermal pressuring contributing to a small extent. Clay dewatering
(diagenesis) typically has little effect. Conditions within clays during dewatering are very similar to
these developed during undercompaction. The two processes probably occur concurrently, while
undercompaction is recognized as the primary mechanism.
The significance of aquathermal pressuring as a cause of abnormal pressure is temperature and
hence depth-dependent. This is also true of the diagenetic process.
With increasing depth, aquathermal pressuring is thought to be a contributory factor in all cases
of abnormal pressure generation.
1.5 Shallow Gas
Shallow gas accumulations present a potential major hazard to drilling operations. Gas influxes
taken at shallow depths cannot generally be shut-in for fear the pressures involved will fracture
Page 41 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
the formation at the previous casing shoe, thereby causing a broached underground blowout, or
flow around the casing to the seabed or under the rig if on land.
1.5.1 Definition
For the purposes of drilling operations, shallow gas can be defined as any gas accumulation
encountered at any depth before the first pressure containment casing string is set.
For well planning purposes, gas bearing zones at shallow depths may be identified from shallow
seismic sections (refer to Shallow Gas Hazards [Section 2.3.2]). These are used down to a depth
of roughly 3 000 ft below surface or mud line.
1.5.2 Origins of Shallow Gas
There are two potential origins of shallow gas:
Biogenic Generation
This is the production of gas at shallow depths of burial from the degradation of organic matter
within the sediment. An example of this would be the Pleistocene section of the North Sea which
contains some organic rich clays and occasional peat and lignite formations. A biogenic origin is
considered likely for shallow gas accumulations in the North Sea.
Petrogenic Generation
This is the thermocatalytic degradation of kerogen which occurs under conditions of elevated
temperature and pressure at greater depths. (Kerogen is a complex hydrocarbon formed from the
biogenic degradation of organic matter which also gives off gas as stated above). Burial deep
enough to produce the heat needed for this process to operate is probably not reached in the
shallow depths considered here i.e., down to 3 000 ft.
Migration of gas from deeper petrogenic sources is a consideration. This could occur naturally,
along non-sealing faults for example, or even through the natural permeability of clays at shallow
depths. Alternatively, artificial migration paths may be produced in poorly cemented casing annuli,
allowing gas from petrogenic sources to accumulate in shallower formations. This could result in
shallow gas accumulations forming later in the life of a producing field when early wells showed
no indication of shallow gas.
1.5.3 Characteristics of Shallow Gas
Composition
Shallow (biogenic) gas has the following typical composition:
99% + Methane (CH4)
0,5% Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
less than 0,5% Nitrogen (N2)
less than 0,1% Ethane (C2H6) and more complex hydrocarbons.
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) may also be present.
Petrogenic gas associated with the generation of oil can contain a larger proportion of ethane and
more complex hydrocarbons.
Configuration of Shallow Gas Accumulations
Shallow gas accumulations are commonly found in sand lenses which are inferred to have been
deposited in a shallow marine shelf environment with tidal influence. In this environment, the
sands would tend to be in the form of sand waves, sand patches and ridges resulting in a
discontinuous and patchy distribution. These sand lenses could thus be sealed by the
surrounding clay sediments.
Page 42 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Knowledge of patchy distribution of shallow gas is helpful. Because several wells have penetrated
a potential shallow gas zone successfully it is not necessarily the case that all future wells will
also be free of shallow gas hazards.
Pressures and Volumes
Most shallow gas accumulations tend to be normally pressured. One area where overpressured
shallow gas sands are encountered is the Gulf of Mexico USA. In this area, overpressuring is
thought to be the result of undercompaction of shales due to rapid deposition (refer to
Compaction Disequilibrium in Section 1.4.1).
One instance of overpressured shallow gas in the North Sea was reported where a gas kick from
a sand at around 800 m subsea gave a calculated formation pressure gradient of at least
10,0 ppg (0,52 psi/ft). Shallow gas accumulations resulting from migration of petrogenic gas may
be overpressured (refer to Charged Formations in Section 1.4.1). Also, overpressured shallow
gas may result from long ‘tilted’ sand lenses, in a manner identical described in Reservoir
Structure in Section 1.4.1.
Estimating the volumes of gas present in shallow gas accumulations is challenging. Estimates
have been made from shallow gas discharges. In one North Sea incident, it has been estimated
8 mmscf of gas was vented. At a depth of approximately 1 345 ft subsea and 600 psi pressure,
3
this corresponds to a bulk rock volume of 950 000 ft , assuming a porosity of 30%. For 15 ft thick
sand, this corresponds to an area of only 230 ft in diameter.
The flowrate of gas in the above incident was estimated at 40 to 50 mmscfd. Flowrates of over
100 mmscf have been reported for shallow gas blowouts in GoM. These large flowrates are a
result of the greater porosity and permeability in shallow large grain sand deposits.
Page 43 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2 Formation Pressure Evaluation

2.1 Introduction
Knowledge of formation pore pressure is of prime importance in the planning, drilling and
evaluation of a well. Accurate estimates of formation pore pressures and fracture pressures are
critical in the optimisation of casing and mud weight programs, and to minimise the risk of well
kicks, stuck pipe, lost circulation and other costly drilling challenges.
Abnormally pressured zones are more commonly encountered than subnormal ones, and are the
most consequential in terms of pressure control in drilling operations. This section addresses
methods of prediction, detecting and evaluating abnormal formation pressures.
2.2 The Transition Zone
Formation pressure gradients are considered to be the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient for
the area until a depth is reached where pressure indicators suggest the onset of either a
subnormal or an abnormal pressured zone. The zone in which the formation pressure gradient
changes from a normal to subnormal or abnormal gradient is known as the transition zone.
In shales, the transition zone is the equivalent of the pressure seal discussed in Section 1. Since
seals of zero permeability rarely occur (except, for example, salt and anhydrite), transition zones
are often present. The differential pressure across a transition zone causes pore fluid to flow
through the transition zone. The flowrate through the zone will be low, due to the tight formations
within the zone. The thickness of the transition zone depends on the permeability within and
adjacent to the overpressured formation, and the age of the overpressure i.e., the time available
for fluid flow and pressure depletion since the overpressure developed.
Locations of transition zones are used in formation pressure evaluation. Formation properties in
this zone often deviate from normally pressured depth related trends. The magnitude of the
change in the trend can sometimes be used to estimate the change in the formation pressure
gradient. The parameters used to monitor the trends in formation properties are listed in Table
2.1. Recognition of the start of the transition zone in well planning and during drilling is important
because the start of the transition zone marks the onset of abnormal pressures.
Page 44 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 2.1 Techniques used to Predict, Detect and Evaluate Formation Pore Pressures
Data Source Injection/Disposal Wells Stage of Well
Offset wells Production pressures. Planning (also used for

Mudloggers reports. comparisons while drilling)
Mud weights used.
Kick data.
Wireline log data.
Wireline formation test data.
Drillstem test data.
Geophysics Seismic (interval velocity) Planning
Drilling parameters Drilling rate While drilling
Drilling exponents
Other drilling rate methods
Torque
Drag
Measurement While Drilling
(MWD)/Logging While Drilling (LWD) logs
Drilling Break
Drilling mud parameters Gas levels While drilling (delayed by the
Flowline mud weight time required for mud return)
Flowline temperature
Resistivity, salinity and other mud
properties
Well kicks
Pit levels
Hole fill-up
Mud flowrate
Cuttings parameters Bulk density While drilling (delayed by the
Shale factor time required for mud return)
Volume, shape and size
Wireline logs Sonic (Interval Transit Time [ITT]) After drilling or while drilling
Resistivity log with LWD
Density log
Other logs
Direct pressure Wireline tests (Repeat Formation Test Well testing or completion
measurements [RFT]/Formation Integrity Test [FIT])
Drillstem tests
Diagnostic Formation Injection Test
(DFIT)
Agarwal Gardner Type Curve (AGTC)
analysis
Pressure Build Up
Down-hole Pressure Gauges
Page 45 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2.3 Formation Pressure Evaluation during Well Planning

At the planning stage of a well, several early decisions are made that are directly influenced by
the predicted formation pore pressure profile for the well. The magnitude of the expected
formation pressure influences the pressure rating of the casing, wellhead and Blowout Preventer
(BOP) equipment to be used, and can ultimately influence drilling rig selection. Casing program
design and mud weight programs are tailored to the predicted formation pressures for the well.
Other related aspects of well planning influence include cement programs, completion equipment,
contingency strings of casing, mud chemicals, and barite stocks to be held.
Thus, making formation pressure predictions as accurately as reasonably possible under the
circumstances is fundamental to optimizing well planning. Good well planning will, in turn, help to
minimize the risk or encountering well control challenges while drilling.
There are usually (but not always) two sources of formation pressure information for the well
location being considered. The first and most widely used is offset well data. In areas where there
are no offset wells or they are considered to be too far away to give accurate data, then seismic
data may be used to predict formation pore pressures. Seismic analysis may also be useful in
validating offset well data for the location being considered.
2.3.1 Offset Well Data
Pressure data from nearby wells are commonly used to predict the pore pressure profile. The
data is often direct measurements which will give accurate pressures for the particular offset well
location. Pressures can also be calculated or estimated for other well data available in well
reports. The most commonly used sources of pressure data from offset wells are listed at the top
of Table 2.1.
The measured and calculated or inferred formation pressures are then applied to the same
formations in the well being planned. Additional information, such as the pressure gradient of the
expected reservoir fluid, is also used to arrive at a predicted formation pressure profile for the
well. This information is presented as a pressure depth plot, an example of which is shown in
Figure 2.1. (Fracture pressure information is also determined by formation [LOT] leak-off tests
from offset wells.)
The accuracy of the pore pressure prediction from offset well data will depend on the type of well
to be drilled. The following two cases may be considered.
Appraisal and Development Wells
The offset well data is usually reliable as the offset wells will be fairly close to the proposed well
location and usually drilled on the same structure. To define the data from the appraisal wells use
the pore pressure profile.
Page 46 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.1 Pressure/Depth Plot
Page 47 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Exploration Wells
In well explored regions, such as certain areas of the North Sea, the offset well data is usually
reliable enough for a reasonably reliable estimate to be made of the pore pressure profile for the
proposed exploration well. Nonetheless, the offset pressure data is treated with caution when
applying it to the proposed well because the accuracy of the data will vary depending on the
number and proximity of nearby wells. If there is a lack of pressure data available for any one
profile to be predicted, then the alternatives may be considered and evaluated for each particular
aspect of well planning.
The pressure profile predicted from offset wells can be backed up through analysis of seismic
data. In areas where there is no offset well information or they are too far away to be of any use,
then seismic data analysis may be the only method available to predict the pore pressure profile
(refer to Seismic Data [Paragraph 2.3.2]).
The predicted pressure profile is usually compiled by a designated pore pressure specialist. The
pressure depth plot is typically obtained and the data checked by the Drilling Engineer (DE)
responsible for planning the well. The accuracy of the data will vary depending on the number
and proximity of nearby wells.
Geological features such as faults and unconformities in the area are identified. These may affect
the way in which the pressure data is applied to the proposed well.
Notes on formation pressures from offset wells are often given in the Statement of Requirements
(SOR), together with the lithological prognosis and other pertinent data (e.g. well location, target
depths, and total depth). Petroleum Engineers may also be consulted, as they may have
additional pressure information, especially regarding expected reservoir pressures.
2.3.2 Seismic Data
In hydrocarbon exploration, seismic data is mainly used to identify and map prospective reservoir
traps and to estimate the depths of formation tops in the lithological column. Seismic data can
also be used to predict formation pressures quantitatively, or at least to give an indication of the
entrance into abnormal pressures. In new or relatively unexplored areas, seismic data is often the
only information available from which pore pressure data can be derived.
Seismic data can also be used to indicate the presence of shallow gas bearing sands. This is
done using data from high-resolution shallow seismic surveys which are used down to a
maximum depth of around 3 000 ft below surface or the mudline.
Abnormal Pressure Evaluation from Seismic Data
Basic Theory
A seismic wave is an acoustic wave propagated in a solid material – usually a rock. The velocity
at which the wave travels depends upon the density and elasticity of the rock, and the type of fluid
occupying the pore spaces of the rock. Thus the formation type, formation fluid type, and degree
of compaction (i.e., depth) will determine the seismic velocity in a particular formation.
Knowledge of seismic velocities in particular formations over a range of depths enables
geophysicists to make fairly reliable formation lithology predictions from seismic data. It is also
the seismic velocity of shale sequences that permits the use of seismic data for predicting the
presence of overpressured formations, and to estimate the magnitude of the overpressure.
Page 48 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.2 Diagram Illustrating Seismic

Reflection System and Seismic Traces
With increasing depth and compaction, the density and elasticity of shales increase, which results
in increasing seismic velocity with depth. Overpressured shales are undercompacted. This results
in lower density and elasticity for that depth. The seismic velocity in overpressured shales is
accordingly lower than in normally pressured shales at similar depths. To detect and evaluate
overpressured shales, formation interval seismic data is needed. This data is available from
seismic surveys.
Seismic data is acquired by creating acoustic waves, by some form of explosion (or implosion)
and measuring the time required for the wave to travel down to subsurface reflecting beds and
back to the surface. The surface point of origin of the wave is called the shot point and the
reflected waves are detected at surface by a series of geophones (or hydrophones if offshore)
placed at known distances from the shot point. The system is shown in Figure 2.2 together with
the seismic traces recorded by the geophones. The whole system is moved across the surface
and the measurements are repeated from a new shot point. The process is continued along a
pre-determined ‘seismic line’.
By using the geometric relationships between the shot points and geophone positions, a series of
seismic traces that have approximately the same reflection point on a reflecting bed can be
identified. This point is known as a Common Depth Point (CDP), and the seismic paths
associated with this point are shown in Figure 2.3. For clarity, only the first reflecting bed is
shown, but the deeper reflecting beds will also have corresponding CDPs vertically below, the
Page 49 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
reflections from which will appear on the series of seismic traces. The distance between the shot
point and any particular geophone is termed the ‘offset’.
Figure 2.3 Diagram Showing Common

Depth Point Seismic Ray Paths
Page 50 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.4 Plot of Offset versus Two-way Travel Time for Common Depth Point System
Page 51 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
In practice, the seismic traces from the same CDP are collected together to form a ‘gather’ in
which seismic traces at the offsets are plotted against the reflection time. A simplified plot of
offset versus reflection time is shown in Figure 2.4. With greater offset, the path length of the
wave is longer (refer to Figure 2.3) and the reflection time for the same reflecting bed increases.
Curves can be drawn through the peaks on the seismic traces, corresponding to the same
reflecting beds, as shown by the dashed lines in Figure 2.4.
The geometry of the CDP seismic system is such that the equation of the curve through the
seismic peaks (known as a ‘seismic event’) from a horizontal reflector results in a hyperbola. The
variable defining the shape of the hyperbola is called the ‘stacking velocity’ or the ‘normal move-
out velocity’. In practice, the peaks on the seismic traces do not lie exactly on a hyperbola.
Velocity analyses are performed to determine the velocity value that gives a ‘best fit’ hyperbola to
the data. This is done by investigating the hyperbolic function with a range of stacking velocities
at increasing time increments, and comparing the result to the actual data from the seismic traces
on the gather.
The results from the velocity analysis are output in the form of a plot of stacking velocity versus
reflection times. A typical example plot from an actual analysis is shown in Figure 2.5. The plot
appears as a series of ‘contours’ defining a number of ‘peaks’. Due to the mathematical
computations involved in the analysis, the peaks represent the ‘best fit’ stacking velocity values
and the corresponding vertical two-way reflection times for each reflecting bed.
The stacking velocities obtained are not the true average velocities from the surface to the
reflecting bed. The stacking velocity is usually considered to approximate to the Root Mean
Square (RMS) velocity (as shown on the horizontal axis in Figure 2.5). The RMS velocity is the
average velocity along the actual path of the seismic wave. In many cases, this is also considered
to be equal to the vertical average velocity from the surface to the subsurface reflecting bed. The
velocity-time pairs (as they are called) from the velocity analysis can be used to calculate the
depths of the reflecting beds.
The stacking velocities are used to compute the vertical two-way reflection times for each of the
seismic traces on the seismic gather. The seismic gather can then be ‘stacked’ to form one
‘complete’ seismic trace for that particular CDP. A seismic section is then produced by displaying
the stacked traces for each CDP along a seismic line.
The stacking or RMS velocities are also used to calculate the interval velocities between
reflecting beds, which is the property required to detect and evaluate abnormal pressure.
The Method
The area geophysicist and geologist can help to identify potential challenges such as
substandard seismic data, lithology complications, and errors introduced by formation dip. This
will provide the DE with a better understanding of the challenges involved in predicting a pore
pressure profile for the well being planned.
Page 52 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.5 Example Seismic Velocity Analysis Plot
Page 53 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.6 Example of Stacking Velocity Data on a Seismic Section

The first step in the method is to obtain the stacking velocity data for a range of CDPs near the
proposed well location. The stacking velocities used for these CDPs will be provided in panels
displayed above the surface line on the seismic section. An example is shown in Figure 2.6.
Page 54 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
At this point, it is worth checking the stacking velocities given in the panels against the velocities
obtained from the CDP velocity analyses. This is because stacking velocities are chosen to
produce a good CDP stack (‘clean’ appearance) and may not be equal to the values that would
be obtained from a velocity analysis such as that in Figure 2.5. When determining which stacking
velocities to use, assistance can be provided by a geophysicist, although more often than not, the
velocities given in the panel on the seismic section will suffice.
The interval velocities are then calculated from the two-way time and stacking velocity (average
velocity) using Dix’s formula:
t 2 (V2 ) 2  t1 (V1 ) 2
(V12 ) 2  (Equation 2-1)
t 2  t1
Where:
Vi12 = interval velocity between Reflecting Beds 1 and 2 (ft/s)
t1 = two-way travel time for Reflecting Bed 1 (s)
t2 = two-way travel time for Reflecting Bed 2 (s)
V1 = average velocity to Reflecting Bed 1 (ft/s)
V2 = average velocity to Reflecting Bed 2 (ft/s)
In the example shown in Figure 2.6, the interval velocities have already been computed using
Dix’s formula. The depths to the reflecting beds are calculated from:
t.V
D (Equation 2-2)
2
Where:
D = depth of the reflecting bed (ft)
t = two-way travel time for the reflecting bed (s)
V = average velocity to reflecting bed (ft/s)
Note the two-way time in the panel in Figure 2.6 is given in milliseconds (ms). This needs to be
-
converted to seconds for use in Equation 2-2 (1 ms = 10 3 s).
A table, as shown in Table 2.2, is helpful in the calculations of depths and ITTs. The final step in
the calculations is to convert interval velocities, a term used by geophysicists, into ITTs which is a
term more familiar to DEs. This is done by simply taking the reciprocal of the interval velocity.
ITTs are expressed in microseconds per foot (µsec/ft) (1 µsec = 10-6 s).
A plot of ITT versus depth can then be constructed. The ITT is plotted as a vertical line over the
depth interval, for which it was calculated. This results in a plot similar to a sonic log plot but in
which the data are averaged over long sections and not, as with the wireline sonic log, over a few
feet only. A plot of the data from Table 2.2 is shown in Figure 2.7. The corresponding wireline
sonic log plot is also shown for comparison.
Page 55 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Note: ITT is plotted on a logarithmic scale and depth on a linear scale. The types of scales
used are discussed further in Interpretation.
Table 2.2 Calculation of Depths and Interval Transit Times
Two-way Average Depth Int velocity Int transit

time (stacking) (Dix’s formula) time
velocity)
t V D VI ti
(millisecs) (ft/s) (ft) (ft/s) (sec/ft)
0 4 823 0 4 823 207
200 4 823 482 5 364 186
300 5 010 751 5 937 168
650 5 528 1 797 7 610 131
1 150 6 516 3 747 9 523 105
1 450 7 277 5 349 10 377 96
1 700 7 769 6 604 16 153 62
1 850 8 753 8 097 11 209 89
2 050 9 022 9 248 13 031 77
2 200 9 350 10 285 9 402 106
2 350 9 354 10 991 10 383 96
3 100 9 613 14 900 11 415 88
5 000 10 335 25 837
Interpretation
As stated, overpressured shales have lower interval velocities and therefore greater ITTs than
normally pressured shales at the same depth. As shown in Figure 2.7, the normal shale
compaction trend line on the ITT depth plot decreases with depth. The increase in ITT away from
the normal trend line in Figure 2.7 indicates the presence of abnormal pressures. From the
seismic ITT plot (stepped profile), the top of the abnormal pressures would probably be estimated
to be at 7 500 ft to 8 200 ft. When the well was drilled, the top of the abnormal pressures was
found to be around 6 600 ft.
There is a certain amount of variation surrounding the types of scales to use for plotting ITT data.
The format used in Figure 2.8 assumes the normal compaction trend is a straight line on semi-
logarithmic scales. This method is recommended by Fertl, as it enables ITT data to be directly
compared with other pressure indicators that are plotted using the same linear depth scale
(composite plots). Alternatively, Pennebaker suggested the normal compaction trend is
represented by a straight line on log-log scales. An example plot of this format is shown in Figure
2.8.
Page 56 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Both the semi-log and log-log plots of ITT versus depth will show approximately the same top of
abnormal pressures. A major difference between the two methods arises when the plots are used
to estimate the magnitude of the abnormal pressures. Charts relating the magnitude of formation
pressures to some function of the ‘departure’ of the observed ITT values from the extrapolated
normal ITT values are available for both methods. For the semi-log plot, the difference between
the observed and normal ITT values is used to estimate formation pressures from a chart such as
the one shown in Figure 2.9. For the log-log plot, Pennebaker presented a chart that required the
ratio of observed ITT to normal ITT in order to estimate the magnitude of the abnormal pressures,
as shown in Figure 2.10.
The two methods of plotting ITT data require entirely separate empirically derived charts to
estimate the magnitude of abnormal pressures. Failure to use the correct chart when estimating
formation pressures will result in inaccurate data.
Different geological areas have vastly different correlations between ITT departure and formation
pressure (refer to Figure 2.10). Obtain the correct correlation for the area being investigated and
then determine a new correlation for the area of interest. This can only be done using actual well
data on a regional basis and with the assistance of the geologists and geophysicists. In
completely unexplored areas, this may be challenging.
Page 57 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.7 Seismic and Sonic ITT Versus Depth

Plots for Abnormally Pressured Well
Page 58 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.8 Log-log Plot of Seismic Interval Transit Time
Page 59 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Another major challenge in interpreting seismic ITT plots is the placing of the normal compaction
trend line. Referring to Figure 2.7, it would be a challenge to determine the exact position and
gradient of the normal compaction trend line from the seismic data alone. The non-shale
lithologies affect the data considerably and even with the actual sonic log from the well
overplotted, the correct position of the normal compaction trend line is still open to debate. One
solution to this problem is to make numerous seismic ITT (and sonic log ITT, if available) plots for
the region being investigated. We may then determine the position and gradient of an average
normal compaction trend for the region.
A discussion of other challenges associated with the interpretation of seismic ITT plots are further
discussed in relation to the sonic log plots in Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling (Section
2.5).
Figure 2.9 ITT Departure versus Formation Pressure Gradient

To summarize, seismic ITT data may be of use in determining the existence of overpressures at
the planned well location. Depending on the degree of knowledge of compaction trends/formation
pressure relationships for the area, the seismic ITT data may be used to estimate the magnitude
of formation pressures. A lack of indications of abnormal pressures from the seismic ITT date
does not necessarily indicate that abnormal pressures do not exist. Include the local
geophysicists and geologists when constructing and interpreting seismic ITT plots.
Page 60 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.10 ITT Ratio Versus Formation Pressure Gradient

Identifying Shallow Gas Hazards
Detailed high-resolution seismic surveys as well as conventional seismic data are used to identify
potential gas bearing zones at shallow depths by using a technique known as ‘bright spot’
analysis. The high-resolution seismic data are acquired over a survey grid with perhaps 500 ft
between seismic lines, with the grid covering an area of a few square kilometers around a
proposed well location. The data are processed to produce detailed seismic sections usually
down to a maximum depth in the region of 3 000 ft.
Gas-bearing formations may produce large amplitude anomalies on the seismic reflection traces
of the seismic section. These larger amplitudes (relative to the other seismic reflections) are
caused by strong seismic reflections due to the velocity impedance contrast between the
gas-bearing formation and the overlying formations. These amplitude anomalies appear visually
on the seismic section as bright areas. The lateral extent of the bright spots can be mapped on a
horizontal section, or sections, and the area of the proposed well location examined in detail.
Depending on results, an option is to move the well location to avoid drilling into a shallow gas
zone as shown by a bright spot.
The high-resolution seismic technique cannot usually detect a gas sand that is less than 5 to 10 ft
thick, although such a thickness of gas accumulation may be enough to cause a shallow gas
blowout. Also, the absence of bright spots does not mean there will be no shallow gas and
conversely, bright spots do not always contain gas. It is wise to avoid drilling through any bright
spots.
Page 61 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Once the well location has been finalized, the drilling engineer liaises closely with the
geophysicists and geologists to produce a drilling engineering hazard log over the depths covered
by the shallow seismic survey. An example hazard log is shown in Figure 2.11. However,
formation pressures for shallow gas formations cannot be predicted from the seismic data.
Shallow gas bearing formations may be overpressured, though this is not often the case.
2.3.3 Summary
Reliable formation pressure data is important and is to be stressed. The well planning DE will use
the most accurate pressure data that is available under the circumstances.
Pressure data from offset wells is also often used to predict the pore pressure profile for well
planning. Direct pressure measurements such as those from wireline formation testers, drillstem
tests and well kicks give more accurate data than pressures derived from well logs.
Seismic methods of pressure prediction are a secondary prediction method to be used in the
absence of offset well data. Occasionally, seismic analysis may be needed to confirm the data
from offset wells, although there is no guarantee this will be successful.
Page 62 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.11 Example of Drilling Hazard Log Over Shallow Section
Page 63 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2.4 Formation Pressure Evaluation While Drilling

2.4.1 General
The aim of formation pressure evaluation while drilling is to determine the appropriate mud weight
to contain any formation pore pressures encountered, while maximizing rates of penetration and
minimizing the hazards of lost circulation and drill string differential sticking. To achieve this,
formation properties have to be closely monitored in order to detect any changes that may
indicate the transition from a normally pressured zone to an abnormally pressured zone or vice
versa.
Abnormally pressured zones may exhibit several of the following properties when compared to
normally pressured zones at the same depths.
 Greater porosities.
 Greater temperatures.
 Lower formation water salinity.
 Lower bulk densities.
 Lower shale resistivities.
 Larger interval velocities.
 Hydrocarbon saturations may be different (i.e., greater saturation).
Any measurable parameter which reflects the changes in these properties may be used as a
means of evaluating formation pressures. The parameters commonly used to evaluate formation
pressures while drilling are listed in Table 2.1. Properties also vary with differing lithology. It is
important to account for lithological variations when interpreting changes in drilling and mud
parameters.
As the aim of formation pressure evaluation while drilling is to reduce the risk of taking well kicks,
this section concentrates on the techniques used to achieve this. The pressure evaluation
techniques in Table 2.1 associated with kicks are not discussed here.
2.4.2 Drilling Parameters
Rate of Penetration
Rate of Penetration (ROP) varies with the weight on the bit, rotary speed, bit type and size,
hydraulics, drilling fluid properties and formation characteristics. If the Weight on Bit (WOB),
rotary speed, bit type, mud density and hydraulics are held constant, then the ROP in shales will
decrease uniformly with depth. This is due to the normal compaction increase in shales with
depth. The undercompaction present in transition and abnormally pressured zones, together with
the reduction in differential pressures across the bottom of the hole, result in an increase in
penetration rate. However, slower penetration rates have often been observed in the cap rock
(pressure seal) overlying transition zones.
The increase in ROP on drilling into a transition zone can be best seen on a plot of ROP versus
depth. The average ROP over 1 to 5 ft depth increments (depending on whether the drilling is
slow or fast) is plotted in Figure 2.12. A normal compaction trend can be established in shales as
shown. A new trend line is established for each new bit run. An increase in penetration rate away
from the normal compaction trend may indicate abnormal pressures provided that the drilling and
mud parameters, and lithology, remain constant.
Page 64 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.12 Example Showing Increase in Penetration Rate on

Entering an Abnormal Pressure Zone
Complications arise due to lithology changes and bit dulling. Sandstone usually drills much faster
than shales. This is usually shown by a sharp increase in ROP as the sandstone is penetrated.
This effect, known as a ‘drilling break’ can be seen in Figure 2.13 at the point indicated as the
“top of overpressures”. The normal compaction trend is typically established over the shale
sections.
Flow checks are generally performed after drilling breaks even if the estimated pore pressure
gradient is less than the mud weight. Occasionally, the transition zone may be a few feet thick if
there is a very good pressure seal.
Page 65 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.13 Effect of Lithology Variation on Penetration Rate

Bit dulling can also mask penetration rate changes due to pore pressure increases. A comparison
of ROP curves in an overpressured section for a dull bit and a sharp bit are shown in Figure 2.14.
The dull bit continues to show the normal compaction trend in the transition zone while the sharp
bit clearly shows a gradual increase in ROP. The dull bit ROP may even show a decrease in the
overpressured zone if the bit is very worn and close to being pulled.
In practice, drilling parameters are rarely held constant, as they are purposefully varied in order to
maximize the penetration rate. ROP curves alone tend to be of limited use in identifying
overpressured zones. Additional information when used in conjunction with other abnormal
pressure indicators may be provided.
Drilling Exponents
From the preceding discussion on ROP curves, it is clear a method of accounting for the effect of
drilling parameters is a better choice in order to make ROP a better indicator of abnormal
pressures. The “d-exponent” attempts to achieve this.
Page 66 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.14 Effect of Bit Condition on Penetration Rate

When Drilling into an Overpressured Zone
d-Exponent
In 1965, Bingham proposed a generalized drilling rate equation to relate certain drilling
parameters:
d
ROP  WOB 
a  (Equation 2-3)
N  B 
Where:
ROP = penetration rate (ft/min)
N = rotary speed (rpm)
B = bit diameter (ft)
WOB = weight on bit (lb)
a = rock matrix strength constant (dimensionless)
d = formation drillability exponent (dimensionless)
Jorden and Shirley rewrote Equation 2-3 for “d”, the drillability exponent. They inserted constants
to allow the use of more common oilfield units and let the matrix strength constant, “a”, equal 1.
Page 67 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
This removed the need to derive values for the matrix strength constant, but made d-exponent
lithology dependent:
ROP
log
d 60N (Equation 2-4)
12WOB
log
10 6 B
Where:
d = drillability exponent (d-exponent) (dimensionless)
ROP = penetration rate (ft/hr)
B = bit diameter (in)
WOB = weight on bit (lb)
6
Note: The constant 10 is simply a scaling factor inserted in the equation in order to give values
of d in a convenient workable range, usually around 1,0 to 3,0.
In constant lithology, d-exponent will increase with depth as the ROP decreases due to the
increased compaction and differential pressures across the bottom of the hole. When an
overpressured zone is penetrated, compaction and differential pressure will decrease and will
result in a decrease in d-exponent. The d-exponent is related to the differential pressure at the
bottom of the hole which in turn is dependent on pore pressure.
Corrected d-exponent
Since the differential pressure across the bottom of the hole is also affected by the mud weight,
then changes in the mud weight will produce unwanted changes in d-exponent. Rehm and
McClendon proposed the following correction to the d-exponent to account for mud weight
variations:
FPGN
dc  d x (Equation 2-5)
ECD
Where:
dc = corrected or modified d-exponent (dimensionless)
FPGN = normal formation pressure gradient (ppg)
ECD = equivalent circulating density (ppg)
This correction has no theoretical basis but has been successfully used worldwide. The response
of d-exponent in overpressure is shown in Figure 2.16.
The dc-exponent may be plotted with either semi-log or linear co-ordinate axes. Either system will
produce an approximately linear, normal compaction trend line, as shown in Figure 2.15. In
practice, the semi-log co-ordinate system gives a more proficient data display (values of dc are
usually in the range 0,5 to 2,0) and is a better format for making formation pressure estimates
from dc-exponent.
Commence a dc-exponent plot as soon as drilling begins. Calculate values at 1 to 5 ft intervals,
depending on penetration rate. This is usually done automatically by the mudlogger’s computer
and displayed as required. The values may also be plotted automatically to enable trends to be
spotted early.
Page 68 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
It is often challenging to precisely establish the normal dc trend line due to scatter in the dc values
calculated. This variation in dc values is mainly caused by:
Lithology
The d-exponent increases with depth and compaction in constant lithology. This implies d-
exponent is mainly applicable to shales. Changes in lithology will cause changes in the value of
dc. If the lithology change is relatively minor, such as silty shales, then a slight decrease in d c
values may be observed which may not affect the overall trend measurably. Cuttings analysis
helps to identify ‘true’ shale points for use in establishing the normal trend if the d c values show a
large scatter.
Figure 2.15 Diagram Showing Typical Response of Corrected

d-exponent in Transition and Overpressured Zones
Page 69 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.16 Normal Diagrams Showing

Typical dc-exponent Responses
For major lithological variations, such as interbedded sandstone/shale, the normal trend is
developed through the shale sections only. The increased ROP in sand sections will give sharply
decreased dc values. (Normal trend lines developed for other lithologies are of little use in
Page 70 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
overpressure evaluation and may only serve to confuse matters.) The message here is lithology
variations are taken into account when interpreting dc-exponent plots. The response of dc in
differing lithologies is shown in Figure 2.16 (a) and (b).
Hydraulics
Changes in drilling hydraulics may produce changes in dc-exponent. This also applies to
formations that are susceptible to jetting. Therefore, it is often very challenging to establish a
normal dc trend in soft, unconsolidated sediments, such as those commonly drilled in offshore top
hole sections.
Bits
The different drilling actions of different types of bits, i.e., mill tooth or insert, can cause variations
and trend shifts in dc.
Sometimes a ‘smoothed’ curve is plotted to account for trend shifts as shown in Figure 2.16 (c)
and (d). Changes in hole size will also produce a trend shift in dc.
The effect of bit wear is to produce an increase in dc values towards the end of the bit run, as
shown in Figure 2.16 (e). The new bit will result in a new dc trend that continues along the
previous trend provided it is the same type of bit and none of the other parameters have varied.
The effect of drilling into an overpressured zone as the bit dulls is shown in Figure 2.16 (f). A dull
bit may mask the decrease in dc, which would be expected if the bit was fresh. In extreme cases,
bit dulling may totally mask or even produce an increase in dc values even though an
overpressured zone has been penetrated.
Two further noteworthy phenomena that may cause difficulty in interpreting the plots are:
Unconformities and Disconformities

The presence of an unconformity and/or disconformity in the geological age of formations being
drilled will often change the character of the normal trend line. The different compaction histories
and sedimentary conditions of the formations above and below an unconformity or disconformity
may result in not only a shifted normal dc trend line, but also a change in slope. Establish a new
trend line after drilling through an unconformity or disconformity.
Page 71 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.17 Diagram Showing dc-exponent Response to

Over-compaction Caused by Ice Sheet Loading
Ice Sheet Compaction

Ice sheet compaction can often cause a good normal compaction trend to be established at
shallow depths in top-hole sections. This is due to the increased compaction of the near surface
sediments caused by the weight of a once present overlying ice sheet. This may lead to an
apparently normal dc trend being developed through dc values that are too large. The compacting
influence of the ice sheet is often dissipated after the first few hundred meters and the
dc-exponent then appears to decrease to a new normal trend, falsely indicating an increase in
pore pressure. This effect is shown in Figure 2.17.
The Calculation of Formation Pressures Using dc
Once the normal compaction trend has been firmly established on the d c-exponent plot, then dc
values that decrease away from this line may indicate abnormal formation pressures. This is
provided there have been no important changes in lithology or in any of the other required
parameters.
The Ratio Method

The magnitude of the formation pressure can be related to the dc deviation on the semi-log plot
using the “ratio method”:
dcn
FPGo  FPGn x (Equation 2-6)
dco
Where:
FPGo = actual formation pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft or ppg)
FPGn = normal formation pressure gradient (psi/ft or ppg)
dco = observed corrected d-exponent at depth of interest
dcn = expected corrected d-exponent on normal trend line at depth
of interest
Page 72 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.18 Example of Formation Pressure Determination

from the dc-exponent Plot Using the ‘Ratio Method’
Equation 2-6 is only valid for the semi-log dc plots as it is assumed dc is an exponential function of
depth. By rearranging the above equation into:
FPGn
dco  dcn x (Equation 2-7)
FPGo
and substituting known values of FPG n and dc at differing depths, we can calculate a series of
values of dco, equivalent to differing values of formation pressure gradient, FPG p. These series of
values of dco can be plotted on the semi-log dc plot as lines parallel to the normal dc trend line.
The formation pressure gradient at any desired depth can then be estimated directly from the dc
plot. Figure 2.18 shows an example dc plot with equivalent formation pressure gradient lines
drawn in.
The ratio method is a very simple method of making formation pressure estimates from d c-
exponent. It ignores the effect of the variable overburden gradient (refer to Overburden Pressure
in Section 1.1.1, sub-section 2), which controls compaction trends. This effect is reflected in the
dc-exponent trend, but is not accurately defined by it. An alternative method of calculating
formation pressures from the dc plot is the equivalent depth method.
Equivalent Depth Method

Due to the increase in compaction with depth, the formation matrix stress also increases, and the
formation becomes harder to drill. In overpressured formations the compaction and matrix
stresses are less than would be usually expected at that depth. The equivalent depth method
attempts to relate these values to the depth at which they would be normal.
Page 73 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The method assumes the matrix stress (grain to grain contact pressure) is equal at all depths
having the same value of dc. Matrix stress (M) is related to pore pressure (Pf) and the overburden
pressure (S) as shown by Equation 1-6 (refer to Pore Pressure in Section 1.1.1, sub-section 3).
This equation can be rearranged to give:
Pf = S – M (Equation 2-8)
This equation holds at any depth. Therefore, referring to the example dc plot in Figure 2.19, the
actual FPGo at the depth of interest (Do) is given by:
P S  Mo
FPGo  fo  o (Equation 2-9)
Do Do  Do
Mo
FPG o  OPG o 
Do
Where:
OPGo = overburden pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
Mo = matrix stress at depth of interest (psi)
The overburden pressure gradient is known because it is continually estimated by the
Mudloggers and updated from wireline formation density or sonic logs. (The overburden gradient
is required for estimating fracture pressures as well as for making pore pressure estimates.) The
value of the matrix stress at the depth of interest is unknown.
A line is then constructed vertically upwards from the value of d c at the depth of interest until it
crosses the normal dc trend line at ‘the equivalent depth’ (De), as shown in Figure 2.20. At this
equivalent depth, both the pore pressure and the overburden pressure are known. Equation 2-8
can be solved for the matrix stress (Me) at the equivalent depth (De):
Me = Se – Pfe (Equation 2-10)
In terms of gradients:
Mg S e Pfe
   OPGe  FPGe
De De De
Me = De (OPGe – FPGe) (Equation 2-11)

Where:
OPGe = overburden gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
FPGe = formation pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft) which also
equals the normal formation pressure gradient at the equivalent
depth FPGNE (psi/ft)
Page 74 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.19 Example Showing the Equivalent Depth Method for

Formation Pressure Determination from dc-exponent Plots
Since the matrix stress at the depth of interest and equivalent depth are considered equal (equal
dc values), then substituting Equation 2-11 into Equation 2-9 gives:
De
FPGo  OPGo  (OPGe  FPGne ) (Equation 2-12)
Do
Where:
FPGo = formation pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
OPGe = overburden pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
FPGne = normal formation pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
Do = depth of interest (ft)
De = equivalent depth (depth at which dc is equal to value at DO) (ft)
Note: Equation 2-12 can be used directly with gradients in lb/gal or psi/ft and depths in meters
or feet.
The equivalent depth method has been successfully used to estimate formation pressures from
both semi-log and linear scale dc plots. Another situation occurs when the equivalent depth of a
particular overpressured formation is found to be above the rig floor. This will be the case if
overpressures are developed at relatively shallow depths. The method relies on determining the
intersection point of a vertical line with the normal compaction trend line. It therefore becomes
Page 75 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
inaccurate when the normal compaction trend line is very steep, as is usually the case on the
semi-log dc plot.
The Eaton Method

The most accurate estimates of formation pressure from dc-exponent are considered to be
obtained from the Eaton equation. This empirical equation was again developed from the basic
relationship between pore pressure, overburden pressure, and matrix stress (Equation 2-8). For
normal pressure conditions:
Mn = So – Pfn (Equation 2-13)
Eaton then introduced a term to relate the dc-exponent (drilling rate) response in overpressures to
the reduction in matrix stress:
1,20
D 
Mo  Mn  co  (Equation 2-14)
 dcn 
Combining Equations (2-13) and (2-14) gives:
1,20
d 
Mo  (So  Pfn )  co  (Equation 2-15)
 dcn 
Rewriting Equation 2-13 for an abnormally pressured situation gives:

Mo = So – Pfo (Equation 2-16)
Substituting Equation 2-16 into Equation 2-15 then gives the Eaton equation:
1,20
D 
Pfo  So  (So  Pfn )  co  (Equation 2-17)
 dcn 
Dividing through by the depth (D), gives the equation in terms of gradients:
1,20
Pfo So  So  Pfn   dco 
   
Do Do  Do Do   dcn 
1,20
D 
FPGo  OPGo  OPGo  FPGn  co  (Equation 2-18)
 dcn 
Where:
FPGo, FPGn, OPGo, dco and dcn are the same terms as explained for Equations 2-6 and 2-12.
By rearranging Equation 2-18 and substituting known values of FPG n, dcn and OPG, a series of
dco lines equivalent to differing values of FPGo can be plotted (in a similar manner to that
previously explained for the Ratio Method). An example of this construction is shown in Figure
2.20. Formation pressure gradients can then be read directly from the d c plot.
Eaton originally developed the equation for use in estimating formation pressures from shale
resistivity plots (refer to Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling [Section 2.5]), but found it
applied equally to corrected d-exponent. The value of the exponent, 1,20 was empirically derived
from actual well data.
All the methods for estimating formation pressures from dc-exponent plots rely on correct
placement of the normal compaction trend. The challenges in achieving this have previously been
discussed and emphasize identification of overpressured zones based on d c-exponent
calculations alone may result in inaccuracies. Check other abnormal pressure indicators, which
Page 76 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
are often more basic in nature than dc-exponent calculations. These indicators are then compared
to any formation pressure conclusions drawn from the dc plot.
Drilling factors that are not accounted for by dc-exponent are drilling hydraulics, bit tooth efficiency
(bit wear) and matrix strength (lithology dependent). The relationship between ROP and the
drilling parameters are not as simple as is implied by the dc-exponent equation.
These factors have led to the development of more refined drilling exponents in which attempts
have been made to model the drilling and formation interactions more closely. In particular, mud
logging companies have developed their own drilling exponents from which they make formation
pressure estimates.
The theory of these drilling exponent methods will not be discussed in detail here as their
formulae are proprietary and not generally available. The methods still rely on estimating a
normal compaction trend and spotting deviations from it caused by pore pressure changes and
not by lithology or drilling changes.
Other Drilling Rate Methods
There are a number of other drilling rate methods for estimating formation pressures. However,
these methods are generally more complex than d-exponent methods.
Page 77 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.20 Example Showing Formation Pressure Determination from the

dc-exponent Plot Using Lines Constructed from the Eaton Equation
Page 78 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Normalized Penetration Rate

This method was developed in 1980 by Prentice from work done originally by Vidrine and Benit.
The method uses a drilling rate equation to ‘normalize’ the effects of the variables controlling
ROP. The only variable not normalized is differential pressure across the bottom of the hole. If the
ECD is then considered to be fairly constant over short intervals of the hole, a change in
‘normalized’ penetration rate reflects a change in formation pressure.
Figure 2.21 Example Showing Normalized Penetration Rate

Method form Determination of Formation Pressures
As drilling proceeds, a plot of normalized penetration rate against depth is constructed. The
observed penetration rate is mathematically corrected to the normalized penetration rate by
applying arbitrarily chosen normal parameters according to the equation:
Page 79 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

 W  m   Nn   ΔP Q 
ROPn  ROPo x  n  x
 
 x  bitn n 
  ΔP Q  (Equation 2-19)
 Wo  m   No   bito o 
Where:
ROP = penetration rate (ft/hr or m/hr)
W = weight on bit (lb)
Pbit = bit pressure drop (psi)
Q = mud flowrate (gallons per minute [gpm])
m = “threshold” bit weight (weight needed to initiate formation failure) (lb)
 = rotary exponent
and the subscripts
n = “normal” values
o = observed values
Values of  and m are given by Prentice. If the “normal” conditions are chosen so most of a bit
run can be drilled at these conditions, then no corrections will be needed and ROPn will equal
ROPo. Each bit run is treated as an individual unit and is plotted up as shown in the example in
Figure 2.21. Changes in mud weight are also plotted separately.
Drilling trends are fitted to each bit run, or part bit run, at constant ECD, as shown in the example.
Provided that the ECD and formation pressure remain constant, the bit will dull and the ROP n will
follow the dulling trend. If a variance from the dulling trend is noted at constant ECD, this then
indicates either a lithology change or a change in formation pressure. Lithology changes are
generally abrupt, and easily identified. Formation pressure changes show a more gradual
deviation from the dulling trend, as shown in the example plot at approximately 9 950 ft and
10 100 ft.
Vidrine and Benit developed a graphical relationship between differential pressure across the
bottom of the hole and the percentage decrease in ROP caused by this overbalance. Using this
relationship, the extrapolated dulling trend ROP n and the observed ROPo at a particular depth are
used to estimate the actual formation pressure at that depth. The method is detailed in full by
Prentice together with worked examples and a comprehensive discussion of the theory behind
the method. The method is represented by Vidrine, Benit, and Prentiss to be the most responsive
of all methods used to indicate the changes in formation pressure.
Sigmalog
This method was developed by AGIP and Geoservices. Basically, it is a plot of a calculated rock
strength parameter versus depth. The method is based on the following drilling rate equation
(developed by AGIP):
WOB 0.5 . N0.25

σt  (Equation 2-20)
B.ROP0.25
where √t = “raw” rock strength parameter and WOB, N, B and ROP are as previously defined.
The ‘raw’ rock strength is then corrected to the rock strength parameter, o, using experimentally
derived relationships to account for depth and bottomhole differential pressure (assuming a
normal formation pressure gradient). The Sigmalog is then constructed by plotting o versus
depth.
Page 80 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
In normally pressured formations, o will increase with increasing depth and compaction. A
normal compaction trend can be established and a decrease in o away from the normal trend
will indicate an increase in formation pressure. When this occurs, the relationship used to correct
t to o is reworked to determine the true bottomhole differential pressure (not the assumed
one). The formation pressure can then be calculated from the differential pressure and the ECD
for the mud weight in use.
Factors such as faults, unconformities, poor bit efficiency, and coring cause ‘shifts’ in the normal
trend. All the normal trends have the same slope, and the shifts of the trend lines are proportional
to the shifts in the values of o. Correct shifting of the normal trend lines is of prime importance
in calculating formation pressures from the Sigmalog. Despite this problem, it is claimed Sigmalog
is an excellent formation pressure evaluation tool and can be applied both in shale and non-shale
lithologies. The Sigmalog is commonly used by Geoservices to estimate formation pressures.
Other Methods
Several other methods of formation pressure evaluation from drilling rate equations have been
put forward. These include methods by Combs, Zoeller, and Bourgoyne. These are not discussed
here but are referenced in case of interest to the reader.
Hole Characteristics
Drag and Torque

Drag is the excess hook load over the free-hanging load required to move the drill string up the
hole. Drag may be caused by bit and stabilizer balling, dog legs, poor hole cleaning and also by
overpressure effects in shales. Overpressured shales often behave plastically and creep into the
borehole. This reduces the wellbore diameter and will cause an increase in drag as the bit and
stabilizers are moved up through the section.
In an underbalanced drilling situation, an increased volume of cuttings may come into the
wellbore. This may result in an increase in drag when picking up the drill string to make a
connection, especially if the cuttings are not circulated above the drill collars prior to picking up.
Usual drag after drilling a new hole is usually in the order of 10 000 to 20 000 lb, depending on
the hole and Bottomhole Assembly (BHA) geometries. Consistent drag values greater than this
may indicate borehole instability caused by abnormal pressures. In deviated holes consistently
greater drag will be commonly seen.
Torque usually increases gradually with depth due to the increase in wall-to-wall contact between
the drill string and borehole. If underbalanced conditions exist, then an increase in torque may be
observed due to excess cuttings entering the hole. A reduced wellbore diameter caused by
overpressured shales may also result in an increased torque, especially if full gauge stabilizers
are being used.
Increased torque resulting from underbalanced conditions is virtually unseen when the pressure
differential into the wellbore is less than 1 ppg equivalent pressure gradient. If an increase in
torque indicates underbalanced condition, then a concurrent increases in drag and hole fill (see
below) may also be expected.
Torque can be useful in detecting large increases in pore pressures, for example when crossing a
fault line into overpressured formations. Sudden large increases in torque can also be caused by
a locked cone on the bit, a sudden change in formation type, and by stabilizers ‘hanging up’ on
hard stringers.
Neither torque nor drag are considered to be valid pore pressure indicators when drilling high-
angle deviated holes. Also, increases in torque due to abnormal pressures are challenging to
distinguish from the expected torque increase with depth. When drilling from a floating rig, the
vessel motion and varying offset from the wellhead tend to produce important torque fluctuations
that make interpretation very challenging.
Page 81 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Hole Fill
Hole fill after making a connection or after a trip out of the hole may indicate abnormal pressures.
As discussed above, overpressured shales may squeeze into the wellbore and reduce its
diameter. Then, as the bit is run in the hole to bottom after a connection or trip, it removes the
shale which is pushed to the bottom of the hole. Cavings caused by underbalanced conditions
may also enter the wellbore during a connection or a trip and cause hole fill. Figure 2.33 shows
representations of typical shale cavings caused by underbalanced conditions.
Hole fill may also be the result of poor hole cleaning caused by poor mud properties, or by not
circulating all the cuttings out of the hole prior to tripping.
2.4.3 Drilling Mud Parameters
Gas Levels
Hydrocarbon gases enter the mud system from differing sources during the drilling of a well. The
mud logging unit analyses cuttings from the return mud stream to determine if hydrocarbons are
present. There is no quantitative correlation between measured gas levels and formation
pressure. Changes in gas levels can be accounted for by relating them to the actual drilling
operation in progress (drilling, tripping,) and the mud weight in use. Tentative pore pressure
estimates may then be made.
The main sources of gas in the mud system are:
 Gas liberated from drilled cuttings.
 Gas flowing into the wellbore due to underbalanced conditions.
The gas levels from these sources are dependent upon the formation gas saturations, the mud
weight and the particular drilling operation.
Gas levels are categorized as follows:
Background Gas
Background gas is the total level of gas extracted from the return mud stream while drilling
ahead. It originates primarily from the unit volume of formation cut by the bit. Hydrocarbons are
often generated within shales and migrate to more porous formations such as sandstones where
they may be trapped. Gas in shale cuttings is released into the mud stream due to the reduction
in pressure as the cuttings are circulated up the hole.
If hydrocarbons are present in any porous formations drilled, there will be relatively large levels of
background gas in the mud stream. If the mud weight in use causes an overbalance, there may
be little, if any, entry of gas into the mud. The overbalance will cause the mud filtrate to ‘flush’ the
gas away from the wellbore.
In underbalanced drilling conditions, gas may enter the mud at a rate that depends on the
permeability of the formations being drilled. Shales may show an increase in background gas
levels, due to an increase in cavings caused by the underbalanced conditions. Background gas
levels usually show a gradual increase as a transition zone to abnormal pressures is drilled.
Background gas cannot be used quantitatively to estimate formation pressures since the levels
depend on mud circulation rate, efficiency of gas extraction from the return mud stream (gas trap
efficiency) and gas composition. If mud properties, drilling conditions and lithology remain fairly
constant, then increasing background gas levels may well indicate the formation pressure
gradient is approaching, or possibly exceeding the mud weight gradient.
Connection Gas
When circulation is stopped to make a connection, the bottomhole pressure of the mud column is
reduced by an amount equal to the annulus pressure loss, i.e., the effective mud weight is
Page 82 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
reduced from the ECD to the static mud weight. This reduction in pressure may be enough to
allow a small amount of gas to be produced into the mud column. This is known as connection
gas. Connection gas may also be caused by ‘swabbing’ when picking up the drill string to make a
connection.
When this gas reaches the surface, it usually appears as a peak above the background gas level
on the total gas trace recorded in the mud logging unit. Connection gas peaks are generally short
and sharp depending on the ‘bottoms up’ time, i.e., the longer the bottoms up time, the wider the
peak will be. However, the magnitude of these variations may be masked by other factors and so
are evaluated along with other indicators such as the d-exponent.
Connection and background gas levels can be correlated with the mud weight to give an accurate
estimate of the formation pressure. This is shown in Figure 2.22. As the pore pressure
approaches the dynamic bottomhole pressure, connection gas peaks begin to appear As the pore
pressure increases further, the background gas level also begins to increase and the connection
gas peaks become greater. It is likely that at this point the pore pressure slightly exceeds the
dynamic bottomhole pressure. A slight increase in the mud weight at this point then causes a
sudden decrease in the background gas and the connection gas peaks disappear, indicating that
a slight static overbalance has been established.
One major challenge with this type of interpretation is to distinguish connection gas peaks caused
by effective mud weight reduction due to stopping circulating from gas swabbed into the wellbore
when the drill string is picked up. Swabbing effects are much more challenging to quantify than
simple reductions from the ECD to static mud weight. This may result in greater than actual pore
pressure estimates being made, especially if the connection gas peaks observed are entirely due
to swabbing. If used consistently, connection procedures that minimize swabbing will aid in the
interpretation of connection gas levels.
Figure 2.22 Diagram Showing Mud Gas Levels as an

Indicator of Formation Pressures
Page 83 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Trip Gas (TG)

TG is produced by the same mechanism as connection gas, but the effect of swabbing due to
pulling the drill string from the hole will generally be greater. This is because the cuttings will have
been circulated from the annulus and pipe speeds will be greater.
A TG peak will be observed on circulating bottoms up after a round trip or non-drilling operation.
Swabbing, due to pulling the drill string out of the hole, may cause all of the open-hole section to
be underbalanced. The observed trip gas may not come from the bottom of the hole but from
somewhere above in the open-hole section, and two or more gas peaks may be observed. This
effect may also appear for connections if there is swabbing or the hole is underbalanced. Lag
time calculations are used in locating the depths/formations causing the gas peaks.
Due to the complex causes of TG, it may only be used qualitatively in estimating formation
pressures. The early onset of TG after circulation is resumed may indicate that much of the open-
hole is slightly underbalanced. Other abnormal pressure indicators are then compared to confirm
this.
Miscellaneous Gases
These are mainly “Kelly gas”, recirculated TG and carbide gas.
Kelly gas (also known as “Kelly cut”) is caused by air being circulated around the system from a
partly empty drill string or Kelly after a trip or connection. The air is pumped into the borehole as a
slug of mud aerated with compressed air. This enhances any gas diffusion effects from
formations to the borehole and may result in enrichment of the aerated mud with the hydrocarbon
gases. A gas peak will be recorded when this mud is circulated back to the surface.
Kelly gas due to connections is rarely seen as the Kelly is usually kept full of mud during
connections by closing the lower Kelly valve. After a trip, Kelly gas is sometimes observed (as
shown in Figure 2.23) but are distinguishable from other gas. Although indicating the presence of
hydrocarbon gases, Kelly gas is of no value for formation pressure evaluation.
Recirculated TG (or any other recirculated gas) behaves in a similar way to Kelly gas, and may
be anticipated by the Mudloggers from knowledge of the mud system total circulation time. An
example is shown in Figure 2.23.
Carbide gas is used to check the calculated total circulation time and is caused by the
Mudloggers putting calcium carbide down the drillpipe at a connection. The carbide reacts with
the water in the mud to produce acetylene, a hydrocarbon gas that is detected as a large sharp
gas peak when circulated round to surface. The circulation time can then be used to back
calculate the open-hole volume and thus to check for hole enlargement.
Evaluation of formation pressures from gas levels relies entirely on hydrocarbon gases being
present to some extent in the well being drilled. Occasionally, very “dry” holes are drilled which
may be overpressured, but show reduced background gas levels. In these wells, it is very
challenging to use gas levels as a reliable formation pressure indicator.
Page 84 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.23 Example of Mud Gas Levels Showing TG,

Kelly Gas (Kelly Cut) and Recycled TG
Page 85 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Temperature
Due to the radial flow of heat from the earth’s core to the surface, the subsurface temperature
increases with increasing depth. The geothermal gradient is the rate at which the temperature
increases with depth and is usually assumed to be constant for any given area. It has been found
the temperature gradient across abnormally pressured formations is generally larger than found
across normally pressured formations in the same area.
This phenomenon can be explained by considering the thermal conductivity of the formations.
Since water has a thermal conductivity of around one-third to one-sixth that of most formation
matrix materials, then formations with a greater water content (greater porosity) will have a lower
thermal conductivity. These formations will have a larger geothermal gradient across them.
Overpressured shales often have greater water content than usual and will have larger than
normal geothermal gradients across them.
The top of an overpressured shale may be marked by a sharp increase in geothermal gradient.
This may often be reflected by an increase in the temperature of the return mud in the flowline.
Also, the caprock immediately above a pressure transition zone often shows a reduced
geothermal gradient due to increased compaction (greater thermal conductivity) and a lower than
expected temperature at the top of the transition zone. This effect is shown in Figure 2.24. This
may be reflected in the flowline mud temperature by a reduced flowline temperature gradient. In
some cases, the flowline temperature may even fall (negative gradient) and then be followed by a
large increase as the overpressured zone is penetrated, as shown in the plot of flowline
temperature versus depth in Figure 2.25.
The example in Figure 2.25 is an idealized case. The flowline temperature very clearly reflects
the changes in formation temperature and there are no other influences on the mud temperature.
In practice, there are many other factors that affect the flowline temperature and make the
interpretation of flowline temperature plots very challenging, especially offshore. Such factors
include:
 Circulation rate.
 ROP.
 Time elapsed since the last trip (the mud in the hole heats up during a trip).
 Volume of the mud system.
 Surface treatments such as adding water, mud chemicals or weighting material.
 Ambient temperature (diurnal temperature changes, such as those encountered in desert
regions, may cause large fluctuations in flowline temperatures).
 Lithology effects (sandstones and limestones generally have greater thermal conductivities
than shales).
 Cooling effect of the sea around long marine risers.
Differing methods are used to improve the interpretation of temperature-depth plots. Surface
effects can be minimized by measuring the temperature of the mud in both the flowline and the
suction pit (mud temperature into the hole), and then plotting lagged differential temperature.
A sharp increase in differential temperatures may then indicate entry into a pressure transition
zone. The temperature trends (flowline and differential) are still found to be obscured by
discontinuities at bit trips, wiper trips and other periods with no circulation. These discontinuities
split the temperature depth plot into a series of unconnected depth segments, as shown in the left
hand curve in Figure 2.26. Since overpressure indications are based on temperature gradient
changes rather than on the magnitude of the flowline temperature, each depth segment on the
temperature - depth plot can be investigated separately for gradient changes. It may be helpful to
plot the segments end to end, disregarding the absolute temperatures, to produce a “smoothed
curve”. End to end plotting of the individual segment trend lines may be of value, but care is
required to be sure that this technique does not mask obvious gradient changes within an
Page 86 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
individual segment. The three techniques for plotting flowline temperature are shown in Figure
2.26.
Due to the many factors affecting the flowline mud temperature, it is very challenging to interpret
temperature-depth plots to evaluate formation pressures. At least, changes in the gradient of the
plots may suggest that an overpressured zone has been penetrated. It is unlikely that flowline
temperature will be the primary indication of abnormal pressures, though it may well be useful to
support other pressure indicators.
Figure 2.24 Diagram Showing Theoretical Geothermal Gradients

and Temperature Profile through an Overpressured Zone
Page 87 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.25 Diagram Showing Expected Flowline Temperature

Response on Drilling Through an Overpressured Zone
Figure 2.26 Example Flowline Temperature Plots Showing Raw

Data Plot, End-to-end Plot and Trend-to-trend Plot
Page 88 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Bottomhole Formation Temperature (BHT)

The actual formation geothermal gradient cannot be estimated from surface mud temperature
measurements. Down-hole formation temperatures are required in order to make this calculation
and they are derived from down-hole mud temperatures. This is usually done during wireline
logging runs as most logging tools contain a maximum recording thermometer. Mud temperatures
recorded from consecutive logging runs are used to predict the actual bottomhole formation
temperature, assuming that the maximum temperature is at the bottom of the hole.
When drilling, the formations in the lower section of the hole are cooled by the mud in circulation.
When circulation stops, the mud temperature begins to rise and gradually approaches the
formation temperature. It is estimated that roughly four days are required for the mud temperature
to reach equilibrium with the formation temperature. A modified Horner expression is used to
model the temperature increase with time. By extrapolating the temperature increases to infinite
time, we can estimate the formation temperature. The Horner temperature expression is:
 t  tl 
T  Tf  c x log  c  (Equation 2-21)
 tl 
Where:
T = measured temperature (°F or °C) (from each wireline logging run)
Tf = actual formation temperature (°F or °C)
c = constant
tc = circulation time at TD
tl = time since circulation stopped
A plot of T versus log ((tc + tl)/tl) results in a straight line, as shown in Figure 2.27.
At ‘infinite time’ after circulation was stopped (i.e., tl = infinity), the value of log (tc + tl)/tl) equals
zero. Extrapolating the plot to intercept the temperature axis gives the estimated actual formation
temperature, as shown in Figure 2.27. The geothermal gradients between the logging run end
points can then be calculated. Increases in the geothermal gradient may indicate the presence of
abnormal pressures.
The actual formation temperature can only be estimated at logging points. Thus, only three or
four formation temperatures can be estimated from which geothermal gradients can be
established. These gradients are thus average gradients over large depth intervals and they can
only be established after each hole section has been drilled. They are generally of little use in
pressure evaluation while drilling, but may confirm any flowline temperature trends that were
noticed earlier.
Page 89 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.27 Example “Horner” Temperature Plot for

Estimation of True BHT
Resistivity/Conductivity/Chlorides
The resistivity of a formation depends on the porosity and the dissolved salts concentration in the
formation pore water. Due to their greater pore water content, overpressured shales generally
have lower resistivities than normally pressured shales at the same depths. When using water-
based muds, an attempt can be made to monitor this formation property by measuring the mud
conductivity (conductivity is simply the inverse of resistivity).
The mud conductivity at the flowline and suction pit can be measured and a conversion made to
chlorides. An increase in the differential chlorides, known as ‘delta-chlorides’, may then indicate
abnormal pressures. It is doubtful whether an increase in mud conductivity due to the release of
pore water from drilled cuttings would be measurable. This is due to the volume of pore water
released being minute compared to the volume of mud.
Page 90 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pore water influxes from more permeable formations may be seen as changes in mud
conductivity or delta-chlorides. A warning of underbalanced conditions may be given. The system
is best suited to situations where there is a large difference between pore water and mud salinity.
In these situations, the response of differential mud conductivity is similar to that of mud gas
levels showing influx peaks at connections or a gradual increase due to underbalanced
conditions. This is shown in Figure 2.28.
Mud conductivity as an abnormal pressure indicator has many limitations. A large salinity contrast
between mud filtrate and formation fluids is required. The method is of little use in saline mud
systems, unless of course, the mud filtrate salinity is much greater than the formation water
salinity. This could be the case with saturated salt and Potassium Chloride (KCl) mud systems,
and may well result in a mirror image plot to that shown in Figure 2.28.
Figure 2.28 Example of Typical Response of Differential

Mud Conductivity/Delta Chlorides
Flowline Mud Weight
Continuous recording of the flowline mud weight will show mud density changes due to gas
cutting or formation influxes. Some influxes are not always picked up by an increase in return
mud flow or by an increase in mud pit level, especially if the influx occurs gradually due to a very
tight formation. An underbalanced situation due to abnormal pressures may be indicated by a
slight reduction in the flowline mud weight.
2.4.4 Cuttings Parameters
Shale Bulk Density
The bulk density of normally compacted shales increases with depth. Overpressured shales are
generally undercompacted and have greater porosities and lower bulk densities than would be
expected. If shale bulk density is plotted against depth as drilling progresses, then a normal
compaction trend line can be established. A decrease in shale bulk density away from the normal
Page 91 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
compaction trend line may then indicate the presence of an overpressured zone. A shale bulk
density plot is shown in Figure 2.29.
The magnitude of abnormal pressures can be calculated from shale bulk density plots using the
equivalent depth method (as described previously for d-exponent plots).
Figure 2.29 Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plot

Alternatively, empirical curves relating observed bulk density deviation from the normal trend to
formation pressure gradient can be used. Such curves are area dependent and are only used if
the correct curve is available. Use the equivalent depth method if formation pressure magnitudes
are required from shale bulk density plots.
The most common methods of measuring shale bulk density at the rigsite are:
Mud Balance
Shale cuttings are added to the mud balance cup until the balance reads 8,33 ppg with the cap
on. The cup is then topped up with fresh water and reweighed (W). The shale bulk density is then
given by:
8,33
Bulk density (SG)  (Equation 2-22)
16,66  W
Page 92 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Density Column
A graduated column of fluid is prepared from a mixture of two fluids of different densities such
that the density of the mixture varies with column height. The column is calibrated using beads of
known density which settle at different heights in the column. Selected shale cuttings are then
dropped into the column and the height at which they settle is converted to shale density using
the calibration curve. The method is illustrated in Figure 2.30.
Figure 2.30 Variable Density Column for Measuring Shale Bulk Density
The mud balance method has the advantage of being fast and simple and uses a good quantity
of cuttings to obtain a good average bulk density. The density column requires selection of
individual cuttings and multiple determinations to obtain an average density value. The mud
balance method is probably the more representative method.
Use of shale bulk densities for the detection and evaluation of formation pressures frequently has
the following limitations:
 Presence of shale gas in the cuttings decreases the bulk density values determined.
 Cavings from shallower portions of the hole may be part of the sample.
 The quality of the sample and the care taken when carrying out the density determinations.
 Formation age boundaries and unconformities may cause shifts in the normal compaction
trend line. In this case, determine individual normal compaction trends for each geological
age unit.
 Variations in the lithology, such as large carbonate content and silty and/or sandy shales,
may cause measurable variations in the bulk density determinations. The value of the plot
depends on only selecting good, clean shales as data points. The presence of heavy
minerals, such as pyrite, will increase bulk density values and may mask the onset of
abnormal pressures.
 Density measurements on cuttings from water-based muds are usually diminished due to the
absorption of water by the cuttings. Less reactive muds, such as oil-based muds and inhibited
water-based muds, will give more accurate cutting densities.
Page 93 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.31 Response of Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plots in

Overpressures Caused by Different Mechanisms
 The response of shale bulk density values in abnormal pressured zones will vary with the
type of mechanism that caused the overpressure. This is illustrated by the idealized plots
shown in Figure 2.31 As most overpressures in shales are caused by compaction
disequilibrium and aquathermal pressuring, the most common response will be a decrease in
shale bulk density at the top of an overpressured zone. (Refer to Causes of Abnormal
Formation Pressure [Section 1.4.4] for explanations of differing causes).
Despite the above limitations, shale bulk density plots are a very valuable indicator of abnormal
pressures. This plot is beneficial during the drilling of all exploration and appraisal wells.
Shale Factor
Shale factor is a measure of the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of shales. The CEC of a shale
is dependent on the montmorillonite content. This in turn depends on the degree to which
montmorillonite conversion to illite has progressed in the shale since montmorillonite has a much
greater CEC than illite (refer to Diagenesis [Section 1.4.1, sub-section 4]). The CEC is expressed
in milli-equivalents per 100 g of sample (meq/100 g), and is termed the shale factor.
The shale factor of a sample of shale cuttings is determined using the methylene blue test.
Basically, a suspension of powdered sample (in water) is titrated against a solution of methylene
blue dye of known concentration. The end point of the titration is when the sample suspension
water first turns blue. The shale factor is then calculated from:
shale = 100 x titrant x titrant (Equation 2-23)
factor sample wt vol normality
(meq/100 gm) (gm) (ml)
Pure montmorillonite clays have an elevated shale factor of around 100 meq/100 g. This is due to
+ ++
the presence of many loosely bound cations (Na , Ca ) between the clay platelets. Pure illite
+
clays, due to their tightly bound cation (K ) between clay platelets, have shale factors of 10 to
Page 94 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
40 meq/100 g. Shale factor can be used to identify the montmorillonite and illite content of shale
samples.
For abnormal pressure evaluation the use of shale factor is limited as it is dependent on the
mechanisms that may cause overpressures.
Shale factor decreases with depth as montmorillonite is converted to illite. In overpressured
intervals caused by compaction disequilibrium (refer to Compaction Disequilibrium) clay
dewatering has been restricted, which in turn restricts montmorillonite diagenesis to illite. A larger
proportion of montmorillonite will be present in the overpressured zone, resulting in an increase in
shale factor. This is shown in Figure 2.32 (a).
Overpressures caused by clay diagenesis (montmorillonite dehydration) will show a decrease in
shale factor on entering the overpressured zone. The proportion of montmorillonite has been
reduced by conversion to illite, with the release of large amounts of water. This causes increased
pore pressure if water escape is restricted. This shale factor response is shown in Figure 2.32 (b).
Since compaction disequilibrium is thought to be the major contributing mechanism to
overpressure development in shales, the shale factor response of Figure 2.32 (a) will probably be
the most dominant. The contribution of other overpressure mechanisms will complicate the
interpretation of shale factor plots. This often results in shale factor being of little use in the
detection of abnormal pressures.
Figure 2.32 Shale Factor/Depth Response to Overpressure Caused by

Compaction Disequilibrium and Clay Diagenesis
Cuttings Character
The presence of cavings in drilled cuttings samples is an indication that the borehole wall is
unstable. Cavings are much larger than usually seen drilled cuttings and are readily seen at the
shale shakers. They are thought to be produced by two different mechanisms which result in
cavings of different shapes and sizes. These two mechanisms are:
Page 95 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Underbalanced drilling.
 Borehole stress relief.
In underbalanced drilling conditions, the pore pressure in the formation adjacent to the borehole
is greater than the pressure in the borehole. In impermeable formations, such as shales, the
pressure differential due to an underbalance may be great enough to exceed the tensile strength
of the shales. The shale will thus fail in tension and form cavings which fall into the borehole.
These cavings are usually long, splintery, concave and delicate, as illustrated in Figure 2.33 (a).
The natural stresses that are present in the earth's crust vary regionally and with depth and
lithology. Drilling a hole through formations will relieve some of these stresses depending on the
hole inclination and direction in relation to the principal formation stresses. The result may be that
the formation stresses at the borehole wall are greater than the stress (pressure) due to the mud
column. The borehole wall may then fail either in compression from vertical stresses or in tension
due to horizontal stresses, or a combination of both. Cavings produced in this manner tend to be
blocky and rectangular in shape, as shown in Figure 2.33 (b).
Figure 2.33 Characterization of Shale Cavings Caused by

Underbalanced Conditions and Stress Relief
The presence of cavings in cuttings samples will not necessarily mean the hole is underbalanced.
Examine all overpressure indicators to confirm whether abnormal pressures are being
encountered. Even if it cannot be confirmed the hole is underbalanced, you may still increase the
mud weight to regain hole stability, and avoid the challenges caused by excessive amounts of
cuttings/cavings being present in the hole.
The BP “Cavings Field Guide” is a good reference on this subject.
Other Methods
Several other methods of formation pressure evaluation based on measurements on shale
cuttings have been developed. These include shale cuttings resistivity, filtration rate of shale
cuttings slurry, filtrate (shale water) color index, shale cuttings moisture index, redox and pH
potential of cuttings slurry and slurry filtrate. These methods are fairly complex and time
consuming and have not gained wide acceptance as rigsite techniques.
Page 96 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2.4.5 Measurement While Drilling Techniques

MWD tools provide continuous down-hole drilling parameter data and electric log data while
drilling is in progress. The use of MWD data in formation pressure evaluation follows the same
principles as previously discussed for surface measured drilling parameters, as outlined for
wireline log data in Formation Pressure Evaluation (Section 2.5). The advantage of MWD data is
that actual down-hole drilling parameters (e.g. WOB, torque) are measured and the formation log
data are obtained very shortly after the formation has been drilled. Thus, formation log data and
conventional ‘while drilling’ techniques can be combined to evaluate formation pressures as
drilling progresses.
The down-hole drilling parameters of most relevance are:
 Weight on Bit.
The actual down-hole WOB is usually less than recorded at surface due to the drag in the
hole. Using the actual down-hole WOB will give more accurate values for d-exponent or the
drilling rate method that is being used as a formation pressure indicator.
 Down-hole Torque.
Variations in torque at the bit may be used to indicate bit wear. This may be used to account
for bit wear in more complex drilling rate methods for estimating formation pressures.
 Down-hole Temperature.
The difference between down-hole annulus temperature and flowline temperatures will give
an indication of the amount of heat transferred from the formation to the mud. This effect may
be observed when drilling into an overpressured zone as described in Temperature (Section
2.4.3; sub-section 6).
• MWD and LWD formation logs presently available for formation pressure evaluation include
gamma ray, resistivity, sonic, and porosity. Seismic-at-the-bit tools are available and can
supplement pore pressure estimates from the original seismic data.
• Actual formation testing tools continuously run in the string while drilling have also been
recently developed.
The gamma ray log is used to identify lithology. Shale shows an elevated level of radioactivity,
whereas sands and evaporites (except for complex salts) show a reduced level. The gamma ray
log can be used to pick clean shale sections for overpressure determination by any of the shale
related parameters. The gamma ray log can be used in conjunction with the MWD resistivity log
to plot shale resistivity while drilling. The theory and method of formation pressure evaluation
from shale resistivity is discussed further under ‘Formation Pressure from Wireline Logs’, Sonic
Log (Section 2.5.2; sub-section 1).
The gamma ray log has been used as a formation pressure indicator. A normal depth related
compaction trend was established with departures from this trend indicating the magnitude of
overpressures.
With the MWD porosity log, shale porosities may be measured while drilling and a normal
compaction trend established. An overpressured shale will show an increase in porosity away
from the decreasing normal trend. The MWD gamma ray log will also be required to pick clean
shale, from which the porosity values can be plotted.
The combination of MWD logging techniques and down-hole and surface measured drilling
parameter techniques enhance the ability to detect and evaluate formation pressures while
drilling is in progress.
Page 97 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2.4.6 Mudlogging Service

The function of the wellsite mudlogging service is twofold:
 Sampling and description of drilled cuttings, and hydrocarbons detection and evaluation.
 Monitoring and interpretation of drilling data for drilling optimization and formation pressure
evaluation. Section 10 discusses well monitoring in more detail.
These functions, and their relation to information flow through a typical mudlogging unit, are
illustrated in Figure 2.34. The level to which the latter function is required depends on the type of
well being drilled. Usually, exploration and appraisal wells require mudlogging services capable of
a more sophisticated level of formation pressure evaluation than for development wells.
Pressure Evaluation Service
In most mudlogging services, there is a Pressure Evaluation Geologist or Engineer permanently
on duty in the mudlogging unit. This individual closely monitors all the available formation
pressure indicators and communicates this information to the oil company supervisory personnel
at the wellsite. The best formation pressure estimates are made when all available pressure
indicators are used.
Communication with the Pressure Evaluation Geologist or Engineer is important as they are the
initial observer of data that can indicate a change in pore pressure. This communication is
fundamental to allow prompt response to pore pressure changes.
Composite Logs
As part of the pressure evaluation service, the Pressure Evaluation Geologist or Engineer will
prepare ‘composite logs’ showing well depth versus selected overpressure indicators. These logs
are useful because they show graphically the response of overpressure indicators to differing
lithology and formation pressure regimes. These logs are kept up-to-date by the Data Engineer
and/or the Pressure Evaluation Geologist in order to enable up-to-the-minute pressure estimates
to be made based on the information given by the logs.
Page 98 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
GAS FROM
KELLY POSITION
MUDSTREAM
DEPTH PENETRATION RATE CARBON DIOXIDE

HYDROCARBONS
PUMP RATE
H2S
MUD FLOW UV BOX

MICRO GAS
TOTAL GAS
CHROMATOGRAPH
DISPLAY COMPUTATION
MUD pH/PHS
DATA STORAGE
MUD RESISTIVITY
EVALUATION REMOTE DATA DISPLAY

MUD WEIGHT
MUD TEMPERATURE
FORMATION CUTTINGS
PIT LEVEL/PVT
DENSITY
DRILLING PARAMETERS GEOCHEMICAL

ANALYSIS
KELLY
HOOK LOAD BIT REVOLUTIONS
HEIGHT
CEC
WEIGHT ON ROTARY SPEED
DRILL RATE
BIT TORQUE
TOTAL STANDPIPE
CASING PRESSURE
DEPTH PRESSURE
FORMATION LOG
MUD PRESS PRESSURE LOG
MISC ENGINEERING GEOCHEMICAL LOG

DATA
REMOTE DATA
WIRELINE LOG DATA
TRANSMISSION
ADDITIONAL
BASIC
Figure 2.34 Mudlogging Unit Functions and Information Flow Diagram
Page 99 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Mudlogging Equipment
The equipment contained within a modern mudlogging unit is very complex and there are
numerous different types of sensors available for measuring drilling parameters. Different
methods are also employed to relay the measured data to the mud logging unit. It is not the
intention of this manual to discuss the equipment used by the individual mudlogging service
companies. General sensor specifications are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 General Mudlogging Sensor Specifications
Parameter to be Measured Required Preferred Sensor Type

Accuracy
Mud Logging Service
Total gas +/- 0,1% Flame ionization

Hydrogen sulphide +/- 1 ppm Solid state semi-conductor instrument
Constituent gases +/- 0,5% Flame ionization
Drilling Data Service
Depth +/- 10 cm Heave and tide compensation

Block position +/- 10 cm Independent of Block, for trip monitoring
Hookload +/- 200 lb Pressure transducer (strain gauge)
Rotary speed +/- 1 rpm Proximity switch
Rotary torque +/- 5 amp Hall effect current sensor
Mud weight +/- 0,01 SG Gamma ray
Drillpipe pressure +/- 10 psi Strain gauge
Choke pressure +/- 10 psi Strain gauge
Flow rate in +/- 20 gpm Non-intrusive flow meter
Flow rate out +/- 50 gpm Paddle type flow meter
Flow rate out +/- 20 gpm Non-intrusive flow meter
Pump rate +/- 1 SPM Proximity switches
Mud temperatures +/- 1C Platinum resistance
Pit volumes +/- 5 bbl Ultrasonics
Trip tank volume +/- 0,5 bbl Ultrasonics
Mudlogging Unit Suitability

The suitability of a mudlogging unit for a BP drilling operation depends essentially on the level of
pressure evaluation service required, which in turn depends on the type of well that is to be
drilled.
Once the required levels of mudlogging and pressure evaluation services have been defined,
then the suitability of individual mudlogging units can be evaluated. These specifications cover
the basic mudlogging service (sampling, cuttings description), drilling data service (including
Page 100 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
pressure evaluation and drilling optimization), reporting, software, and data storage and
personnel requirements.
2.4.7 Summary
The majority of the ‘while drilling’ formation pressure indicators discussed are only applicable to
massive shale sections interbedded with sandstone and/or siltstones. As most BP drilling occurs
in sedimentary basins containing such sections, the techniques discussed are of direct relevance
to BP drilling operations.
The most reliable abnormal pressure indicators in shales are probably d-exponent (or other
drilling rate method) in combination with gas levels and cuttings character. Occasionally, one
indicator may be particularly effective in showing the onset of abnormal pressures, but this will
probably not be apparent until drilling has progressed well into the overpressured zone.
Carefully examine formation pressure indicators to confirm the abnormal pressures which may be
implied by a particular overpressure indicator. Sharp changes in pressure indicators may indicate
a lithological change.
2.5 Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling
2.5.1 General
After each intermediate and reservoir hole section has been drilled, the formations are
electronically logged to evaluate their physical characteristics and hydrocarbon potential. Some of
these logs can be used to estimate formation pressures to confirm or revise the estimates made
while the hole sections were being drilled. Formation pressures calculated from wireline logs are
estimates only.
Significant advances have been made in LWD tools which can in turn be used in the same
manner as wireline logs to determine pore pressures. Sonic, resistivity, gamma ray, and porosity
sensors gather data in real time and the results analyzed during or after the hole section is drilled.
Direct formation pressure measurements are usually taken in the reservoir hole section(s) using
wireline formation testing tools. Also, formation pressures are directly measured in the “shut-in”
(pressure buildup) periods during Drillstem Testing (DST) of potential reservoir formations.
2.5.2 Formation Pressures from Wireline Logs
Sonic Log
The sonic logging tool measures the time, t, required for a compressional sonic wave to travel
through one foot (or meter) of formation. This is known as the interval transit time and is the
reciprocal of formation interval velocity. The principle of operation of the sonic tool (Borehole
Compensated [BHC] tool) is shown in Figure 2.35. Sonic pulses from two transmitters travel
through the formation and are picked up by two pairs of receivers. The time difference between
sonic arrivals at each pair of receivers is measured. The average time difference is then recorded
to compensate for borehole geometry and tool tilt.
Overpressured shales show a greater sonic interval transit times than normally pressured shales
at the same depth. A plot of sonic interval transit time in shales versus depth on semi-logarithmic
axes may result in a straight line compaction trend in normally pressured shales. Departures from
this line towards greater shale interval transit time values indicate abnormal pressures. The
normal compaction trend and sonic log departure in overpressures are shown in the sonic log plot
in Figure 2.36.
Page 101 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
T UPPER TRANSMITTER
R1
R2
t1
PAIRED RECEIVERS
∆t=t2-t1 R1+R3/R2+R4
R3
R4
t2
T LOWER TRANSMITTER
MUD CAKE
Figure 2.35 Diagram Showing the Operating

Principle of the Sonic (BHC) Logging Tool
A discussion of the challenges associated with the interpretation of interval transit time depth
plots is given in relation to seismic interval transit time data in Formation Pressure Evaluation
during Well Planning (Section 2.3). The main challenge areas are:
 Scales.
Two types of formats have been proposed for plotting interval transit time – depth data.
These are log – log plots and semi – log plots (as suggested above). The semi – log format is
used because the linear depth scale enables direct comparison of sonic interval transit time
data with other overpressure indicator plots.
 Normal Trend Line.
It is sometimes very challenging to confidently establish the position of the normal shale
compaction trend line. The depth interval over which the sonic log data are obtained in
normally pressured upper hole sections are often too small to reliably establish the normal
Page 102 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
compaction trend. This is because logs are normally only obtained from below surface
casing.
Figure 2.36 Diagram Showing Shale Sonic Interval

Transit Time Response in Overpressures
Page 103 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Different lithologies frequently have vastly different sonic interval transit times. The normal
compaction trend line is established by utilising interval transit time values from a good. clean
shale section. One may then make sonic log plots from several wells (if data is available) in the
area of interest. These may then be used to determine the position and gradient of an average
regional normal compaction trend line.
 The BHC sonic tool has a “depth of investigation” of only a few inches into the borehole wall.
Reactive shales that absorb water from the drilling mud may exhibit greater interval transit
time values which are indicative of higher than normal porosity than would be recorded if the
shales were non-reactive. These longer interval transit time values may falsely indicate the
presence of abnormal formation pressures. A deeper reading “Long Spacing Sonic” (LSS)
tool is sometimes run. When available, the sonic log data from this deeper reading tool may
be used in preference to those from the BHC sonic tool.
 Unconformities or disconformities may produce a marked sudden shift in sonic interval transit
time values and may require a second separate normal compaction trend line to be
established.
Once the position of the normal compaction trend lines has been firmly established on the semi-
log sonic interval transit –time – depth plot, then the depths and magnitudes of suspected
abnormal pressures may be calculated. Several methods are available for estimating the
magnitude of abnormal pressures from sonic log plots:
Empirical Correlations
Charts relating the magnitude of formation pressures to the difference between the observed
shale ITT value and the extrapolated normal ITT value are available. These empirical correlations
are area-dependent, as shown by the examples in Figure 2.39. The correlation developed by
Pennebaker (Figure Figure 2.40) is not typically used with semi-log interval transit time plots. This
was developed for use in conjunction with log-log seismic interval transit time plots and is
probably only valid for the U.S. Gulf Coast.
The empirical correlations are quick and easy to use as formation pressure gradients are read
directly from the charts. The correlations are area-dependent, so their use is limited to areas for
which correlations are available.

When no empirical correlation is available, the equivalent depth method may be used. A full
discussion of the method is given in connection with dc-exponent plots in Formation Pressure
Evaluation While Drilling (Section 2.4). Equation 2-24 is also used for formation pressure
calculations from sonic ITT plots:
De
FPGo  OPGo  (OPGe  FPGne ) (Equation 2-24)
Do
Where:
FPGo = formation pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
OPGe = overburden pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
FPGne = normal formation pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
Do = depth of interest (ft)
De = equivalent depth (depth at which sonic ITT is equal to value at D o) (ft)
Page 104 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Note: Equation 2-12 can be used directly with gradients in SG, ppg or psi/ft and depths in
meters or feet.
Obtain overburden pressure gradient data for the well being investigated in order to use the
equivalent depth method. This data is usually available in the form of an overburden gradient-
depth plot in the Mudlogger’s report for the well.
The advantages and disadvantages of this method are discussed in Formation Pressure
Evaluation While Drilling (Section 2.4).
Eaton Equation
The following equation was presented by Eaton for calculation of formation pressures from sonic
ITT plots, the derivation of which is exactly analogous to Equation 2-18, which was developed for
dc-exponent plots:
3,0
 
FPG o  OPG o  (OPG o  FPGN )  tN  (Equation 2-25)
  to 
Where:
FPGo and OPGo are as defined above and:
FPGN = normal formation pressure gradient (psi/ft)
tN = extrapolated normal trend sonic ITT at depth of interest (µsec/ft)
to = observed sonic ITT at depth of interest (µsec/ft)
The value of the ITT ratio exponent, 3,0, was derived from actual well data.
Despite the challenges outlined earlier, it is considered that the use of sonic ITT data provides the
most reliable method of formation pressure evaluation from well logs. The use of an empirical
correlation provides the quickest method of estimating the magnitude of abnormal pressures from
sonic ITT plots. If a correlation is not available for the area of interest, the equivalent depth
method or the Eaton equation (or both) may be used. These latter methods require overburden
pressure gradient data which is available in Mudloggers’ reports for the well(s) under
investigation.
Resistivity Log
The resistivity of shale depends on the following factors:
 Porosity.
 Salinity of pore water.
 Temperature.
Temperature varies approximately linearly with depth and hence formation resistivities can be
corrected for temperature. The salinity of the pore water does not vary greatly with depth.
Porosity is the major factor controlling shale resistivity.
Under normal compaction (i.e., in normal pressure environments), shale resistivity increases with
depth since porosity decreases. A plot of shale resistivity versus depth will show an increasing
trend with depth. In clean shale sections, any departure from this normal trend towards lower
shale resistivity may indicate an increase in porosity and overpressures.
Shale resistivity (Rsh) is plotted on a log scale versus depth on a linear scale. The shape and
slope of the normal trend line will vary with the age and type of shales present. This will lead to
individual normal compaction trends being developed for each area investigated. It is unlikely that
any two areas will have identical normal compaction trends. A shale resistivity plot in relation to
depth is shown in Figure 2.37. The normal compaction trend line may be a curve or may
Page 105 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
approximate to a straight line over certain depth intervals, depending on the area under
investigation.
Originally, shale resistivity was plotted from the Amplified Short Normal (ASN) curve of the now
absolute Electrical Survey (ES) logging suite. Today, a variety of resistivity logging tools are run,
from which shale resistivity plots may be made. The tools are designed for differing depths of
investigation from shallow to very deep. The deep reading tools record the true resistivity of virgin
formation and near borehole effects (shale hydration, mud filtrate invasion in permeable zones)
do not affect the resistivity values recorded.
Use the deep reading logs for resistivity plots. The LLd curve from the Dual Induction Laterolog
(DIL) tool and the LLd curve from the Dual Laterolog (DLL) tool. The DLL tool requires a
conductive mud, so it will not work in oil-based muds. The DIL tool will work in oil-based or water-
based muds and tends to be the resistivity log that is usually run.
Challenges that may be encountered with shale resistivity plots are:
 Only shale resistivity in thick clean shales must be plotted. Plot shale resistivities using thick
clean shales obtained from the well logs. Use the deepest reading resistivity curve available
to plot true shale resistivity.
 It may be very challenging to firmly establish the shape and position of the normal
compaction trend line from the resistivity plot for just one well. An average regional trend may
have to be established from the resistivity plots of many wells in the area of interest.
Unconformities, disconformities, and variations in geological age may show sudden changes
in shal resistivity which will affect to position of the normal trend line.
 Changes in formation water salinity may give false pressure indications. For example, shale
in the proximity of large salt masses (e.g. salt domes) has reduced resistivity due to
increased pore water salinity. This may indicate greater than actual formation pressures.
Shale at depths less than 3 000 ft below surface or the mudline usually contain formation
water fresher than sea water. This results in resistivity values that may indicate lower-than-
actual formation pressures.
The challenges associated with interpreting shale resistivity plots are illustrated in Figure 2.38.
Once the normal compaction trend has been firmly established, the magnitude of any abnormal
formation pressures indicated by the shale resistivity plot may be estimated. Again, there are
several methods available:
Empirical Correlations
At depths where the observed shale resistivity values (Rsh[o]) diverge from the normal trend value
(Rsh[n]), the ratio of normal to observed shale resistivity (Rsh[o]/Rsh[n]) is calculated. The
corresponding formation pressure gradient is then read from a chart such as the one shown in
Figure 2.39. As can be seen from this chart, the correlations are area-dependent.
Page 106 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.37 Shale Resistivity/Depth Plot Showing Response in Overpressures
Page 107 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.38 Shale Resistivity/Depth Plot Illustrating the Challenges

Associated with Formation Pressure Interpretation

This method is identical to that previously discussed for d c-exponent plots (Formation Pressure
Evaluation While Drilling [Section 2.4]) and sonic log plots (in Formation Pressure Evaluation after
Drilling [Section 2.5.2]). Again, Equation 2-26 is valid for use with shale resistivity plots:
D 
FPGo  OPG o   E  (OPGE  FPGNE )
 (Equation 2-26)
 Do 
Where:
DE = equivalent depth (depth at which shale resistivity is equal to the
value at the depth of interest, Do) (ft)
and FPGo, OPGo, Do, OPGE, and FPGNE are as previously defined in connection with dc-exponent
plots and sonic ITT plots. As explained previously, overburden gradient data is obtained (from
Mudloggers’ report) in order to use this method.
Page 108 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.39 Empirical Correlations for Estimation of

Formation Pressures from Shale Resistivity Ratio
Eaton Equation
Equation 2-25 was proposed by Eaton for calculating formation pressures from shale resistivity
plots (derivation analogous to Equation 2-18, developed for dc-exponent plots):
1,20
R 
FPGo  OPGo  (OPGo  FPGN )  sh(N)  (Equation 2-27)
R  sh(o) 
Where:
FPGo, OPGo and FPGN are as defined for Equation 2-24 (sonic log plots), and
Rsh(n) = extrapolated normal trend shale resistivity at depth of interest (ohm-m)
Rsh(o) = observed shale resistivity at depth of interest (ohm-m)
The value of the shale resistivity ratio exponent, 1,20, was derived from actual well data.
Overburden pressure gradients for the well are also required (from Mudloggers’ well report) in
order to use Equation 2-25.
Formation Factor Method

This method was proposed by Foster and Whalen, and is based on the equation:
Rsh
Fsh  (Equation 2-28)
Rw
Where:
Fsh = shale formation factor (dimensionless)
Page 109 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Rsh = shale resistivity (ohm-m)

Rw = formation water resistivity (ohm-m)
The method involves computing a formation water resistivity (R w) depth profile from the
Spontaneous Potential (SP) curve in clean, shale-free water sands. Values of Rsh are then
obtained from thick, clean shales from whichever resistivity log is available (ILd or LLd curve).
Values of Fsh at depths corresponding to the Rsh values are then calculated from Equation 2-26.
A plot of Fsh versus depth on semi-log scales (linear depth scale) then shows a straight line trend
in normally pressured formations, Fsh increasing with depth. Departure from the normal trend
towards decreasing Fsh values then indicates abnormal pressures. The magnitude of any
abnormal pressures can then be calculated using the equivalent depth method (as discussed in
Equivalent Depth Method above).
A drawback with this method is the calculation of Rw values from the SP curve. The method is
subject to inaccuracies, challenging, and is very time-consuming. The advantage of this method
is it takes into account changes in formation water resistivity, Rw. Other methods rely on the
assumption that formation water resistivity remains relatively constant with depth.
Originally, these methods were applicable only to the Gulf of Mexico due to early development
with many wells. Today, considerable evaluation has been accomplished in other areas with
sufficient analogs, such as the North Sea. From this, empirical relationships have been developed
which work equally well, even including those areas with considerable variations in formation
water salinity.
Density Log
The formation density logging tool consists of a radioactive source which bombards the
formations with medium-energy gamma rays. The gamma rays collide with electrons in the
formation which cause the gamma rays to scatter. The degree of scattering is directly related to
the electron density and therefore the bulk density of the formation. The scattered gamma rays
that return to the borehole are picked up by detectors in the logging tool.
In the Formation Density Compensated (FDC) logging tool, the gamma ray source and two
detectors are mounted on a skid that is pushed against the borehole wall by an eccentric arm.
The skid has a plough-shaped leading edge to cut through any mudcake present on the borehall
wall. Any mudcake that is not removed will affect the tool reading. The dual detectors of the FDC
tool automatically compensate for mudcake effects. The corrected bulk density (Pb) and the
correction made () are recorded on the FDC log.
Page 110 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.40 Log-derived Shale Bulk Plot on Semi-logarithmic Scales
Page 111 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
A plot of shale bulk density versus depth on either linear or semi-log scales will show a straight
line normal compaction trend. Since the bulk density of shales is inversely proportional to
porosity, and an increase in shale porosity indicates abnormal pressures, then a decrease in
shale bulk density from the normal compaction trend line will indicate abnormal pressures. The
semi-log type plot is shown in Figure 2.40.
Plot the densities from non-washed-out pure shale sections. After the normal compaction trend
line has been established, the equivalent depth method (refer to Offset Well Data [Section 2.3.1])
will be used to estimate the magnitude of formation pressures.
The use of shale bulk density trends from the formation density log may be a fairly reliable
overpressure indicator. It has been found that unless borehole is of uniform gauge, the formation
density log will not be as accurate or reliable for pressure evaluation as other techniques based
on sonic or resistivity logs.
Other Logs
Other wireline logs that have been used to evaluate formation pressures include the SP log, the
Neutron Porosity Log (CNL), the Thermal Neutron Decay Time Log (TDT) and also down-hole
gravity and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) logs.
The use of LWD logs for formation pressure evaluation, as previously discussed, has had a
positive impact on this process.
2.5.3 Direct Pressure Measurements
Formation testing tools continuously run in the string while drilling have been previously
mentioned, however, after a hole section has been completed wireline tools are available which
can measure formation pressures and obtain fluid samples from permeable formations.
Inasmuch as they obtain an actual pressure measurement rather than a calculation, they are
definitive in evaluating pore pressure.
The Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) was developed from the Formation Interval Tester (FIT)
which is only able to take one, less accurate, pressure measurement while taking a sample. The
original FIT was also able to take a pressure measurement and sample from inside casing by first
perforating a hole.
A diagram of the RFT pre-test and sampling principle is shown in Figure 2.41.
Page 112 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
FILTER PROBE
PACKER
FLOWLINE
PRESSURE GAUGE
EQUALIZING VALVE
(TO MUD COLUMN)
CHAMBER No 1
CHAMBER No 2
PRETEST
CHAMBER
SEAL VALVE SEAL VALVE

(TO LOWER SAMPLE (TO UPPER SAMPLE
CHAMBER) CHAMBER)
Figure 2.41 Diagram Showing the RFT Pre-test and Sampling Principle
When the tool is set, a packer moves out on one side and back-up pistons move out on the
opposite side. This forces the packer against the borehole wall and holds the body of the tool
away from the wall to reduce the chances of differential sticking. The probe is then forced into the
formation and opened by retracting the filter probe piston. This operation is shown in Figure 2.42.
The two pre-test chambers are then operated sequentially, each sampling a small volume of the
formation fluid at different rates (assuming that the formation is permeable). A filter in the flowline
probe prevents sand entry into the tool and the piston cleans the filter when the tool is retracted.
A strain gauge pressure transducer monitors the pressure during the pre-test. The pressure is
continuously recorded at surface in both analogue and digital form. An analogue pressure
recording from a typical pre-test is shown in Figure 2.43.
Page 113 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
MUD CAKE
PACKER
PROBE
PISTON
UNCONSOLIDATED
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
SAND
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
FLOWLINE
FILTER
PROBE CLOSED PROBE OPEN

DURING AND SAMPLING
INITIAL SET
Figure 2.42 Diagram Showing the Operation of the RFT Sample Probe
FLOWRATE, Q
q2
q1
SHUT-IN
TIME, t
t=0 t1 t2
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE, P
PRESSURE FORMATION
PRESSURE
∆P1
∆P2
TIME, t
Figure 2.43 Example of an RFT Analogue Pressure Recording

The initial pressure (refer to Figure 2.43) before the tool is set is the hydrostatic pressure of the
mud column. When the tool is set, the pressure rises slightly due to the compression of the mud
cake by the packer. The probe piston then retracts giving a drop in pressure due to the flowline
volume expansion and communication with the formation. When the piston stops retracting, there
is a slight pressure rise because the packer continues to compress the mud cake until the tool is
fully set.
The pressure then drops again as the first 10 cc pre-test piston starts to retract (at time to). After
around 15 s, the first pre-test chamber is full (at time t1) and the second piston begins moving at a
rate 2,5 times faster than the first piston. The pressure drops further until the second pre-test
Page 114 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
chamber is full (at time t2). The pressure then builds up towards a final pressure, which is usually
of the original formation pressure. Finally, the probe and packer are retracted and the mud
hydrostatic pressure is again measured.
The RFT provides three distinct pieces of pressure data:
 The mud column hydrostatic pressure (two readings).
 The formation pressure.
 The pressure transient induced by the withdrawal of a small sample of formation fluid (2 x 10
cc).
The two mud hydrostatic pressure readings are compared to verify the stability of the tool’s
recording system. The tools stability is validated given the two values are within a few psi of each
other.
The formation pressure is used to verify estimates made while drilling the well and to construct a
reservoir pressure profile. This will yield data on the pressure gradients and nature of the
reservoir fluids.
The pressure, flowrate, and time data from the pre-test sample withdrawal can be used to
calculate reservoir characteristics, such as permeability.
The RFT provides accurate data on formation pressures. Formation pressure data can only be
obtained from permeable formations such as reservoir sandstones. These formations may or may
not be at the same pressure as adjacent shales.
RFTs are usually run at the request of the geologists/petroleum engineers to seek information on
potential reservoir formations. In deep high-pressure wells, the RFT is being increasingly run to
obtain accurate formation pressures before potentially troublesome drilling operations (such as
coring) are commenced. Accurate knowledge of formation pressures in such wells allows fine
mud weight adjustments to be made to minimize the risk of swab or surge pressure issues.
Other considerations regarding repeat formation testers include:
 If possible, use tools that utilize quartz pressure transducers (gauges) instead of strain
gauges. The former are more accurate, by an order of magnitude (0.1 psi vs. 0.01 psi)
 The tools are heavy and tend to stick so high strength cables are typically used.
 These tools work best in 8.5” holes, but may obtain satisfactory results in hole diameters up
to 12.25”.
 Hole conditioning is crucial to success, not only in sampling and measurement but also to
mitigate any tool sticking.
 Mud weights are designed to assure hole stability but not provide an excessive overbalance.
 The tools do not work well in bi-center drilled holes.
 Limit tool sets in dog legs which might result in keyseating.
 Verify that any lost circulation material in the mud and hole is compatible with the tools.
 Consider possible sand washouts when picking tool setting depths.
 The tools may be run on drill pipe in highly deviated wells. In this case, the wireline is run
inside and continuity with the tool restored via a “wet connector”.
 Temperature stabilization is achieved by stopping at the casing shoe for the amount of time
recommended by the vendor.
 Depth control is crucial to success. This involves frequent tie-ins.
Improved models of these tools are now available which operate on the same principles but can
obtain multiple fluid samples and analyze them downhole in addition to obtaining multiple
pressure measurements.
Page 115 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.44 Example of a Typical Drillstem Test String (for a

High-Pressure Gas Well) Showing Position of Gauges
Drillstem Test Data
Whenever drillstem tests are carried out on potential reservoir formations, pressure gauges are
run in the hole with the test string. The purpose of these pressure gauges is to record the down-
Page 116 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
hole pressure during the sequence of flow and shut-in periods that comprise the DST. The
pressures recorded during the test are used to calculate reservoir characteristics, such as
formation pressure, permeability, skin damage and productivity index.
Different types of pressure gauges are available. These are run in conjunction with clocks and
recorders, and include:
 Mechanical gauges – usually Bourdon Tube (BT) type pressure gauges with mechanical
clocks and recorders. These gauges do not record temperature, thus a second gauge can be
run to record this data. These gauges are generally only used as a back up to an electronic
gauge in non-high pressure high temperature (HPHT) environment tests. These gauges can
be utilized in HPHT environments, especially where the wellbore temperature exceeds
electronic instrument ratings. If properly maintained, they provide relatively accurate
information.
 Electronic gauges – strain gauge, capacitance transducer (gap capacitance and quartz
capacitance), vibrating crystal (quartz) transducer, and sapphire crystal transducer.
o Capacitance gauges are a common general purpose gauge for testing, offering better
accuracy and resolution when compared to mechanical or strain gauges, and are better
suited to hostile environments when compared to crystal (quartz or sapphire) gauges.
o Quartz crystal gauges initially carried two crystals, one for recording and one for
reference. While very accurate, these required time to thermally stabilize and were
intolerant to shocks. Newer gauges use a mono crystal and provide generally increased
accuracy. Recent developments have produced quartz gauges that are rated to 390F and
35,000 psi environments.
o Sapphire crystal gauges were designed for the most hostile environments, exceeding the
pressure and temperature limits of the quartz gauges, however at lower accuracy and
resolution.
The mechanical and electronic gauges can be run in differing ways and in different positions in
the test string:
 Set in a wireline nipple or with a gauge hanger (hence retrievable during or after a test). This
places the gauge directly in the flow stream, however presenting some flow restriction in the
cross sectional area.
 Hung off in the tailpipe located below the packer using a DST hanging kit. Putting gauges in
this location exposes them to the full shock of perforating, causing damage or failure. As a
back-up, gauges are run above the packer in case the packer becomes stuck and the gauges
cannot be retrieved.
 Placed in a ‘bundle carrier’ or ‘gauge carrier’ in the string. These carriers are available in both
instream and external configurations. The instream models generally carry up to four gauges.
External configurations may have as many as 10 gauges. Gauge carriers are typically placed
above the packer (and safety joint) and below any slip joints.
Most current downhole pressure gauges have the ability to be coupled to a surface readout
(SRO) system. The SRO system is designed to provide (near) real time surface readout of
downhole pressure and temperature. Available telemetry methods applicable for DSTs include:
wireline (generally only during shut in periods); wired drill string, electromagnetic wave
propagation, and acoustic wave propagation. A DST string for a gas well test utilizing a
permanent packer is shown in Figure 2.44. This illustrates the positions of the pressure gauges in
the DST string.
After a DST has been successfully completed, the test string is pulled and the pressure gauges
are retrieved for the pressure charts to be read. A typical valid pressure chart from a mechanical
gauge placed below the tester valve is shown in Figure 2.45. A linear plot of the pressures
recorded by an electronic gauge will typically have the same general form as Figure 2.45, without
the baseline.
Page 117 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 2.45 Example of a Typical Pressure Chart from a Mechanical

Gauge Placed Below the Tester Valve in the DST String
The key events during the test (marked by capital letters) on Figure 2.45 are as follows:
A: Atmospheric pressure at surface.
A-B: The gauge is run in the hole with the test string and records increasing hydrostatic
pressure. The early ‘steps’ effect is the result of pauses to pump the fluid cushion into the
test string.
B: At test interval depth, the gauge records the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.
C: The packer is set, squeezing the sump below the packer and causing an increase in
pressure.
D-E: The tester valve is opened and the gauge is suddenly subjected to the reduced
hydrostatic pressure of the water cushion alone.
E-F: The influx of reservoir fluid into the test string adds to the pressure of the partial water
cushion.
F: The tester valve is shut after an initial five to 10 min short flow period.
F-G: The reservoir pressure slowly builds up. After 30 min, no more buildup is seen. The
gauge now gives an estimate of the virgin reservoir pressure (G).
G-H: The tester valve is now opened again and the reservoir is exposed to hydrostatic
pressure of the fluids in the test string.
H-I: The reservoir flows again and the gauge pressure increases until the water cushion
reaches the surface.
I-J: As the reservoir fluid replaces the water cushion in the test string, the gauge pressure
decreases until the entire water cushion has been unloaded (J).
J-K: The pressure continues to fall due to wellbore effects before stabilizing as the flow into
the wellbore becomes radial.
K: The tester valve is closed at the end of the second flow period.
K-L: The reservoir pressure builds up again and returns to equilibrium.
L-M: The packer is unset at the end of the second build-up period and the pressure gauge
again reads the pressure of the annulus mud column.
N-O: The test string is pulled out of the hole and the gauge pressure reduces.
O: Finally, the gauge is back on surface and reads atmospheric pressure.
Page 118 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Analysis of the pressure buildup data from the shut-in periods can then give accurate estimates of
the reservoir formation pressure. An example of this analysis is given in the BP Guide to Testing
Operations.
Data from drillstem tests can give accurate estimates of formation pressures. The pressure data
is obtained from permeable reservoir formations that may have hydrocarbon potential enough to
warrant the expense of a drillstem test. As with pressure data obtained while logging (e.g., RFT,
MWD), the reservoir pressure calculated from DST data may or may not be the same as the
pressures in adjacent shales.
2.5.4 Summary
The most accurate estimates of formation pressures are obtained from wireline formation tester
measurements and drillstem test pressure data. These direct measurements only work in
permeable formations such as sandstones and limestones. These methods are not applicable to
impermeable shale sections (where the majority of overpressures are developed).
Estimates of formation pressures from wireline logs are restricted to shale sections, with
assumptions made as to the pressures in any adjacent permeable sections. The recognition of a
normal shale compaction trend line is of vital importance when estimating formation pressures
from log-derived shale properties. Of all the logs available, the sonic log is usually the best log for
quantitative pressure evaluation as it is relatively unaffected by changes in hole size, formation
temperature and formation water salinity.
Software is utilized to better quantify pore pressures from all data available. Pressure transient
analysis is always used to obtain a corrected value when interpreting the outputs from these
models.
Page 119 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
3 Fracture Gradients
3.1 General
The absolute upper limit of conventional well control is the point at which the wellbore pressure
equals the fracture pressure of the exposed formation. At this point a fracture is initiated and the
wellbore can no longer be considered to be a closed system. This will lead to loss of mud from
the hole and the possibility of the loss of primary control.
During the well planning stage, fracture gradients can be estimated from offset well data. If this
information is not available, then Daines’ Method can be used to predict the fracture gradient.
Leak Off Tests (LOT), or FITs, are generally carried out once in each open-hole section after
drilling out of the shoe to assess the pressure holding capability of the open-hole. In most cases,
the leak-off point will represent a pressure that is less than the actual fracture initiation pressure.
The leak-off pressure is converted to an EMW which determines the upper limit of primary control
for the next hole section. It is not necessary to conduct a LOT at every change in formation.
3.2 Stresses in the Earth
At any point below the earth’s surface, the resultant stress in the rock can be resolved into the
following three principal stresses that act at right angles to each other:
 The maximum stress.
 The intermediate stress.
 The minimum stress.
In most cases, the maximum stress will be vertical due to the pressure of the overlying rock and
pore fluid. This is defined as the overburden pressure.
In a tectonically relaxed area the maximum stress will, in most cases, be vertical and the stresses
in the horizontal plane will be equal. At shallow depths, the horizontal stress may be greater than
the vertical stress, even in a tectonically relaxed area. Figure 3.1 shows the effect of tectonic
forces on the principal stresses. A small tectonic force makes sure the two principal stresses in
the horizontal plane are no longer equal. This has the effect of creating an actual intermediate
stress.
Page 120 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 3.1 Principal Stress Orientation

In an area where tectonic stresses are particularly large, the maximum principal stress may act
horizontally. This may be the case, for example, in a mountainous region where the formations
may be severely folded. This is unlikely to occur at great depths where the overburden pressure
is generally the predominant factor.
3.3 Fracture Orientation
A fracture will be created if wellbore pressures exceed the minimum principal stress at any point
in the open-hole.
The fracture will propagate along the path of minimum resistance, which will be at right angles to
the direction of the minimum principal stress.
Fractures will therefore be vertical when the minimum principal stress is horizontal, and horizontal
if the minimum principal stress is vertical (refer to Figure 3.1).
Consequently, induced fractures will be vertical in areas where tectonic forces are negligible,
except possibly at very shallow depths. Horizontal fractures may be formed in areas where
tectonic forces are large. In effect, the applied pressure lifts the weight of the overburden in order
to form horizontal fractures. This is unlikely to occur at a depth when overburden pressure will, in
most cases, be greater than pressures due to tectonic forces.
3.4 Fracture Gradient Prediction
Many different techniques can be used to estimate fracture gradients. Eaton’s Method is most
applicable to predicting fracture pressures in areas where a great deal of data relating to
subsurface stress regimes is already available. Eaton’s Method relies on the availability of
accurate locally-calculated stress coefficients to predict fracture pressures. When information is
available, such as in the Gulf Coast, this method has been shown to be very accurate.
In areas where the subsurface stress regime is relatively unknown, it is very challenging to use
Eaton’s Method accurately. Daines’ Method is particularly useful in wildcat areas, because the
Page 121 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
result of the first LOT carried out in a competent formation is used to measure the subsurface
stress regime directly. The coefficients that are used to calculate the fracture pressures are
specific to each lithology but are applicable worldwide. As a result, once the first LOT has been
carried out, we can predict the fracture pressure in subsequent formations with some degree of
accuracy. This technique has proved particularly accurate in wildcat wells in the North Sea.
3.5 Daines’ Method of Fracture Gradient Prediction
The following procedure can be used after the first LOT (assuming the maximum effective stress
to be vertical and due to the overburden):
(1) Calculate the magnitude of the tectonic stress.
The magnitude of the tectonic stress is calculated at the depth of the first LOT. This is done
using the following formula:
   
t  Pfrac  '1    Pf (Equation 3-1)
  1   
Where:
t = tectonic stress (psi)
Pfrac = fracture pressure (psi)
'1 = maximum effective principal stress (psi)
µ = Poisson’s ratio for the rock
Pf = formation pore pressure (psi)
And
'1 = S – Pf (Equation 3-2)
Where:
S = overburden pressure (psi)
The overburden pressure is determined from density logs or from bulk densities determined from
the cuttings.
(2) Calculate the tectonic stress coefficient.
The tectonic stress coefficient can be calculated as follows:
 = t / '1 (Equation 3-3)
Where  = tectonic stress coefficient
This value is used to predict the magnitude of the tectonic stress throughout the next hole
section until the next LOT can be used to recalculate the figure. It is generally the case that
'1 remains directly proportional to t throughout the well if the rock strata is horizontal and
the basin structure does not change greatly with depth.
Page 122 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 3.1 Poisson's Ratio for Different Lithologies
Formation Poisson’s Ratio
Clay, very wet 0,50

Clay 0,17
Conglomerate 0,20
Dolomite 0,21
Greywacke:
coarse 0,07
fine 0,23
medium 0,24
Limestone:
fine, medium 0,28
medium, calcarenitic 0,31
porous 0,20
stylolitic 0,27
fossiliferous 0,09
bedded fossils 0,17
shaley 0,17
Sandstone:
coarse 0,05
coarse, cemented 0,10
fine 0,03
very fine 0,04
medium 0,06
poorly sorted, clayey 0,24
fossiliferous 0,01
Shale:
Calcereous (<50% CaC03) 0,14
dolomitic 0,28
siliceous 0,12
silty (<70% silt) 0,17
sandy (<70% sand) 0,12
kerogenaceous 0,25
Siltstone 0,08
Slate 0,13
Tuff: Glass 0,13
From Weurker H.G: ‘Annotated Tables of Strength and
Elastic Properties of Rocks,’ Drilling,
reprint Series SPE Dallas (1963).
Page 123 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Having calculated the above figures at the first LOT, the fracture pressure can be calculated as
drilling in the following manner:
(3) Calculate the maximum principal stress at the point of interest.
The magnitude of the maximum principal stress is calculated from the pore pressure and
the overburden pressure as follows:
'1 = S – Pf
Where:
S = overburden pressure (psi)
Pf = pore pressure (psi)
The overburden pressure can be calculated from density logs or from the bulk density
values determined from the cuttings.
(4) Calculate the tectonic stress at the point of interest.
The magnitude of the tectonic stress is calculated from the maximum principal stress and
the tectonic stress coefficient as follows:
t = '1 x 
(5) Calculate the fracture pressure at the point of interest.
Using Table 3.1 to determine a value for the Poisson’s ratio for the rock, the fracture
pressure can be calculated from the following formula:
  
Pfrac  t  '1   Pf (psi )
 1 
Where:
Pfrac = fracture pressure at the point of interest (psi)
This procedure can be repeated as the well is drilled in order to map the trend in fracture gradient
with depth.
Page 124 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
3.6 An Example Pressure Evaluation Log

From the 30 in casing point to the 18-5/8 in casing point, the formation is mudstone. From the log,
the fracture pressure appears to be greater than overburden pressure from the seabed to
approximately 4 750 ft. This is a typical feature of young unconsolidated clays which can behave
as a liquid and as such have relatively large Poisson’s ratio of the order of 0,5. Such clays
possess negligible shear strength and, as a result, the formation may only be fractured by
actually lifting the overburden. The following calculation using Daines’ formula shows the
calculated fracture gradient at shallow depths to be greater than the overburden:
  
Pfrac  t  '1   Pf (ppg) (Equation 3-4)
 1 
at 1 970 ft BRT the fracture pressure is calculated (assumes =0,4 and an overburden gradient of
14,9 ppg):
 0 ,44 
Pfrac  0 ,4 x (14,9  8 ,34 ) (14,9  8 ,34 ) x   8 ,34
 1  0 ,44 
Pfrac = 16,12 ppg

An interesting case would be to estimate the fracture gradient of a sand at these conditions and
at this depth. Using the same formula, but substituting a Poisson’s ratio of 0,01 for a typical
shallow marine sand, the fracture gradient is calculated as follows:
 0 ,01 
Pfrac  0 ,4 x (14,9  8 ,34 ) (14,9  8 ,34 ) x   8 ,34
 1  0 ,01 
Pfrac = 11,03 ppg

The variation in fracture gradients at these depths is therefore important.
After 4 750 ft, the clays have dewatered enough due to compaction to support a horizontal stress.
As a result, the fracture gradient is reduced to a value that is less than the overburden gradient.
This means that vertical fractures may be formed at pressures lower than the overburden
pressure.
The tectonic stress coefficient is calculated from the result of the LOT (15,0 ppg) carried out at
the 18-5/8 in casing shoe. This is the first point at which the clays are assumed to be effectively
compacted so as to predict a figure for the tectonic stress coefficient as follows:
  
t  Pfrac  '1   Pf (ppg)
 1 
from the result of the LOT:
 0 ,2 
t  15,0  (16,3  12,8 ) x   12,8
 1  0 ,2 
σt = 1,325 ppg
The tectonic stress coefficient is given by:
t 1,325
    0 ,38
 ' t (16,3  12,8 )
and this value is used to calculate the tectonic stress in subsequent rock strata.
Page 125 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
From the 18-5/8 in shoe to 9 450 ft, the fracture gradient increases in line with the overburden
gradient. At 9 450 ft, the pore pressure gradient begins to decrease, causing a reduction in the
calculated fracture gradient to 15,7 ppg at 10 170 ft.
At 10 235 ft, the formation changes to a sandstone interbedded with siltstone. A Poisson’s ratio of
0,06 is chosen for these loose fine-grained sands which results in a reduction in the calculated
value of the fracture gradient to approximately 14,35 ppg.
At 10 565 ft, the formation changes to limestone, for which a Poisson’s ratio of 0,28 is used. At
11 150 ft, the fracture gradient is calculated as follows using Daines’ formula:
  
Pfrac  t  '1   Pf
 1  
Where:
'1 = S – Pp = 18,7 – 10,4 = 8,30 ppg
t = '1 x  = 8,30 x 0,38 = 3,15 ppg

Therefore:
 0,28 
Pfrac  3,15  8,30 x   10,4
 1  0,28 
Pfrac = 16,78 ppg

The LOT at the 13-3/8 in shoe shows a fracture gradient of 17,8 ppg, which is slightly greater
than the predicted figure.
The fracture pressure then increases with depth and pore pressure throughout the 12-1/4 in
section to a calculated maximum of 18,6 ppg at the 9-5/8 in casing point. The LOT at this point
confirms an 18,4 ppg fracture gradient.
Mud was lost to the sandstone stringers at the base of the limestone (13,780 ft) at an ECD of
17,2 ppg. This figure is taken to be the minimum fracture gradient in the 8-1/2 in hole. The actual
fracture gradient of the mudstone increases with depth and in line with the pore pressure, to
18,4 ppg at 14 530 ft.
A Poisson’s ratio of 0,06 is used to calculate the fracture gradient in the sandstone section after
14,530 ft. The fracture pressure in the sand remains constant at 18,0 ppg until the formation
becomes interbedded with mudstone, at which point the calculated fracture pressure increases to
18,5 ppg.
The underlying mudstone has a calculated fracture gradient of 18,5 ppg.
3.7 Leak-off Tests
The purposes of carrying out a LOT are:
 To establish the upper limit of primary control for a section of open-hole.
 To test the effectiveness of a cement job.
When drilling through sands or permeable rock, at any point below the casing shoe, consideration
may be given to carrying out a further LOT to ascertain the new rock strength, and the ability of
the hole to contain a kick. It would not be advisable to conduct LOT in brittle formations (e.g.,
fractured limestone). Brittle rocks, such as limestone, will show very little inelastic behavior prior
to fracture. As a result, there may be no clear leak-off before a fracture occurs. A brittle formation
may be permanently weakened by an induced fracture. For this reason, LOT in such formations
are typically not performed.
Page 126 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Similarly, LOTs or FITs are typically not performed when the casing string is not a pressure
containment string or is set prior to air, mist or foam drilling. It is noted that when an LOT or FIT is
not conducted, the second purpose of the test outlined above (i.e. testing the effectiveness of a
cement job) is lost.
3.8 Leak-off and FIT Procedure
The following general procedure can be used for conducting LOT and FIT:
(1) Use calibrated pressure gauges.
A pressure gauge with a maximum pressure limit higher than, but as close as possible to
the expected LOT or FIT surface pressure that has been serviced and calibrated within the
last 12 months
(2) Assess the upper limit for the test.
An FIT will suffice in a development well where pore and fracture pressures are well
defined. The predicted upper limit for all types of tests will be the overburden gradient at
current depth. However, there can be a range of uncertainty in this prediction depending on
the accuracy of the overburden model.
Note: This may be lower than 19,2 ppg or 1 psi/ft, as is common in deepwater offshore.
(3) Determine the estimated fracture pressure.
The subsurface team will provide an estimate of the fracture pressure at current depth. This
figure may be used as an upper limit for the test or to interpret any anomalies observed
during the test.
(4) Test the casing prior to drilling out of the shoe.
An estimate of the volume of fluid required to pressurize the hole can be determined from
the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid that is in the hole.
ΔP x V
ΔV  (Equation 3-5)
K
When:
V = volume required to pressurize hole (bbl)
V = volume to be pressurized (bbl)
P = required increase in pressure (psi)
K = bulk modulus of elasticity (psi)
The bulk modulus of elasticity of a drilling fluid is determined by the characteristics of the
base fluid as well as the solids content of the fluid. The following figures can be used:
K, water = 290 000 – 335 000 psi
K, BP H3HF Base Oil = 160 000 – 260 000 psi
The bulk modulus of actual drilling fluids will be greater than these figures by an amount
related to solids content.
(5) Plot a graph of pressure versus mud pumped to establish linearity and use as a baseline
for the LOT.
(6) Drill out the cement shoe track, cleanout rathole, and drill 10 to 15 ft of new formation or as
otherwise specified in well-specific program.
Page 127 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(7) Circulate cuttings out of the wellbore and condition the mud. Obtain a consistent surface
sample mud weight by utilising pressurised scales.
(8) Pull bit up into the casing shoe and space out to close the correct BOPs.
(9) While keeping drill string still, circulate up consistent downhole equivalent static densities
(ESDs) from the pressure while drilling (PWD) tool to achieve < 0,05 ppg consistency. (If
using a PWD Tool)
(10 Displace the accepted choke or kill line to fresh mud.
Note: The test may be performed in one of three ways. The first option is to pump down the drill
pipe. The second option is to pump down the drill pipe-casing annulus. The third option is
to pump down the drill pipe and the annulus simultaneously to reduce friction pressure.
(11 Line up a pump as required to perform the test (drill pipe, drill pipe-casing annulus, or drill
pipe and drill pipe-casing annulus) and displace all lines to the well with fresh mud.
(12) Break circulation through the appropriate line(s)
(13) Close the correct surface valve on the drill pipe side, and the correct choke/kill line valve at
the BOP. Test lines to a value above max test pressure.
(14) Bleed off test pressure but do not completely drain lines. Open valves and break circulation
through the appropriate line(s).
(15) Shutdown and re-zero pressure gauge at cement unit to account for hydrostatic between
cement unit and rig floor. (This is more applicable in offshore environments due to the
elevation difference between the cement unit and the rig floor.)
(16) Close applicable BOP and monitor the return line. The test does not need to have any
observable returns to be valid.
(17) Perform LOT or FIT, pumping a maximum of 1/2 barrel per minute (bpm) at a constant rate.
Note: Record volume pumped and surface pressure consistent with pump rate. For example, if
pumping 1/2 bpm, record data every 1/2 bbl. If pumping 1/4 bpm, record data every
1/4 bbl.
(18) Monitor the pressure buildup, and record the volume of mud pumped. Plot pressure versus
volume of mud pumped on a Surface Pressure versus Volume Pumped/Time graph.
(19) If performing an FIT, once the desired surface pressure is achieved, shutdown the pumps
and monitor pressure for 10 m. If performing a LOT, continue pumping until the pressure
curve flattens or decreases (pump until the subsequent pressure is equal to or lower than
the previous pressure), then shutdown the pumps..
(20) Record Initial Shut-in Pressure and continue recording pressure for a minimum of 10 m or
until pressure is stable for 2 m.
(21) Bleed back mud from the well and compare with the volume pumped and record.
(22) Open BOP and re-align manifold for regular circulation.
Recording Results
There are four potential values to extract from conducting this test:
a. Surface Fracture Initiation Pressure: Maximum Surface Formation Pressure Integrity.
b. Downhole Fracture Initiation Pressure: Maximum Downhole Formation Pressure
Integrity.
Page 128 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
c. Surface (LOT): Minimum horizontal stress for wellbore stability and stress cage
calculations.
d. Downhole (LOT): Minimum horizontal stress for wellbore stability and stress cage
calculation.
Note: When there is little to no mud compressibility, such as with water-based muds, the surface
and downhole measurements are equal.
(23) Record the following data on the IADC report and BP daily report:
a. Formation Integrity Test (FIT) or Leak Off Test (LOT) data:
b. Maximum Surface Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 4)
c. Applied Surface Test Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 3)
d. Test Surface Mud Weight ____ ppg
e. Total Vertical Depth of the Shoe ____ ft
f. Surface Equivalent Mud Weight ____ ppg
(24) Record the following data in the BP drilling reporting system in use.
a. Formation Integrity Test (FIT) or Leak Off Test (LOT) data:
b. Maximum Surface Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 4)
c. Applied Surface Test Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 3)
d. Test Surface Mud Weight ____ ppg
e. Total Vertical Depth of the Shoe ____ ft
f. Surface Equivalent Mud Weight ____ ppg
g. Surface Maximum Pressure Integrity Test = ____ ppg
h. Downhole Maximum Pressure Integrity Test = ____ ppg
i. Surface Measured FIT/LOT data = ____ ppg (if leak-off reached)
j. Downhole Measured FIT/LOT data = ____ ppg (if leak-off reached)
(25) Record and plot the Maximum Anticipated Surface Pressure (MASP) (psi) versus Mud
Weight (ppg) and post on the rig floor. MASP calculations are discussed in Section 4.
3.9 Interpretation of Results
Figure 3.2 shows the result of a typical LOT carried out in a consolidated reduced permeability
formation in a tectonically relaxed area.
From Points 1 to 2, the exposed rock is deforming elastically as the relationship between
pressure and volume pumped is linear.
At Point 2, the pressure in the wellbore at the exposed formation is equal to the sum of the pore
pressure and the minimum horizontal effective stress. In other words, any cracks that exist at the
wellbore and in the vertical plane will be in a state of equilibrium, the applied pressure exactly
counteracting the naturally occurring compressive forces. At Point 3, which represents the
leak-off point (because it is the first noted deviation from the linear relationship), the pump would
be stopped and the pressure bled down.
If the pump was left running, the pressure would eventually build to fracture pressure as shown.
From Points 2 to 4, the formation is deforming plastically. The difference between the pressure at
Point 2 and the pressure at Point 4 represents the pressure required to initiate the fracture.
Page 129 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
If the pump was stopped at Point 4, as shown in the diagram, the fracture would not propagate
further into the formation and the pressure will drop to Point 5. The pressure at Point 5 will
approximately be equal to the pressure at Point 2. If the pressure is then bled down, the returned
volume is expected to be equal to the volume pumped into the hole; if it is less, then the fracture
may still be open.
If the pump was kept running after Point 4, the fracture would propagate into the formation at a
pressure lower than the fracture initiation pressure. This is represented by the relatively flat line
portion (Point 5), which is the fracture propagation pressure.
Page 130 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 3.2 A Typical Fracture Test
Page 131 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4 Fundamental Well Equations

4.1 General
Primary well control is maintained by controlling formation pore pressures with the hydrostatic
pressure of the drilling fluid.
Primary well control is exercised between two distinct limits; the maximum formation pore
pressure gradient and the minimum fracture pressure gradient in a section of open-hole.
This section is intended to outline the factors that may influence the actual pressure exerted by
the drilling fluid in the wellbore during routine drilling operations.
The effect of the following is considered:
 Flowline elevation.
 Circulation.
 Tripping pipe.
Easy to use formulae are presented to predict the effects of these factors.
4.2 Hydrostatic pressure
The hydrostatic pressure of a column of drilling fluid is determined, in theory, by the density and
vertical height of the fluid above a point of interest.
The density of the drilling fluid and the height of the fluid column are related to the hydrostatic
pressure as follows:
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = 0,052 x MW (ppg) x D (ft)
Note: D is the true vertical depth of the well. Hydrostatic pressure is based on the true vertical
depth and not measured depth.
Figure 4.1 shows a sample calculation.
4.3 Equivalent Mud Weight
A common method of describing down-hole pressure is in terms of an EMW.
EMW is used in order that down-hole pressure may easily, and without confusion, be related to
the density of a mud column. EMW may therefore be used to describe a formation pressure as
well as a pressure applied by a column of mud.
The hydrostatic pressure of the mud column acts as a result of the height of fluid between the
flowline and the point of interest in the wellbore. The EMW is therefore referenced to the flowline.
Page 132 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

The effect of flowline elevation is considered when describing formation pressures in terms of an
EMW. This is because formation pressures are originally referred to sea level, or the surface
elevation, depending on whether the well is offshore or on land.
Figure 4.2 shows an example of the calculation of the EMW of a normally pressured formation
referenced to the flowline of a semisubmersible drilling rig.
Page 133 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2 SAND EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT

1 NORMALLY PRESSURED SHOWING REFERENCED TO THE FLOWLINE OF A
FLOWLINE ELEVATION
SAND @ 1 000 FT BELOW SEA LEVEL SEMISUBMERSIBLE DRILLING RIG
80 ft
SEA LEVEL
300 ft
SEA BED
700 ft
Normal pore pressure gradient

Formation pressure at 1 080 ft BRT
=8,6 ppg
=0,052 x 8,6 x 1 080
=447 psi
Formation pressure at this point

referenced to the flowline, in EMW
= 447
= 0,052 x 1 080
= 7,96 ppg
Figure 4.2 The Effect of Flowline Elevation - Shown in

Relation to Calculation of Formation Pressure
Page 134 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4.4 Circulating Pressures and Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)

When the well is static, the pressure at a given point in the well is equal to the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the head of fluid above that point.
If the hole is full to the flowline of 12,5 ppg fluid, the EMW at any point in the hole, referenced to
the flowline, is 12,5 ppg. If the pumps are started, the EMW at every point in the well will no
longer be equal to the weight of the mud. The EMW will be greater than 12,5 ppg at every point in
the wellbore.
The increase in EMW is due to the frictional pressure resulting from the flow of the mud up the
annulus. At each point in the well the EMW is increased by a factor reflecting the total frictional
pressure above that point.
Consider the example of a land well in Figure 4.3. As shown, when the well is being circulated,
the down-hole pressures are described as ECDs.
There are many factors that may affect the ECD in a particular well, but the most fundamental
factors are:
 The hole depth.
 The circulation rate.
 The mud weight.
 The rheology of the mud.
 The size of the hole.
 The OD of the drill string.
 The quantity of cuttings in the annulus.
Note: The presence of cuttings and drilled solids in the mud will have the effect of increasing
the EMW and changing the mud rheology.
The circulating pressure losses are calculated in order to predict both the pump pressure and
down hole ECD at specified circulating rates.
Page 135 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 4.3 Example Calculation of the ECD
Page 136 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4.4.1 Calculating the Circulating Pressure Losses

Models may be used to describe the rheology of drilling fluids. The most widely used are the
Bingham, Power Law and Modified Power Law Models.
The best results have been obtained using the Modified Power Law to model the behaviour of
water-based drilling fluids.
Very large discrepancies have been recorded between predicted and actual circulating pressures
when using the Modified Power Law to model the behaviour of oil-based drilling fluids. The cause
of this discrepancy is considered to be primarily the variation in rheological characteristics of the
oil mud under the influence of down-hole conditions.
The Bingham Model is considerably easier to use than the Modified Power Law. However, at
reduced fluid velocities, the Bingham Model may overestimate the friction pressure of a mud that
exhibits reduced gel strengths. When understanding the ECD is crucial, it can be measured with
an annular pressure sub in the MWD or calculated with software available through the fluids
provider.
The following procedure may be used to approximate circulating pressure losses using the
Bingham Model.
For Use Inside the Pipe
(1) Calculate PV and YP:
PV  600  300 and YP  300  PV (Equation 4-1)
(2) Calculate the mud velocity:

24,51 x Q
v ft / min (Equation 4-2)
di2
(3) Calculate the pressure loss for the pipe section, assuming laminar flow:
L x PV x v L x YP
P  psi (Equation 4-3)
1 500 x di 2 225 x di
(4) Calculate the effective viscosity:

300 x YP x di
  PV  centipoise (Equation 4-4)
v
(5) Calculate the Reynolds number:
15,47 x MW x v x di
Re  (Equation 4-5)

The critical Reynolds number is assumed to be 2 000 for Bingham fluids. If Re is less than 2 000,
the flow is assumed to be laminar and the pressure loss is calculated using the formula in Step
(3). If Re is greater than 2 000, the flow is assumed to be non-laminar and the pressure loss is re-
calculated using the formulae in Steps (6) and (7).
Page 137 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(6) Calculate the Fanning friction factor:

0,046
f (Equation 4-6)
Re 0.2
(7) Calculate the pressure loss for the pipe section in non-laminar flow:
f x L x MW x v 2
P psi (Equation 4-7)
93 000 x di
For Use in the Annulus

(1) Calculate the mud velocity:
24,51 x Q
v ft / min (Equation 4-8)
dhc 2  do 2
(2) Calculate the pressure loss for the section of annulus assuming laminar flow:
L x PV x v L x YP
P  psi (Equation 4-9)
200  dhc  do 

2
1 000 x  dhc  do   
 
(3) Calculate the effective viscosity:
300 x YP x  dhc  do 
  PV    centipoise (Equation 4-10)
v
(4) Calculate the Reynolds number:
15,47 x MW x v x  dhc  do 
Re    (Equation 4-11)

The critical Reynolds number is assumed to be 3 000 for Bingham fluids. If Re is less than 3 000,
the flow in this section of the annulus is assumed to be laminar and the pressure loss is
calculated using the formula in Step (2). If Re is greater than 3 000, the flow is assumed to be
non-laminar and the pressure loss is recalculated using the formulae in Steps (5) and (6):
(5) Calculate the Fanning friction factor:
0,046
f
Re0,2
(6) Calculate the pressure loss for the section of the annulus in non-laminar flow:
f x L x MW x v 2
P psi (Equation 4-12)
93 000 x ( dhc  do )
To Calculate the Pressure Drop Across the Bit

(1) Calculate the nozzle velocity:
Q
vn  ft / sec (Equation 4-13)
An x 3,12
Page 138 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(2) Calculate the bit pressure loss:
V 2 x MW
Pbit  n psi (Equation 4-14)
1 122
Where:
2
An = total nozzle area (in )
dhc = (Internal Diameter [ID] of hole or casing (inch)
di = ID of pipe (in)
do = OD of pipe (in)
f = fanning friction factor, dimensionless
L = length of section of pipe/annulus (ft)
MW = mud weight (ppg)
P = section pressure loss (psi)
Pbit = bit pressure loss (psi)
PV = plastic viscosity (centipiose)
Q = pump output (gal/min)
Re = Reynold’s Number, dimensionless
v = mud velocity (ft/min)
vn = nozzle velocity (ft/sec)
2
YP = yield point (lbf/100 ft )
 = effective viscosity (centipiose)
2
Θ300 = Fann viscometer reading at 300 rpm (lbf/100 ft )
2
Θ600 = Fann viscometer reading at 600 rpm (lbf/100 ft )
These formulae may be used to estimate the pressure drop in each section of pipe and annulus.
The drillpipe circulating pressure may be estimated from the sum of the pressure losses across
the bit and in all sections of the pipe and the annulus. The ECD at the bottom of the hole may be
estimated from the total annulus pressure loss.
The annulus pressure losses may also be estimated when circulating by subtracting the
calculated pressure drop in the drill string and the bit from the actual drillpipe pressure
(accounting also for surface pressure losses).
This technique is likely to yield a more accurate estimate of the annulus pressure losses for the
following reasons:
 The inside measurements of the drill string are more accurate than the open-hole internal
diameter.
 The pressure drop through the bit is accurately modelled by the formula presented.
 The effect of loading the annulus with cuttings is measured directly.
 The main disadvantage of this technique stems from the fact that the majority of the pressure
loss in the system is in the drill string and across the bit. A small error in the calculated
pressure drop will cause a relatively large error in the estimate of the annulus pressure loss.
Page 139 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4.5 Swab and Surge Pressures

Swab and surge pressures are caused by the movement of pipe in and out of the wellbore.
Calculate swab and surge pressure using a steady-state model based on the assumption that
swab and surge pressures are caused by three effects:
 Viscous drag of the mud as the pipe is moved.
 Inertial forces of the mud when the speed of the pipe is changed.
 Gel strength of the mud.
The factors that determine the magnitude of swab and surge pressures are assumed to be:
 The annular clearance.
 The viscosity of the mud.
 The gel strength of the mud.
 The speed of the pipe movement.
 The length of minimum clearance pipe in the hole.
 The position of the minimum clearance pipe in the hole in relation to the point of interest.
 The acceleration or deceleration of the pipe.
 Pipe or casing surface roughness.
On the basis of these assumptions, typical variations in wellbore pressure due to swab and surge
pressures while tripping pipe are shown in Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5.
Steady-state models are not enough to model the behaviour of the mud while the pipe is tripped.
Swab and surge pressures are best modeled as a transient, rather than a steady-state
phenomenon.
The transient model assumes a pressure wave is propagated at the instant the pipe begins to
move; the wave then travels down the well at the speed of sound and is reflected back up the
hole. As a result of this effect, the pressure at a point in the well oscillates. The oscillations will
continue until either the pipe reaches a steady speed, or has stopped and the reflected pressure
waves have diminished.
Page 140 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 4.4 Theoretical Variation in Swab and Surge Pressure -

when Tripping Pipe at Constant Speed
Page 141 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 4.5 Pressure Surges Associated with Lowering Pipe into a Borehole
The latest swab and surge software models the behaviour of the mud as a transient phenomenon
and also accounts for the following factors:
 The compressibility of the mud.
 The elasticity of the wellbore.
 The change in rheological properties of the mud with pressure and temperature.
 The temperature profile in the wellbore.
 The elasticity of the pipe.
4.5.1 Swab and Surge Calculations
Swab and surge software is able to model the transient response of the mud to pipe movement.
The formulae used for the steady-state model are relatively easy to use and, may be used in the
field to approximate swab and surge pressures.
The following example may be used to calculate swab and surge pressure for either open or
closed pipe:
(1) Estimate the velocity of the mud in the annulus for a given pipe running speed.
For closed pipe:
   
  do 2  
v   CL     x v p ft / min (Equation 4-15)
  d 2 d 2  
 hc o 
   
Page 142 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
For open pipe:
  do 2  di2  
 
v   CL   
 x v ft / min (Equation 4-16)
  d 2 d 2 d2   p
  hc o i  
Where:
v = velocity of the mud (ft/min)
CL = clinging constant
do = outside diameter of pipe (in)
dhc = diameter of hole or casing (in)
di = inside diameter of pipe (in)
Vp = average running speed of the pipe (ft/min)
The clinging constant, CL, is assumed to equal 0,45 in the absence of detailed formulae
that are used to predict this quantity.
(2) Determine the maximum mud velocity.
The maximum mud velocity is generally taken to be 1,5 times the average velocity as
calculated in Step (1).
(3) Determine the swab and / or surge pressures due to the pipe movement.
The swab and/or surge pressure resulting from the pipe movement may be estimated by
substituting the maximum annular mud velocity as calculated in Step (2) into the formula for
annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
The swab and/or surge pressure is added to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud if the pipe
is being run into the hole and subtracted if the pipe is being pulled.
Therefore:
 P 
EMW at po int of interest  MW    ppg (Equation 4-17)
 0,052 xD 
Where:
P = sum of swab and surge pressure (psi)
D = vertical depth to point of interest (ft)
Preston Moore developed a method which is presented below that may be used to approximate
swab and surge pressures due to the movement of a drill string that contains a bit with nozzles.
The range of swab and surge pressures predicted by this technique is often low.
The upper limit for swab and surge pressures for a drill string with a bit with nozzles will be
represented by the value calculated for closed pipe.
The procedure for calculating swab and surge pressures for a drill string that contains a bit with
nozzles is as follows:
(1) Calculate the velocity of the mud around the drillpipe for open pipe.
Use the formulae as shown for the previous technique.
Page 143 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(2) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated by the drillpipe due to the pipe
movement.
The swab and/or surge pressure may be calculated by substituting the annular mud
velocity in the formulae for annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
(3) Calculate the velocity of the mud around the collars.
Use the following formula:
A dp
v ( drillcollar )  v ( drillpipe) x ft / min (Equation 4-18)
A dc
Where:
v(drill collar) = velocity of mud around drill collars (ft/min)
v(drillpipe) = velocity of mud around drillpipe (ft/min)
2
Adp = cross-sectional area of drillpipe annulus (in )
2
Adc = cross-sectional area of drill collar annulus (in )
(4) Calculate the swab and surge pressure generated at the collars due to pipe movement.
Use the formulae for annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law) and v(drill collar) as
calculated in Step (3).
(5) Calculate the total annular swab and surge pressure.
This is equal to the sum of the swab and/or surge pressures at the drillpipe and the collars,
or the sum of Steps (2) and (3).
(6) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure inside the drill string.
Using the assumption that the fluid level outside the pipe equals the level inside the pipe,
the velocity of the mud inside the pipe equals the velocity outside.
(7) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated inside the drillpipe.
Assuming the mud velocity outside the pipe equals that inside the pipe, use the formulae
for internal pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
(8) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated inside the drill collar.
Assuming the mud velocity outside the drill collar equals that inside the collar, use the
formulae for internal pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
(9) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated at the bit.
Using the formulae (equation 4-13 and 4-14):
Q
Vn  ft / sec
An x 3,12
vn2 x MW
Pbit  psi
1 122
In this case the mud flow rate, Q (gal/min), is equal to the mud flow rate through the collars.
(10) Calculate the total internal swab and surge pressure due to the pipe movement.
Page 144 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
This is equal to the sum of the swab and surge pressures inside the drill string, Step (6)
plus Step (8), plus the bit swab and surge pressure as calculated in Step (9).
(11) Estimate the actual swab and surge pressure due to the pipe movement.
It is assumed the actual swab and surge pressure will be between the values calculated in
Steps (5) and (10).
The resultant swab and surge pressure is added to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud if
the pipe is being run into the hole and subtracted if the pipe is being pulled the same as
equation 4-17. Therefore:
 P 
EMW at po int of interest  MW    ppg
 0,052 x D 
Where:
P = sum of swab and/or surge pressure (psi)
D = vertical depth to point of interest (ft)
Note: The method shown here is reasonably accurate for WBM applications but may not be
accurate for NAF. Fluids provider simulation software will improve accuracy.
4.6 Pump Calculations
4.6.1 Pump Outputs
Pump output may be calculated based on the volume of each cylinder in the mud pump. Triplex
pumps are the easiest since they pump in only one direction. Duplex pumps will pump in both
directions and the rod diameter is subtracted from the volume on the return stroke.
The volumetric efficiency of a pump is estimated. Mud pumps are not 100% efficient so the
volume will be less than the volume of the cylinder. It is common in the industry to assume the
volumetric efficiency of a triplex pump is between 95 and 98%. Duplex pumps are less capable
because they are not fed with a charge pump. Duplex pump efficiencies range from 85 to 90%.
Pump efficiencies change with time. As the pump parts (liners, swabs, valves and seats) wear
out, the volumetric efficiency will decline. When the pump is repaired, the efficiency will increase.
Pump efficiency may be checked by pumping into a pit of known volume. When pumping into a
pit, there is usually little or no pressure on the pump and efficiencies may change when pressure
is applied.
Triplex Pumps
A triplex pump has three cylinders that pump in one direction only. The output may be calculated
based on the volume of each cylinder. The diameters and stroke lengths are generally given in
inches so the volumes will have to be converted to gallons. The conversion factor to gallons per
stroke is 98 for a triplex pump.
2
dl x STKLength x Veff
Vpump  gals/ stk (Equation 4-19)
98
Where:
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (gals/stk)
dl = internal diameter of liner (in)
STKLength = length of stroke (in)
Page 145 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Veff = volumetric efficiency of pump, fraction (95% would be 0,95)

Duplex Pump
The duplex pump has two cylinders, but it pumps both ways (double acting). The rod diameter is
subtracted from the volume on the return stroke for each cylinder. The conversion factor to
gallons per stroke is 147 for a duplex pump.
  d 2    d 2  d 2   x STK
  l   l r   Length x Veff
v pump   gals/ stk (Equation 4-20)
147
Where:
dl = internal diameter of liner (in)
dr = external diameter of rod (in)
STKLength = length of stroke (in)
Veff = volumetric efficiency of pump, fraction (90% would be 0,90)
4.6.2 Pump Rates
The pump rate may be determined by multiplying the pump output per stroke by the strokes per
minute.
Q  Vpump x SPM gals/ min (Equation 4-21)
Where:
Q = pump rate (gals/min)
SPM = pump speed (stks/min)
4.6.3 Hydraulic Horsepower
The pump hydraulic horsepower may be calculated by multiplying the drillpipe pressure times the
flow rate and dividing by the constant in order to convert it to hydraulic horsepower. If the
pressure is in psi and the flow rate is in gpm, the constant is 1 714. Equation 4-22 will calculate
the pump hydraulic horsepower.
Pdp x Q
HHP  (Equation 4-22)
1 714
Where:
HHP = pump hydraulic horsepower (hydraulic horsepower)
Pdp = drillpipe pressure (psi)
Q = flow rate (gpm)
Example:
Given a Continental Emsco F-1300 triplex pump with 6 in liners and a 12 in stroke, calculate the
pump rate at 102 strokes per minute (spm) assuming a 97% volumetric efficiency. Calculate the
hydraulic horsepower if the pressure is 3 400 psi.
Pump output per stroke:
Page 146 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2
dl x STKLength x Veff 6 2 x 12 x 0,97
Vpump    4,28gals/ stk
98 98
Pump rate at 102 spm:
Q  Vpump x SPM  4,28 x 102  437 gpm
Hydraulic horsepower at 3 400 psi drillpipe pressure:

Pdp x Q 3 400 x 437
HHP    867 hhp
1 714 1 714
Example:
Given a Continental Emsco D-1000 duplex pump with 7-1/4 in liners and 18 in stroke, calculate
the pump rate at 60 spm assuming a 90% volumetric efficiency. The rod diameter is 3 in.
Pump output per stroke:
2 2 2
[ (dl )  (dl  dr ) ] x STKLength x Veff [ (7,252 )  (7,252  32 ) ] x 18 x 0,90
Vpump  
147 147
Vpump  10,59 gal / stk
Pump rate at 60 spm:

Q  Vpump x SPM  10,59 x 60  635 gpm
4.7 Pump Pressure Relationships

The pump pressure or drillpipe pressure is directly related to the wellbore geometry, mud
properties and flow rate. If the flow rate is increased, the drillpipe pressure will also increase.
Since the majority of pressure losses in the system are from turbulent flow, the drillpipe pressure
will increase exponentially with flow rate. Figure 4.6 represents the drillpipe pressure for a
10 000 ft well with a 10,0 ppg mud, 5 in drillpipe and 3-11’s for jets in an 8-1/2 in hole.
Note: The pressure increases nonlinearly with flow rate.
Page 147 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 4.7 is the same pressures and flow rates plotted on log-log paper. The pressure losses
become a straight line on log-log paper. An equation may be written for the line in Figure 4.7 as
follows:
Figure 4.6 Pressure Losses in a Well

Drillpipe Pressure, psi
Figure 4.7 Pressure Losses in a Well Plotted on Log-Log Paper
Page 148 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pdp K1 x Qs psi (Equation 4-23)
Where:
Q = flow rate (gpm)
K1 = constant that depends upon well geometry and mud properties
s = slope of line similar to Figure 4.7
The slope of the line in Figure 4.7 may be determined from any two flow rates in the well. The
flow rates may be two slow circulation rates or a slow circulation rate and usual circulating
pressure while drilling. The slope may be determined from the following equation:
logPdp2  logPdp1
s (Equation 4-24)
logQ2  logQ1
Where:
s = slope of line between two flow rates similar to Figure 4.7
Pdp2 = drillpipe pressure at flow rate Q2 (psi)
Pdp1 = drillpipe pressure at flow rate Q1 (psi)
Q1 = flow rate at condition 1 (gpm)
Q2 = flow rate at condition 2 (gpm)
Once the flow rate is known, the constant, K1, in equation 4-23 may be determined. With K1 and
the slope, s, the drillpipe pressure at any flow rate may be determined.
Example:
Given the following slow circulation rates, calculate the slope of pressure versus flow rate curve
on log-log plot. Then calculate the estimated drillpipe pressure at 45 spm.
SPM GPM Pdp
30 107 260
40 142 410
50 178 590
Note: The flow rate may be used in spm or gpm, as long as the units are consistent.
logPdp2  logPdp1 log ( 590 )  log ( 410 )
s   1,63
logQ2  logQ1 log ( 50 )  log ( 40 )
With the slope, calculate K1 at 40 or 50 spm:
Pdp  K1 x Qs
Pdp 590
K1    1,0035
Qs 501.63
Calculate the estimated drillpipe pressure at 45 spm:
Pdp  K1 x Qs  1,0035 x 451,63  497 psi
Page 149 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4.8 Trip Calculations

When tripping out of the hole, the fluid level in a well will fall by the volume equivalent to the
displacement of the drill string. To keep from losing hydrostatic pressure, the hole is filled with a
volume of mud equivalent to the displacement of the drill string. If the volume required to fill the
hole is less than the displacement of the drill string, formation fluids may be entering the wellbore
eventually resulting in a kick. The amount of mud required to fill the hole needs to be carefully
monitored while tripping out of the hole. In crucial situations, the amount of mud displaced from
the hole while tripping into the hole is also monitored.
The displacement of the drill collars may be looked up in a data book (e.g., the cementer’s data
book) or the displacement may be calculated based on the outside and inside diameter of the
collars. The following equation may be used to determine the displacement of a drill collar.
2 2
do  di
VDisp  bbls/ ft (Equation 4-25)
1029,4
Where:
VDisp = displacement of pipe or collar (bbls/ft)
do = outside diameter of pipe or collar (inch)
di = inside diameter of pipe or collar (inch)
Equation 4-25 may be used for drill collars, tubing or casing. It does not work as well for drillpipe
or heavy weight drillpipe. Drillpipe usually has an internal and external upset on the tool joint.
Actual displacement volumes will be slightly greater than the volume calculated with equation 4-
25. Data books may be referenced to calculate the increased volume of the tool joint upsets.
Heavy weight drillpipe may have substantial increases in volume due to the upsets. The easiest
way to calculate the displacement of drillpipe and heavy weight is to take the actual weight per
foot (with tool joints) and divide by 2 750 (carbon steel weighs approximately 2 750 lbs per barrel)
as shown in equation 4-26. The actual weight per foot with tool joints may be found in data books.
For instance, 5 in, 19,50 lb/ft, Grade G drillpipe with NC50(XH) connections weighs 21,92 lbs/ft
including tool joints.
Wf
VDisp  bbls/ ft (Equation 4-26)
2 750
Where:
VDisp = displacement of drillpipe or heavy weight drillpipe (bbls/ft)
Wf = weight per foot of drillpipe or heavy weight drillpipe with tool joints (lbs)
While tripping out of the hole, the volume of mud required to fill the hole is checked frequently.
For drillpipe, it is usually every five stands (depending upon hole geometry) and more frequently
with drill collars and heavy weight drillpipe. It is important to recognize and calculate the effect of
the bottom hole pressure reduction considering the size of the tubulars removed. A reduction of
more than 75 psi is generally to be avoided. For example, while 10 stands of five in drillpipe
would reduce the bottom hole pressure by 60 psi in an 8,5 in well with 12 ppg mud, it would
require a stand of 6,5 in drill collars to have the same effect. To get the estimated volume, the
displacement per foot (VDisp) is multiplied by the number of stands and the average length of a
stand as in equation 4-27.
To get the estimated volume, the displacement per foot (VDisp) is multiplied by the number of
stands and the average length of a stand as in equation 4-27.
Page 150 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Disp  VDisp x LS tan d x NS tan ds bbls (Equation 4-27)
Where:
Disp = displacement (bbls)
VDisp = displacement of drillpipe (bbls/ft)
LStand = average length of a stand (ft)
NStands = number of stands
While tripping in the hole with a float (non return valve) in the drill string, the pipe will not fill and
displacement values will be larger. Equation 4-25 may still be used to calculate the displacement.
If the drill string or casing contains a float, the inside diameter, di, may be entered into equation 4-
25 as zero. For drillpipe, the increased volume due to external upsets may be obtained from a
data book and added to the displacement calculated with equation 4-25.
Example:
Calculate the displacement of the following drill string elements: each stand of drill collars, every
three stands of heavy weight drill pipe, and every five stands of drill pipe.
 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars, average 90 ft per stand
 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, heavy weight drillpipe, average 93 ft per stand
 5 in, 19,50 lb/ft, Grade G, XH (21,92 lbs/ft with tool joints, average 94 ft per stand
4.8.1 Drill Collars
The displacement per foot of the drill collars:
2 2
do  di 6,252  2,752
VDisp    0,03060 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
The displacement of the drill collars per stand:
Disp  VDisp x LS tan d x NS tan ds  0,03060 x 90 x 1  2,75 bbls
Heavy weight Drill Pipe

The displacement per foot of the heavy weight drillpipe:
Wf 49,3
VDisp    0,01793 bbls/ ft
2 750 2 750
The displacement of the heavy weight drillpipe per three stands:
Drill Pipe
The displacement per foot of the drillpipe:
Wf 21,92
VDisp    0,00797 bbls/ ft
2 750 2 750
The displacement of the drillpipe per five stands:
Tripping in the hole with a float or non return valve above the bit, the displacement per five stands
of drillpipe would be:
Page 151 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2 2
do  di 52  02
VDisp    0,02429 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Note: The displacement would be slightly greater because of the external upset from the
couplings. A reference book indicates that the external upset of a tool joint is
approximately 0,01 bbls per tool joint. Since there are two tool joints per joint of pipe, and
15 joints in five stands, the volume to add to five stands would be: 0,01 x 2 x 15 =
0,30 bbls per five stands. The adjusted displacement volume for drill pipe would then be
3.75 + 0.30 = 4.05 bbls per five stands and 11.42 + 0.30 = 11.72 bbls per five stands,
without and with a non return valve, respectively.
4.9 Kill Sheet Calculations
A number of calculations are used to kill a well and fill out a kill sheet. Electronic kill sheets will
use more complicated equations and will have slightly different results than the simplified
equations presented here.
4.9.1 Density of Kill Mud
After the well has been shut-in and the pressures have stabilized, the density of the kill mud is
determined. Equation 4-28 may be used to calculate the density of the mud required to kill the
well.
Pdp
MW2  MW1  ppg (Equation 4-28)
TVD x 0,052
Where:
MW2 = density of the kill mud (ppg)
MW1 = density of original mud weight (ppg)
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
TVD = true vertical depth of kick zone (ft)
4.9.2 Initial Circulating Pressure
The Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP) is calculated based on the shut-in drillpipe pressure and the
friction losses in the system. Friction losses are measured at the slow circulation rate or SCR.
ICP  Pdp  Pscr (Equation 4-29)
Where:
ICP = initial circulating pressure (psi)
Pscr = circulating pressure at the SCR with MW1 (psi)
4.9.3 Final Circulating Pressure
The Final Circulating Pressure (FCP) is the estimated friction losses when the kill mud reaches
the bit.
MW2
FCP  Pscr x (Equation 4-30)
MW1
Page 152 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Where:
FCP = final circulating pressure (psi)
Pscr = circulating pressure at the SCR with MW1 (psi)
MW 2 = density of the kill mud (ppg)
MW 1 = density of original mud weight (ppg)
4.9.4 Strokes to Bit
In order to calculate the total number of Strokes to the Bit (STB), the internal volume of the drill
string is calculated. The volume of each component of the drill string is calculated and the
volumes are summed to get the volume of the drill string. The capacity per foot for each
component may be calculated with the following formula based on the inside diameter:
2
di
Vcap  (Equation 4-31)
1029,4
Where:
Vcap = capacity of drill string component (bbls/ft)
di = internal diameter (inch)
The total volume would be the capacity of each component, Vcap, times the length of each
component.
Vtot  ( Vcap x L dp )  ( Vcap x Lhw )  ( Lcap x L dc )  ...bbls (Equation 4-32)
Where:
Vtot = total drill string volume (bbls)
Vcap = capacity of drill string component (bbls/ft)
Ldp = measured length of drillpipe (ft)
Lhw = measured length of heavy weight (ft)
Ldc = measured length of drill collars (ft)
… = capacity and length of any additional components
The STB are calculated with the total drill string volume and the pump capacity as follows:
Vtot
STB  (Equation 4-33)
Vpump
Where:
STB = total strokes from surface to bit (stks)
Vtot = total drill string volume (bbls)
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (bbls/stk)
4.9.5 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule (Vertical Well)
One other calculation that is required when using the Wait and Weight Method is a drillpipe
pressure schedule. The equations here are simplified and apply to a relatively simple drill string
(i.e., drillpipe, heavy weight and collars) and a vertical or low-angle well. Electronic kill sheets will
generally use a more complicated calculation that takes all changes of pipe diameter into
account.
Page 153 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
When the kill weight mud is pumped down the drill string, the pressure is reduced by the increase
in hydrostatic pressure while still considering friction losses. By the time the kill weight mud gets
to the bit, the increased hydrostatic pressure is subtracted from the drillpipe pressure and the
increased friction losses (due to a greater mud weight) is added to the drillpipe pressure. If it is
assumed the reduction due to hydrostatic pressure and the increase due to friction loss are linear,
the calculations are simplified. To monitor the pressure as pumping progresses, the STB may be
divided into an equal number of increments (Ninc) as follows:
STB
STB  (Equation 4-34)
Ninc
Where:
ΔSTB = number of pump strokes per increment (stks)
Ninc = number of equal increments
Simply stated, if it was better to use 10 equal increments in the drillpipe pressure schedule, the
STB is divided by 10 to get the number of pump strokes in each increment. The pressure
reduction per increment may be calculated with equation 4-35.
ICP  FCP
P  (Equation 4-35)
Ninc
Where:
ΔP = drillpipe pressure reduction per increment (psi)
Ninc = number of equal increments
A drillpipe pressure schedule may be constructed using the ΔSTB and ΔP. At zero strokes, the
drillpipe pressure will be equal to the ICP. After each incremental stroke, the drillpipe pressure will
be reduced by the ΔP. This is best illustrated by an example. Assume the ICP will be 1 000 psi
and the FCP will be 500 psi. Assume that the number of increments is 10 and the STB is 1 000.
The ΔSTB will be:
STB 1 000
STB    100 stks
Ninc 10
The pressure increment for each step would be:

ICP  FCP 1 000  500
P    50 psi
Ninc 10
For every 100 strokes, the drillpipe pressure is reduced by 50 psi. Table 4.1 shows the
calculations needed to get the drillpipe pressure schedule. Table 4.2 shows the calculations and
results for this example.
Page 154 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 4.1 Formulae in Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
Increment Number Cumulative Strokes Drillpipe Pressure (psi)
0 STK0=0 P0=ICP
1 STK1=STK0+ΔSTB P1=P0-ΔP
10=Ninc STK10=STK9+ΔSTB=STB P10=P9--ΔP=FCP
Page 155 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 4.2 Calculations of Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
0 STK0=0 P0=ICP
0 1000
STK1=0+100 P1=1000-50
100 950
STK2=100+100 P2=950-50
200 900
STK3=200+100 P3=900-50
300 850
STK4=300+100 P4=850-50
400 800
STK5=400+100 P5=800-50
500 750
STK6=500+100 P6=750-50
600 700
STK7=600+100 P7=700-50
700 650
STK8=700+100 P8=650-50
800 600
STK9=800+100 P9=600-50
900 550
10=N STB FCP

1000 500
Page 156 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 4.3 shows the table with only the results of the calculations.
Table 4.3 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
0 0 1 000
1 100 950
2 200 900
3 300 850
4 400 800
5 500 750
6 600 700
7 700 650
8 800 600
9 900 550
10 1 000 500
Example:
Make the required kill sheet calculations for the following well.
 Total depth 9 670 ft Measured Depth (MD) and TVD.
 270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, Heavy Weight Drillpipe (HWDP), 3 in ID.
 300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
 9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (4,276 in ID).
 Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and TVD.
 Casing inside diameter is 8,835 in.
 Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
 Frac gradient at casing shoe is 13,5 ppg.
 Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
 Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
 Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
 Pit gain is 20 bbls.
 Slow circulation rate is 40 spm.
 Slow circulation pressure is 310 psi.
 Pump output is 0,0829 bbls/stk.
Page 157 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Calculate the density of the kill weight mud:

Pdp 400
MW2  MW1   9,8   10,6 ppg
TVD x 0,052 9 670 x 0,052
Note: Round up the mud weight. Rounding down might reduce the mud density below that
needed to control the well. A mud balance may not accurately read less than 0,1 ppg.
Calculate the initial circulating pressure:
ICP = Pdp + Pscr = 400 + 310 = 710 psi
Calculate the final circulating pressure:

MW2 10,6
FCP  Pscr x  310 x  335 psi
MW1 9,8
Calculate the capacity per foot of the drillpipe:
2
di 4,2762
Vcap   0,01776 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the capacity per foot of the HWDP:
2
di 32
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the capacity per foot of the drill collars:
2
di 2,752
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the total volume of the drill string:
Vtot  ( Vcap x L dp )  ( Vcap x Lhw )  ( Vcap x L dc )
Vtot  ( 0,01776 x 9 100 )  ( 0,00874 x 270 )  ( 0,00735 x 300 )  166,2 bbls
Calculate the strokes to bit:

Vtot 166,2
STB    2 005 stks
Vpump 0,0829
Calculate the ΔSTB assuming 15 increments:

2 005
STB   133,67stks
15
Calculate the pressure reduction per increment:
ICP  FCP 710  335
P    25 psi
Ninc 15
Page 158 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Construct the drillpipe pressure schedule:

Table 4.4 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
0 0 710
1 134 685
2 267 660
3 401 635
4 535 610
5 668 585
6 802 560
7 936 535
8 1 069 510
9 1 203 485
10 1 337 460
11 1 470 435
12 1 604 410
13 1 738 385
14 1 871 360
15 2 005 335
4.9.6 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule (Directional Well)

If the inclination of the wellbore is more than 30°, the drillpipe pressure schedule will look different
(see Section 6). Volume and friction losses are based on measured depth while hydrostatic
pressure is based on true vertical depth. If there is a large difference between the true vertical
depth and the measured depth, then friction is treated separately. Most electronic kill sheets will
automatically compensate if enough information is entered. The following formulae may be used
to construct the drillpipe pressure schedule.
(1) Calculate the drillpipe size factor () and the friction constant (). This is needed in order to
calculate the friction pressure increase due to the kill weight mud.
L1
1  2
(Equation 4-36)
di1
Where:
1
2
= size factor for drillpipe section 1 (ft/in )
L1 = length of drillpipe section 1 (ft)
di1 = ID of drillpipe section 1 (in)
If there is more than one drillpipe section (tapered string), then calculate the size factor for each
of the sections. The BHA may be treated as part of the drillpipe section.
Page 159 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
FCP  Pscr
 (Equation 4-37)
1   2
Where:

2
= drillpipe friction constant (psi in /ft)
1,2 =
2
drillpipe size factors for sections 1 and 2 (ft/in )
Pscr = slow circulating pressure with original mud MW 1 (psi)
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the distinct
directional profile inflection depths in the drillpipe (e.g., kick-off, end-build, end-tangent).
If the inflection depth is above or at the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD
Pfriction   x 2
(Equation 4-38)
di1
If the inflection depth is below the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
 
( MD  L1 )
Pfriction   x  1   (Equation 4-39)
 di22 
 
Where:
ΔPfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
MD = measured depth at the point of interest (ft)

2
1,2
2
= drillpipe size factors for sections 1 and 2 (ft/in )
L1 = length of drillpipe section 1 (ft)
(3) Calculate the static pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection depths
(pressure is due to increased hydrostatic pressure):
 TVD 
Pstatic  Pdp x  1,0   (Equation 4-40)
 TVDh 
Where:
Pstatic = static drillpipe pressure (psi)
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure before the kill weight mud is circulated
(psi)
TVD = vertical depth at the point of interest (ft)
TVDh = vertical depth at the open-hole kick zone (ft)
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection
depths.
Page 160 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pdp  Pscr  Pfriction  Pstatic (Equation 4-41)
Where:
Pscr = slow circulating pressure with original mud MW 1 (psi)
ΔPfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
Example:
Calculate a drillpipe pressure schedule for a directional well with the following information:
 Total depth 9 670 ft MD and 6 994 ft TVD.
 270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
 Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and 6 150 ft TVD.
Page 161 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Directional data:
Table 4.5 Directional Data for Example Problem
Measured True Vertical

Depth Depth
Kick off Point

2 150 2 150
End of Curve
5 510 4 911
8 000 6 150
9 100 6 701
TD
9 670 6 994
Calculate the density of the kill weight mud:

Pdp 400
MW2  MW1   9,8   10,9 ppg
TVD x 0,052 6 994 x 0,052
Calculate the initial circulating pressure:
ICP  Pdp  Pscr  400  310  710 psi
Calculate the final circulating pressure:

MW2 10,9
FCP  Pscr x  310 x  345 psi
MW1 9,8
Calculate the capacity per foot of the drillpipe:
2
di 4,2762
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the capacity per foot of the HWDP:
2
di 32
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the capacity per foot of the drill collars:
2
di 2,752
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the total volume to the kick-off point of 2 150 ft MD:
Vtot 1  ( Vcap x L dp )  ( Vcap x Lhw )  ( Vcap x L dc )
Vtot1 = ( 0,01776 x 2 150 ) + ( 0,00874 x 0 ) + ( 0,00735 x 0 ) = 38,2 bbls
Page 162 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Calculate the total volume to the end of curve at 5 510 ft MD:

Vtot 2 = ( 0,01776x 5 510 ) + ( 0,00874x 0 ) + ( 0,00735x 0 ) = 97,9 bbls
Calculate the total volume to the casing point at 8 000 ft MD:

Vtot 3 = ( 0,01776x 8 000 ) + ( 0,00874x 0 ) + ( 0,00735x 0 ) = 142,1bbls
Calculate the total volume to the top of the BHA at 9 100 ft MD:
Vtot 4 = ( 0,01776x 9 100 ) + ( 0,00874x 0 ) + ( 0,00735x 0 ) = 161,6bbls
Calculate the total volume to TD at 9,670 ft MD:

Vtot  ( Vcap x L dp )  ( Vcap x Lhw )  ( Vcap x L dc )
Vtot = (0,01776 x 9 100) + (0,00874 x 270) + (0,00735 x 300) = 166,2bbls
Calculate the strokes to the kick-off point of 2 150 ft MD:

Vtot 38,2
Stks1    461stks
Vpump 0,0829
Calculate the strokes to the end of curve at 5 510 ft MD:

Vtot 97,9
Stks 2    1 181 stks
Vpump 0,0829
Calculate the strokes to 8 000 ft MD:

Vtot 142,1
Stks 3    1 714 stks
Vpump 0,0829
Calculate the strokes to the top of the BHA at 9 100 ft MD:

Vtot 161,6
Stks 4    1 949 stks
Vpump 0,0829
Calculate the strokes to the bit at 9 670 ft MD:

Vtot 166,2
STB    2 005 stks
Vpump 0,0829
(1) Calculate the drillpipe size factor () and the friction constant (β). This is needed in order to
calculate the friction pressure increase due to the kill weight mud.
L1 9 670
1  2
 2
 528,87 ft / in2
di1 4,276
There is one drillpipe size and the BHA was considered to be part of the drill string. No
other pipe size factor is required.
Page 163 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
FCP  Pscr 345  310

   0,06618 psi in2 / ft
1   2 528,87  0
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the inflection
depths in the drillpipe (e.g., kick-off, end-build, end-tangent).
Friction to kick-off point of 2 150 ft MD:
MD 2 150
Pfriction1   x 2
 0,06618 x  8 psi
di1 4,2762
Friction to end of curve at 5 510 ft MD:

MD 5 510
 0,06618 x  20 psi
di1 4,2762
Friction to 8 000 ft MD:

MD 8 000
 0,06618 x  29 psi
di1 4,2762
Friction to top of BHA at 9 100 ft MD:

MD 9,100
 0,06618 x  33 psi
di1 4,2762
Friction to TD at 9 670 ft MD:

MD 9 670
 0,06618 x  35 psi
di1 4,2762
(3) Calculate the static pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection
depths:
Static pressure at the kick-off point of 2 150 ft MD, 2 150 ft TVD:
 TVD   2 150 
Pstatic1  Pdp x  1,0    400 x  1,0    277 psi
 TVDh   6 994 
Static pressure to end of curve at 5 510 ft, MD 4 911 ft TVD:
 TVD   4 911 
Pstatic 2  Pdp x  1,0    400 x  1,0    119 psi
 TVDh   6 994 
Static pressure to 8 000 ft MD, 6 150 ft TVD:
 TVD   6 150 
 TVDh   6 994 
Static pressure to top of BHA at 9 100 ft MD, 6 701 ft TVD:
 TVD   6 701 
 TVDh   6 994 
Static pressure to TD at 9 670 ft MD, 6 994 ft TVD:
Page 164 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 TVD   6 994 
Pstatic  Pdp x  1,0    400 x  1,0    0 psi
 TVDh   6 994 
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection
depths.
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the kick-off point of
2 150 ft MD:
Pdp1  Pscr  Pfriction1  Pstatic1  310  8  277  595 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the end of the build curve
at 5 510 ft MD:
Pdp2 = Pscr + Pfriction2 + Pstatic2 = 310 + 20 + 119 = 449 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches 8 000 ft MD:
Pdp3 = Pscr + Pfriction3 + Pstatic3 = 310 + 29 + 48 = 387 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the top of the BHA at
9 100 ft MD:
Pdp4 = Pscr + Pfriction4 + Pstatic 4 = 310 + 33 + 17 = 360 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the bit at 9 670 ft MD:
Note: It will calculate the same as the FCP.
Pdp = Pscr + Pfriction + Pstatic = 310 + 35 + 0 = 345 psi
The drillpipe pressure schedule may be determined based on the calculated data above.
Table 4.6 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Directional Well
0 0 710
Stks1 461 595
Stks2 1 181 449
Stks3 1 714 387
Stks4 1 949 360
STB 2 005 345
Unfortunately, the increments in Table 4.6 are too large and it would be challenging to follow the
schedule. The increments between pressures may be increased similar to what was done in the
vertical well (by calculating ΔP and ΔSTB between the intervals). Table 4.7 is the expanded
drillpipe pressure schedule. Alternatively, the data may be plotted as in Figure 4.8.
Page 165 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 4.7 Expanded Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Directional Well
0 0 710
1 154 672
2 307 633
Stks1 461 595
1 605 566
2 749 537
3 893 507
4 1 037 478
Stks2 1 181 449
1 1 358 428
2 1 536 408
Stks3 1 714 387
Stks4 1 949 360
STB 2 005 345
Figure 4.8 Plot of Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Example Problem
Page 166 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4.10 Kick-related Equations

The preceding section illustrates the calculations required to kill a well using classic pressure
control procedures. Additional calculations may be made for any kick that is shut-in and the
pressures have stabilized (no lost circulation).
4.10.1 Weight of Influx
If the well is shut-in and the pressures have stabilized, the weight of the kick fluid may be
calculated. The difference in density will be reflected in the surface pressures. If the weight of the
influx is less than the density of the mud, which is common, the annulus pressure will be greater
than the drillpipe pressure. Since the surface pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure must equal
shut-in bottom hole pressure on the drillpipe and annulus side, the annulus pressure will be larger
if the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus is lower.
The weight of the influx is calculated using accurate pressure readings and kick volume.
Historically, reported kick volumes have always been lower than the actual kick volume calculated
after the well control incident. With modern Pit Volume Totaliser (PVT) equipment, the historical
data and the kick volume may be reviewed and accurately determined.
To calculate the weight of the influx, the shut-in bottom hole pressure is calculated using the
drillpipe side. Under static conditions (no pumping), the surface pressure plus the hydrostatic
pressure equals the pressure at any point in the wellbore:
Pf  Pdp  ( 0,052 x MW1 x TVD ) (Equation 4-42)
Where:
Pf = shut-in bottom hole pressure (psi)
Pdp = shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
MW 1 = original mud weight in hole (ppg)
TVD = true vertical depth of well (ft)
With the shut-in bottom hole pressure, the hydrostatic pressure of the influx may be calculated
based on the annulus pressure and the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. The TVD height of
the influx is calculated first:
Vb x cos ( lavg )
hb  (Equation 4-43)
Vacap
Where:
hb = height of the influx in the annulus (TVD height) (ft)
Vb = volume of the influx (pit gain) (bbls)
Vacap = capacity of the annulus where influx is located (usually drill collar
annulus) (bbls/ft)
Iavg = average inclination where influx is located (degrees)
Directional wells make the calculation of the influx density relatively complicated because
hydrostatic pressure is based on TVD. In a horizontal well, it is very challenging to determine the
weight of the influx if the kick is in the horizontal section. The influx will have no TVD height.
Page 167 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The annular capacity may be calculated very similar to the drill string capacity.
2 2
dh  do
Vacap  (Equation 4-44)
1029,4
Where:
dh = diameter of the hole (in)
do = outside diameter of pipe (in)
The hydrostatic pressure of the influx may be calculated from surface pressure, hydrostatic
pressure and shut-in bottom hole pressure. The surface pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure is
equal to the shut-in bottom hole pressure on the annulus side:
Pf  Pa  [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD  hb ) ]  Pi (Equation 4-45)
The equation may be rearranged to solve for the hydrostatic pressure of the influx, Pi:
Pi  Pf  Pa  [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD  hb ) ] (Equation 4-46)
Where:
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of the influx (psi)
Pf = shut-in bottom hole pressure (psi)
Pa = shut-in annulus pressure (psi)
TVD = TVD depth of the well (ft)
The density of the influx may be calculated based on the hydrostatic pressure and height:
Pi
Wi  (Equation 4-47)
0,052 x hb
Where:
Wi = weight of influx (ppg)
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of the influx (psi)
Example:
Calculate the density of the influx fluid in the following well:
 Total depth 9 670 ft MD and TVD.
 270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
Page 168 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Calculate the shut-in bottom hole pressure:

Pf = Pdp + ( 0,052 x MW1 x TVD ) = 400 + ( 0,052 x 9,8 x 9 670 ) = 5 328 psi
Calculate the annular capacity around the drill collars:

2 2
dh  do 8,52  6,252
Vacap    0,03224 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the TVD height of the influx. Since it is a vertical well, the average inclination is zero:
Vb x cos ( lavg ) 20 x cos ( 0 )
hb    620 ft
Vacap 0,03224
Since the height is greater than the length of the drill collars, the gas bubble will occupy the collar
annulus and most of the HWDP annulus. Calculate the total volume of the drill collar annulus:
Vtot = Vacap x L dc = 0,03224x 300 = 9,67 bbls
The volume of the influx that is above the drill collars is:
20 - 9,67  10,33 bbls
Calculate the annular capacity per foot around the HWDP:

2 2
dh  do 8,5 2  5 2
Vacap    0,0459 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the height in the HWDP annulus:
Vb x cos ( lavg ) 10,33 x cos ( 0 )
hb    225 ft
Vacap 0,04590
Since that is less than the length of the HWDP, the influx does not extend up into the drillpipe
annulus. Calculate the total height of the influx:
hb = 300 + 225 = 525 ft
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the influx:

Pi = Pf - Pa - [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD - hb ) ]
Pi = 5 328 - 600 - [ 0,052 x 9,8 x ( 9 670 - 525 ) ] = 68 psi
Calculate the weight of the influx:

Pi 68
Wi    2,49 ppg
0,052 x hb 0,052 x 525
Since the weight of the influx is only 2,49 ppg, it is gas.

4.10.2 Strokes to Shoe and Surface
Another calculation is the number of strokes to the casing shoe or weak point and the number of
strokes to the surface. The majority of times, the bit size is used for the calculation. The hole size
is seldom gauged from top to bottom and the volume will be greater than those calculated with
the bit size. The mud logger will keep track of the average annular volume in order to lag cuttings.
For more accuracy, the mud logger may be consulted on bottoms up volume.
Page 169 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The mud weight at the shaker will not suddenly increase from the original mud weight to the kill
mud weight due to mixing in the annulus. It will gradually increase from the original mud weight to
the kill mud weight and may take several bottoms up to remove all gas and stabilize mud weight.
Additionally, if the influx contains gas, the gas may migrate through the mud while circulating and
arrive at the surface earlier than calculated.
Equation 4-44 may be used to calculate annular volume in each hole section. The annular volume
divided by the pump output will yield the strokes to any particular point in the well.
Example:
Calculate the strokes to the casing shoe and the strokes to surface for the following well:
 9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH dill pipe (4,276 in ID).
Using Equation 4-44 calculate the annular capacity of the drill collar annulus:
2 2
dh  do 8,52  6,252
Vacap    0,03224 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the annular capacity of the drillpipe and HWDP annulus:
2 2
dh  do 8,52  52
Vacap    0,04590 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the total annular volume to the casing shoe at 8 000 ft.
Note: The length of the drillpipe may be calculated from the measured depth length minus the
length of the collars and HWDP.
Lengthof drillpipe= (9 670 - 8 000) - 270 - 300 = 1100 ft
Vtot = ( Vacap x L dc ) + ( Vacap x Lhw ) + ( Vacap x L dp )
Vtot = ( 0,03224x 300 ) + ( 0,04590x 270 ) + ( 0,04590x 1100 ) = 72,56bbls
Page 170 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The strokes to the casing shoe may be calculated by taking the total volume and dividing by the
pump output:
Vtot 72,56
STKS    875 stks
Vpump 0,0829
Where:
STKS = number of strokes to point of interest (stks)
Vtot = total volume to point of interest (bbls)
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (bbls/stk)
The strokes to the surface may be calculated by calculating the strokes from the casing shoe and
adding it to the strokes to the shoe. Calculate the annular capacity of the casing:
d 2  do2 8,8352  52
Vacap  h   0,05154 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the total annular volume in the casing annulus:
Vtot = ( Vacap x Ldp ) = ( 0,05154 x 8 000 ) = 412,32bbls
The strokes from the casing shoe to the surface would be:
Vtot 412,32
STKS    4 974 stks
Vpump 0,0829
The cumulative strokes from the bit to the surface would be:
Strokes to surface = 875 + 4 974 = 5 849 stks
4.10.3 Annulus Pressure Profile
Note: Reader may want to review The Driller’s Method and the Wait and Weight Method before
continuing with this section.
The annulus pressure may be calculated if it is assumed that the gas bubble remains a discrete
bubble and does not migrate while circulating. In reality, the gas may mix with the mud and will
not remain a discrete bubble. If it mixes with the mud and gets strung out, the surface pressures
will be lower than the calculated pressures. The gas will be migrating through the mud while
circulating and arrive at the point of interest quicker.
If the influx is oil with a reduced Gas Oil Ratio, (GOR) or salt water, the annular pressures will not
change substantially from the original shut-in pressure. If the oil has an elevated GOR, the
pressures will start changing when the oil gets below the bubble point pressure.
Driller’s Method
The Driller’s Method is the simplest calculation because there is no change in mud weight in the
annulus. The equations for calculating the pressure at the top of the gas bubble are as follows:
1/ 2
 S 2 K x MW1 x 0,052  S
PD      (Equation 4-48)
 4 C  2
 
S = ( TD - D ) x MW1 x 0,052+ Pi - Pf (Equation 4-49)
Page 171 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Po x Vo x ZD x TD
K (Equation 4-50)
Zo x To
Where:
PD = pressure at the top of the gas (psi)
S = intermediate calculation (1)
K = intermediate calculation (2)
Note: If the compressibility and temperature are ignored, the equation reduces to K = P o x Vo.
MW 1 = original mud weight (ppg)
C = average annular capacity of the influx at point of interest (bbls/ft)
TD = total depth (ft)
D = depth to the top of the influx (ft)
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of influx (psi)
Pf = shut-in bottom hole pressure in kick zone (psi)
Po = formation pressure = Pf (psi)
Vo = original influx volume (bbls)
Zo = original influx compressibility factor
To = original influx temperature (°R)
TD = influx temperature for influx at depth D (°R)
ZD = influx compressibility factor for influx at depth D
Wait and Weight Method
With the Wait and Weight Method, the calculations for the Driller’s Method are used until kill
weight mud reaches the annulus. After the kill mud enters the annulus, then the Wait and Weight
Method calculations apply:
1/ 2
 S 2 K x MW2 x 0,052  S
PD      (Equation 4-51)
 4 C  2
S  ( TD  D ) x MW2 x 0,052  [ H1 x 0,052 x ( MW2  MW1 ) ]  Pi  Pf (Equation 4-52)
Where:
PD = pressure at the top of the gas (psi)
S = intermediate calculation
K = intermediate calculation as in Driller’s Method
MW 2 = kill mud weight (ppg)
C = average annular capacity of the influx at point of interest (bbls/ft)
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of influx (psi)
Page 172 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pf = shut-in bottom hole pressure in kick zone (psi)

PD = pressure at the top of the influx (psi)
H1 = height of original mud below influx (comes from drill string volume) (ft)
The hydrostatic pressure of the influx is assumed to remain constant during displacement. A gas
gradient of 0.1 psi/ft multiplied by the height of the influx when it entered the well bore may be
approximated. It may also be calculated as illustrated in Weight of Influx (refer to Section 4.10.1).
It is adjusted for changes in annular geometry using the following formula in both the Driller’s
Method and the Wait and Weight Method:
C1
Pi2  Pi1 x (Equation 4-53)
C2
Where:
Pi2 = hydrostatic pressure of influx at point of interest (psi)
Pi1 = hydrostatic pressure of influx at original conditions (psi)
C1 = average original annular capacity (bbls/ft)
C2 = average annular capacity at point of interest (bbls/ft)
Example:
Use the Driller’s Method and the Wait and Weight method to calculate the maximum annular
pressure when the top of the influx is at the casing shoe and the surface (ignore compressibility
and temperature effects):
Page 173 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Calculate with the Driller’s Method first.

The heights of the bubble, hydrostatic pressure of the influx and the formation pressure have
already been calculated in Weight of Influx (refer to Section 4.10.1). The annular capacities were
calculated in Strokes to Shoe and Surface (refer to Section 4.10.3). They are:
hb = 525 ft
Pi = 68 psi
Pf = 5 328 psi
MW 2 = 10,6 ppg
Capacity of drillpipe-open-hole annulus = 0,04590 bbls/ft
Capacity of drillpipe-casing annulus = 0,05154 bbls/ft
Annular capacity to shoe at 8 000 ft = 72,56 bbls
Drill string capacity = 166,2 bbls
The hydrostatic pressure of the influx will have to be adjusted for change in annular geometry.
The influx was originally in the drillpipe and collar annulus and occupied 525 ft. The average
annular capacity may be calculated based on the 20 bbls gain and 525 ft bubble height.
20
C1   0,03810 bbls/ ft
525
The hydrostatic pressure of the influx at the casing shoe may be calculated with equation 4-53
and using the annular capacity of the drillpipe – open-hole annulus:
C1 0,03810
Pi2  Pi1 x  68 x  56 psi
C2 0,04590
Calculate S and K at the casing shoe ignoring compressibility factor and temperature:
S = ( TD - D ) x MW1 x 0,052+ Pi - Pf
S = ( 9 670 - 8 000 ) x 9,8 x 0,052+ 56 - 5 328 = - 4 421
K = Po x Vo = 5 328 x 20 = 106 560
Calculate the pressure at the top of the gas bubble when the bubble gets to the casing shoe at
8 000 ft:
1/ 2
 S 2 K x MW1 x 0,052  S
PD     
 4 C  2
 
1/ 2
  4 4212 106 560 x 9,8 x 0,052    4 421 
PD        4 674 psi
 4 0,04590   2 
 
The annulus pressure at surface would be the pressure at the top of the gas bubble (shoe) less
the hydrostatic pressure of the mud above the bubble.
Pa = PD - ( 0,052 x MW1 x D )
Pa = 4 674 - ( 0,052 x 9,8 x 8 000 ) = 597 psi
Page 174 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The annulus pressure has dropped slightly because the influx has moved fully into the drillpipe
annulus and the length of the bubble is shorter. To calculate the pressure when the gas first gets
to the surface, the hydrostatic pressure is adjusted for the drillpipe-casing annulus.
C1 0,03810
Pi2  Pi1 x  68 x  50 psi
C2 0,05154
The value K remains constant since temperature change and compressibility are being ignored.
Calculate S at the surface:
S = ( TD - D ) x MW1 x 0,052+ Pi - Pf
S = ( 9 670 - 0 ) x 9,8 x 0,052+ 50 - 5 328 = - 350
Calculate the pressure at the top of the gas bubble when the bubble gets to the surface at 0 ft:
1/ 2
 S 2 K x MW1 x 0,052  S
PD     
 4 C  2
 
1/ 2
  3502 106 560 x 9,8 x 0,052    350 
PD        1 216 psi
 4 0,05154   2 
 
The annulus pressure is the same as the pressure at the top of the bubble since there is no
hydrostatic pressure of mud above the gas.
Calculate the pressure at the casing shoe and surface using the Wait and Weight Method.
The annulus pressure when the top of the bubble first gets to the casing shoe is the same as the
Driller’s Method. The annulus capacity from the bit to the shoe was previously calculated to be
72,56 bbls, but the capacity of the drill string was previously calculated to be 166,2 bbls. The kill
mud has not exited the bit and the equations for the Driller’s Method are used. The annulus
pressure when the top of the bubble is at the shoe is 597 psi.
Calculate the annulus pressure when the gas gets to the surface.
The height of the original mud (from the drill string) in the annulus below the gas is calculated
next. The drill string volume was previously calculated to be 166,2 bbls. All the volume will be in
the drillpipe-casing annulus since the casing annulus volume is 412,32 bbls.
The height would be the drill string volume divided by the annular capacity:
v tot 166,2
H1    3 225 ft
Vacap 0,05154
K and Pi remain the same. Calculate S:

S = ( TD - D ) x MW2 x 0,052 - [ H1 x 0,052 x ( MW2 - MW1 ) ] + Pi - Pf
S = ( 9 670 - 0 ) x 10,6 x 0,052 - [ 3 225 x 0,052 x ( 10,6 - 9,8 ) ] + 50 - 5 328 = - 82

1/ 2
 S2 K x MW2 x 0,052   S 
PD      
 4 C   2 
1/ 2
  822 106 560 x 10,6 x 0,052    82 
PD        1 109 psi
 4 0,05154   2 
Page 175 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The surface pressure calculates to be lower since the kill weight mud adds hydrostatic pressure
to the annulus. Less surface pressure is required to balance bottom hole pressure.
4.11 Lubricate and Bleed Calculations
This technique is also referred to as Lube and Bleed. It is applicable when the influx is
predominately gas, because the influx must migrate to the surface. It is used to vent the influx
from below the stack while maintaining constant bottom hole pressure. Lubrication is most suited
to fixed offshore and land rigs. It may be used to vent gas from the stack after implementing the
Static Volumetric Method, and to reduce surface pressures prior to an operation such as
stripping, snubbing or bullheading.
The hydrostatic pressure is increased by the amount of mud that is lubricated into the wellbore.
The surface pressure may be reduced by the amount of additional hydrostatic pressure by
bleeding dry gas only. Gas does have some hydrostatic pressure. When gas is bled from the
well, the hydrostatic pressure of the gas is decreased so the pressure that may be bled from the
annulus is the increased hydrostatic pressure of the lubricated fluid minus the reduced hydrostatic
pressure of the gas after it is bled.
Example:
 Kick formation at 13 913 ft.
 Surface pressure, Pa = 1 420 psi.
 Original mud weight MW 1 = 11,7 ppg.
 Kill weight mud density MW 2 to be lubricated = 12,8 ppg.
 Fracture gradient at shoe depth of 12 097 ft = 0,702 psi/ft.
 Casing is 7 in, 26#/ft, S-95 at 12 097 ft (dh = 6,276 in ID).
 Drillpipe OD, do = 3,5 in.
 Gas specific gravity is assumed to be 0,6 (mostly methane).
 Bottom hole pressure at 13 913 ft, Pf = 8 442 psi.
 Surface temperature, Ts = 540°R.
 Surface compressibility factor, Zs = 0,82.
The drillpipe is plugged and the well may not be circulated. Gas has migrated to the surface.
Determine the height of the gas bubble near the surface based on the bottom hole pressure and
the shut-in annulus pressure. First calculate an estimated gas gradient:
Sg x Pa
Gi  (Equation 4-54)
53,3 x Z s x Ts
Where:
Gi = influx gas gradient (psi/ft)
Sg = specific gravity of gas
Pa = surface pressure (psi)
53.3 = universal gas constant
Zs = compressibility factor at surface conditions
Ts = surface temperature (°R)
Sg x Pa 0,6 x 1 420
Gi    0,036 psi / ft
53,3 x Zs x Ts 53,3 x 0,82 x540
Page 176 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The bottom hole pressure on the annulus side has to be the surface pressure plus all the
hydrostatic pressures in the annulus as in equation 4-45. Equation 4-45 may be rearranged to
solve for the height of the bubble where Pi is Gi x hb:
Pf = Pa + [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD - hb ) ] + Pi
Pf  Pa  ( 0,052 x MW1 x TVD )

hb 
Gi  ( 0,052 x MW1 )
8 442  1 420  ( 0,052 x 11,7 x 13 913 )

hb   2 520 ft
0,036  ( 0,052 x 11,7 )
To calculate the volume of the gas, the annular capacity at the surface has to be calculated:
2 2
dh  do 6,2762  3,52
Vacap    0,02636 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the volume of the gas at the surface:
Vs  hb x Vacap bbls (Equation 4-55)
Where:
Vs = gas volume at the surface (bbls)
hb = height of the gas bubble (ft)
Vacap = annular capacity (bbls/ft)
Vs  2 250 x 0,02636  66,4 bbls
Calculate how much pressure increase may be tolerated at the casing shoe. The estimated
pressure at the shoe may be calculated based on the surface pressure and the hydrostatic
pressure in the annulus:
Pshoe  ( Gi x hb )  Pa  [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( Dshoe  hb ) ] (Equation 4-56)
Where:
Pshoe = pressure at the casing shoe (psi)
Gi = influx gas gradient (psi/ft)
hb = height of the gas bubble (ft)
Pa = annulus pressure (psi)
MW 1 = original mud weight in well (ppg)
Dshoe = depth of interest (casing shoe in this case) (ft)
Pshoe = ( 0,036 x 2 520 ) + 1 420 + [ 0,052 x 11,7 x ( 12 097 - 2 520 ) ] = 7 337 psi
The frac pressure at the shoe may be determined by the frac gradient:
Pfrac  Fg x Dshoe (Equation 4-57)
Where:
Pfrac = fracture pressure at depth (psi)
Fg = frac gradient (psi/ft)
Page 177 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Dshoe = depth of casing shoe (ft)

Pfrac = Fg x Dshoe = 0,702 x 12 097 = 8 492 psi
Calculate the maximum increase in surface pressure and hydrostatic pressure that will not result
in fracturing of the casing shoe:
Pt  Pfrac  Pshoe (Equation 4-58)
Where:
ΔPt = maximum increase in surface pressure and hydrostatic pressure (psi)
Pfrac = fracture pressure at depth (psi)
Pshoe = pressure at the casing shoe (psi)
Pt = Pfrac - Pshoe = 8 492 - 7 337 = 1155 psi
Calculate the volume of kill weight mud with the density of MW 2 that will yield ΔPt:
1/ 2
 2 Pt x Vacap x Vs 
V1  X1   X1   (Equation 4-59)
 0,052 x MW2 
( 0,052 x MW2 x Vs )  [ Vacap x ( Pa  Pt ) ]

X1  (Equation 4-60)
2 x 0,052 x MW2
Where:
V1 = volume of kill weight mud (bbls)
X1 = intermediate calculation
ΔPt = maximum increase in surface pressure and hydrostatic pressure (psi)
MW 2 = density of kill mud (ppg)
( 0,052 x 12,8 x 66,4 )  [ 0,02636 x ( 1 420  1155 ) ]
X1   84,2
2 x 0,052 x 12,8
1/ 2
 1 155 x 0,02636 x 66,4 
V1  84,2   84,22    20,5 bbls
 0,052 x 12,8 
Use a volume of 20 bbls in the first lubricate step to stay under the frac gradient. The increased
hydrostatic pressure from the 20 bbls of kill mud may be calculated:
V1
PHyd  0,052 x MW2 x (Equation 4-61)
Vacap
Where:
ΔPHyd = change in hydrostatic pressure from kill mud lubricated into the well (psi)
V1 = volume of kill weight mud (bbls)
Page 178 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

V1 20
PHyd  0,052 x MW2 x  0,052 x 12,8 x  505 psi
Vacap 0,02636
Pump 20 bbls of kill mud into the annulus at a reduced rate and record the shut-in annulus
pressure when pumping is stopped. Allow the gas to migrate through the kill mud. (This may take
several hours). The surface pressure will increase due to gas migration.
The surface pressure may now be reduced by bleeding dry gas only from the annulus. Calculate
the estimated new minimum annulus pressure:
Pnewa  Pa  PHyd (Equation 4-62)
Where:
Pnewa = new minimum annulus pressure after bleeding (psi)
ΔPHyd = change in hydrostatic pressure from kill mud lubricated into the well (psi)
Pa = original annulus pressure (psi)
Pnewa = Pa - PHyd = 1 420 - 505 = 915 psi
The estimated new annular surface pressure is used to determine the effective hydrostatic
pressure at the kick zone (13 913 ft). Equation 4-45 may be modified to include the hydrostatic
pressure of the kill mud.
Pf = Pa + [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD - hb ) ] + Pi
Pf  Pa  [0,052 x MW1 x (TVD  hb  h1)]  (Gi x hb )  (i x hb )  (0,052 x MW2 x h1) psi (Equation 4-63)
Where:
Pf = shut-in formation pressure (psi)
TVD = true vertical depth of kicking formation (ft)
Gi = influx (gas) gradient (psi/ft)
hb = height of gas in annulus (ft)
h1 = height of kill mud in annulus (ft)
The height of the gas in the annulus will be the remaining kick volume divided by the annular
capacity. The remaining kick volume is the original kick volume (66,4 bbls) less the volume of kill
mud pumped (20 bbls):
Vs
hb  (Equation 4-64)
Vacap
Where:
hb = height of gas in annulus (ft)
Page 179 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Vs 66,4  20
hb    1 760 ft
Vacap 0,02636
The height of the kill mud (h1) may be calculated with the volume of kill mud and the annular
capacity:
V1
h1  (Equation 4-65)
Vacap
Where:
h1 = height of kill mud in annulus (ft)
V1 = volume of kill mud pumped the first time (bbls)
V1 20
h1    759 ft
Vacap 0,02636
Calculate the new gas gradient at the lower pressure using equation 4-54:
S g x Pnewa 0,6 x 915
Gi    0,022 psi / ft
53,3 x Z s x Ts 53,3 x 0,866 x 540
Calculate the formation pressure with equation 4-63:

Pf = Pa + [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD - hb - h1 ) ] + ( Gi x hb ) + ( 0,052 x MW2 x h1 )
Pf = 915 + [ 0,052 x 11,7 x ( 13 913 - 1760 - 759 ) ] + ( 0,022 x 1760 ) + ( 0,052 x 12,8 x 759 )
Pf = 8 391psi
The bottom hole pressure is less than the formation pressure of 8 442 psi. The new minimum
annulus pressure will have to be increased by the difference between the calculated hydrostatic
pressure and the formation pressure:
Pa = 915 + ( 8 442 - 8 391 ) = 966 psi
The calculations are repeated for each lube and bleed cycle and may be made by use of Global
Wells Engineering Toolkit (GWETK).
4.12 Bullheading Calculations
Bullheading is the pumping of kill fluid into the well against any pressure and regardless of any
resistance the well may offer. The kill fluid is either pumped into a formation with good
permeability (lost circulation is a problem in the kicking zone) or the kill fluid is pumped into the
formation where the fracture pressure has been exceeded. Many formations will not accept mud
containing large quantities of solids. In order to accept whole mud, the formation needs to have
great permeability such as a fractured or vugular permeability.
Bullheading is applicable when the formation has enough permeability to accept whole mud or
the last casing seat is set near the top of the kicking formation. If casing is set considerably off
bottom and the formation will not take whole mud, bullheading will probably not work.
The bullhead process is best illustrated by example. The following shows where bullheading will
not be effective.
Page 180 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Example:
A well is being drilled and has taken a kick. The option is to bullhead the formation fluids back into
the formation. The conditions in the well are as follows:
 Frac gradient in the kicking formation is assumed to also be 13,5 ppg.
The well took a kick while drilling so the gas in the annulus is not a bubble. It is mixed with the
mud that was being circulated as the formation kicked. The frac gradient will have to be exceeded
to get mud with solids back into the formation. Calculate the frac pressure at the kick zone using
equation 4-57:
Pfrac = Fg x TVD = 0,052 x 13,5 x 9 670 = 6 788 psi
Calculate the frac pressure at the casing shoe:

Pfrac = Fg x Dshoe = 0,052 x 13,5 x 8 000 = 5 616 psi
In order to pump the mud and gas back into the formation at the bottom of the hole, the pressure
at the shoe may not exceed 5 616 psi.
To simplify the calculations, assume there is no gas in the annulus and there is 9,8 ppg mud from
the casing shoe to the kick zone. This would yield the lowest pressure at the casing shoe when
bullheading. Actual pressures would be greater. The pressure at the shoe would be the frac
pressure at 9 670 ft minus the hydrostatic pressure to 8 000 ft.
PD  Pfrac  [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD  Dshoe ) ] (Equation 4-66)
Where:
PD = pressure at depth of interest D (psi)
Pfrac = the fracture pressure at depth TVD (psi)
MW 1 = mud weight in well between depth TVD and D (ppg)
TVD = true vertical depth of well (ft)
Dshoe = true vertical depth of casing shoe (ft)
PD = 6 788 - [ 0,052 x 9,8 x ( 9 670 - 8 000 ) ] = 5 937 psi
The pressure at the casing shoe has to be at least 5 937 psi in order to exceed the frac gradient
at the kick zone. Unfortunately, when the pressure exceeds 5 616 psi at the casing shoe, lost
circulation will occur at the casing shoe. Any mud pumped into the annulus will exit at the casing
shoe and the kick will remain between the bottom of the hole and the casing shoe.
Page 181 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
If the formation has good permeability and lost circulation is a problem, it may be challenging to
circulate out the kick using classic well control procedures. With lost circulation in the kick zone, a
slight increase in pressure may cause lost circulation while a slight decrease in pressure may
allow additional influx. In this case bullheading may be an option but formation damage may
become a factor.
Example:
A well is being drilled and has taken a kick. The option is to bullhead the formation fluids back into
the formation. The conditions in the well are as follows:
 Frac gradient in the kicking formation is assumed to also be 13,5 ppg.
The kick zone has very good permeability and will accept mud with drill solids at or slightly above
formation pressure. Previously, the shut-in formation pressure was calculated to be 5 328 psi
based on the shut-in drillpipe pressure. The density of the kill mud was calculated to be 10,6 ppg.
The 10,6 ppg kill mud can be pumped down the annulus displacing the kick back into the
formation as long as the pressure does not exceed 5 616 psi at the casing shoe (weak point).
With the well shut-in, the pressure at the casing shoe is the surface pressure plus the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud to the shoe:
P8 000  Pa  ( 0,052 x MW1 x Dshoe ) (Equation 4-67)
Where:
P8000 = annulus pressure at 8 000 ft (psi)
Pa = shut-in annulus pressure (psi)
MW 1 = mud weight in well from surface to shoe (ppg)
P8 000 = Pa + ( 0,052 x MW1 x Dshoe ) = 600 + ( 0,052 x 9,8 x 8 000 ) = 4 677 psi
The frac pressure was previously calculated to be 5 616 psi at the casing shoe so there is a lot of
room for pressure on the annulus. If it takes only a few hundred psi to pump into the formation,
bullheading is an option. The kill mud will have to be displaced from the surface to the bit by
pumping into the kill line. The volume will have to be the annular volume plus some extra. The kill
mud will mix with the existing mud as it is pumped into the well. The kill fluid is typically over-
displaced into the formation on the order of 10 to 20%. Unfortunately, the exact hole volume is
usually not known. Some excess volume will have to be added for hole enlargement below the
casing shoe. The excess volume is an estimation based on field knowledge and hole conditions.
Page 182 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Calculate the volume of 10,6 ppg mud that will have to be bullheaded down the annulus
assuming 15% excess volume and 25% hole enlargement volume in the open-hole.
The open-hole volume will be the capacity of the drill collar and HWDP-drillpipe annulus plus the
excess for hole enlargement. The casing annulus does not require any excess for enlargement.
Vtot  {[( Vacap x Ldc )  ( Vacap x Lhw )  ( Vacap x Ldp )] x Vfhe  ( Vacap x Ldp )} x Vfe bbls (Equation 4-68)
Where:
Vtot = total volume to be pumped into the annulus (bbls)
Ldc = length of the drill collars (ft)
Lhw = length of the heavy weight drillpipe (ft)
Ldp = length of the drillpipe in open-hole and casing annulus (ft)
Vfhe = open-hole volume factor for hole enlargement (25% would be 1,25)
Vfe = volume factor for excess volume (15% would be 1,15)
The annular capacities will have to be calculated first using equation 4-44.
For the drill collars:
2 2
dh  do 8,52  6,252
Vacap    0,03224 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
For the drillpipe and heavy weight annulus:
2 2
dh  do 8.52  52
Vacap    0,04590 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
For the drillpipe in the casing:
2 2
dh  do 8,8352  52
Vacap    0,05154 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Calculate the total mud volume to be pumped down the annulus through the kill line:
Vtot = { [ ( Vacap x L dc ) + ( Vacap x Lhw ) + ( Vacap x L dp ) ] x Vfhe + ( Vacap x L dp ) } x Vfe bbls
Vtot = {[(0,03224 x 300)(0,04590 x 270) + (0,04590 x 1100)] x 1,25 + (0,05154 x 8 000)} x 1,15
Vtot = 578 bbls
Bullheading is generally done at rates great enough to produce a solid column of liquid that
overcomes the gas migration rate. At slow rates, the mud can merely bypass the gas which will
not drive the influx back down the hole. This is given consideration if bullheading is to be
successful.
Bullheading will be ineffective if the maximum surface pressure while pumping exceeds the frac
gradient of the weak spot in the well. In this case, pump rates that would exceed the maximum
surface pressure may induce lost circulation at the shoe. The maximum surface pressure may be
estimated by taking the difference between the frac pressure and the hydrostatic pressure of the
kill mud to the shoe. This method will be conservative because it assumes kill mud is already at
the shoe and friction losses are zero. When kill mud is initially pumped, the annulus pressure may
be 333 psi greater due to the density difference between the kill mud and original mud in the
wellbore (10,6 – 9,8)(0,052)(8 000). If the influx is above the shoe, the pressure may be even
greater though it is challenging to calculate that value.
Page 183 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pa max  0,052 x ( Fg  MW2 ) x Dshoe (Equation 4-69)
Where:
Pamax = maximum annulus surface pressure (psi)
Fg = frac gradient (ppg)
Pamax = 0,052 x ( Fg - MW2 ) x Dshoe = 0,052 x ( 13,5 - 10,6 ) x 8 000 = 1 206 psi
After the annulus is displaced, the drillpipe is also displaced with kill mud while keeping the BOP
closed. The volume to be displaced will be the strokes to bit plus an excess to overcome the rise
of the bubble. A typical excess may be 50-100%.
4.13 Subsea Calculations
If a kick is taken from a floating rig, the influx will be displaced to the surface through a small
diameter choke line that is attached to the drilling riser. The fundamental difference between well
control procedures on a fixed and a floating rig originate from the necessity of having to circulate
through this longer choke line.
4.13.1 Calculation of Choke Pressure with Gas at the Surface
The annulus pressure will increase when the gas enters the choke line in deep water. The
capacity of the choke line is substantially smaller than the annulus below the BOP. The bubble
will get much longer resulting in a loss of hydrostatic pressure. To compensate, the annulus
pressure increases in order to keep the bottom hole pressure constant.
Example:
Calculate the maximum choke pressure when the gas reaches the surface for the following well
using the Wait and Weight Method:
 10 892 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (ID = 4,276 in).
 BOP at 3 281 ft (length of choke line).
 Casing shoe at 6 562 ft MD and TVD (ID = 8,681 in).
 Shut-in annulus pressure is 1 000 psi.
 Hole size is 8-1/2 in.
 Choke line is 3 281 ft long with a 3 in inside diameter.
 Bottom hole temperature is assumed to be 140°F or 600°R.
 Average temperature when the gas is at the surface is assumed to be 50°F or 510°R.
 Ignore compressibility factor.
Page 184 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
First, calculate the density of the kill mud using equation 4-28:
Pdp 650
MW2  MW1   14,2   15,3 ppg
TVD x 0,052 11 483 x 0,052
The density of the kill mud calculates out to be 15,2885 ppg so it is rounded up to 15,3 ppg. The
mud weight is always rounded up and not rounded down.
Calculate the capacity of the drill string by first calculating the capacity (bbls/ft) of the drill string
components using equation 4-31.
Drillpipe:
2
di 4,2762
Vcap    0,01776 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Drill collars:
2
di 2,752
Vcap    0,00735 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Calculate the total volume using equation 4-32:
Vtot = ( Vcap x L dp ) + ( Vcap x Lhw ) + ( Vcap x L dc ) + ······
Vtot = ( 0,01776x 10 892 ) + ( 0,00735x 591 ) = 197,79bbls
Calculate the formation pressure using equation 4-42:

Pf = Pdp + ( 0,052 x MW1 x TVD ) = 650 + ( 0,052 x 14,2 x 11483 ) = 9 129 psi
Calculate the height of the gas bubble in the drill collar annulus. The annular capacity (bbls/ft) is
calculated with equation 4-44:
2 2
dh  do 8,52  6,252
Vacap    0,03224 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Calculate the height of the bubble using equation 4-43:
Vb x cos ( lavg ) 20 x cos ( 0 )
hb    620 ft
Vacap 0,03224
Since the height is greater than the length of the drill collars, some of the gas extends into the
drillpipe annulus. Calculate the volume of the drill collar annulus:
Vtot = Vacap x L dc = 0,03224x 591= 19,05bbls
The volume of the influx that is above the drill collars is:
20 - 19,05 = 0,95 bbls
Calculate the annular capacity (bbls/ft) of the drillpipe annulus:
2 2
dh  do 8,52  52
Vacap    0,04590 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Page 185 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Calculate the height in the drillpipe annulus:

hb    21 ft
Vacap 0,04590
The height of the gas would be the length in the drill collar annulus plus the drillpipe annulus:
hb = 591+ 21= 612 ft
Calculate the average capacity of the annulus containing the bubble:

20
C1   0,03268 bbls/ ft
612
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the influx using equation 4-46:
Pi = Pf - Pa - [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD - hb ) ]
Pi = 9 129 - 1000 - [ 0,052 x 14,2 x ( 11483 - 612 ) ] = 102 psi
The influx is most likely gas at 0,17 psi/ft (3,2 ppg).

The annulus pressure when the gas reaches the surface may be calculated with equations 4-50
through 4-53. The calculations are not straight forward because when the gas is at the surface, it
will occupy both the choke line and part of the casing annulus. An iterative solution such as
demonstrated below, is used to calculate the annulus pressure.
Calculate the capacity (bbls/ft) of the choke line with a 3 in inside diameter:
2
di 32
Vcap    0.00874 bbls/ ft
1029.4 1029.4
Total capacity of the choke line:
Vtot  Vcap x Lcl (Equation 4-70)
Where:
Vtot = total volume of choke line (bbls)
Vcap = capacity of choke line (bbls/ft)
Lcl = length of choke line (ft)
Vtot = Vcap x L cl = 0,00874 x 3 281= 28,68bbls
Calculate the drillpipe – casing annular capacity (bbls/ft):

2 2
dh  do 8,6812  52
Vacap    0,04892 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Equation 4-53 is used to calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the influx at the point of interest
(surface). The capacity of the annulus, C2, will be a function of how far the bubble extends into
the drillpipe – casing annulus. One way to calculate the height of the gas at the surface is to
assume a surface pressure and then calculate the increase in volume due to Boyle’s Law.
Po x Vo PD x VD
 (Equation 4-71)
Zo x To ZD x TD
Page 186 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Where:
VD = volume of influx at depth D (bbls)
Assume a surface pressure of 2 500 psi and calculate the height of the gas bubble at the surface
by rearranging equation 4-71 and solving for VD. The compressibility factor will be ignored so one
may be entered as the compressibility factor:
Po x Vo x ZD x TD 9 129 x 20 x 1 x 510
VD    62,08 bbls
PD x Zo x To 2 500 x 1 x 600
The volume in the drillpipe – casing annulus would be:

62,08 - 28,68= 33,40bbls
Calculate the height of the gas in the drillpipe – casing annulus:
hb    683 ft
Vacap 0,04892
The total height of the gas when it gets to the surface is the length of the choke line plus the
height in the drillpipe – casing annulus:
hb = 3 281+ 683 = 3 964 ft
Calculate the average annular capacity (bbls/ft):

Vtot 62,08
C2    0,01566 bbls/ ft
hb 3 964
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the influx at the surface using equation 4-53:
C1 0,03268
Pi2  Pi1 x  102 x  213 psi
C2 0,01566
Calculate the height of the original mud below the influx. The mud from the drill string will be in
the drillpipe – casing annulus. The mud actually extends into the drillpipe – open-hole annulus,
but the open-hole below the casing is more likely to be the casing size than the bit size in most
formations.
The height of the mud below the influx is the drill string volume divided by the annular capacity:
Vtot 197,79
H1    4 043 ft
Vacap 0,04892
Calculate S from equation 4-52:

Page 187 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
S = ( 11483 - 0 ) x 15,3 x 0,052 - [ 4 043 x 0,052 x ( 15,3 - 14,2 ) ] + 213 - 9 129 = - 11,4
Calculate K with equation 4-50:

Po x Vo x ZD x TD 9 129 x 20 x 1 x 510
K   155 193
Zo x To 1 x 600
Calculate the pressure at the surface with equation 4-51:

1/ 2
 S 2 K x MW2 x 0,052  S
PD     
 4 C  2
1/ 2
  11,4 2 155 193 x 15,3 x 0,052    11,4 
PD        2 814 psi
 4 0,01566   2 
Since the pressure is greater than the assumed 2 500 psi, a second iteration will be required,
assume a pressure of 2 900 psi.
Recalculate the volume of the gas bubble at 2 900 psi:
Po x Vo x ZD x TD 9 129 x 20 x 1 x 510
VD    53,51 bbls
PD x Zo x To 2 900 x 1 x 600

53,51- 28,68 = 24,83bbls
Calculate the height of the gas in the drillpipe – casing annulus:
hb    508 ft
Vacap 0,04892
hb = 3 281+ 508 = 3 789 ft

Vtot 53,51
C2    0,01412 bbls/ ft
hb 3 789
C1 0,03268
Pi2  Pi1 x  102 x  236 psi
C2 0,01412

S = (11 483 - 0) x 15,3 x 0,052- [4 043 x 0,052 x (15,3 - 14,2)] + 236 - 9 129 = 11,6
Page 188 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

1/ 2
 S2 K x MW2 x 0,052 S
PD     
 4 C  2
1/ 2
11,62 155 193 x 15,3 x 0,052 11,6
PD       2 951psi
 4 0,01412  2
Since the pressure is greater than the assumed 2 900 psi, a third iteration will be required,
assume a pressure of 2 975 psi.
Recalculate the volume of the gas bubble at 2 900 psi:
Po x Vo x ZD x TD 9 129 x 20 x 1 x 510
VD    52,17 bbls
PD x Zo x To 2 975 x 1 x 600

52,17 - 28,68= 23,49bbls
Calculate the height of the gas in the drillpipe – casing annulus.
hb    480 ft
Vacap 0,04892
hb = 3 281+ 480 = 3 761ft

Vtot 52,17
C2    0,01387 bbls/ ft
hb 3 761
C1 0,03268
Pi2  Pi1 x  102 x  240 psi
C2 0,01387

S = ( 11483 - 0 ) x 15,3 x 0,052 - [ 4 043 x 0,052 x ( 15,3 - 14,2 ) ] + 240 - 9 129 = 15,6

1/ 2
 S2 K x MW2 x 0,052  S
PD     
 4 C  2
1/ 2
 15,6 2 155 193 x 15,3 x 0,052  15,6
PD       2 976 psi
 4 0,01387  2
The maximum pressure at the surface when the gas first gets to the choke will be 2 976 psi
ignoring compressibility factor.
Page 189 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
4.14 Pressure Calculations for Well Control Equipment

4.14.1 Calculation of Maximum Anticipated Surface Pressure (MASP)
MASP is defined as the design load that represents the maximum pressure that may occur in the
well during each phase of the well lifecycle. MASP is calculated assuming either a fully-evacuated
wellbore, or a partially evacuated wellbore. This section focuses on MASP with respect to
pressures exerted on surface equipment. There is another usage of MASP, which focuses on kick
tolerance, that will be covered in section 4.15.
Typically, MASP is calculated as the lesser of the following:
(1) The surface pressure that will result from the pore pressure less the hydrostatic pressure of
the column of fluid in the wellbore. The calculation is:
MASPpore = [ ( 0,052 ) ( PPG ) ( TVDres ) ] - [ ( HCwb ) ( TVDres ) ] (Equation 4-72a)
Where:
TVDres = Vertical depth of the reservoir
PPG = Pore Pressure Gradient, ppg
HCwb = Equivalent gradient of the fluid in the wellbore taken at reservoir pressure and
temperature, psi/ft
For the case where a fully evacuated wellbore is considered, HCwb used for the calculation will
typically be a gas gradient between 0,1 and 0,15 psi/ft. It is more conservative to use lower
numbers for design loads.
For cases where a partially evacuated wellbore is considered, HCwb used for the calculation will
typically be the gradient resulting from a column that contains both formation fluid and mud.
(2) The surface pressure that will result from the fracture pressure at the casing shoe (or open-
hole weak point) minus the hydrostatic pressure of the column of fluid in the wellbore above
the shoe (or open-hole weak point).
MASP frac -shoe = [ ( 0,052 ( FG frac - shoe ) ( TVD shoe ) ] - [ ( HCwb ) ( TVD shoe ) ] (Equation 4-72b)
Where:
TVD shoe = Vertical depth of the shoe (or open-hole weak point)
FG frac-shoe = Equivalent downhole mud density of the fracture pressure at the casing
shoe or open-hole weak point
4.14.2 Calculation of Maximum Anticipated Wellhead Pressure (MAWHP)
MAWHP is the highest predicted pressure that may occur at the wellhead in each hole section of
a well while drilling, or completing the well, or during a well intervention. For surface wellheads,
MAWHP will be equal to MASP. For subsea wells, MAWHP is calculated in the same way as
MASP, except that instead of TVD the depth in the calculations is taken from the subsurface
wellhead.
Similar to the MASP calculations above, MAWHP is calculated as the lesser of the following:
(1) The wellhead pressure that will result from the pore pressure less the hydrostatic pressure of
the column of fluid in the wellbore. The calculation is:
MAWHP pore = [( 0,052 ) ( PPG ) ( TVDres ) ] - [ ( HCwb ) ( TVDres - TVDwellhead )] (Equation 4-73a)
Page 190 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Where:
TVDwellhead = vertical depth of the wellhead, ft.
(2) The wellhead pressure that will result from the fracture pressure at the casing shoe (or
open-hole weak point) less the hydrostatic pressure of the column of fluid in the wellbore
above the shoe (or open-hole weak point) to the wellhead.
MAWHP frac - shoe = [ (0,052 ( FG frac - shoe ) ( TVD shoe ) ] - [ ( HCwb ) ( TVD shoe - TVDwellhead ) ] (Equation 4-73b)
4.14.3 Calculation of Maximum Expected Wellbore Shear Pressure (MEWSP)

Blind shear rams need to be capable of shearing drillpipe planned for use in a drilling program for
all operating conditions that may be encountered. Closing against wellbore pressure increases
the pressure required to close the rams by an amount equal to the wellbore pressure divided by
the closing ratio of the ram.
The total effects of the additive pressures acting on the BOP control system are considered and
this requires that MEWSP be considered. MEWSP is defined as the expected operating pressure
at the wellhead for a given hole section, a specific shear pressure requirement, specific operating
piston design, and drillpipe material specifications, to shear drillpipe or tubing at MAWHP or other
pressure limiting value.
The typical methodology to determine MEWSP is to first determine the required shear pressure
for a given tubular to be sheared at atmospheric pressure. This is either calculated or determined
by actual shear testing.
MEWSP is then calculated as:
MEWSP = Pshear,atm + ( MAWHP/SR ) (Equation 4-74)
Where:
Pshear,atm = actual or calculated surface shear pressure at atmospheric conditions
SR = shearing ratio
4.15 Kick Tolerance
4.15.1 General
Kick tolerance changes as a function of hole depth, BHA geometry, mud weight, formation
pressure, and influx volume and type. This section explains how to calculate simple kick
tolerance.
Kick Tolerance Calculation Methods
A number of methods exist for kick tolerance calculations. In general, these methods can be
classified into two categories:
Simple Methods
In these methods, kick tolerance calculations are simplified based on several assumptions as
demonstrated in the BP GWETK:
 The kick influx is a “single bubble”.
 At the initial shut-in condition, the influx is at the bottom of the open-hole.
 The effects of the gas migration, gas dispersion, gas solubility are ignored.
These assumptions have wide acceptance in the drilling industry because they are simple, easy
to calculate, and generally yield conservative kick tolerance, but they do not consider how quickly
an influx may grow.
Page 191 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Computer Kick Simulators

Sophisticated computer simulators exist which may provide an approximation of kick conditions
from the stage when it flows into the wellbore to that when it is circulated out. In the simulations,
assumptions used in the simple methods are replaced by mathematical models.
Among many other applications, the kick simulators can be used for kick tolerance calculations.
They can predict the maximum pressures at any point of the annulus and the results are more
accurate and less conservative than using the simple methods. In addition, as simulators can
simulate how quickly an influx will flow into the wellbore, they can predict how much time the rig
crew has to shut-in the well before the influx exceeds the kick tolerance limit. Simulators can be
used to provide direct indications in the level of risk involved under differing scenarios.
Due to complexity, kick simulators are usually considered in situations where kick tolerance is
crucial. There are computer programs used within BP to simulate kick behaviour.
4.15.2 Procedure for Kick Tolerance Calculations
The following method illustrates one of the simple techniques. Generally conservative, this
calculates the maximum allowable influx volume with the bit on bottom such that when the well is
shut-in, the surface pressure plus hydrostatic pressure will not exceed the open-hole weak point
fracture pressure. The method considers two scenarios:
 When the influx is at the bottom of the hole at the initial shut-in condition.
 When the top of the influx has been displaced to the open-hole weak point (with the original
mud weight).
The following procedure can be used to calculate the kick tolerance:
(1) Estimate the Safety Factor (SF) to be applied to the Maximum Anticipated Surface
Pressure (MASPkick-tolerance).
When the influx is displaced from the hole, there will be additional pressures acting in the
wellbore. The following are examples of some of the potential causes of such additional
pressures during circulation:
 Choke operator error.
 Annular friction pressure.
 Chokeline friction losses (in particular on floating rigs).
The SF to be applied to the MASPkick-tolerance will be the sum of these additional pressures.
(2) Calculate the MASPkick-tolerance as per section 4.14.1, substituting mud weight (MW) for
HCwb.
MASP kick-tolerance = [ ( 0,052 ( FG frac - shoe - MW ) ( TVD shoe ) ] (Equation 4-72c)
MASPkick-tolerance is determined based on the consideration of the formation fracturing

pressure at the open-hole weak point. So it is considered when there is a full mud column
from the weak point to the surface (i.e. the influx is still below the weak point). If lighter
fluids (such as a gas influx) occupy the annulus above the weak point, the surface pressure
in excess of MASP may not cause down-hole failure. From the moment the top of an influx
has been displaced past the open-hole weak point and casing shoe, the MASPkick-tolerance is
limited by casing burst strength and the pressure rating of the Well Control safety critical
equipment.
Page 192 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(3) Calculate the maximum allowable height of the influx in the open-hole section.
MASPkick  tolerance  SF  (Pf  0,052 x MW x TVDh )
Hmax  ( ft) (Equation 4-75)
0,052 x (MW  Gi )
Where:
Hmax = maximum allowable vertical height of the influx (ft)
Gi = influx gradient (ppg)
TVDh = true vertical depth of open-hole (bit) (ft)
(4) Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume that H max corresponds to the initial shut-in
conditions.
Vbh = Hmax x C1/cos(qbh)(bbl) (Equation 4-76)
Where:
Vbh = maximum allowable influx volume at initial shut-in condition (bbl)
C1 = annular capacity around BHA (bbl/ft)
qbh = hole angle in the bottomhole section (degree)
°
If the bottomhole section is horizontal (or above 90 ), the hole angle used in the calculation
should be the open-hole angle immediately above the horizontal section. The kick
tolerance should be the sum of the calculated volume (Vbh) plus the annular volume of the
horizontal section.
In cases where Hmax/cos(qbh) is greater than the length of BHA, the maximum allowable
volume (Vbh) is calculated partly based on the annular capacity around BHA and partly
around the drillpipe.
(5) Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume that H max corresponds to when the top of
the influx is at the open-hole weak point.
Vwp = Hmax x C2/cos(qwp)(bbl) (Equation 4-77)
Where:
Vwp = maximum allowable influx volume when top of the influx is at the open-hole
weak point (bbl)
C2 = annular open-hole capacity around drillpipe (bbl/ft)
qwp = hole angle in the open-hole section below the weak point (degree)
In cases where Hmax/cos(qwp) is greater than the open-hole drillpipe length below the weak
point, the maximum allowable influx volume (Vwp) is calculated partly based on the annular
open-hole capacity around drillpipe and partly around BHA.
(6) Convert the maximum allowable influx volume at the weak point (Vwp) to what it would be at
the initial shut-in condition.
Based on Boyle’s law, the maximum allowable influx volume at initial shut-in corresponding
to Vwp will be:
Page 193 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pleak
Vbh'  Vwp x (bbl) (Equation 4-78)
Pf
(7) The actual kick tolerance is the lesser of Vbh (Step 4) and Vbh' (Step 6).
Example:
Bit depth: 13 123 ft
Current hole size: 12-1/4 in
Hole angle: Vertical
Mud weight in hole: 13,4 ppg
BHA length/OD: 597 ft/8 in
Drillpipe OD: 5 in
Estimated pore pressure at 13 123 ft: 13,2 ppg
Last casing shoe: 8 842 ft
LOT EMW: 14,4 ppg
Annular back pressure at SCR: 70 psi
Safety margin for choke operator error: 150 psi
Influx Gradient 0,2 ppg (assumed)
(a) Estimate the safety margin to be applied to MASPkick-tolerance, which is the annular
friction losses above the casing shoe at the Slow Circulating Rate (SCR) plus the
choke operator error safety margin:
SF = 70 + 150 = 220 psi
(b) Calculate MASPkick-tolerance:
Leak-off pressure, Pleak = 0,052 x 14,4 x 8842 = 6 621 psi
MASPkick-tolerance = Pleak – 0,052 x MW x TVDwp
MASPkick-tolerance = 6 621 – 0,052 x 13.4 x 8 842 = 460 psi
(c) Calculate the maximum allowable influx height in the open-hole section:
Pore pressure, Pf = 0,052 x 13,2 x 13 123 = 9 008 psi
MASPkick  tolerance  SF  (Pf  0,052 x MW x TVDh )
Hmax 
0,052 x (MW  Gi )
460  220  (9 008  0,052 x 13,4 x 13 123)

Hmax   548 ft
0,052 x (13,4  0,2)
(d) Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume at the initial shut-in condition:
2 2
Annular capacity around BHA, C1= (12,25 – 8 )/1029,4 = 0,0836 (bbl/ft)
As the BHA length (597 ft) is longer than Hmax (548 ft), the influx is around BHA only
when it is at the bottom of the hole. Therefore:
Vbh = 548 x 0,0836 = 46 bbl
Page 194 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(e) Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume when the top of influx is at the casing
shoe:
2 2
Annular capacity around open-hole Drill Pipe (DP), C2= (12,25 – 5 )/1029,4 =
0,1215 (bbl/ft)
Open hole DP length = 13 123 – 8 842 - 597 = 3 684 ft (>Hmax of 548 ft)
Vwp = 548 x 0,1215 = 67 bbl
(f) Convert Vwp to the initial shut-in condition:
Vbh' = 67 x 6 621/9 008 = 49 bbl
Since the volume of kick tolerance is the lesser of Vbh and Vbh', for this example, the final result is
a kick tolerance volume of 46 bbl.
4.15.3 Considerations for High-Angle and Horizontal Wells
In high-angle and horizontal wells, reservoirs are often drilled at a high or horizontal angle with
the last casing or liner string set on top of the reservoir. When considering kick tolerance for the
reservoir section, it is often the case that the maximum allowable gas height (determined on the
following page in Step 3) extends from the open-hole bottom to inside the casing or liner. This
implies the well can tolerate an infinite volume of gas influx without fracturing the open-hole weak
point.
On the other hand, because of the long open-hole section through the reservoir in a high-angle or
horizontal well, the influx volume can be potentially large. So when the influx is circulated to
surface, it may fill up the entire annuli of the vertical and low-angle sections and result in elevated
choke pressures at surface. When calculating kick tolerance for this type of well, calculate the
MASPkick-tolerance for both the shoe and open hole weak point, calculate the MASPkick-tolerance for the
casing burst strength and the pressure ratings of the surface equipment. The lesser of these two
values is the kick tolerance.
When drilling a high-angle or horizontal well, the following procedure may be used to determine
the kick tolerance:
(1) Calculate kick tolerance volume as V1 using the method as described in Section 4.15.2,
Steps 1-7.
(2) Determine the maximum allowable wellhead pressure Pwellhead based on the casing burst
strength and the pressure ratings of the surface equipment (BOP stack, choke manifold,
etc). Note the difference with MAWHP), which is based on anticipated pore pressure and
the formation fracture gradient at the weak point.
(3) Calculate the maximum allowable gas height Hmax when the gas influx top has reached the
surface:
(Pwellhead  SF)  (Pf  0,052 x MW x TVDh )
Hmax  (Equation 4-79)
0,052 x (MW  Gi )
Where:
Gi = influx gradient (ppg)
SF = safety factor mainly determined by the choke operator error margin (psi)
TVDh = true vertical depth of open-hole (bit) (ft)
Page 195 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(4) Calculate the influx volume that Hmax corresponds to when the gas influx top has reached
the surface:
Vsurf = Hmax x Ccsn (bbl)
Where:
Vsurf = maximum allowable influx volume when the influx top reaches surface (bbl)
Ccsn = annular capacity in the casing near surface (bbl/ft)
(5) Convert Vsurf to the corresponding volume at the initial shut-in condition:
Psurf
V2  Vsurf x (bbl) (Equation 4-80)
Pf
(6) The actual kick tolerance volume is the lesser of V2 (Step 5) and V1 (Step 1).
4.15.4 Global Well Engineering Tool Kit Kick Tolerance Calculator
The online GWETK has a module dedicated to calculating kick tolerance. The GWETK module
uses the same calculation method described in Procedure for Kick Tolerance Calculations, but
the GWETK module:
a) Takes into account the down-hole pressure and temperature effects on gas compressibility
(yielding a more accurate, but slightly less conservative results than the simple method
previously described).
b) Utilises the pressure at the mid-point of a gas influx.
c) Utilises a more robust directional model.
This is a simple way to perform a quick investigation into kick tolerance sensitivities with changes
in parameters such as estimated fracture and pore pressures, and mud weight. GWETK module
can easily be used to calculate the envelope of values needed to satisfy Drilling and Well
Operations requirements.
Deepwater Drilling Considerations
Traditional kick tolerance calculation is based on circulating the kick out. Deepwater drilling is
subject to particular complications due to tight mud weight and/or fracture margins and large
chokeline friction pressures which would render some wells non-drillable with traditional methods.
In such an event, a different approach can be adopted based on dynamic control methods, or
keeping the problem down-hole and utilising bullhead techniques or applicable.
Page 196 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5 Well Control Drilling Equipment

5.1 Introduction
The equipment used in well control primarily includes the BOP stack, choke manifold and related
equipment. The BOP stack is composed of a combination of BOPs, usually including an annular
preventer and two or more ram preventers. The annular preventers will close on anything,
including the open-hole whereas the ram preventers will close on pipe (pipe rams) or open-hole
(blind rams).
A typical BOP stack is illustrated in Figure 5.1 which illustrates an example of a 0 to 3 500 psi BOP
stack typically used in surface operations.
Figure 5.2 is a 5 M psi surface stack.
5.2 Types of Blowout Preventers
5.2.1 Diverters
If a kick is taken when the conductor is set in incompetent formation, the well will not be shut-in,
but instead, will be diverted. A surface diverter system, consisting of an annular preventer and
vent lines, allows the flow to be directed to a safe area, away from the rig and personnel.
Vent lines are large and straight, in order to minimise back pressure, erosion and the risk of
plugging with well debris. The lines are braced to absorb severe shock loading and sections likely
to suffer erosion, such as bends, are reinforced. The run is designed to be restriction-free and
valves in the lines are either full opening ball valves or full opening gate valves. Periodically, the
lines are flushed and inspected to assure that they remain unobstructed.
To prevent the well from being inadvertently shut-in completely, any valves in the vent line are
designed to automatically open when the diverter is closed.
If the BOP stack is installed, the control panels are clearly marked so that the well will not be
inadvertently closed in completely.
Page 197 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
FLOWLINE
FILL UP LINE
8
ANNULAR
BOP
BLIND RAM
5
KILL LINE CHOKE LINE
CHOKE
4 3 6 MANIFOLD
7
PIPE RAMS
SECTION
1 1 A
2
CASING SPOOL
1. Flanged gate valves - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as ‘A’ section. The outside valve
is the working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
2. Tee with tapped bullplug, needle valve, and pressure gauge.
3. Flanged gate valve - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as BOP stack.
4. As 3 or flanged spring-loaded type check valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as
BOP stack.
5. Drilling spool - two flanged side outlets - 2 in nominal diameter choke and 2 in nominal diameter kill
line.
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as BOP
stack.
7. Flanged gate valve - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as BOP stack.
8. Top of annular preventer must be equipped with API flange ring gasket.
9. All flange studs must be in place.
Figure 5.1 0 to 3500 Surface BOP Stack
Page 198 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
FLOWLINE
FILL UP LINE
8
ANNULAR
BOP
PIPE RAMS
BLIND RAM
5
CHOKE
4 3 6 MANIFOLD
7
PIPE RAMS
SECTION
1 1 A
2
CASING SPOOL
1. Flanged gate valves – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as ‘A’ section. The outside valve
is the working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
3. Flanged gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP stack.
4. As 3 or flanged spring-loaded type check valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as
BOP stack.
5. Drilling spool – two flanged side outlets – 2 in nominal diameter choke and 2 in nominal diameter kill
line.
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP
stack.
8. Top of annular preventer must be equipped with API flange ring gasket.
9. All flange studs must be in place.
Figure 5.2 5 M Surface BOP Stack
Page 199 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.2.2 Rotating Heads, Rotating Blowout Preventers

When used, rotating heads are installed on top of the BOP stack and provide a seal on the Kelly
or drillpipe. A drive unit, attached to the Kelly, is located in a bearing assembly above the stripper
rubber.
Rotating heads are routinely used in air and gas drilling to divert the returns to the blooie line.
They are used when drilling underbalanced to keep gas diverted from the rig floor. Realistic
working pressures for rotating heads are a few hundred psi. A Grant rotating head is shown in
Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 Grant Rotating Head

Modern rotating BOPs are very similar to the ordinary rotating head. They are designed to
withstand several thousand psi operating pressure, although they may not be API rated.
5.2.3 Annular Preventers
Annular preventers have a doughnut-shaped elastic element with bonded steel internal
reinforcing. Extrusion of the element into the wellbore is effected by upwards movement of a
hydraulically actuated piston. The element is designed to seal around any shape or size of pipe
and to close on an open-hole (refer to Figure 5.4). Although most models and sizes of annular
preventers will seal an open-hole in an emergency operation, use in this manner is avoided since
excessive deformation of the elastomer causes cracking and accelerated wear.
Page 200 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The majority of annular preventers currently in use are manufactured by Hydril with types MSP,
GK, GL, GX (not pictured), Shaffer (spherical) and Cameron (see Figure 5.4). These are
illustrated in Figure 5.5 to Figure 5.8 together along with a summary of major operating features.
Most annular preventers are designed to use wellbore pressure to assist in maintaining closure.
In some circumstances and depending on the preventer size, the well pressure may maintain
closure without any closing hydraulic pressure being applied. However, removing all closing
pressure from the preventer (when closed) is normally avoided as the sealing element may
suddenly open with only a small surge or reduction in well bore pressure. The pressure seal may
be lost around the body of the drillpipe after a tool joint passes through the element during
stripping operations.
A function of annular preventers is to facilitate the stripping of the drillpipe in or out of the well,
with pressure on the wellhead. Undue wear of the element is avoided by the use of a pilot-
operated hydraulic regulator which controls closing pressure or a stripping surge bottle attached
to the close side of the annular hydraulic port.
When stripping, the closing pressure is regulated to the minimum required for a slight seepage of
mud past the element. Closing pressures greater than this will increase element wear. The pipe is
moved slowly, particularly as tool joints pass through the element. Vendors provide information
regarding suggested closing pressures during stripping operations. Surge vessels on the closing
ports will help to eliminate surge pressures as tool joints pass through the element.
If the annular packing element wears out during stripping or well killing operations, the element
can be changed without pulling the pipe. After the pipe rams are closed and locked below the
annular preventer and the hydraulic and well pressure bled off, the cover of the preventer can be
removed and the packing element lifted out with a hoist line. With the element above the
preventer, the damaged unit can be split and removed from the pipe. New packing elements for
Hydril and Shaffer annular preventers can be split in the field and installed in reverse order.
Reciprocation of pipe in closed annulars can be carried out with the accepted measures in place.
If in doubt, contact the equipment vendor for any limitations. Rotation of drillpipe through a closed
annular introduces an increased potential of drill string parting.
The numerous operational aspects of annular preventers include:
 Sealing element life is maximised by conformance with vendor’s suggestions for pressure
testing and operational use of the preventers. Excessive closing pressures, when coupled
with wellbore pressure sealing effects, cause internal stresses in the element and reduce
element life.
 A good practice is to flush the cavities and inspect the elements following each well,
Preventers are usually stripped and inspected annually. Seals are replaced and all sealing
surfaces inspected.
 Cap seals are replaced when changing elements.
 Run cautiously through BOPs with drilling tools, especially rock bits, to minimise element
damage. Elements of annular preventers do not always retract fully.
 The type of elastomer (natural rubber, synthetic rubber, neoprene) used for a packing
element is selected for a particular wellhead environment. Refer to Table 5.1.
 Closing pressures are regulated to the pressures specified by the vendors. This information is
available at the rig site.
 Only OEM approved replacement parts are used. A 1 in valve may be installed on both the
opening and closing lines next to the annular preventer. These valves remain in the open
position at all times except when testing hydraulic lines and hydraulic chamber seals. These
valves are used to test for seal leaks between the opening and closing chambers of an
annular preventer.
Page 201 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 To increase life and operability of the annular, a stripping bottle can be mounted close to the
annular.
Table 5.1 Packing Unit Selection (from Hydril)
Identification
Packing Unit Operating Drilling Fluid
Type Temp Range Compatibility
Colour Code
Natural Black NR -30 to 225°F Water-based fluid

rubber
Nitrile Red NBR -20 to 190°F Oil-based oil
rubber band additive fluid
Neoprene Green CR -30 to 170°F Oil-based fluid
rubber band
Page 202 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.4 Annular Preventer Sealing Elements
Page 203 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.5 Hydril Annular Preventer Type MSP
Page 204 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.6 Hydril Annular Preventer Type GK
Page 205 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.7 Hydril Annular Preventer Type GL
Page 206 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.8 Shaffer Annular Preventer

5.2.4 Ram Preventers
Ram-type BOPs have two hydraulically-actuated rams which operate in opposing horizontal
directions. They are designed to seal off an open-hole or an annulus against a pipe of specific
diameter. Variable bore pipe rams are also available for most ram preventers.
At least one preventer is fitted with rams to suit each size of drillpipe in the hole. As a general
rule, one preventer is configured to shut-in on casing as it is being run.
The working pressure of ram preventers is at least equal to the maximum anticipated wellhead
pressures, plus a margin for pumping into the well.
The majority of ram-type preventers are manufactured by Cameron (Types U and T), Shaffer
(Types LWS and SL) and Hydril (Types V and X). Figure 5.9 is the Cameron Type U. Although
the detailed design of products from the three vendors varies, most models share basic features.
Most include self-feeding elastomers. The front elements of ram seals have steel plates bonded
to the rubber. When the rams are actuated, these steel plates meet before the preventer is fully
closed. Further movement of the ram bodies causes extrusion of the rubber element, thereby
creating a seal. Ram to ram stripping is considered in extraordinary circumstances.
On surface BOP systems, hydraulically-operated ram preventers are provided with a locking
device to prevent the ram components from opening in the case hydraulic closing pressure is lost.
Page 207 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Typically, for surface BOP stacks, this device is manual and consists of locking screws, extension
rods and large diameter hand wheels. If the locking screws are used as a contingency to close
the ram, the closing unit handle is placed in the closed position. This will facilitate closure by
eliminating the possibility of hydraulic oil being trapped on the opening side of the actuating
pistons.
Subsea BOP stacks are fitted with a hydraulic lock mechanism (Cameron’s Wedge Lock,
Shaffer’s Poslock and Hydril’s MPL). This system may be used in place of locking screws to lock
the rams in the closed position for surface BOP stacks. The hydraulic lock holds the rams closed
until unlocking pressure is applied even though the primary control pressure is released.
Figure 5.9 Secondary Rod Seal - Cameron Type U

Ram preventers with rated working pressure 5 000 psi or greater are equipped with secondary
piston rod seals (refer to Figure 5.9) in case the primary rod seals fail. Due to routine wear, the
primary rod seal may leak under excessive pressure during well control operations. The
secondary seal is plastic and is located in a cavity until it is activated by forcing it around the ram
rod. This plastic seal is used during emergency situations. The secondary seal is designed for
static conditions and movement of the rod causes rapid wear of both the seal and the rod. The
primary rod seal is repaired when the emergency is over.
During the initial pressure testing of a BOP stack, the secondary seals on each ram preventer
may be removed to determine that the secondary seal has not been activated.
Page 208 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 5.2 Ram Preventer Opening and Closing Ratios
Cameron U Shaffter ‘SL’ Hydril Ram

Size WP (psi)
Open Close Open Close Open Close
7-1/16 in 3 000 2,3 6,9 1,5 5,4

5 000 2,3 6,9 1,5 5,4
10 000 2,3 6,9 1,7 8,2
15 000 2,3 6,9 3,37 7,11 6,6 7,6
9 in 2 000
3 000 2,6 5,3
5 000 2,6 5,3
10 000
11 in 2 000 2,5 7,3
3 000 2,5 7,3 2,0 6,8
5 000 2,5 7,3 2,0 6,8
10 000 2,5 7,3 7,62 7,11 2,4 7,6
15 000 2,2 9,9 2,8 7,11 3,24 7,6
13-5/8 in 3 000 2,3 7,0 3,00 5,54 2,1 5,2
5 000 2,3 7,0 3,00 5,54 2,1 5,2
10 000 2,3 7,0 4,29 7,11 3,8 10,6
15 000 5,6 8,4 2,14 7,11 3,56 7,74
16-3/4 in 2 000
3 000 2,3 6,8
5 000 2,3 6,8 2,03 5,54
10 000 2,3 6,8 2,06 7,11 2,41 10,6
18-3/4 in 10 000 3,6 7,4 1,83 7,11 1,9 10,6
15 000 4,1 9,7 1,68 10,85 2,15 7,27
21-1/4 in 2 000 1,3 7,0 0,98 5,23
3 000 1,3 7,0 0,98 5,2
5 000 5,1 6,2 1,9 10,6
10 000 4,1 7,2 1,63 7,11
26-3/4 in 2 000
3 000 1,0 7,0
Note: Specifications are subject to change. Verify with actual equipment in use.
Ram preventers have specially designed opening and closing ratios, as shown in Table 5.2.
These are the ratios between the well pressures and the operating pressures needed to open or
close the rams. Closing ratios are generally in the range of six-to-one to nine-to-one. This means
that a preventer having a closing ratio of six to-one would require 500 psi closing pressure to
close the preventer when the wellbore pressure is 3 000 psi. Opening ratios are much lower
because the wellbore pressure acts behind the ram to oppose opening. Ratios of two-to-one are
common. For elevated wellbore pressures, operating pressures greater than 3 000 psi may be
needed to open some ram preventers.
Bonnet (or door) seals are exposed to wellbore pressures and fluids. Since they may be
subjected to elevated pressures and temperatures without being backed up by another seal,
bonnet seals are crucial to the integrity of the BOP system. The seals are generally of fibrous
and/or rubber construction and need careful handling and installation as suggested by the
vendor.
Page 209 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Bonnet seals are replaced each time bonnets are opened. Bonnet seals, as with all elastomers,
are handled carefully, particularly on installation, and are stored at controlled temperatures in
darkness according to OEM’s suggestions. They are discarded after lengthy storage in
accordance with OEM suggestions.
Bonnet bolts are made up to vendors’ suggested torques, which may be very high with some
compression-type seals. The OEM specifies the type of lubricant that is used.
Bonnet faces, preventer faces and seal grooves are cleaned and dried before seal installation
and assembly. Bonnet seals are tested after installation.
Pipe rams are not closed on open hole or on mismatched pipe. This induces excessive extrusion
of the elastomer and may cause cracking or bonding failures.
Additional maintenance practices considered are washing out ram recesses and inspecting the
ram element following each well and following milling or cementing operations. Preventers are
stripped, inspected (particularly all sealing surfaces) and seals are replaced per OEM
maintenance procedures. If rams have been operated during milling and or cementing operations,
ram sealing abilities may be compromised.
When in good operating condition, ram preventers will close with 300 psi or less hydraulic
pressure without wellbore pressure. If elevated closing pressure is required during test
operations, the preventer is checked first for debris in the ram cavity and then inspected for piston
rod misalignment or other mechanical problems.
Ram preventers are designed to hold pressure from below and are not designed to be pressure
tested from the top side. If pressure is applied to the top, damage to the sealing elements may
occur. If the BOP is inverted, the ram will hold pressure, but if the ram block is inverted, it will not
seal.
Ram preventers are more likely to leak with a reduced wellbore pressure than an elevated one.
They are tested to both low- and high-pressure. The low-pressure test is conducted before the
high-pressure test.
Ram preventers will usually close faster than annular preventers, especially in the larger sizes.
Usually, ram preventers need only one-third, or less, of the hydraulic fluid volume to close
compared to an annular. In instances where mechanical problems prevent rapid closure of the
annular preventer or large flow rates are experienced, a ram preventer may be closed to minimise
additional well flow.
The main closing unit control handle for operating blind or blind shear rams is protected against
accidental closure with pipe in the hole. Numerous costly incidents have resulted from
accidentally closing the blind rams and flattening or cutting the drillpipe during well control or
drilling operations. A flip-up cover is the common device installed to cover the blind or blind shear
ram actuator lever or electronic push button on remote control stations. This prevents the
individual who is initiating a BOP control panel function from a remote station from accidentally
engaging the actuator lever or button for the blind or blind shear rams.
When aluminium drillpipe is used, special consideration is given to ram size selection. For
example, 5 in aluminium drillpipe has an outside body diameter of 5,150 in, versus a 5 in body
diameter for 5 in steel pipe. Regular 5 in ram blocks will be slightly modified to seal and not
damage the main tube section of aluminium pipe. 5 in aluminium pipe has a tapered transition
zone for a length of 41 in to 46 in on both the box and pin ends from 5,150 in OD up to 5,688 in
OD. Standard rams will not seal on the tapered end sections. Variable bore rams may be used to
seal on the body and end sections of aluminium drillpipe.
Page 210 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.2.5 Types of Ram Preventer.

Pipe Rams
Standard pipe rams are designed to centralize and pack off around one specific size of drillpipe.
Variable Bore Rams (VBR)
Variable pipe rams are available for some models. These rams are designed to seal on a range
of tubular ODs, for example 3-1/2 in to 5 in. Consult the manufacturer for the variable rams
available. Variable rams have a limited hang-off capacity, which is dependent on relative tool joint
size and ram packer range.
Hanging Rams
Pipe rams with enhanced load-bearing capabilities (usually rated to 600 000 lb) may be furnished
for floating operations. Sometimes this involves special hardening of the bearing area, which
might render the ram unusable for sour service.
Blind Rams
Blind rams are also referred to as “blank rams”. These rams do not have a cut out on the packer
insert of the ram block face to seal off against any specific type of pipe. They are designed to be
closed when there is no pipe across the rams and to seal against each other to secure the
wellbore. Closing the blind rams on open hole with full closing pressure may cause the sealing
packer to extrude, resulting in premature wear. A lower pressure helps extend packer life and
avoid damage to the ram face
Blind Shear Rams
These are designed to cut drillpipe and then seal as blind rams. The pipe stub is accommodated
in a recess. Shearing of drillpipe is carried out with the pipe in tension and stationary, which
involves hanging off on floating rigs. Care is taken to confirm that the drill pipe body, not a tool
joint, is opposite the rams. On some preventers, it may be necessary to increase the operating
pressure to above 1 500 psi to shear. Specifications for blind shear rams are provided when
ordering because some preventers require oversized cylinders or other special features. Some
models of blind shear ram are unusable for sour service.
BOP control systems (booster bonnets and pumps) are designed and specified to increase
shearing capability of the ram. Hydraulic pressure necessary for shearing will vary based upon
pipe size, weight, grade and shut-in pressures. BOP manufacturers can provide calculated
closing pressures necessary to affect a shear if given the previously mentioned parameters.
Casing Rams
Casing rams are another specific purpose ram. These rams seal against casing (as a pipe ram
seals against drillpipe) to isolate the annulus. They are installed in the cavity of the upper pipe
rams while running casing. These rams are function and pressure tested once installed.
Offset Rams
Offset rams and dual offset rams are available for dual completions. Special equipment is used to
pressure-test offset and dual rams. Orientation of both pipe strings is considered.
Casing Shear Rams (Shear Only Rams)
When using casing shear rams, the location in the stack is crucial. A non-sealing ram is not run in
the top cavity of the BOP stack. When a shear only ram is installed, the preventer directly above it
is a blind ram or a blind shear ram. Casing shear rams generally specify very large operators
which use large amounts of fluid, and take a somewhat longer time to function and shear.
Casing shear rams are not in common use for surface BOP applications as they have no sealing
capability. Surface BOP systems commonly include a shearing and sealing ram. The main
Page 211 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
difference between the two is that shearing and sealing rams have the capability to cut the pipe
within the wellbore and seal wellbore pressure, but are more limited as to what size, weight and
grade of tubular that can be cut. Shear only rams usually have a greater shearing capacity but do
not have the ability to seal.
The casing shear may be manifolded separately from the rest of the stack functions so that
greater pressure (up to 3 000 psi) may be applied directly to the operator and not the 1 500 psi
generally carried in the control manifold.
Shear Ram Blade Selection
Shear ram blade design is essential when selecting shear, blind shear or casing shear rams. It is
fundamental that the blades are able to sever all of the drillpipe run into or out of the well.
Shearing ram upper and lower blades may have different geometries. The blade shapes dictate
what the range of shearing capabilities are and the hydraulic force required to effectively sever
what is in the well bore. Shear blades have a specific range of shearing capabilities. Not all
designs can shear wireline or production screens. Most blade geometries and ram design lack
the capability to shear drill collars and thick wall pipe. Some designs have a contact point which
actually pierces the casing or pipe then starts cutting. This reduces the force required to shear
and when full pressure is applied, it increases the shearing capability of the ram.
5.3 BOP Stack Sizes and Pressure Ratings
Table 5.3 shows the availability and bore of BOPs from the major vendors.
The test pressure rating of BOP equipment is a one-off test, conducted on the BOP (or valve)
body at the time of manufacture to a pressure 50% greater than the working pressure. Typically,
when in service, BOP equipment is used for operations where the rated working pressure of the
equipment exceeds the MAWHP.
It is common practice to use annular preventers rated at 5 000 psi less than the rams for certain
10 K and 15 K applications.
Page 212 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 5.3 Blowout Preventer Specification - Differing Vendors
Page 213 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Stack Configurations
Minimum stack configuration requirements for all categories of land and offshore operations are
detailed in GP 10-10. Figure 5.1, Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.9 show examples of stacks for surface
applications. The particular details of each well will dictate the best stack for each application.
5.3.1 5 M Surface BOP Onshore Stack (Figure 5.2)
The following points are considered regarding this stack arrangement:
The stack is comprised of three ram preventers and one annular preventer. This arrangement
may be used for stripping pipe through annular preventer but it is not used for ram combination
stripping.
Annular access below the lowermost ram may be achieved through the wellhead outlets. These
outlets are commonly used for monitoring purposes. The wellhead outlets are rarely used for
flowing the well as a failure may result in a release that cannot be isolated and secured.
The lowermost ram is a dedicated safety ram and is not used for stripping operations.
If casing rams are needed, they are positioned in the top ram preventer cavity.
5.3.2 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack (Figure 5.11)
The stack is comprised of three ram preventers and one annular preventer. In a 15 M stack, a
fourth ram preventer may be considered.
With this stack configuration, pipe can be stripped through the annular preventer and between the
annular and upper pipe ram. Ram preventer combination stripping may be performed if blind
rams are replaced with pipe rams provided that space is available between top two ram type
preventers. A bleed off line is rigged up between the top two ram preventers to facilitate ram
combination stripping. The lowermost ram is maintained as a safety ram and is not used for
stripping.
Annular access below the lowermost ram through a wellhead outlet is used for well monitoring.
With this stack, the well can be circulated either under the annular preventer or, under the upper
pipe rams. If casing rams are required, they are positioned in the upper cavity.
Page 214 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9
FLOWLINE
FILL UP LINE
8
ANNULAR
BOP
UPPER PIPE RAM
OUTLET FLANGE
(USED ONLY FOR
RAM COMBINATION
STRIPPING)
BLIND RAM
5
DRILLING CHOKE
4 4 SPOOL 8 MANIFOLD
7
LOWER PIPE RAM
SECTION
B
3 3
2
SECTION
1 1 A
2
1. Flanged gate valves – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as ‘A’ section. The outside valve is the
working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
3. Flanged gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as ‘B’ section.
5. Drilling spool – two flanged side outlets – one 3 in nominal diameter and one 2 in nominal diameter – same working
pressure as BOP stack
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve – 3 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP stack.**This is
part of the choke line and is shown as ‘8’ not ‘6’, change drawing to ‘6’ as item 8 below agrees with the other ‘8’ In
the figure**
8. Top of annular preventer are equipped with API flange ring gasket.
9. All flange studs are in place.
10. The ID of the bell nipple must be less than the minimum ID of the BOP stack.
Figure 5. 5.100 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack
Figure 5.11 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack
5.3.3 Drilling Spools
Choke and kill lines are generally connected to the BOP stack using a drilling spool. Using a BOP
outlet for the choke or kill line is discouraged.
Drilling spools are installed between BOPs and provide choke and kill line outlets for BOP stack
arrangements (subsea BOP stacks and low-pressure surface stacks are excluded). The spool
localizes erosion during well control operations in the spool rather than the preventer body.
Page 215 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Drilling spools are designed and fabricated in accordance with API 6A, ‘Specifications for
Wellhead Equipment’. Most wellhead vendors can fabricate drilling spools to any dimensions
specified. Table 5.4 shows dimensional data for Hydril’s drilling spools.
5.3.4 BOP Stack Connections
There are three types of connections available for BOP units – flanged, studded or clamped.
Bolted flanges or studs are the most common type of connection used. The tensile rating of the
bolts used in these connections can withstand the maximum load which may be imposed. Also,
the torque applied to the nuts and bolts is in accordance with API suggested values.
API high-pressure flange connections are pressure sealed by means of ring-joint gaskets made of
soft iron, low-carbon steel or stainless steel. API Type RX and Type BX ring-joint gaskets are
pressure-energized seals but are not interchangeable. API ring gaskets are single use items.
Correct torquing sequence and flange face standoff are observed. Rings that have been coated
with Teflon, rubber or other resilient materials are not satisfactory. All flanges in the stack and
side-outlets are fitted with new ring-joint gaskets each time they are assembled. The flange ring
groove is cleaned and dried prior to assembly.
API 6A ‘Specifications for Wellhead Equipment’ provides specifications for flanged wellhead
fittings. API Type 6B flanges are available in the following pressure ratings: 2 000 psi to 5 000 psi
range. API Type 6BX flanges are available for the 5 000 psi to 30 000 psi range. Figure 5.12 lists
specifications for BOP flanges, ring gaskets and bolts. Correctly sized bolts are used for the
specific bolt holes and are made of the correct material for the environment.
Hub and clamp connectors are principally used on subsea BOP stacks to reduce the weight and
height. The bolts are designed for easier installation, especially in cramped quarters, because the
wrench movement is downward instead of horizontal.
When clamp connectors were first used there were numerous problems within the industry, with
the clamp loosening during drilling operations and in well control situations. This problem has
been greatly reduced by the vendors furnishing suggested bolt torque make-up values and the
availability of power torque wrenches on the rigs.
Clamp connections are installed on most major vendors’ hub and clamp preventers. When a
clamp connected BOP stack is used, suggested torque values are obtained from the vendor and
bolts are made up and maintained using power torque wrenches.
Page 216 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 5.4 Hydril Drilling Spool Data
(B) Spool Centre Line

Weight (lb) (A)
Bore Connections Side Outlets to Flange or Hub Face
(approx) Height (In)
(In)
7-1/16 in 71/16 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 510 16,50 13,25
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 525 16,50 13,25
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 1 025 21,12 15,18
9 in 9 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 700 18,12 15,00
11 in 11 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Range 950 18,62 16,50
11 in 11 in 5 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 065 23,38 17,25
11 in 11 in 10 000 Hub 3-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 285 25,12 18,62
11 in 11 in 10 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 310 25,12 18,62
13-5/8 in 13-5/85/8 in 5 000 4-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 780 22,38 19,00
13-5/8 in Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 050 22,38 19,00
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 5 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 5 000 Hub 1 075 22,38 19,00
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 5 000 Hub 3-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 3 325 27,75 20,88
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 10 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 925 27,75 22,88
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 10 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 950 27,75 22,88
21-1/4 in 21-1/4 in 2 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 5 000 Hub 1 825 23,38 21,75
*29-1/22 in 21-1/4 in 2 000 Hub 7-1/16 in 500 Flange 2 380 31,75 25,25
*29-1/2 in 29-1/2 in 500 Flange 12 in 500 Flange 2 320 31,75 25,00
*30 in 29-1/2 in 500 Flange 7-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 2 500 40,00 27,52
*30 in 30 in 1 000 Flange 12 in 1 000 Flange 2 450 40,00 27,52
30 in 1 000 Flange
Page 217 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.12 API Specifications for BOP Flanges, Ring Gaskets, Flange Bolts and Nuts
Page 218 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.4 Choke and Kill Lines

The variations in contractor furnished equipment and the regulatory standards for various regions
differ and do not permit a globally specified standard layout. Equipment specifications suit a
particular well, and local legislation. The choke and kill lines are chosen to have an equal or
greater working pressure rating than the BOP stack. The location of choke and kill outlets on a
BOP stack will be influenced primarily by the number of rams used and their sizes. They are
generally located above the bottom pipe ram.
The choke line has a nominal diameter of 2 in for 5K and less or 3 in for 10K or greater and the
kill line may be 2 in for all applications. However, the smaller ID kill line might restrict operational
flexibility in the case where the kill line can be used as a substitute for a washed-out choke line.
During regular operations, the inner (manual) choke and kill line valves are left open and the
outer valves closed. The choke line is straight and if turns cannot be avoided, they are targeted
tees or block tees since sweeping or angled connections erode easily.
Coflexip style flexible lines are used in many applications but are more common offshore. When
used, their installation accounts for the design specifications of the line, with regard to bending
radius, pressure and temperature. Abrasion may also be a concern when this type of line is used
in a well control situation, especially when solids are present. The bending radius is maximised
and flow velocities are minimised. The composition of this material does absorb some of the
vibration forces but additional stabilization and support may also be needed.
Choke and kill line connections upstream from the chokes and inside the outermost valves are
flanged. Screwed connections are not used in these connections.
As choke and kill lines are an integral component of the well control equipment, maintenance and
repair is crucial. Welding of these lines is performed by certified welders following welding
industry specifications. Typically, the welding work is done under shop conditions with machine
cut weld preparations. Prior to use in the field, the welds undergo pressure and non-destructive
testing to confirm integrity. NACE MR 0175/ISO 151 56-2 details requirements for welding of
choke and kill lines that are used for H2S service.
A check valve may be installed outboard of the stack valves on the kill line. This may enhance
safety on some operations.
Choke and kill lines are well braced to withstand severe vibration.
A remotely operated valve is often installed on the choke line adjacent to the BOP stack to
facilitate the well control shut-in procedure. Specifically designed Hydraulically Controlled (Gate)
Valves (HCVs) are extensively used for this service. The valve is rated WOGM which means it is
serviceable for water, oil, gas, or mud flow. The hydraulic actuator is designed for 3 000 psi
maximum working pressure; the actuator will fully open the valve with 1 500 psi control pressure
for maximum design conditions. The 3 000 and 1 500 psi design pressures are required for
similar operations with standard BOP closing units. The choke line valve is operable from both
the main and remote closing units. As an optional feature, hydraulically operated valves are
available with stem and handle for manual operation (to close but not open) in case of hydraulic
system failure.
Cameron introduced the High Closing Ratio (HCR) as the first remotely controlled valve for choke
line service. The HCR valve has been used so extensively throughout the industry that most oil
field personnel generically refer to any make of remotely controlled valve as the HCR much the
same as any annular is generically referred to as the ‘hydril’.
Because the HCR is limited to 5 000 psi working pressure, the advent of 10 000 psi and greater
working pressure BOP stacks required additional valve development. Cameron’s Type F
hydraulically operated gate valve is available with rated working pressures from 3 000 psi to
15 000 psi. NOV Shaffer’s choke line valve is the Type HB which is rated for 5 000, 10 000 and
Page 219 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
15 000 psi working pressures. Other reputable valve vendors’ equipment is typically used for
choke line service after reliability and experience is verified.
5.5 Choke Manifold
A choke manifold is an arrangement of valves and chokes intended to be used to control the well
after an influx of formation fluid and the BOPs have been closed. An example 5 K choke manifold
layout is shown in Figure 5.13. All choke manifolds are basically the same with the difference
being redundancy. In crucial situations, there is duplication of systems in the event of failure.
Upstream from the chokes, the components of the choke manifold are rated at least equal to the
working pressure as the BOP stack. However, since the chokes create a pressure drop, the
elements of the choke manifold downstream from the chokes may be rated below the elements
upstream from the chokes. For example, a 10 000 psi choke manifold would outfit the
components upstream of the chokes, including the inlet flange of the choke, with equipment rated
to 10 000 psi, while everything downstream of the choke may be rated to 5 000 psi.
Figure 5.13 is an example manifold for a drilling operation. Generally, the nominal diameter of a
choke manifold is equal to the choke line nominal diameter. Only flanged connections and gate
valves are used upstream from the chokes. Gate valves and flanged connections are preferred
downstream from the chokes. Gate valves are designed to be open or closed and not intended to
be used in the same manner as a choke. Chokes are designed and intended to regulate flow from
the well.
Typically, there is one remotely operated choke and one manual choke in the manifold. For 5 M
configurations, the manual chokes are seldom used. In any crucial operation, two remotely
operated drilling chokes are preferred.
The choke is the heart of the well control operation. All chokes are of two basic types. One type
consists of a tungsten carbide piston moving in and out of a tungsten carbide sleeve. The
Cameron remotely operated choke is an example of this type. The other type consists of two
tungsten carbide plates mated together with openings in the plates. One plate is stationery and
the other rotates to make the opening larger or smaller as required. A Swaco drilling choke is of
this type. Chokes have usually proven very reliable in well control operations. One may have a
specific feature that makes it better for a particular condition or operation.
The control panel for the hydraulic chokes is usually near the Driller’s station, and has readouts
for drillpipe manifold pressure, choke manifold pressure and pump stroke counters. A pressure
gauge, reading drillpipe pressure, is located at the choke manifold if manual chokes are used
during a well kill operation. A recording chart for drillpipe pressure and choke manifold pressure
may also be considered.
Typically, the chokes discharge into a header, Figure 5.16. The header is often of lesser strength
than other components in the manifold, and can have stress risers because of its layout, and thus
may become a point of failure. In severe well control cases, it is subject to erosion and may need
to be replaced. If there is failure in the header, the entire choke manifold is compromised creating
risk to people and ancillary equipment. Therefore, the header is designed with the appropriate
factor of safety.
The line through the choke manifold header that usually goes to the reserve pit is commonly
referred to as the “panic line”. The panic line is usually one ID size larger than the rest of the
manifold. If the well pressures approach well design burst ratings, the panic line is opened and
the well is vented directly to the pit. The function of the panic line is enhanced when it is as
straight and long as feasible.
The alignment of the choke line and manifold may vary. Under regular drilling conditions, the
hydraulic valve in the choke line is closed as well as the valve to the secondary choke. The valve
to the primary choke is open and the choke itself is closed. With this alignment, a shut-in can be
Page 220 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
made in the minimum amount of time. Figure 5.13, Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15 illustrate
examples of choke manifolds for onshore, offshore and HPHT operations.
5.5.1 Pressure Gauges
Pressure gauges used on the choke manifold or in other locations (i.e., hydraulic choke control
panel) for the purposes of well control are:
 Certified for abrasive fluid service.
 Of a range equivalent to the pressure rating of the choke manifold.
 Accurate to +/- 1%.
 Of a size allowing the operator to read (or interpolate) increments to 1% of the gauge range.
 Dampened.
 Installed as per OEM suggestions.
1 1
To Mud Plts 3
To Reserve/ 1 1 1 1 From
Slush Pit BOPE
To
Gauges
1
1. 2-9/16 in (min) 500 psi gate valves
2. Remote controlled choke
1 3. Manually adjusted choke
1
1 1
To Mud Plts MGS 2
To Gas
Vent/Flare
Figure 5.13 5 M Drilling Choke Manifold (Land)
Page 221 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
MGS 1
2
BYPASS
1
1
1
MUD GAS SEPARATOR
1 1
2
1
3 1
1
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
TO GAUGE TO GAUGE
1 GATES VALVE
1 1 1 1
2 REMOTE CONTROLLED CHOKES FLOWLINE
3 MANUALLY ADJUSTED CHOKES
Figure 5.14 5 M Drilling Choke Manifold (Offshore)
Page 222 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
MUD GAS SEPARATOR
HIGH PRESSURE HEADER
CHOKE
CHOKE
FLARE
GLYCOL
INJECTION
VALVE
FLARE
PANIC LINE SHOWN AS

LARGER DIAMETER FOR
ILLUSTRATION ONLY
SHAKER
CHOKE
CHOKE
TOP VIEW
TRIP TANK
GLYCOL
INJECTION HIGH PRESSURE HEADER
VALVE
FLARE
PANIC LINE
SIDE VIEW OF CENTER LINES
Figure 5.15 HPHT Drilling Choke Manifold
Page 223 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
TO RESERVE PIT TO FLARE TO SHAKER
X X X
TO MUD/GAS
SEPARATOR TO TRIP TANK
X X
CHOKE LINE IN PANIC LINE IN CHOKE LINE IN
Figure 5.16 Choke Manifold Header

5.6 Mud Gas Separator (MGS)
In routine well control operations, the flow is directed from the choke manifold to the Mud Gas
Separator (MGS). The separator is installed downstream of the choke manifold to separate gas
from the drilling fluid. This provides a means for safely venting the gas and liquids to the active
system.
There are two types of MGSs: atmospheric and pressurized.
The atmospheric type separator is standard equipment on virtually all rigs and is referred to in the
field as a ‘gas buster’ or ‘poor boy’ separator. The main advantage of this type of separator is its
operational simplicity which does not utilize control valves on either the gas or mud discharge
lines. A pressurized MGS is designed to operate with moderate backpressure, generally 50 psi or
less. Pressurized separators are used to overcome line pressure losses when an excessive
length of vent line is required to safely flare and burn the hazardous gas an extended distance
from the rig. The pressurized separator is considered special rig equipment and is not usually
provided by the contractor. This type of separator is installed on rigs drilling in H 2S areas and for
drilling underbalanced in areas where high-pressure, low-volume gas continually feeds into the
circulating fluid.
There are a number of design features which affect the volume of gas and fluid the separator may
safely handle. For production operations, gas oil separators are pressure vessels and sized and
internally designed to capably separate gas from the fluid. This is because the fluid and gas
characteristics are known and design flow rates may be readily established. MGSs for drilling rigs
are not designed on the same basis since the properties of circulated fluids from gas kicks are
unpredictable and a wide range of mixing conditions occur down-hole. Mud rheological properties
vary widely and have a strong effect on gas separation. When gas flow rates exceed the
separator capacity or the fluid leg is lost, the well is shut-in. If surface pressures preclude shutting
in, the flow is bypassed around the separator directly to the flare line. This will help to prevent the
hazardous situation of blowing the liquid from the bottom of the separator and discharging gas
into the mud pit area.
Page 224 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.6.1 Mud Gas Separator (MGS) Design Considerations

Figure 5.17 illustrates the basic design features for atmospheric MGS. An MGS has four
components: the separator vessel, mud gas inlet, gas vent line and the mud outlet (U-tube). The
design and the operating principle of each are summarized as follows.
Figure 5.17 Suggested Mud Gas Separator Design Criteria
Separator Vessel
The separator vessel is an essential component of the MGS where the separation of mud and
gas takes place. The vessel diameter is the crucial factor in determining the mud gas separation
capacity. When the mud gas mixture flows into the vessel at an elevated velocity, a large quantity
of mud droplets will be formed. The design basis for an MGS is to determine the correct ID and
height for best separation of the gas from the mud. The main function of the internal surface area
Page 225 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(baffles) is to provide enough plane area so mud droplets settle faster than the gas rise rate. The
height component is crucial to allow the mud droplets enough time for separation.
During well control operations, the flowing mud gas mixture can cause considerable vibrations.
The vessel is well anchored, and all connections are welded, flanged, or screwed.
Mud Gas Inlet
The inlet is connected to the vessel so that the mud gas mixture flows into the vessel tangentially.
This will spread mud flow onto the vessel wall and the induced centrifugal force will promote gas
separation. The mud gas mixture may contain erosive material such as drilled cuttings, so a
target plate is mounted on the vessel wall to minimise erosion. In order to limit the inlet velocity,
the inlet pipe usually has a minimum ID of 6 in. for a length of at least 10 ft prior to entering the
vessel. The distance from the inlet to the vessel top is usually within 3.5 to 4.5 ft or 1.2 to 1.5
times the vessel diameter. This allows the top part of the vessel to be used as a gas chamber and
the bottom part for gas separation, mud retention, and surges.
Gas Vent Line
The purpose of the gas vent line is to direct the gas flow away from the rig to a safe area. The
vent line exits the vessel at the top and has a minimum-ID of 8 in. The pressure loss along the
vent is minimised in order to maximise the capacity of the vent line and the MGS. The vent line is
routed such that bends, especially sharp bends, and the total length are minimised.
A pressure gauge (usually 0 to 20 psi) is fitted on the vent line near the separator outlet and the
pressure gauge reading is visible from the choke control position. When circulating a gas kick out,
if the separator pressure is approaching the maximum allowable pressure (determined by the
liquid seal in the U-tube) or determined by well conditions, the circulation rate can be reduced or
the well shut-in. If surface pressures prevent the previous options, the returns can be bypassed
around the separator directly to the flare line.
Mud Outlet (U-tube)
The mud U-tube on the mud outlet line provides a liquid hydraulic seal to prevent gas from exiting
the bottom of the separator. The hydrostatic pressure head available in the U-tube will determine
the maximum allowable pressure under which an MGS may operate. In the absence of pressure
gauge data, the liquid in the U-tube is assumed to be a hydrocarbon (0.3 psi/ft) and the maximum
allowable pressure calculated accordingly.
In most cases, the U-tube will have a hydrostatic pressure head of at least 10 ft. On High
Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) wells, a hydrostatic pressure head of 25 ft may be needed.
The U-tube design is configured so the static mud level of 2 to 4 ft in the vessel can be
maintained. The top of the U-tube is usually at the uppermost point of the entire mud outlet pipe.
To prevent the U-tube from being vacuumed by the mud flow downstream, an open-ended
vertical siphon breaker is fitted on top of the U-tube and extended to above the top of the
separator vessel. The mud outlet line is usually designed to handle viscous, contaminated mud
returns and has a minimum ID of 8 in to minimise pressure loss and the risk of blockage.
In pressurized systems, control instruments direct flow through the mud gas separation
equipment. These systems are used to maintain enough pressure and fluid levels to effectively
enhance operation of these units. Pneumatically controlled valves may quickly adjust for varying
flow rates and maintain fluid levels for best separation.
A large, high-pressure gas kick is usually pumped out at a slow rate. This is a crucial time to
carefully monitor and maintain the separator’s fluid seal. If the surface gas release rate is
expected to exceed the separator capacity, the circulation rate is reduced to the minimum
possible. If the fluid seal is still at risk of failing an alternate technique is used to remove the gas
from the well. This may include routing the mud gas flow to bypass the separator directly to the
vent line or the lube and bleed technique may be used. This will help prevent creating a
Page 226 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
hazardous environment in a work area. In certain offshore areas, regulatory standards prohibit
bypassing mud returns to the vent line. It is essential, in areas known for kicks of this caliber, that
the MGS be suitably sized for these operations.
Ps  Heff x MGrad (psi ) (Equation 5-1)
Where:
Ps = separator pressure (psi)
HEff = effective fluid height (ft)
Mgrad = mud gradient (psi/ft)
Calculate the separator pressure:
Where:
Heff = 10 (ft)
Mgrad = mud gradient (psi/ft)
Ps  Heff x MGrad  10 x 0,65  6,5 (psi )
Maximum Gas Flow rate

MGS capacity is calculated based upon flow rates required to evacuate the liquid seal in the U-
tube. Liquid carryover through the vent line may be the limiting factor of the MGS capacity. BP's
GWETK MGS intranet based model will calculate the vessel’s capacity as limited by liquid
carryover and evacuating the liquid seal in the U-tube.
The maximum gas release rate a separator can safely handle depends upon the ability of the
vessel to separate the two fluids and the backpressure in the vent line. The mud gas separation
capacity inside the vessel is mainly determined by vessel diameter.
If the backpressure of the vent line exceeds the pressure imposed by the hydrostatic pressure of
fluid in the U tube, the liquid in the U-tube will be displaced and gas will pass into the mud pit
area. The maximum hydrostatic pressure head available may not be that of mud in the event
large volumes of oil or condensate are displaced to surface. Small mud droplets may have an
adverse effect if carried over into the vent line. Although the proportion of the mud carryover may
be small, it may cause a considerable increase in the vent line backpressure
The MGS is checked against the minimum design criteria specified in Figure 5.17 and Figure
5.18. Additionally, computer modeling is performed. A computer model is available (BP GWETK
MGS calculator) for these purposes. This model may be used to determine the maximum surface
gas release rate, evaluate the capacities of an MGS, and suggest modifications to optimize the
MGS design.
Figure 5.18 shows typical dimensions as a function of vessel ID based upon suggestions in the
MGS model together with a schematic from the MGS model to illustrate inputs for performing
modeling.
Page 227 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
7
1. Separator height
2. Separator internal diameter
3. Inlet distance from top of separator
4. Mud leg height (mud leg dimensions dialog)

Inlet 3
(mud and gas) 8 5. Maximum height of mudleg above separator outlet
6. Outlet height from bottom of separator
7. Height of ventline outlet (open end) above top of separator

2
8. Inlet internal diameter
9. Vent line ID and equivalent length

1
Mud Leg
Option No. Vessel ID Vessel Height Inlet Height from Vessel Top Height of Mud in Bottom of Vessel*
Min Min Min
inches feet feet feet
1 30 10 3 2
2 36 12 3.6 2
3 42 14 4.2 2
4 48 16 4.8 2
5 60 16 4.8 2
6 72 16 4.8 2
* For conical bottoms, at least 2 ft above maximum diameter of full cross section
Figure 5.18 Inputs into the GWETK MGS Design Model
Page 228 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.6.2 Maintenance
Following the remediation of a well control event, the MGS undergoes an inspection and
additional maintenance. This onsite maintenance is not as extensive as, nor does it replace, a
thorough inspection of the mud gas separator in a shop which includes:
 Thickness tests of the vessel.
 Examination of welds.
 Pressure tests of the vessel.
Subsequent to a well control event, the mud gas separator is examined and maintenance is
performed as follows:
Note: The interior of a mud gas separator may be extremely hazardous due to trapped
hydrocarbon gasses. Before opening the vessel, confirm that the vessel is flushed and
there are no open flames, sparks or static charges that may cause ignition.
(1) Open hatch and inspect baffles for integrity, corrosion, or erosion.
(2) Check float, float valve, and float arm for integrity and freedom of movement.
(3) Check mud leg and associated piping for leaks and erosion.
(4) Check integrity of valves.
(5) Check condition of nozzles.
(6) Check for obvious leaks and unapproved welding on the exterior (or interior).
(7) Check pressure gauges for correct function.
(8) Repair as needed.
5.7 Hydraulic Closing Units

In surface operations, the BOPs and valves may be operated manually which is slow and difficult.
Hydraulic closing units have been developed to operate the equipment. The system revolves
around an accumulator, its controls and its power source. The closing unit provides the means to
individually close and open each BOP and valve conveniently, rapidly, repeatedly and at the
correct operating pressure.
The equipment is also designed to operate when, in emergencies, primary rig power may not be
available. Detailed specifications for a particular application will be governed by the number, size
and pressure rating of the BOPs.
5.7.1 Accumulators
The purpose of the accumulators is to provide a store of hydraulic energy and a large rate supply
of hydraulic fluid to the BOP functions. Hydraulic fluid is stored in the accumulator and
pressurized against a nitrogen inflated bladder. A charging pump pressurizes the accumulator.
The response time of the BOP functions is independent of the output of the charging pumps. The
size of the accumulator depends on the number of BOP components and hydraulic valves to be
operated.
The hydraulic control unit is located in a classified, non-hazardous area, as described in area
classifications contained in API 500 and preferably outside the rig substructure.
Accumulator/Precharge
Operating pressure of accumulators is generally 3 000 psi, but could be up to 5 000 psi. The
correct bladder inflation or precharge pressure is governed by the minimum pressure remaining in
the accumulators after operation of the preventers. Around 1 200 psi is needed to hold some
annular preventers closed. A precharge of 1 000 psi will retain a small liquid reserve in the
accumulator when pressure in the system falls to 1 200 psi.
Page 229 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.7.2 Accumulator Systems

The accumulator supplies the stored hydraulic fluid to function the BOPs in a well control event. It
is the associated pumps that charge the accumulator system.
The accumulator recharge system is usually an electrical and/or pneumatic driven pump (or
pumps) located at the main control manifold on the accumulator. Two independent systems are
required as per API 53. For 3 000 psi accumulator systems, the pump(s) incorporate a pressure
switch set to stop at 2 800 and 3 000 psi respectively. The pressure switches will also start the
pump(s) at 2 500 and 2 700 respectively. Diesel driven pumps may be utilized as one charging
system for land rig applications.
Accumulator charging pumps are tested to determine they are able to charge the accumulator
system from precharge to operating pressure within 15 min.
Pressurized nitrogen assist is an option in the event of a power failure to bring the closing unit
system up to the closing pressure. Nitrogen pressure systems are considered a tertiary power
source.
Alternative Power Sources
Where electric panels are used and for electro-hydraulic systems, a battery pack is used to
provide stored electric power.
Accumulator Testing
Accumulators are tested to determine that the closing system is operating as designed. and is
adequately sized for the BOP equipment. These are tests performed in the field to confirm the
accumulator sizing calculations described in Section 5.7.3. The following tests are typically
performed:
Accumulator Pre-charge Pressure Test

This test is conducted on each well prior to spudding.
On closing units with two or more banks of accumulator bottles, the hydraulic fluid line to each
bank will have a full opening valve to isolate individual banks. The valves are in the open position
except when accumulators are isolated for testing, servicing or transporting. The precharge tests
are conducted as follows:
(1) Shut off all accumulator pumps.
(2) Drain the hydraulic fluid from the accumulator system in the closing unit fluid reservoir.
(3) Remove the guard from the valve stem assembly on top of each accumulator bottle.
(4) Attach the charging and gauging assembly to each bottle and check the nitrogen precharge.
(5) If the nitrogen precharge pressure on any bottle or bank of bottles is less than the minimum
tolerated precharge pressure listed below, recharge that bottle or bank of bottles (with
nitrogen gas only) to achieve the specified precharge pressure.
(6) If the nitrogen precharge on any bottle, or bank of bottles, is greater than the maximum
tolerated precharge pressure listed below, a measured volume of nitrogen gas is bled from
the accumulator bottle or bank of bottles to provide the specified precharge pressure.
Page 230 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Accumulator Desired Min Tolerated Max Tolerated Precharge

Working Precharge Precharge Pressure Pressure
Pressure Rating Pressure
2 000 psi 1 000 psi 950 psi 1 100 psi
3 000 psi 1 000 psi 950 psi 1 100 psi
Accumulator Closing Test

The test is conducted as follows:
(1) Position a joint of drillpipe in the blowout preventer stack.
(2) Close off the power supply to the accumulator pumps.
(3) Record the initial accumulator pressure.
The pressure is the designed operating pressure of the accumulators.
(4) With a joint of pipe across the BOPs, operate the sequence of functions as below. Record
accumulator pressure and record times for each function to close. If the accumulator system
has a flowmeter, the volume for each function is recorded. A BOP may be considered closed
when the regulated operating pressure has recovered to its nominal setting or other
demonstrated means. For a three ram BOP, the test would run as follows:
a. Close the top pipe rams.
b. Open the top pipe rams to simulate closing the blinds or blind shear rams.
c. Close the lower pipe rams.
d. Open the HCR.
e. Close the annular.
f. Record the final accumulator pressure. For a successful test the results are at least
200 psi above precharge on the bottles. Timing is less than 30 s for each BOP if the
BOP size is less than 18-3/4 in.
(5) Perform Closing Unit Pump Test.
Note: Consult the table below for API-53 closing times
BOP Component Closing times as per API-53
Annular smaller Annular 18-3/4" Choke and

Designation than 18-3/4" or larger Ram BOP LMRP Unlatch Kill Valves
Minimum
observed
Surface ram closure
BOP 30 seconds 45 seconds 30 seconds N/A time
Minimum
observed
Subsea ram closure
BOP 60 seconds 60 seconds 45 seconds 45 seconds time
Page 231 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Closing Unit Pump Test - Primary Closing System

Having completed the accumulator closing test, bleed the system down to precharge pressure.
Record the time required to recharge the accumulator system to its designed operating pressure.
Refer to the applicable BP practice for requirements regardingclosing unit pump tests.
5.7.3 Sizing of Accumulators
OEMs generally design BOPs and the control systems as per API specifications.
Note: Local regulation and/or BP requirements may be more stringent than this requirement.
Accumulators provide a pressured volume of hydraulic closing fluid to operate the BOP stack. In
cases where power is lost to the charging system it is important that the system provide adequate
stored volume to operate all components of the BOP equipment.
The following is an example of the technique that may be used to size accumulators for a surface
stack. The minimum volume needs to be the volume to close the annular, all the ram preventers
and open one HCR valve with 200 psi over pre-charge pressure remaining. The pre-charge
pressure on the accumulator is 1 000 psi, the operating pressure is 3 000 psi and the minimum
operating pressure is 1 200 psi. The BOP stack consists of one Hydril GL 18-3/4 in 5 M annular
and three Hydril 18-3/4 in 10 M ram preventers:
Volume to close:
Annular = 44 gals
Ram = 17,1 gals
HCR valve = 0,6 gals
Total fluid required = 44 + (3 x 17.1) + 0,6 = 95,9 gals
On the surface system, the temperature is assumed to be 80°F.
Therefore:
P1 = 1 000 + 15 = 1 015 psi Z1 = 1,00 V1 = 10 gals (11 gal bottle minus
1 gal bladder replacement)
P2 = 1 200 + 15 = 1 215 psi Z2 = 1,02 V1 = 10 gals (11 gal bottle minus
1 gal bladder replacement)
P3 = 3 000 + 15 = 3 015 psi Z3 = 1,06 (Refer to Figure 5.19 for nitrogen Z factor)
Where:
P1 = pre-charge pressure (psia)
P2 = minimum operating pressure (psia)
P3 = maximum operating pressure (psia)
V1 = bladder internal volume at pre-charge pressure (gal)
V2 = bladder internal volume at P2 (gal)
Z1 = compressibility factor for nitrogen at P1
Page 232 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.19 Compressibility Factor - Nitrogen

Using the gas law:
PxV
 Cons tan t (Equation 5-2)
TxZ
Where:
P = pressure (psia)
V = volume (gal)
T = temperature (°R)
Z = compressibility factor
Since temperature is a constant, it may be ignored except when determining the compressibility
factor. So in this case:
P1 x V1 P2 x V 2 P3 x V 3
  (Equation 5-3)
Z1 Z2 Z3
Where:
Page 233 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

1 015 x 10 1 215 x V 2 3 015 x V 3
 
1 1,02 1,06
Simplifying:
10 150  1191 x V2  2 844 x V3
Solving for V2:

10 150  1 191 x V2
10 150
V2   8,52 gal
1191
Solving for V3:

10 150  2 844 x V3
10 150
V3   3,57 gal
2 844
The usable volume per bottle is given by:

Usable Volume per Bottle = V2 – V3 gal/bottle (Equation 5-4)
Where:
Usable Volume per Bottle = V2 – V3 = 8,52 – 3,57 = 4,95 gal/bottle
Therefore there is a requirement for:
TotalRe quired Volume
Number bottles bottles (Equation 5-5)
V1
Where:
TotalRe quired Volume 95,9
Number bottles   20 bottles
V1 4,95
Page 234 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.7.4 Subsea Accumulators

Accumulators can be mounted on subsea BOP stacks to perform the following functions:
Response Improvement
With increasing water depths, the speed with which subsea preventers may be operated
decreases. This is caused by expansion of the fluid supply hoses and pressure losses in the
lines.
Note: Response time will be a function of the hose length and not water depth and may be
improved by mounting accumulators directly on the BOP stack.
Space and weight constraints will limit the number of accumulators which can be stack-mounted.
Emergency Use
Some floating rigs are equipped with an acoustic backup control system. In such installations,
stack-mounted accumulators are at least capable of closing one set of rams, one annular
preventer and releasing the riser disconnect upon receipt of a command from the acoustic
system. The accumulators are manifolded at the stack, so fluid is not lost if the supply lines from
the rig are severed. The acoustic system and accumulator system are usually tailored to the stack
configuration.
For subsea stacks, a tie-in is provided for Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) assistance. This will
ideally be for shear ram activation and will also include Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP)
disconnect and wellhead connector disconnect. For deep water rigs, sufficient accumulator
volume is needed to operate emergency functions.
Surge vessels may be installed on subsea annular preventers to facilitate stripping, according to
vendors’ suggestions. Some preventers require surge vessels on the opening as well as closing
sides.
Sizing of Subsea Accumulators
The majority of the accumulators will be located at surface, but a small quantity may be located
on the stack in order to speed the response of the system. The total volume of accumulators
required will be determined by BP requirements (or local legislation, if more rigorous) and will be
provided by the sum of the fluid available at surface and subsea, at the stack. The surface-
located accumulators are sized as previously described, but a different technique is used for
subsea accumulators.
The basic difference between designing for surface operation and for subsea operation is that the
pre-charge pressure will be altered to account for the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the
supply lines. The usable volume from each subsea accumulator bottle will be lower than the
equivalent surface bottle. The deeper the water, the greater the reduction in usable volume from
the accumulators will be.
The following is a technique that may be used to size accumulator bottles for subsea operation
for a 1 500 ft water depth (for 18-3/4 in 10 M stack). The actual accumulator volume required will
be based on the emergency functions that it will be designed to operate.
Volume to close:
1 Annular = 44 gals
1 Ram = 17,1 gals
4 Fail-safes = 2,4 gals
Total fluid required = 44 + 17,1 + 2,4 = 63,5gals
Pre-charge on the bottles is 1 000 psi plus the hydrostatic pressure of the control fluid.
Page 235 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Therefore:
P1 = 1 000 + 15 + (1 500 x 8,6 x 0,052) = 1 686 psi Z1 = 1,01 T1 = 80°F
P2 = 1 200 + 15 + (1 500 x 8,6 x 0,052) = 1 886 psi Z2 = 1,02 T2 = 40°F
P3 = 3 000 + 15 + (1 500 x 8,6 x 0,052) = 3 686 psi Z3 = 1,09 T3 = 40°F
Where:
T1 = temperature at P1 (°R) (°F + 460 = °R)
T2 = temperature at P2 (°R)
T3 = temperature at P3 (°R)
Using the gas law or equation 4-73:
P1 x V1 P2 x V 2 P3 x V 3
 
Z1 Z2 Z3
1 686 x 10 1 886 x V 2 3 686 x V 3
 
1,01 x 540 1,02 x 500 1,09 x 500
Simplifying:
30,91 = 3,70 x V2 = 6,76 x V3
Solving for V2:
30,91 = 3,70 x V2
30,91
V2   8,35 gal
3,70
Solving for V3:
30,91 = 6,76 x V3
30,91
V3   4,57 gal
6,76
The usable volume per bottle is given by equation 4-74:
Usable Volume per Bottle = V2 – V3 = 8,35 – 4,57 = 3,78 gal/bottle
Page 236 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Therefore, there is a requirement for:

Total Re quired Volume 70,7
Number bottles    19 bottles
V1 3,78
The subsea BOP would have 19 bottles on the stack.
5.7.5 Control Stations
The accumulator is equipped with a minimum of two control stations capable of all functions.
Central (Main Control Station) Manifold
This manifold is located away from the rig floor area and in a designated safe accessible location.
This manifold may be all hydraulic, air-hydraulic or electro-hydraulic. The accumulator and charge
pumps are usually located with this manifold.
The manifold includes control handles, or switches, for all BOPs and hydraulic valves. The control
handles are left in the open or closed position and not in the neutral position, unless the unit is
tagged out of service.
Other features are:
 A regulator to reduce accumulator pressure to manifold (operating) pressure for the ram
preventers and valves.
 A regulator to reduce accumulator pressure to the variable operating pressure for annular
preventers.
 Pressure gauges for accumulator, manifold and annular pressures.
 A valve to bypass the manifold regulator.
 Tie-in points for accumulators, charge pumps, remote panels and air lines.
 A vent line for bleeding off accumulator fluid to the storage tank.
 A relief valve for the hydraulic and electric pumps.
 A flowmeter to indicate the volume of fluid used in operating a function (essential on subsea
stacks, suggested on surface stacks).
 A pressure gauge to monitor air supply.
Driller’s Control Station
The driller’s control station is remotely located on the rig floor within easy access of the driller’s
station. Whether air or electric operated, intrinsically safe control panels are used.
Other features are:
 Controls for each BOP stack function and to adjust the manifold regulators.
 Read-outs for the accumulator pressure, regulated manifold and annular pressures and flow
meter.
 Air supply pressure read-out.
 A schematic of the BOP arrangement showing choke and kill line outlets, and having ram
sizes marked.
 Visual and/or audible warning devices for low accumulator pressure, air pressure or fluid
levels.
 Where applicable, controls for diverter functions.
Remote Station
This panel is located a safe distance from the well. For offshore rigs, it is usually located in the
Toolpusher’s office. It may be air or electric operated. As with the driller’s panel, this panel
includes a schematic of the BOP arrangement which shows the choke and kill line outlets and
Page 237 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
has ram sizes marked, controls for each BOP stack function, and covers, or interlocks, for crucial
functions. Visual and/or audible warning devices for low accumulator pressure, air pressure or
fluid levels may be included.
5.8 Auxiliary Equipment
As drilling operations become more complex, additional equipment may be useful. This
equipment may improve performance, elevate the level of safety, and allow personnel to
effectively monitor the well.
5.8.1 Pit Volume Measurement
Accurately knowing the volume of mud in the pits, and whether mud is being lost or gained, is
essential. There are numerous systems available to accurately and satisfactorily accomplish this
objective. A calibrated read-out and audio alarm may be installed at the driller’s station and in
every office on location.
Level sensors are provided for each tank and electronically integrated to provide the volume and
gain or loss.
Section 10 discusses Pit Volume Measurement in more detail.
5.8.2 Flowline Measurement
A device is installed in the line of flow from the well which is designed to measure the rate of mud
returns from the well. It may be as basic as a flow paddle which will measure flow as a relative
percentage to as advanced as a coriolis meter that will provide a flow rate of fluids out of the well
and will also provide the density of the fluid passing through the device.
5.8.3 Trip Tank
A trip tank is a small tank that may be isolated from the main system and used to measure mud
volumes during specific operations such as tripping. Trip tanks are used to fill the hole on trips,
measure mud or water into the annulus when circulation has been lost, and monitor the hole
when tripping, logging or other similar type operations.
Blowouts have occurred due to swabbing or not keeping the hole filled while tripping the drill
string out of the hole. To provide more precise fluid measurements, trip tanks were developed to
accurately measure, within ±0.5 barrel. As the drill string is pulled from the hole, the mud level will
drop due to the volume of metal being removed. If mud is not added to the hole as pipe is pulled,
the hydrostatic pressure will be reduced to less than formation pressure. When this happens, a
kick will occur. Swabbing may occur when pipe is pulled too fast, and friction between the pipe
and the mud column causes a reduction in hydrostatic pressure to a value less than formation
pressure.
The trip tank volume is typically measured using a calibrated internal ladder type scale such as
used by service providers in pump truck tanks. The industry typically uses pump type trip tanks.
The pump type system provides for safer and more expedient trip operation. The trip tank is
independent from the surface mud system to prevent volume changes in the surface mud system
from affecting the monitoring process.
To prevent loss of hydrostatic pressure while tripping pipe, the hole is filled on a regular schedule,
or continuously, using a trip tank and monitored to keep track of the fluid volume required. The
metal volume of the pipe being pulled may be calculated, but mud additions to replace hole
seepage losses due to filtration effects can only be predicted by comparison to the mud volumes
pumped to keep the hole properly filled on previous trips. For this reason, a record of mud volume
pumped versus the number of stands pulled is maintained on the rig in a trip book for every trip
made. Tripping operations cease when the trip tank is being filled or emptied to assure the hole is
monitored accurately.
Page 238 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.20 Typical Trip Tank Hook-up

Figure 5.20 illustrates the continuous fill approach to monitoring the mud volume on a trip. Filling
the hole continuously is the safest and most accurate trip procedure. The trip tank centrifugal
pump takes suction from the trip tank and fills the hole through a line into the bell nipple. The
pump runs constantly while the drill string is pulled from the hole. The hole stays full as each
stand of pipe is pulled and excess mud returns to the trip tank through an outlet on the main
flowline. A valve is installed in the flowline downstream of this outlet to block all flow to the shale
shakers while making a trip. This closed circulation system may be monitored by a float system
and a digital readout in increments of one barrel or less on the driller’s console.
5.8.4 Drill string Valves
Drill string valves are used to close in the well on the drillpipe bore and to protect surface
equipment. The valves may be permanently in place or installed at surface and may be a manual
shut-off or automatic check valve type.
Drill string valves are rated to the same pressure as the BOP and are tested at the same
frequency and methodology.
Some of the drill string valves impose restrictions on future operations when installed. For
example, both the inside BOP and drop-in valve, when in place, prevent wireline access below
them to the drill string bore.
The following are the most commonly used drill string valves:
Page 239 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Top Drive IBOPs and Kelly Valves

Inside Blowout Preventers (IBOP) on top drive applications and Kelly valves are full opening
valves to allow running of wireline. Wrenches for operating the valves are kept on the rig floor and
are easily accessible. Inside blowout preventers and Kelly valves are function tested daily.
The upper Kelly valve is placed between the swivel and the Kelly, and provides a means of
closing in the drill string when the Kelly is down through the rotary table and may not be lifted.
The lower Kelly valve, which is placed between the Kelly and the drill string, allows the closing-in
of the drill string and removal of the top drive or Kelly. The lower Kelly valve provides a means of
isolating the top drive, or Kelly, if the drillpipe pressure approaches the pressure rating of the
Kelly hose, drillpipe or mud pumps.
Float Valves
A non-ported float valve is run in the drill string BHA as a protection against a gas kick flowing up
the drill string. When installed, a float valve is a permanent part of the drill string.
The valve may be flapper or plunger type with the ability to lock open while running in hole. On
trips, it is changed out or inspected for proper operation and signs of damage from erosion.
Use of the valve may make reading of drillpipe pressures difficult when a kick has been taken,
especially when controlling gas migration. The use of a non-ported float is accompanied by a
procedure to pump the valve open in order to read DP pressure under kick situations.
Drop-in Valves
Though not often run, a drop-in valve is an automatic check valve that is held on surface until a
float valve failure or unless specified by procedure. It may then be dropped, pumped down-hole to
a special landing sub or set by slickline or wireline. In the event of a kick while the pipe is off
bottom, the drop-in valve may be used to allow the pipe to be stripped to bottom.
The valve will have a limited ID which may plug, preventing further circulation and continuation of
control procedures. The drop-in may be retrieved with wireline or slickline to allow access to the
drillstring bore below the landing sub. These valves are usually used in operations to allow for
stripping and well kill. These valves are not considered a substitute for a float in regular
operations.
All the items in the drill string above the landing sub have an internal diameter to allow the drop-in
valve to pass to its landing sub. This includes mud savers and Kelly valves.
Full Open Safety Valve (FOSV)
The FOSV is a valve to be installed at surface on detection of a kick, allowing the drill string to be
closed in. This valve is used on all drilling, service and snubbing (Hydraulic Workover [HWO])
rigs. The valve is a full bore valve, typically a lower Kelly valve, to allow easy stab-in and wireline
access if required.
Crossovers between the safety valve and all other tubulars in hole are kept on the drill floor at all
times and are available on the rig floor with the correct wrench for closing. The valve is kept in the
open position to facilitate stabbing. The FOSV is designed with no external valve handle to
facilitate the valve being run or stripped into the wellbore.
Inside BOP
An inside BOP is a surface installed check valve to close off the drill string bore, commonly called
a Gray valve. It is available on the rig floor as a backup for the FOSV. The inside BOP is installed
above a FOSV to allow stripping under pressure and subsequent pumping down the drillpipe.
The inside BOP prevents access to the drill string bore below it and may not be removed if below
the rotary or under pressure (unless a FOSV is installed below it).
Page 240 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.9 Subsea Considerations

5.9.1 Riser versus Riserless Drilling
Diverter systems are designed to redirect the flow of shallow gas which may be unintentionally
experienced during top-hole drilling. The diverter system will safely divert the flow away from the
rig floor to overboard vent lines. The advantages of using a riser and a diverter include mud
returns available at the surface for well control and treated mud for hole conditioning.
As the water depth increases, these advantages become less important. There is a general trend
away from using the riser and diverter during top-hole drilling.
Riserless Drilling
The deeper the water depth, the more likely it is that, without a riser, a gas plume from the well
will be swept away from the vessel by currents. When drilling top-hole in deepwater, there are
advantages to drilling riserless. An event would be less hazardous and dangerous since the flow
would not be brought directly to the drilling vessel. Also, without the riser, the drilling vessel is not
connected to the well and could more easily and readily be moved off site.
Riser Gas Considerations
The possibility of free gas in the riser in deepwater locations poses a potential danger to rig floor
personnel. This is of particular concern in GoM due to the prevalence of shallow geopressured
formations. In that environment, a geopressured zone at a depth of 2 000 ft (or even shallower)
below the mud line may be encountered. If this situation occurs in a water depth of 6 000 ft with
the BOP and riser run, gas in the riser becomes a possibility.
Danger of Free Gas in the Riser

Free gas in the riser could result in a dangerous situation. As the free gas migrates and expands
it may evacuate the drilling mud from the riser. If the riser is evacuated, there is a possibility of a
collapsed and/or parted riser, gas release on the rig floor, and damage to the riser tensioning
system.
A small influx of free gas may expand as it approaches the surface to produce very large gas
volumes at surface. Gas will rapidly expand as it approaches the surface. If gas does enter the
riser, the BOP and the diverter may be closed and the influx diverted overboard.
5.9.2 Subsea Stack Configurations
There are special considerations required for subsea BOP systems. On subsea stacks, pipe rams
may be designed to support the string weight (i.e., drillpipe hang off) and at least two sets of
shearing rams installed with at least one having sealing capability.
4-Ram Moored Subsea BOP Stack (Figure 5.21)
The following points are for consideration regarding this stack:
 The stack is comprised of four ram preventers and two annular preventers, in line with
applicable BP requirements for high pressure subsea BOP stacks.
 A minimum of four connections that can be used as inlets or outlets are provided in order to
maximise flexibility of the stack.
 When choosing which pipe ram to use for hang-off, calculations are made to determine that
only pipe body will be across both the blind shear ram and casing shear ram. It is important to
have the ability to shear the pipe quickly and reliably during a well control operation.
 The upper pipe ram is the preferred hang-off ram.
 The lower kill line is used as the kill line monitor.
 In the event of failure of the choke line downstream of the fail-safes, the well can be
circulated through the kill line if the pipe is hung off on either of the pipe rams.
Page 241 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 The fact that there is a connection, that may be used as either an inlet or outlet, which may
be used as a choke line immediately below the upper pipe ram means that the possibility of
trapped gas after a well control operation is minimised.
 Variable bore rams can be fitted in the pipe ram preventers.
 BOP gas may be removed from this stack by taking returns up the lower kill line as the riser is
U-tubed.
 The upper annular preventer may be recovered with lower marine riser package for element
replacement.
 The lowermost ram is not used for stripping operations.
5-Ram Moored Subsea BOP Stack (Figure 5.22)
 The stack is comprised of five ram preventers and two annular preventers, in line with
 A minimum of four connections that can be used as inlets or outlets provided in order to
 For normal kill procedure, the drill string is hung off on the middle pipe rams and the well is
circulated through the lower choke line. Prior to hang-off, the string weight is checked against
the OEM stated hang-off capacity of the ram.
 In the event of failure of the middle pipe rams, or the upper choke line upstream of the fail
safes, the well can be shut-in and hung off on the lower pipe rams and returns taken up the
lower kill line.
circulated through the kill line if the pipe is hung off.
be used as a choke line immediately below the middle pipe ram means that the possibility of
U-tubed.
 The upper (primary) annular preventer can be recovered with lower marine riser package for
element replacement.
5-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack (Figure 5.23)
The following points are considered regarding this stack:
 The stack is comprised of five ram preventers and two annular preventers, in line with
 A minimum of four connections that can be used as inlets or outlets are provided in order to
 When choosing which pipe ram to use for hang-off, calculations are made to determine that
only pipe body will be across both the blind shear ram and casing shear ram. It is important to
have the ability to shear the pipe quickly and reliably during a well control operation.
 The upper pipe ram is the preferred hang-off ram. The lower kill line is used as the kill line
monitor.
circulated through the kill line if the pipe is hung off on either of the pipe rams.
Page 242 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
be used as a choke line immediately below the upper pipe ram means that the possibility of
U-tubed.
 The upper annular preventer may be recovered with lower marine riser package for element
replacement.
6-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack (Figure 5.24)
 The stack is comprised of six ram preventers and two annular preventers, in line with
 A minimum of four connections that can be used as inlets or outlets provided in order to
 For normal kill procedure, the drill string is hung off on the middle pipe rams and the well is
circulated through the lower choke line. Prior to hang-off, the string weight is checked against
the OEM stated hang-off capacity of the ram.
 In the event of failure of the middle pipe rams, or the upper choke line upstream of the fail
safes, the well can be shut-in and hung off on the lower pipe rams and returns taken up the
lower kill line.
circulated through the kill line if the pipe is hung off.
be used as a choke line immediately below the middle pipe ram means that the possibility of
U-tubed.
 The upper annular preventer can be recovered with lower marine riser package for element
replacement.
Page 243 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.21 4-Ram Moored Subsea BOP Stack
Page 244 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.22 5-Ram Moored Subsea BOP Stack
Page 245 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.23 5-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack
Page 246 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.24 6-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack
Page 247 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.9.3 Subsea Choke and Kill Lines

Subsea choke and kill lines differ from surface systems in several ways. Subsea choke and kill
lines have flexible connections at the ball or flex joint, and the telescopic joint. Subsea choke and
kill line valves are fail-safe and hydraulically actuated.
Compared to choke and kill lines on surface stacks, subsea choke and kill lines are much longer.
These long choke and kill lines create additional back pressure on the wellbore due to the friction
pressures generated as the mud is circulated up the choke and kill lines. The rate at which the
influx is circulated to the surface is minimised due to high resulting friction up small lines. Surface
pressures will be high due to bubble elongation in the small internal diameter of the choke line. In
some cases, the influx is circulated up the choke and kill lines concurrently in order to reduce the
effects of these two factors. The industry trend is toward larger choke and kill lines to reduce
these effects.
As with surface connections, targeted tees and block tees are used for all bends and turns.
Generally, surface connections are flanged, clamped or welded and are consistent with onshore
systems. Screwed fittings, chicksans and hammer unions are not used. Lines are installed with
the minimum number of bends. Where bends are necessary, targeted tees or block tees are to be
used as swept bends are susceptible to erosion.
Subsea Fail-safe Valves (Choke and Kill Line Valves)
These valves are made by a number of companies. Generally, fail safe valves are closed with a
spring operated, sometimes pressure assisted, closing mechanism.
Two parameters used in evaluating these valves for floating drilling operations are their
susceptibility to forming hydraulic blocks when used in tandem and the water depth sensitivity of
their operators.
National Oilwell Varco (NOV) Shaffer Valve

The operating characteristics of the NOV Mission Model HB, is a subsea bi-directional sealing
valve for applications that have remotely operated valves located adjacent to the BOPs. These
valves are commonly used for choke and kill applications.
Cameron Valves
Cameron produces Tailrod Hydraulic Gate Valves in a variety of sizes from 1-13/16 in up to 6-
3/18 in with working pressures of 2 000 to 5 000 psi. These valves are designed with dampening
for protection against shock loading. For more rugged environments, the MCS gate valve is
another option. The standard size is 3-1/16 in but other sizes are available on request. This valve
has a working pressure of 10 000 to 15 000 psi, and may operate in water depths up to 10 000 ft.
GE VetcoGray Gate Valves

The VetcoGray Type VG-300 subsea gate valve is a full-bore, through-conduit gate valve with
downstream sealing. Pre-loaded seats provide a metal-to-metal seal for the one-piece gate. The
VG-300 is available in pressure ratings of 5 000, 10 000 and 15 000 psi and sizes from 1-13/16 to
11 in. A split gate VG-300 is also available. Another option, the Model D gate valve has a two-
piece gate that seals from either direction. This valve is available in pressure ratings of 3 000,
5 000, 10 000 and 15 000 psi and sizes from 1-13/16 to 7-1/16 in.
5.9.4 Subsea Pipework, Hose Bundles and Wiring
For surface stacks, the simplest hook-up is to assign a dedicated large capacity conduit to each
individual function. When a particular function is selected, fluid flows from the accumulators,
through a regulator, directly to the function. Concurrently, the opposite function is vented and the
displaced fluid is returned to the reservoir. When considering a surface hook-up, the following are
noteworthy:
Page 248 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Unions and swivels are used in the BOP stack area to preclude stressing of the lines.
 BOP closing and opening lines are routed to minimise the risk of damage in the event of a fire
or falling debris.
 A simple hook-up usually cannot be achieved for subsea applications. There are too many
individual lines to be handled easily, and the pressure drop through the length of line would
be too great for satisfactory reaction times. Instead, hose bundles are employed which
contain one large capacity (1 in) conduit (to transfer the hydraulic fluid required to operate all
functions and recharge the subsea accumulators) and up to 64 pilot (3/16 in) lines (to direct
and control the flow of fluid to a particular function). The bulk line is ‘teed’ with the subsea
accumulators and terminates at a regulator which reduces the accumulator pressure to
operating pressure.
 The output of the regulator is manifolded to the pilot valves. The pilot lines terminate in
function dedicated pilot (Subbase Plate Mounted [SPM]) valves which respond to
accumulator pressure when a function is selected. Each then allows regulated fluid to flow,
via a shuttle valve, to a particular function. The displaced fluid from the opposite function is
vented at its pilot valve.
 The pilot valves and regulators are housed in a pod, which is duplicated to provide
redundancy. In hydraulic systems, shuttle valves located at each function allow control by
either pod.
BOP control systems are duplicated in all hydraulic and electric lines from the main control panel
to the BOP stack functions, i.e., there is 100% redundancy. The driller’s panel and the remote
panel are designed to select and operate either system.
Operating Fluids
For subsea systems where the fluid from the main supply line is dumped when it is vented, the
fluid is chosen and mixed to prevent damage to the subsea environment. Pilot line fluid is in a
closed system and hence is not replaced. When the pods are pulled, the control lines are flushed
with the recommended fluid mixture.
In all cases, the fluid mix is maintained year round so it will not freeze at the minimum anticipated
temperature for the year. Pure ethylene glycol may be added to prevent freezing. Most reservoirs
are self-filling, with an automatic mixing system for additives. Operating fluids are non-pollutant
and bacteria resistant.
Most surface installations employ a simple closed system, with the operating fluid returned to the
reservoir when it is vented. Either light hydraulic oil or a subsea type fluid is typically used as the
control fluid. The accumulator fluid reservoir has a capacity of twice the working liquid volume of
the accumulators.
5.9.5 ROV Intervention Considerations
ROV Workscope
The ROV system may be used to perform numerous tasks. These include, but are not limited to:
Visual inspections of the sea floor, the BOP, the riser and the rig. Other functions are included in
Table 5.5. Also, it may monitor the running of the drill string and conductor casing. The ROV can
be positioned to observe and monitor gas bubbles breaking out of the seabed. The camera can
be panned upwards periodically to check for a gas bubble plume above.
In addition, it may perform the following functions:
Page 249 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 5.5 ROV Functions
ROV Area of Inspection Features
Sea floor Topography

Obstructions
Geological conditions
Recovery of dropped object
BOP Overall inspection
Levelness (bullseye)
Valve override
Emergency disconnect operations (as per sequence)
Closing individual rams
Component replacement (AX/VX rings)
DP beacons
Status indicators
Riser General inspection
Support for replacement of individual BOP control hoses
where fitting
Rig Inspection of hull, thrusters, intakes
Removal of debris from thruster, cooling intakes
Further ROV Uses – Common BOP Override Functions
Among its other uses, the ROV may be configured with correct piping to inject methanol into the
several ports around the connector base to inhibit the formation of hydrates. Pipe rams and shear
rams may be operated by the ROV.
5.9.6 BOP Arrangement for Deepwater Operations
This section captures some of the differences, subtleties, and considerations for BOP issues in
deepwater, both in a moored and a DP operation.
Number of Rams in a Deepwater Stack
The number of rams will be dependent on several different considerations. As for all rigs, the
number of pipe rams depends on the number of sizes of drillpipe in the drill string, operator’s
preference, and local regulatory agencies.
As rigs move into deeper water, hydraulics becomes an issue due to the necessity of drilling large
holes (14-3/4 in up to 26 in) at a deep depth (as compared to traditional shallow water drilling). It
is not unusual to drill a 22 in hole to a depth of 12 000 to 13 000 ft.
For hole cleaning at these depths, consideration is given to the use of larger than the traditional
drillpipe size of 5 in. Many operators use 5-1/2 in drillpipe and 6-5/8 in drillpipe. While these
drillpipe sizes pose no problem from a BOP ram standpoint, the larger sizes may be unusable
after some casing strings have been set, such as 9-5/8 in, as the tool joints on the large drillpipe
may cause elevated ECD, severe wear, and fishing problems.
If the operator elects to return to smaller drillpipe, the BOP will have two ram preventers designed
to seal on the smaller drillpipe. This could be accomplished by more ram cavities or pulling the
BOP to change rams, or the use of Variable Bore Ram (VBRs) which will seal on a range of
tubulars. Caution is exercised when choosing rams that will seal over a variety of drillpipe sizes
because hang-off capacity is reduced for smaller drillpipe.
Page 250 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
It may be necessary for the BOP to shear and seal drillpipe or tubulars. If the drillpipe is to be
sheared it is preferable to be able to hang-off. This will complicate ram arrangement further, in
that, if two tapered size strings are planned to be run through the BOP stack during the course of
the well, the stack is capable of hanging-off, shearing and sealing the wellbore with either drillpipe
size across the stack.
Due to the exposure on DP rigs while running casing, special rams that will shear casing have
been developed.
When planning BOP configuration, consideration is given to whether the casing shear rams will
shear drillpipe (some will not) and whether they will seal after shearing (most will not).
BOP Height
BOP height may create the potential for substructure interference. The number of rams can be a
crucial matter, particularly when working with a system lacking guidelines and the corresponding
need to have some type of funnel or re-entry system for the LMRP. To be able to reconnect with
some heave, a guide funnel or other system that will allow the LMRP to realign is provided.
Clearance is necessary under the substructure for the system to be able to be separated.
Designed stack height and the number of rams in deepwater drilling are also affected by the
potential bending moments placed on the stack and wellhead. This is another factor to be
considered when designing the overall height of a subsea BOP stack.
Placement of Rams and Outlets
Ram location is chosen in order to accommodate the specific situation. It is generally accepted
practice that blind shear rams are at the top of the stack to allow for well control and flexibility in
drillpipe hang-off and drillpipe shearing.
Consideration is given to having an outlet below each sealing ram, and also an outlet below the
upper annular. The placement and limitations of an outlet below the lower ram are evaluated and,
if installed, is primarily used as a pressure monitoring line.
Blind Shear Rams
This level of testing includes shearing high strength pipe in a hang-off scenario. This scenario will
prevent the pipe from falling away from below the blind shear ram.
Consideration is also given to having the sealing blind shear ram manifolded separately from the
rest of the stack functions so that greater pressure (3 000 psi up to 5 000 psi) may be applied
directly to the operator and not the 1 500 psi generally carried in the control manifold. This will
enhance shearing capabilities.
Casing Shear Rams
Casing shear rams generally require very large operators which use large amounts of fluid, and
take a longer time to function and shear than the typical ram type component. This timing is
considered when designing an emergency disconnect sequence. In most cases this component is
intended only to shear the pipe and does not seal the wellbore.
The casing shear may be manifolded separately from the rest of the stack functions so that
greater pressure (3 000 psi up to 5 000 psi) may be applied directly to the operator and not the
1 500 psi generally carried in the control manifold.
Choke and Kill Connectors
Knowing the strength of choke and kill line connectors is a factor in DP operations. These
connectors may have strength greater than that of the riser. This would be of concern in the event
of a failure of the connectors to release in an emergency disconnect.
Page 251 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Wellhead Connectors: Bending Loads

In the event of loss of station-keeping ability and failure to disconnect in a timely manner,
tremendous bending loads may be imparted on the BOP stack and wellhead. Consideration is
given to calculating these bending loads when choosing wellhead equipment. It is important that
wellheads, connectors and BOP flanges, withstand these bending loads and still function at their
respective rated pressures.
The connectors may become hydraulically locked on the wellhead by the force caused by the
hydrostatic pressure of the seawater in very deepwater. Steps are taken to mitigate this risk.
Flange Bending Strength
Bending strength of flanges is considered in deepwater. Bending moments are calculated for
deepwater operations to confirm that the BOP integrity will remain sound for station-keeping
incidents.
Bearings in Load Rings
As the ship weathervanes into the environment, the bearing in the load ring used on DP rigs is
able to absorb and dissipate most of the torque that is generated as the rig is turned. A defective
or poorly maintained bearing could result in an unacceptable amount of torque being transmitted
to the riser that could damage the riser, stack, wellhead or the casing.
Location of LMRP Split
The LMRP split is generally located below the first annular. Integral double annulars are available
if substructure height is an issue and two annulars are desired. This would place the LMRP split
below both annulars. The implications of having both annulars in the LMRP are considered when
planning for emergency disconnects in a DP operation.
BOP Elastomers
In the deepwater environment, the performance of BOP elastomers may be subjected to a wide
range of temperatures. At ambient temperatures, elements may fail to extrude and flex properly,
compromising a seal. On some occasions, rams have had to be functioned several times in order
to ‘loosen’ the elastomer to achieve a valid test.
For a deepwater testing operation, depending upon reservoir depth and temperature, and flow
rates tested, these elements may be subjected to elevated temperatures.
Both of these circumstances are considered when selecting elastomer elements for a deepwater
operation.
Hydraulic Assist Choke and Kill Valves
Formerly known as “fail-safe” valves, the term has fallen into disuse except in the generic sense.
The valves are not “fail safe” but rather “fail assist to the closed position”. Depending on the
vendor, they may be spring loaded assist (to the close position when operating pressure is
removed) or they may contain an individual accumulator precharged depending on the water
depth, or both.
Bolt Selection
While high-strength bolts may be warranted to counteract bending loads on the BOP stack, the
possibility of hydrogen embrittlement damaging high-strength bolts is considered. The source of
hydrogen is generally from sacrificial anodes.
BOP Pressure Ratings while Testing
In deepwater, consideration is given to mud weights and BOP pressure ratings when testing. The
differential pressure between the mud and seawater is considered when designing BOP test
pressures in deepwater.
Page 252 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
For example, while drilling in 8 000 ft of water with 15 ppg mud, the BOP body is subjected to a
differential pressure of 2 700 psi. For a BOP rated to 15 000 psi, the maximum test pressure for
these conditions would be 12 300 psi.
5.9.7 Deepwater Control System Considerations
BOP control systems have become complex for deepwater. As rigs move into deeper waters,
response time becomes crucial, and reduces traditional hydraulic control systems to
obsolescence. The following are points to be considered when designing a deepwater BOP
control system.
Closing Times: Hydraulic versus Multiplex
Using a Low Volumetric Expansion (LVE) type umbilical hose and pressure bias system, hose
lengths up to 6 000 ft may stay within the specified closing times.
Reaction time (solenoid firing time) for Multiplex (MUX) systems vary from less than 1 s up to 7 s
with umbilical lengths up to 10 000 ft. Fluid flow times remain as above.
Consideration of Third Pod
Due to timeliness of pod maintenance, a complete spare pod may be kept available. Having a
spare pod allows for rotation of pods on the stack for more complete preventative maintenance of
these complex systems.
ROV Intervention
Major functions to allow operation with loss of MUX control are:
 Unlocking of LMRP connector and other functions for retrieval of LMRP.
 Unlocking of wellhead connector for stack retrieval.
 Close rams in conformance with GP 10-11
Automatic Closure in Event of Failure of Lines (Deadman and Autoshear Systems)
In the event of parting of the riser or unplanned LMRP disconnect, automatic functions are used
to close the shearing rams. The intention is to shut-in the well in to avoid a potential blowout. The
command to operate this function results from loss of both hydraulic and electrical power to both
MUX pods or unplanned disconnect of the LMRP.
Working Pressure for Control Systems
The working pressure for control systems is generally 5 000 psi for water depths greater than
5 000 ft due to the inefficiency of accumulators at this water depth and the nitrogen precharge
pressures used.
Accumulators charged to 5 000 psi differential on the sea floor are vented before retrieving the
BOP stack to the surface.
Pressure on Connectors
Some wellhead and LMRP connectors specify a reduced pressure (500 to 800 psi) after locking
at 1 500 to 3 000 psi. This involves a second regulator circuit in the pod to reduce to holding
pressure after the connector is locked.
Single Point Failures
Single point sources of failure are avoided by providing redundancy such as two pods, dual
uninterruptible surface power supplies, dual subsea electronics in each pod, multiple
communications paths, multiple surface control panels, dual cable reels, and subsea
accumulators to back up riser hydraulic conduit lines.
Page 253 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
With a two pod hydraulic system, the first single point of failure would be the shuttle valve on the
BOP stack function.
Pressure and Temperature Gauges
Transducers are available for installation on the BOP stack that may furnish input to the MUX
system for transmittal to the surface.
If sensors are mounted in the LMRP choke and kill lines, temperatures are largely isolated from
the BOP and become unrepresentative unless fluid is moving through the choke and kill line.
Pressure measurements are useful if choke and kill valves are open, especially during well
control situations.
How Bottles are Manifolded
Surface
For surface operations, accumulator bottles are manifolded so that no more than 25% are
isolated for maintenance at the same time.
Backup Systems
The following sections describe the features and operation of several backup systems.
Electro-hydraulic
 Direct electric pilot, no logic involved.
 Uses dedicated wires in MUX umbilical wired through to the pod solenoid valves.
 Shear rams and emergency disconnect sequence.
 Requires integrity of MUX umbilical cable, surface wiring and control panel.
 Requires integrity of surface and/or stack accumulator supply and hydraulic flow through the
pod.
Acoustic Backup System

 Dedicated system includes subsea accumulators, battery packs, electro-hydraulic control
module, acoustic communication transponders, fixed and portable surface control and
communications systems.
 Usually operates seven functions including pipe ram, shear ram, choke and kill valves, LMRP
and stack connector release.
 Does not depend on integrity of regular BOP stack control system nor marine riser or MUX
umbilical.
 Accumulators are charged from the surface BOP stack control system (any pressure loss is
protected by check valves if regular BOP stack control system fails).
5.10 Testing Equipment
BOP equipment is tested in order to identify failures and perform repairs when the well is in a
stable condition. BOP equipment is tested at the time of installation and at regular intervals in
accordance with GP 10-45.
5.10.1 BOP Equipment and Wellheads
All high pressure tests are preceded by a low pressure. The bore of the test string, or the casing
valve, is left open during testing to prevent pressure being applied to the casing or formation, in
the event of the test plug leaking.
The rate of pressure increase, due to the volume pumped, is closely monitored to determine
whether the pack-off is leaking, and warn of the possible risk of collapsing the casing.
Page 254 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pressure Test on a Test Stump

The pressure test of all BOP components may be conducted on a test stump prior to installation.
The high pressure test for the ram preventers and the valves are conducted to the rated working
pressure of the BOP. Annular preventers are tested to 70% of their working pressure.
Initial Pressure Test
The initial pressure test is conducted following installation of the BOP on the wellhead and prior to
well operations. Pressure testing is conducted against a solid type plug which is supported by the
wellhead and seals either above or below the pack-off. The high pressure test of the ram
components and valves is conducted to the lowest of the MAWHP expected in the hole section,
the casing internal yield pressure, or the wellhead pressure rating. Annular preventers are tested
to 70% of their working pressure.
Where possible, the initial sequence of tests are arranged to minimise the volume of fluid
pressurized (example: the initial test of the wellhead connector is conducted against the lowest
pipe ram) thereby minimising the potential for damage in the event of a leak.
After latching a subsea stack, a tensile test is applied to assure connectors are properly latched
before any pressure testing. A single pressure test is then carried out to MAWHP for all sections
of the well. This is intended to initially test the connector to the maximum pressure for the well.
Also, the control system is function tested on both pods as well as any remote stations.
Routine Pressure Tests
The high pressure test for the BOP ram components and valves is conducted to the MAWHP
expected in the next hole section. Though it has been accounted for in the well basis of design, it
is important to note that the test pressure does not exceed BOP rated working pressure, the
pressure rating of the wellhead, or 90% casing internal yield. Annular preventers are tested to
70% of their working pressure. Wellhead pack-offs are generally tested to the pressure rating of
the wellhead housing or, to no more than 90% of the casing collapse.
Blind shear rams installed in subsea BOPs are tested upon installation and after subsequent
casing strings have been run. At subsequent BOP tests, the blind shear rams are function tested.
Function tests are conducted from all remote control stations.
Pressure Testing of Associated Equipment
The IBOPs (or the upper and lower Kelly valves, for applications without a topdrive), choke and
drillpipe manifolds, drillpipe safety valve, inside BOP, drop-in dart sub (if used) and circulating
head are all tested to the lower of the MASP or their rated working pressure.
5.10.2 An Example Test Procedure
The following is an example test procedure for a four ram preventer subsea stack and associated
choke manifold.
All the components of the choke manifold, in this example, are rated to the same pressure as the
stack, and so all the components of the manifold may be tested at the same time, and to the
same pressure, as the stack.
The kill pump is used as the test pump and is tied into the manifold at Point A and Point B as
shown in Figure 5.25. Test pressure is applied both at Point A and Point B during all tests other
than four and five, when it is applied at Point A only.
The inner and outer choke and kill line fail-safes may be tested from the outside before the stack
test is started as these tests do not require a test plug in the stack.
The blind shear rams are not routinely pressure tested during each BOP pressure test. This
means the fail-safes on the upper kill line may only be tested from the inside to the test pressure
of the annular, until the blind shear rams are tested.
Page 255 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 5.25 Choke Manifold Schematic

Table 5.6 shows how the stack is lined up for each test. Figure 5.26 shows a schematic of the
choke manifold. As previously stated, all the components of this manifold that are shown on the
diagram are rated to the full working pressure of the stack. Many other manifolds incorporate
piping and valves downstream of the chokes that are rated at a lower pressure than the stack.
Typically, in these cases, a separate test of these components is conducted.
The following operational guidelines are considered for these tests:
 Subsea stacks are fully function tested on both pods.
 All subsea pressure tests are conducted using open bore test tools.
 All tests are carried out using the correct test plug with the specified drillcollar weight below.
Test plugs are not run on top of a bottom hole assembly except when testing the blind shear
rams against a backed-off test plug.
 When pressure testing blind shear rams against casing, consideration is given to pressure
differential that already exists due to any difference in the weight of the mud inside and
outside of the casing.
 When testing blind shear rams against a backed-off test plug, monitor volumes pumped
closely.
 Tests are recorded on a chart or an electronic data logger.
Page 256 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 5.6 An Example BOP/Choke Manifold Test Procedure
Test Choke Manifold Valves Closed BOP Line Up Fail-safes
1 11, 7, 9, 15, 18, 20, 24, 26, 30,

32, 33
2 2, 30 Upper Annular, Upper Inner Kill, Lower Inner Kill
3 2, 30 Lower Annular, Upper Outer Kill, Lower Outer Kill
4 3, 5, 12, 17, 19, 22, 30, 34 Upper Pipe Rams, Upper Outer Kill, Upper Inner
Choke, Lower Inner Choke
5 3, 6, 11, 13 Upper Pipe Rams, Upper Inner Kill, Upper Outer
Choke, Lower Outer Choke
6 2, 13, 14, 19, 20, 23, 27, 31 Middle Pipe Rams, Lower Outer Kill, Upper Outer
Choke
7 3, 7, 12, 17, 19, 22, 33, 35, 36
8 4, 7, 8, 10, 16, 19, 21, 25, 29 Lower Pipe Rams, Lower Inner Kill, Upper Inner
Choke
9 3, 7, 8, 26, 28
5.10.3 Pressure Tests of Casing

The integrity of casing strings is fundamental to effective well control. Casing design is based on
maximum loading criteria. Wear or corrosion of the casing bore will reduce burst and collapse
strengths of casing and undermine the basis for the design. The rate of wear depends on the type
and duration of operations, and is accelerated by rough hardbanded drillpipe, elevated rotary
speeds and high dog leg severity. Pressure testing of casing is performed to prove the casing
integrity...
Initial Test
Normally, the casing is tested to prove the string’s integrity when bumping the top plug, following
cementing. Applied test pressure is the maximum wellhead pressure anticipated before the next
casing string is set (i.e., casing design pressure). If the additional tensile loading, caused by the
pressure test, risks parting the string, the plug is bumped with a nominal pressure and the full test
pressure is applied after the string has gained support from the cement and prior to drilling out the
shoe track.
Casing Wear and Subsequent Tests
Casing wear can be an important issue if it affects the system integrity of the well barrier
envelope. Casing wear changes the thickness of the casing walls, and therefore changes its
capability to withstand loads. Some blowouts have been a result of casing failure. The transition
of the industry more toward hardbanding that creates less casing wear and away from use of
tungsten carbide based hardbanding has been an important change that has reduced the severity
and prevalence of casing wear issues.
The well program includes procedures for monitoring casing wear. A ditch magnet may be
installed to monitor metal returns for casing wear. If a problem is suspected, actual wear may be
measured by wireline caliper tools and then the casing tested to the minimum allowed pressure
as defined in the original casing design for the well program.
Page 257 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Digital BOP Testing

Digital BOP Testing refers to computer aided interpretation of BOP equipment pressure tests. BP
developed software to monitor pressure trends during the shut-in periods of high-pressure tests.
This software reliably predicts the eventual stable pressure used to end tests. The government
regulatory entity for GOM, approved BP’s use of Digital BOP Testing in 2008.
Digital BOP Testing applies primarily to high-pressure subsea BOP tests and also surface choke
manifold tests. Industry trends toward deeper water, use of synthetic oil-based fluids, and
subsurface pressures that require greater test pressures, contribute to lengthy test times while
waiting for pressures to stabilize.
Subsea BOP stacks, with redundancy of components and use of tapered drill strings, lead to
greater numbers of tests and more critical path time consumption.
The Digital BOP Testing package is:
(1) Proprietary software and a dedicated computer located outside the zoned area of the
cementing unit.
(2) A Class 1, Div II touch screen display on the cementing unit near the paper chart recorder.
The BOP testing computer is interfaced to the cementing unit via zone-conforming cabling to
receive pressure, volume and rate data.
The software displays pressure data during each test and uses a ‘traffic light’ system of colours to
indicate test interpretation. Yellow indicates analysis is in progress, green indicates a passed test
interpretation, and red indicates a failed test interpretation.
Digital BOP Testing enhances the conventional testing process by decreasing the subjectivity of
interpretation. The first test of a series is interpreted by chart to ‘validate’ the Digital BOP Testing
software. In the event of a software or electronics problem, the independently powered chart
recorder is the fallback testing device.
Digital BOP Testing introduces two improvements to the conventional testing process:
(1) A computer generated test report supplements the paper charts since tests are ended while
pressures are still stabilizing.
(2) Tests are started at a higher pressure to avoid the need for pump-ups, hence producing
uninterrupted pressure declines.
The computer generated test report is kept on file for inspection on the rig along with conventional
paper charts and supplemental forms. An example of a conventional paper test report is provided
in Table 5.7.
Digital analysis produces best results from uninterrupted pressure declines. Pump-ups cause the
software to start a fresh analysis of each new pressure decline, and hence, delay output of the
digital forecast and test interpretation.
Commencing tests at 8% above the target test pressure (while not exceeding the working
pressure) typically leads to stable pressures when using oil-based fluids. Experienced users will
recognize water-based fluids require a lesser margin.
Users need to be aware of any regulations regarding digital BOP testing for their particular
geographic location. In the U.S., approval is sought from the regulator on a per-well basis in the
Application for Permit to Drill.
Page 258 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 5.7 Example BOP Equipment Test Report (for reference)
Page 259 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
5.10.4 Negative Pressure Testing Procedures

Negative pressure tests are conducted to determine that components comprising the well barrier
envelope are satisfactorily sealing. By reducing the hydrostatic within the wellbore, a component
that is not properly isolating external pressure will allow flow which is identified at the surface,
typically either through the drillstring or the choke and/or kill lines. A valid test is conducted when
both the hydrostatic pressure loss and the flow path to the surface monitoring point are
confirmed.
There are numerous configurations that may be used depending on what barrier is being tested.
A test fluid of less-than-kill-weight density will be involved. Generally, the test fluid will be base oil
or some form of inhibited water (e.g., fresh or seawater with glycol). The following steps illustrate
a typical test where the drillstring and choke and kill lines are used.
 Determine the negative pressure differential that will be used for the test. The operational
loads will be specific to the operational phase. The differential loads across all internal and
external barriers are also checked to confirm that they do not exceed safe levels.
For subsea wells, the minimum test will usually translate to the riser margin that will be
removed when the BOP is pulled. This pressure differential will determine the depth which
needs to be displaced with the test fluid.
 Determine the configuration for the test including valve orientation. For some cases, a service
packer is used for positive and negative pressure testing. Either the drillstring (with no float)
or the choke and kill lines are used to monitor for flow or pressure during the test. A test
manifold may be used.
The mechanical configurations for testing will depend on what component(s) are to be tested.
Typical subsea configurations are shown in the following section.
Page 260 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Combined upper and Combined upper and Each individual barrier in the
lower wellbore tests lower wellbore tests using lower section of the wellbore is
using the BOP and choke a work string and BOP. tested independently using a
and/or kill lines. work string and a service packer.
Lower section of the Upper wellbore test Upper wellbore test grouped and
wellbore grouped into a grouped and tested tested using a work string run to
single test using a work without using a work the USP
string, service packer and string. Therefore, the test
a stinger to the is completed using the
lowermost barrier. BOP and choke and/or
kill lines.
Figure 5.26 Example Configurations for Negative-Testing

For the case where a hydrocarbon zone is present in the wellbore, the lower section of the
wellbore is tested independently of the upper section to reduce well control risks.
 Determine the displacement fluid volume to achieve underbalance for the test, including any
compressibility and thermal effects.
 Prior to performing a negative test, calibrate the bleed volumes versus pressure using a
positive pressure test method.
 Displace wellbore fluid with test fluid. While displacing, the calculated volume is compared to
what volumes are actually pumped to displace the original fluid.
 Determine a bleed sequence based upon the shut-in surface pressure in the lines. For
instance, if the original pressure that needs to be bled is 2500 psi, consider a schedule where
500 psi is bled off over 5 steps.
 Bleed pressure according to the schedule determined, noting the amount of fluid volume
returned to achieve the reduction in pressure. Compare this volume to the calculated
volumes in the previous step.
 Any discrepancies in observed versus calibrated return volume per pressure reduction step
are investigated by monitoring pressures for indications of influx.
Page 261 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Clearly defined pass and fail criteria are established.

 A test is considered valid only if there is no flow or pressure increase when the surface
pressure has been bled to atmospheric pressure. Flow or pressure is charted, or digitally
recorded and monitored. The monitoring period for the test is long enough to verify that the
well is hydrostatically stable.
For the wellbore and surface configuration of a negative test, the following operational
considerations are made:
 Pipe light or heavy conditions - if an influx arises, the rig up will prevent string movement.
 Surface line volumes (to pump base oil to RKB).
 Use and verification of temporary, high-pressure piping.
 Monitoring annulus pressure or flow where applicable— indentify potential packer and string
failures.
 Space out work string at floor height (accessibility and well control considerations).
These operational considerations are developed since they may impact the safety of the negative
testing operations. These can then be incorporated into the detailed rig- and Region-specific
operating procedures (e.g., drilling and completion programs).
Consequences of failure
A failed negative test results from a failed barrier and is an indication that the well may be allowed
to flow. Therefore, the consequences of a failed test are specifically identified and evaluated. This
includes the mitigation plan that will be used to restore the integrity of the well.
Contingency Plan in the Event of Negative Test Failure
As a negative test is performed to confirm integrity of the well barrier envelope or determine a
failure, a contingency plan is prepared, usually as part of the testing procedure, for how to
respond to a test failure. This plan will generally include:
 Method for securing the well.
 Well kill method or technique that will be used to regain control.
 Any additional service personnel that will be involved.
 Additional mud considerations.
Page 262 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
6 Well Control Procedures While Drilling

6.1 Causes of Well Kicks
Kick detection is a critical aspect in well control since small kicks are easier to control than large
kicks. A kick is caused by a lack of overbalance in hydrostatic pressure which in turn results from
one of the following:
 Mud weight less than formation pressure.
 Lost circulation.
 Mud cut by gas, water, or oil.
 Failure to keep the wellbore full on trips.
 Swabbing while tripping.
Kick detection focuses on these five causes. The first three causes are associated primarily with
drilling operations, while the last two are related to tripping operations. Tripping operations will be
covered in Section 7.
6.1.1 Mud Weight Less Than Formation Pressure
If the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid is less than the formation pressure, then formation
fluids or gas can enter the wellbore. The flow will always be from greater pressure to lesser
pressure. Permeability is necessary for the formation to flow. If there is no permeability, the
formation will not kick.
6.1.2 Lost Circulation
When lost circulation occurs, the fluid level in the well can fall, causing the hydrostatic pressure to
be reduced. If the fluid level in the well falls such that the hydrostatic pressure is reduced below
the formation pressure, the well can kick. Lost circulation in combination with a kick is one of the
most challenging situations to control.
6.1.3 Mud Cut by Gas, Water, or Oil
Gas, water, or oil entering the wellbore from the formation can cause a reduction in density. The
reduced density and loss of hydrostatic pressure can lead to a kick. In order to have gas, water,
or oil cut mud, the hydrostatic pressure must already be less than formation pressure or surface
contamination has occurred. Given enough time, the influx may cause a sufficient reduction in
density to cause a permeable formation to kick.
Severely gas cut mud does not necessarily cause a large reduction in hydrostatic pressure.
Calculations show modest reductions in bottom hole pressure are experienced due to the
compressibility of the gas. The influence of mud cut on bottom hole pressure can be monitored in
real time with Pressure While Drilling (PWD) tools. Gas cut mud is covered in more detail in
Section 8.
6.2 Kick Detection While Drilling
When drilling with returns to surface, typically a kick will provide a warning sign. It is the driller or
service unit operator’s responsibility to recognize the warning signs of a kick and react
accordingly. Early kick detection increases the probability of a successful kill operation utilizing
conventional well control procedures.
6.2.1 The Early Warning Signs of a Kick
(1) Change, usually an increase, in penetration rate.
(2) Increase in flow rate.
Page 263 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(3) Increase in pit volume.

(4) Reduction in Bottomhole Pressure indicated by PWD tools.
Change in Penetration Rate
Change in penetration rate often translates into a ‘drilling break’, which is a sudden increase in
the drilling rate. One of the factors that can cause an increase in penetration rate is an increase in
porosity or the transition from an impermeable formation to a permeable formation. The drilling
rate is always changing, and close coordination is needed to identify the intervals that are
possibly permeable formations. An example of how well control procedures begin in identified
intervals is below:
(1) Drill no more than 5 ft after encountering any drilling break.
(2) Pick up, space out, shut down pumps and check for flow.
In critical well control situations, the procedure may call for a lower drilling break threshold and
require circulating bottoms-up prior to continuing drilling operations.
Other than the presence of a permeable formation many other things impact the penetration rate
e.g., a change in lithology, or some other naturally occurring phenomena. In such instances, the
first indication might be one of the other two warning signs mentioned above.
Polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits may mask an increase in penetration rate. It is not
uncommon to have a reduction in penetration rate, also referred to as a reverse drilling break,
when a PDC bit enters sandstone or limestone after having drilled shale.
Increase in Flow rate
The first confirmation that a kick is occurring could be an increase in flow rate while the pumps
are running at constant output. This increase may not be detected if the influx flow rate is low.
Flow Checks
The way to positively identify a kick is to turn off the pump, wait for the well to stabilize, and if
possible observe the annulus. If the well flows when no liquid is being pumped it is a strong
indication that a kick is in progress. The driller will typically perform a flow check if any of the
warning signs previously discussed occur.
Determination of whether the well is actually flowing because of a kick can be masked by other
factors:
 Charging pumps that did not shut down when the rig pumps were turned off.
 U-tubing of heavier fluid in the drillpipe versus the annulus. An indication of U-tubing would
be that the rate of flow decreases measurably in a short time.
 Certain formations take fluid due to the increased ECD while drilling, as the pumps are
brought up to speed after a connection. When the pumps are shut-off for a connection or a
flow check, the formation gives back “extra” mud which could be interpreted as a kick. This
“ballooning” effect is most pronounced in deep water operations where the formations are not
as structurally competent as they are on land. The interpretation of the overall situation is
complicated and may be challenging. Because of this, ballooning is treated with added
caution.
Procedure for a Flow Check When Circulating

(1) Alert the crew.
(2) Stop rotating.
Page 264 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(3) Pick up Topdrive (or Kelly) to a predetermined height and space out to place the string with
the uppermost tool joint above the rig floor.
(4) Shut-off pumps.
(5) Observe the well for flow.
Increase in Pit Volume
An increase in the volume of mud in the pits is the first absolute indication of an influx and is
sometimes masked by any of several operations. One operation is the mixing of drilling mud and
addition of base fluid to the mud system, resulting in increased volume. Another operation is the
movement of drilling mud throughout the system. The following guidelines are considered:
 Keep the active mud system surface volume small in order to ease kick detection. Any
reserve mud stocks in the tanks are to be positively isolated from the active system.
 Confirm that the gates on the trough are sealing properly.
 Prior to drilling, confirm that pit volume monitoring systems and isolation valves are in proper
working order.
 Keep all mud treatments and pit transfers to the minimum at critical sections of the well.
Notify personnel in advance of any changes to the system by following the communications
plan established at the site.
 Discuss the challenge of gas kicks, especially if oil-based mud is in use, and emphasize the
importance of early detection during crew safety meetings. Attendance at these meetings is
important for supervisors (e.g. Derrick Man, Driller, WSL, Contractor’s Representative) for
proper communication.
Reduction in Bottomhole Pressure indicated by PWD
When an influx occurs, the reduction in hydrostatic pressure will typically be detected by the
personnel monitoring the PWD data.
6.2.2 Additional Warning Signs of a Kick
(1) Change in pump pressure.
(2) Gas, oil, or water cut mud.
(3) Change in drill string weight.
Change in Pump Pressure
Pump pressure will decrease and pump speed will increase if a large kick is taken during drilling.
This change is the result of lighter fluids being introduced into the annulus. With the lighter fluid in
the annulus and the mud in the drillpipe, the system is out of balance. The greater hydrostatic
pressure in the drillpipe will assist the pump in circulating the system and the surface pressure
will decrease. As the surface pressure decreases, there is less back pressure on the system, and
the pump will speed up.
A washout in the drill string will also cause decrease in pump pressure and increase in pump
speed. When these signs are detected a kick is assumed to have occurred and the well is flow-
checked.
Gas, Oil, and Water Cut Mud
Gas can also enter the mud when drilling through a porous formation containing gas due to
release of the pore volume content, and not from any formation flow due to imbalance. The
amount of drilled gas will be a function of the penetration rate, hole diameter, formation porosity,
and gas saturation in the formation. Drilled gas will reach a maximum value as bottoms up are
circulated. As circulation continues, the drilled gas will decrease.
Page 265 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
When the wellbore hydrostatic pressure is equal to, or slightly higher, than the formation
pressure, gas can also enter the mud during connections. Connection gas (CG) is detected at
surface as a distinct increase above background gas (BGG), as bottoms return to the surface.
CG is caused by the reduction in effective total pressure of the mud column during a connection.
This is due to loss of ECD by pump shutdown and/or the swabbing action of the pipe.
Increasing CG trends is an indicator of a condition of near balance. When increased CG trends
are identified and after other pore pressure indicators have been reviewed , consideration is given
to weighting up the mud before drilling ahead and particularly prior to a trip.
Change in Drill String Weight
Extremely high flow rate might actually lower the drillstring weight as indicated by the weight
indicator due to upward friction. Such an event is unlikely and may be a precursor to the pipe
being ejected out of the well.
With lower flow rates, an increase in drill string weight may be noticed at the surface. Kick fluids
will generally be lighter than the drilling fluid, especially if the kick is gas. Displacement of the
drilling fluid by the kick will reduce the buoyancy of the BHA. This will increase the effective
weight of the drill string. A change is likely to be registered as an increase in hook load. An
increase in drill string weight may be noticed after a considerable kick volume has occurred. It is
not a reliable method of detecting a kick.
6.2.3 Slow Circulating Rate (SCR) Pressures
There are many reasons why a kick is displaced from the hole at a rate that is considerably
slower than that used during normal drilling. These include:
 To minimise the friction pressure exerted on the open hole due to circulating through small ID
choke lines
 To allow weighting of the mud as the kick is displaced.
 To provide safe removal of gas from the returned mud utilising the mud gas separator.
 To limit the speed of required choke adjustments.
 To reduce the pressure exerted on well control equipment.
 To allow for more reaction time for personnel.
Consider these factors when deciding at what rate to displace the kick. The absolute upper limit
for the displacement rate may be restricted by the pressure rating of the surface equipment, in
particular the setting of the pump relief valve. Note that it is potentially hazardous to displace a
kick from the hole when the surface pressure is close to the relief valve setting.
In order to estimate the circulating pressures during the displacement of a kick, the friction
pressure in the circulating system at slow rates is needed. SCRs are typically conducted at the
following times:
 Once per tour (or at 1 000 ft intervals during the tour).
 When the bit is changed.
 When the BHA is changed.
 When the mud weight or properties are changed.
 After pump service or repair.
The range of circulation rates used will be dependent upon many factors, but falling within the
limits of 1/4 and 4 barrels per minute. If a Non-aqueous Fluid (NAF) is in the hole, when back on
bottom after a trip, circulate and condition before measuring SCRs.
Page 266 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE (psi)
Figure 6.1 SCR Pressure Plot

At these relatively slow pump speeds the volumetric efficiency of the rig pumps can be less than
at regular speeds used during drilling. The volumetric efficiency of the rig pumps is checked at
slow pump speed, such as pumping a slug prior to a trip.
It is useful to plot the SCRs on a graph, as shown in Figure 6.1. The drill string internal friction
may be calculated at the SCRs and used to determine the annulus frictional pressure, as shown.
The annulus frictional pressure is a major factor that will influence the rate at which the kick will
be displaced from the hole (using standard well control procedures, the annulus friction pressure
will be added to wellbore pressure as the pump is brought up to speed to kill the well).
A graph similar to Figure 6.1 aids the selection of circulation rates other than those actually
measured and also provides a guide to the size of the annulus circulating losses over a range of
circulation rates.
6.3 Shut-in Procedures
6.3.1 General
The requirement for a hard shut-in is stated in GP 10-10. There are different methods of shutting
in a well that is flowing. BP mandates a hard shut-in as the most practical way of limiting a kick
volume. The smaller the volume of influx, the lower the pressures in the wellbore and at surface
throughout the well control process.
The speed with which the drill crew carries out the shut-in procedures is a crucial factor. If an
early indicator of a kick, such as either a pit gain or an increase in returns flow rate is detected, no
time is spent flow checking the well. In this case, the well is immediately shut-in and the drillpipe
pressure recorded.
Drills carried out at regular intervals can help improve the drill crew’s speed and proficiency at
implementing the shut-in procedures.
Page 267 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Forms similar to the one shown in Figure 6.2 may be used to help assure that each member of
the crew understands their role in the shut-in procedures to be used. These forms are intended
primarily for the Driller, however copies are distributed to other personnel including, the
Toolpusher and the Subsea Engineer and others.
When a standard shut-in procedure is finalized, this procedure is posted on a large notice board
that is positioned prominently on the rig floor and/or doghouse.
6.3.2 Hard Shut-in
Line Up
During regular operations, the typical line-up of BOP stack valves and choke manifold valves are
as follows:
(1) Outer hydraulically-operated valves on the choke line and kill line next to the BOP stack are
to be in the CLOSED position.
(2) The valves on the choke manifold not in line with regular flow routing are CLOSED.
(3) The valves on the choke manifold in line with flow or pressure sensors are to be OPEN.
(4) Remote choke is CLOSED.
(5) Valve immediately upstream of the chokes on the choke manifold is to be kept in the OPEN
position.
(6) MGS valve is OPEN.
(7) MGS overboard valve is CLOSED (if applicable).
Special gauges at the choke control panel (and related transducers) which are used to accurately
measure the drillpipe and annulus pressure over the entire range are connected and properly
functioning.
On a floating rig, the annular BOP is used to initially shut-in the well. On a fixed rig, the pipe rams
may be used to initially shut-in the well, in order to speed up the procedure, if the position of the
tool joint in relation to the pipe ram is known.
6.3.3 Shut-in Procedure
An example of a shut-in procedure is as follows:
 Pick-up off bottom, space out and shut off the pump. (Space out means to confirm there is no
tool joint across from the pipe rams. On most land rigs, place a tool joint in the usual
connection position).
 Perform flow check if necessary.
 If flow is observed or a kick is obvious, shut-in the well by closing the annular or upper pipe
rams.
 Open the HCR valve to the choke manifold.
 While notifying the supervisors as previously determined in the site communication plan,
record pit volume increase, drillpipe pressure, and annulus pressure.
6.4 During Shut-in Period
6.4.1 General
When a flowing well is shut-in by closing the BOPs, the flow will continue until shut-in pressures
have increased to balance the static reservoir pressure. Surface pressures can take several
hours to stabilize. The reasons for this can be one, or all, of the following:
Page 268 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 The influx originated from a low-permeability zone.

 The influx created instability in the wellbore, leading to the hole sloughing and packing off.
 The influx is migrating up the hole.
If the well has been flowing for some time, the kick zone pressure will take time to build up to a
maximum after the well has been shut-in (this is known as afterflow).If the drilling fluid is an oil-
based or NAF, initial shut-in annular pressure may be the highest pressure that will be observed
during the kill operation. For water-based muds, the annular pressure will usually increase as the
influx migrates to the surface. The lowest annular pressure observed will be the initial shut-in
period. The annular pressure will usually increase during the kill operation as the influx migrates
to surface.
Page 269 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 6.2 Kick While Drilling, Land Rig, Hard Shut-in
Page 270 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
6.4.2 Record Pressure Data

As soon as the well is shut-in, a person is assigned to record the drillpipe and casing pressures
from the designated gauges. The pressures are recorded initially at one minute intervals until the
pressures have stabilized. It is important to keep accurate records. Record the data at a pre-
determined frequency so that any change in the rate of buildup is clearly identified. Usually, the
rate of buildup is relatively fast until the well begins to stabilize. Once the pressures have begun
to stabilize, any further increase in surface pressures can be indicative of influx migration.
The drillpipe pressure reflects the difference between the kick zone formation pressure and the
effective hydrostatic pressure of the mud column in the drillpipe. Assuming the influx has not
entered the drillpipe, this can be used to determine the kick zone pressure.
When the surface pressures take in excess of 60 min to stabilize, it is often challenging to
determine the drillpipe pressure that accurately reflects the actual bottomhole pressure. There are
no set rules that apply to determine the correct value for the drillpipe pressure reading. Frequent
and accurate pressure readings will aid the interpretation of buildup data.
Figure 6.3 shows a typical pressure buildup curve which shows influx migration. The kick zone
EMW is determined from the drillpipe pressure during the stabilized period.
Figure 6.3 Shut-in Pressure Buildup Curve - Showing the Effect of Influx Migration
Page 271 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 6.4 shows a form that can be used to record the buildup of drillpipe and casing pressures.
This form may also be used to keep a complete record of events during the well control operation.
Figure 6.4 Well Control Operations Log
Page 272 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
6.4.3 Influx Migration

When a hydrocarbon kick is taken, there is usually a tendency for the kick to migrate up the hole
in a water-based mud system. This tendency is caused by the difference in density between the
influx fluid and the mud. The impact on surface pressure response will be more pronounced if the
influx is gas in water-based mud.
Influx migration up a closed-in well can cause excessive pressures within the wellbore if control
procedures are not implemented.
Figure 6.5 shows an example of the potential increase in bottomhole pressure caused by gas
migration.
Surface Pressure
250 psi 3 262 psi 6 304 psi
0 ft
11.7 ppg
mud
5 000 ft Top of
gas at
6 301 psi
9 950 ft
Top of
gas at
10 000 ft 6 301 psi
6 310 psi 9 322 psi 12 364 psi
12,1 ppg 17,9 ppg 23,8 ppg
Bottomhole Pressure
Bottomhole EMW (ppg)
Figure 6.5 An Example of the Increase in

Wellbore Pressure Due to Influx Migration
Influx migration does not always occur, but when it does, the rate at which the influx rises up the
hole is dependent on several variables. Experiments have shown a gas bubble will migrate up
one side of the annulus as mud falls down the opposite side. Bearing this process in mind, it is
clear that the factors predominantly affecting the rate of rise of the influx will be the following:
 The viscosity of the drilling fluid.
The more viscous the mud, the more difficult it is for the mud to fall down the annulus to allow
the influx to migrate.
 The difference in density between the mud and the influx.
The buoyancy force causes the influx to migrate.
 Any interaction between the mud and the influx fluid.
Gas and salt water can severely flocculate WBM, which may dramatically increase viscosity.
Migration will be slowed if the viscosity of the mud is increased as a result of contamination
with the influx fluid. In severe cases, migration may be completely prevented. This could lead
Page 273 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
to an erroneous conclusion that the kick is not gas. Treat any kick as if it were gas until
indicated otherwise.
Gas Migration in High-Angle or Horizontal Wells
The conventional method, which determines the influx density and type (gas, water, or oil) based
on pit gain, SIDPP and Shut-in Casing Pressure (SICP), is not applicable in a high-angle or
horizontal well. There is no simple alternative method for field applications. A gas influx can be
recognized by the continuous increase in the casing pressure due to gas migration above the
horizontal hole section.
Gas does not usually migrate if:
 The hole angle is 90 degrees or larger.
 The gas is dissolved in the non-aqueous fluid.
 The gas is trapped as small bubbles in mud by its gel strength.
6.4.4 Control of Influx Migration
There are many reasons a well that has kicked may be left shut-in for extended periods.
Procedures for relieving bottomhole pressure, if migration occurs during this period, will depend
both on the position of the drill string in the hole and whether or not the drillpipe pressure can be
used to monitor bottomhole pressure.
Control of the well using the Volumetric Method is needed. This technique validates that the
bottomhole pressure is maintained slightly above the kick zone pressure at all times. This is
accomplished by bleeding calculated volumes of mud from the annulus to allow for expansion of
the influx as it migrates up the hole.
This control procedure is simplified if the drill string is on bottom and in communication with the
annulus. The bottomhole pressure can be monitored with the drillpipe pressure gauge. Confirm
that the drillpipe pressure stays at a value above the final shut-in pressure (the value recorded
before migration started) by bleeding mud from the annulus.
If the drill string is off bottom, the bit is plugged, or there is a washout in the drill string, the
bottomhole pressure cannot be monitored with the drillpipe pressure gauge. In this event, the
annulus pressure is the only reliable guide to subsurface pressures.
The principle behind the control of the annulus is based upon the following:
An increase in annulus pressure caused by influx migration is relieved by an equivalent reduction
in the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the annulus.
If the annulus pressure rises by 100 psi, then a volume of mud corresponding to a hydrostatic
pressure in the annulus (at the top of the influx) of 100 psi is bled from the well at constant choke
pressure.
The procedure for implementing the Volumetric Method is covered in detail in Section 8 and has a
module in the GWETK.
6.5 Conventional Pressure Control Procedures
6.5.1 General
This section covers the basic steps for implementing the Driller’s Method and the Wait and
Weight Method, which are standard methods of well control, with surface BOPs. Conventional
well control procedures for subsea installations are covered in Section 9.
Both the Driller’s Method and Wait and Weight Method are standard methods of well control. All
techniques are designed to maintain constant bottomhole pressure equal to or slightly above
formation pressure. Controlling the drillpipe pressure to maintain constant bottomhole pressure is
the method used in the Driller’s Method and the Wait and Weight Method.
Page 274 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
In the event of any well control incident, a log of events is kept. The well control operations log
can initially be used for this (refer to Figure 6.4). A full report is eventually issued and submitted to
line management as per established guidelines.
The choice of kick circulation method will be based upon the specific well conditions. Well control
modeling software can be implemented to determine the advantages and limitations of both
common methods. Advantages and limitations for conventional circulation methods are shown
below.
6.5.2 Kick Circulation Methods
The Wait and Weight Method
The advantages of the Wait and Weight Method are:
 The annular surface pressure will be less than when using other methods if the kill weight
mud enters the annulus before the influx is circulated out. This difference is most important
for a kick containing gas and for underbalanced kicks.
 The pressure exerted on the casing shoe (or the weak point in the open-hole) will be lower
than using other methods if the kill mud starts up the annulus before the top of the influx is
displaced to the shoe (or open-hole weak point).
 The well will have higher pressure for a shorter period of time.
The Driller’s Method
Usually the Driller’s Method is considered the first option in place of the Wait and Weight Method.
These circumstances include:
 Not enough stock of weighting material and mud chemicals at the rig site.
 Present properties or type of mud system will not allow needed density increase.
 The rig mud weighting system is not capable of increasing the active mud weight to kill weight
as the kick is displaced.
 There is doubt as to the mud weight needed to kill the well.
 Impending bad weather dictates that the kick be displaced from the hole quickly.
 Increasing surface pressures indicate the influx is rising rapidly in the annulus.
 Uncertainty of influx source; e.g., swabbed kick, ballooning, supercharging.
 The kick results from swabbing.
There are two complete hole circulations carried out before the well can be killed when using the
Driller’s Method. After a kick is taken and the well shut-in, the kick is displaced from the hole by
the first circulation with the original mud. The mud is weighted up to kill weight, and the second
circulation carried out to kill the well. There are times when more than two circulations are needed
to get all the gas out of the hole and to stabilize and level out the new mud system.
The advantages of the Driller’s Method over the Wait and Weight Method are:
 The kick can be displaced from the hole soon after the well is shut-in.
 Influx fluids can be displaced from the well, even if mud weighting material is not available.
 Avoidance of the need to initiate a volumetric control during the waiting period for gas
migration.
6.5.3 Kill Sheet
The kill sheet is used to assist in recording well and kick data relevant to the remediation. For
reference purposes, the calculations shown in the manual are in psi, ppg, ft, and bbl.
The general well data, drill string-hole annulus contents, circulating times, and the mud pump
data are recorded and available at all times in the kill sheet.
Page 275 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 6.6 Example of Completed Kill Sheet

In case a kick is taken, the data is recorded in the kill sheet. The shut-in procedure and the
interpretation of the pressure data were previously discussed. A decision is made regarding what
method is used to kill the well based on kick data. In addition to the conventional well control
methods that have been described in the previous sections, there are some special techniques
discussed in Section 8.
Page 276 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
If the decision is made to displace the kick from the hole by using one of the conventional well
control methods, the parameters required for the well control operation are calculated and
recorded in the kill sheet.
6.5.4 Determine the Density of the Kill Weight Mud
Circulation may be initiated with the original weight mud, or with the kill weight mud, depending
on the kill method to be used.
The weight of the mud that would exactly balance the kick zone pressure is calculated from the
SIDPP as follows:
Kill Mud Weight, MW2:
Pdp
MW2  MW1  (Equation 6-1)
TVD x 0,052
Where:
TVD = true vertical depth of kick zone (ft)
Example:
Calculate Kill Mud Weight, MW 2 (ppg):
Where:
Pdp = 400 psi
MW 1 = 9,8 ppg
TVD = 9 670 ft
Pdp
MW2  MW1 
TVD x 0,052
400
MW2  9,8   10,595 ppg (Roundedup to 10,6 ppg)
9 670 x 0,052
The mud is not weighted up beyond the kill weight during the well killing operation.
The mud weight is always rounded up and not rounded down. In the above example, the mud
weight is rounded up to 10,6 ppg since the mud balance can only read to the nearest 0,1 ppg.
After the well has been killed, the mud weight is raised to provide an overbalance (with trip
margin).
6.5.5 Calculate Quantity of Barite Required to Weight Up the Mud
This calculation is needed to determine if enough stocks of barite are available on site. The
amount of barite required to weight up the mud can be calculated from the following formula:
Barite required:
MW2  MW1
W b  1 470 x (Equation 6-2)
35  MW2
Total quantity of barite required (lb) = Wb x Total Active Mud Volume (lb)
Total active mud volume = Drill string Vol + Annulus Vol + Surface Active Vol (bbl)
Page 277 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Example:
Calculate Barite Required, W b (lb/bbl):
Where:
MW 1 = 9,8 ppg
MW 2 = 10,6 ppg
Barite = 1 470 lb/bbl (14,7 sacks/bbl)
100 lbs of barite = 1 sack
MW2  MW1 10,6  9,8
W b  1 470 x (lb / bbl)  1 470 x  48,2 lb / bbl
35  MW2 35  10,6
6.5.6 Develop Annulus Pressure Profile

It is useful to estimate the maximum pressures that will occur during circulation. The areas of
particular importance are the maximum pressure that will be exerted at the shoe (or open-hole
weak point) and the maximum surface pressure. This information can be used to determine if the
well can be successfully killed using a conventional method.
6.6 Implementation of the Wait and Weight Method
The Wait and Weight Method accomplishes the kill operation in one complete circulation. The
mud is weighted up after the well is shut-in, followed by circulation with the kill weight mud.
Besides calculating the kill mud weight and barite, several other calculations are needed prior to
initiating circulation. The following sections describe these calculations.
6.6.1 Determine the Circulation Rate
The upper limit for the circulation rate is generally set by the maximum rate at which barite can be
mixed into the mud. The following formula can be used to estimate the maximum achievable
circulation rate:
Barite delivery rate (lbs / min)
Maximumcirculation rate  (bbls/ min) (Equation 6-3)
Barite required to weigh up mud (lbs / bbl)
A limiting factor, particularly in the case of oil mud or NAFs, may be the rate at which viscosity
can be built in the mud. This, and associated challenges of building mud weight, are discussed in
Section 8.
Having established the maximum circulation rate, the actual circulation rate will be determined on
the basis of several factors. These factors are detailed in Slow Circulating Rates (refer to Section
6.2.3). The chosen SCR and the corresponding pumping data are recorded in the kick sheet
(refer to Figure 6.6).
6.6.2 Calculate the Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP)
The ICP of the drillpipe is calculated in order to estimate the circulating pressure that is needed to
maintain constant bottomhole pressure at the start of the circulation.
The ICP recorded after the pump has been brought up to speed is the sum of the Pdp and the
SCR pressure at the chosen rate:
ICP = Pdp + Pscr (Equation 6-4)
Where:
Page 278 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Pscr = circulating pressure at SCR with MW 1 (psi)

Example:
Calculate ICP (psi):
Where:
Pdp = 400 psi
Pscr = 310 psi (with MW 1)
ICP = Pdp + Pscr = 400 + 310 = 710 psi
6.6.3 Calculate the Final Circulating Pressure (FCP)
As the drillpipe is displaced with kill weight mud, drillpipe pressure will come down as a result of
increasing the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the pipe. The drillpipe pressure also needs to
compensate for the additional friction pressure in the drillpipe and across the bit as the kill weight
mud displaces the original mud.
Once the drillpipe has been completely displaced to kill weight mud, the static drillpipe pressure
needed to balance the kick zone will be zero. At this stage, the circulating pressure can be
estimated by determining the SCR pressure for the kill weight mud. The circulating pressure or
friction pressure is proportional, based on the formula, to the mud weight. By multiplying the SCR
by a ratio of the mud weights, the pressure is adjusted for the increase in mud weight.
The FCP is estimated by:
MW2
FCP  Pscr (at MW1) x (Equation 6-5)
MW1
Where:
Example:
Calculate FCP (psi):
Where:
MW 2 = 10,6 ppg
MW 1 = 9,8 ppg
Pscr = 310 psi at MW 1
MW2 10,6
FCP  Pscr (at MW1) x  310 x  335 psi
MW1 9,8
6.6.4 Determine Displacement Times and the Corresponding Pump Strokes
At all times during circulation, observations and calculations are performed in order to know the
position of the influx in the wellbore, as well as the volume of hole that has been circulated to kill
weight mud.
The key points during the circulation are:
 When the kill weight mud reaches the bit.
 When the top of the influx is circulated to the casing shoe or open-hole weak point.
 When the influx is circulated to the choke.
Before circulation is started, the estimated circulating time and the corresponding total pump
strokes to each point are calculated.
Page 279 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Volume to be displaced(bbl)
Pumpingtime to reach point of interest  (min) (Equation 6-6)
Pump rate (bbl/min)
Volumeto be displaced(bbl)
Total strokes to reach point of interest  (stk) (Equation 6-7)
Pump output per stroke (bbl/stk)
6.6.5 Plot Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
To confirm that the drillpipe pressure is adjusted correctly as the kill weight mud is circulated
down the drillpipe, a schedule is made of the needed drillpipe pressure (refer to Figure 6.7).
The ICP is plotted corresponding to zero strokes, and the FCP is plotted corresponding to total
strokes to complete displacement of the drillpipe and BHA. The two points on the graph are
joined up with a straight line to produce the drillpipe pressure schedule.
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE SCHEDULE

DRILLPIPE PRESSURE (psi)
Figure 6.7 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule

Note: For high-angle or horizontal wells, the graph is not a straight line.
In practice, drillpipe pressure is more manageable when reducing the pressure in small
increments while the kill-weight mud enters the drillstring rather than continuously during
drillstring displacement.
6.6.6 Procedure for Displacement of the Kick
(1) Bring the pump up to kill speed:
(a) Line up the pump to the drillpipe and route returns through the choke manifold to
MGS.
(b) Open the remote operated choke at the same time as the pump is started.
(c)Start pumping down the drillpipe. Maintain the choke pressure equal to the original SICP
as the pump is slowly brought up to speed. This may take 30 s to 1 min.
(c) Zero the stroke counter on the choke panel when kill mud reaches the rig floor.
Page 280 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(d) Once the pump is up to speed, record the ICP.

If the actual ICP is considerably different from the calculated value, stop the pump,
shut-in the well, and investigate the cause.
If the actual ICP is equal to, or reasonably close to the calculated value, continue the
displacement and adjust the drillpipe pressure schedule accordingly.
Any marginal difference between the actual and calculated ICP is most likely due to
the SCR pressure used to calculate the ICP being inaccurate. The actual SCR
pressure and the corrected slow circulating pressure can be determined from the ICP
as follows:
Pscr = ICP – Pdp (Equation 6-8)
Where;
Pdp = shut-in drillpipe pressure, psi
Pscr = adjusted slow circulating rate, psi
ICP = Initial Slow Circulating Rate, psi
The drillpipe pressure schedule can be corrected to take into account the adjusted circulating
pressures.
(2) Circulate the influx from the well, maintaining constant bottomhole pressure.
As the drillpipe is displaced with kill weight mud, the drillpipe pressure is stepped down according
to the drillpipe pressure schedule. (The drillpipe pressure will have a natural tendency to drop as
the kill weight mud is displaced down the drillpipe.)
Once the drillpipe has been displaced to kill weight mud, the drillpipe pressure is maintained at
the FCP for the rest of the circulation.
The pit gain, drillpipe pressure, choke pressure, and all other information is recorded during
displacement using the well control operations log (refer to Figure 6.4). These will help to
determine the down-hole condition during all stages of the kill operation.
As the influx is displaced up the hole, the drillpipe pressure will tend to drop as the influx
expands. This expansion will be negligible if the influx is water or low Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) oil.
This effect will be especially marked if the influx contains a large quantity of gas. The choke is
adjusted to compensate for this. For example, if the drillpipe pressure drops by 70 psi below what
is needed, the choke pressure increases by approximately 70 psi. The pressure on the drillpipe
will increase after a lag time, which can typically be 2 s per 1 000 ft of drill string depth. This
technique is most effective at the early stages of displacement and less so at later stages of the
displacement, if the well contains a large proportion of gas.
When the influx reaches the choke, the choke pressure will start to decrease due to the
differences in density and viscosity between the influx and the mud. If the influx contains large
quantities of gas, the drop in choke pressure may be quite substantial, and the choke will have to
be closed down quickly.
As the influx is circulated from the well and mud is circulated through the choke, the choke
pressure will begin to rise rapidly. The choke is opened to allow the choke pressure to drop
enough to re-establish the FCP on the drillpipe which will maintain constant bottom hole pressure.
Once the hole has been circulated to kill weight mud, the pump is stopped, the well shut-in, and
the casing and drillpipe checked for pressure. There will be no pressure on either the casing or
the drillpipe if all the influx and all contamination have been removed. If there is still some
pressure on the casing, circulation may be restarted to clear the contaminated mud from the
annulus.
Page 281 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Once the well has been completely killed, a flow check on the choke line return needs to be
carried out before the BOP is opened.
An overbalance (trip margin) may be added to the mud during a second circulation.
6.7 Implementation of the Driller’s Method
Prior to implementing the Driller’s Method, the relevant sections of the kick sheet are completed
(see the GWETK).
The Driller’s Method is a two complete circulation method. The kick is circulated out of the hole by
the first circulation with the original mud. The second circulation is carried out with the weighted
mud to kill the well.
Prior to the first circulation, the following calculations are needed:
6.7.1 Determine the Circulation Rate
The circulation rate for the first circulation of the Driller’s Method is not limited by the barite mixing
capacity of the rig. Limiting factors will include the additional wellbore pressures due to
circulation, as outlined in Slow Circulating Rates (refer to Section 6.2.3). Record the chosen
circulating rate SCR and the corresponding pumping data in the kick sheet.
6.7.2 Calculate the Initial Circulating Pressure
The ICP at the start of the first circulation is calculated in the same manner as the Wait and
Weight Method, although the drill string displacement volume and time is not important in this
case.
The ICP recorded after the pump has been brought up to speed is the sum of the Pdp and the
SCR pressure at the chosen rate:
ICP = Pdp + Pscr (psi)
Where:
Pscr = circulating pressure at SCR with MW 1 (psi)
The ICP will be maintained constant throughout the first circulation since the mud weight is not
changed.
6.7.3 Determine the Displacement Times and Corresponding Pump Strokes
These figures are calculated in exactly the same manner as the Wait and Weight Method.
Before circulation is started, the estimated circulating time and the corresponding total pump
strokes to each point are calculated.
Volume to be displaced(bbl)
Pumpingtime to reach point of interest  (min) (Equation 6-9)
Pump rate (bbl/min)
Volumeto be displaced(bbl)
Total strokes to reach point of interest  (stk) (Equation 6-10)
Pump output per stroke (bbl/stk)
The drillpipe pressure is held constant throughout the first complete circulation at the ICP.
Page 282 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
6.7.4 Displacement of the Kick - Driller’s Method

The following steps are used as a guide for the procedure for the displacement of the kick:
(1) Bring the pump up to speed for the first complete circulation:
(a) Line up the pump to the drillpipe and route returns through the choke manifold to the
mud gas separator.
(b) Set the stroke counter on the remote choke panel to zero.
(c) Open the remotely operated choke at the same time as the pump is slowly brought
up to speed
(d) Maintain the choke pressure equal to the original SICP as the pump is slowly brought
up to speed. This may take 30 s to 1 min.
(e) Once the pump is up to speed, record the ICP. If the actual ICP is considerably
different from the calculated value, stop the pump, shut-in the well and investigate
the cause.
If the actual ICP is equal to, or reasonably close to, the calculated value, continue the
displacement, holding the drillpipe pressure at the value recorded when the pump
was first brought up to speed.
Any marginal difference between the actual and calculated ICP is most likely to be
due to the fact the SCR pressure used to calculate the ICP was inaccurate. The
actual SCR pressure can be determined from the ICP as follows:
Pscr = ICP – Pdp (psi)
Where
Pscr = Slow Circulating Rate, psi
ICP = Initial Circulating Pressure, psi
Pdp = Shut-in Drillpipe Pressure, psi
This adjusted value for the SCR pressure is used for estimating the circulating
pressures for the second complete circulation.
(2) Circulate the influx from the well maintaining constant bottomhole pressure.
Influx behaviour during circulation will be similar to the Wait and Weight Method needing similar
choke manipulation.
Choke pressures will be greater than if the Wait and Weight Method had been used. These
pressures will be reflected down-hole, causing greater stress in the open-hole.
Once the influx has been displaced from the hole, the shut-in drillpipe and SICP needs to be
equal. If the casing pressure is greater than the drillpipe pressure, this is evidence there is still
some kick fluid in the annulus, or the mud weights are out of balance.
Prior to circulating kill weight mud into the hole, make the following calculations.
6.7.5 Determine Circulation Rate for the Second Circulation
The circulation rate is determined on the same basis as if the Wait and Weight Method had been
used.
Page 283 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
6.7.6 Calculate Initial Circulating Pressure

The ICP will be the same as for the first circulation, and is calculated as follows:
ICP = Pdp + Pscr (psi)
Where:
ICP = second circulation initial circulating pressure (psi)
Pdp = drillpipe pressure recorded prior to second circulation (psi)
Pscr = slow circulating rate pressure (psi)
6.7.7 Calculate the Final Circulating Pressure
As with the Wait and Weight Method, the circulating pressure needs to be adjusted to
compensate for the kill weight mud.
MW2
FCP  Pscr (at MW1) x
MW1
Where:
FCP = second circulation final circulating pressure (psi)
MW 2 = kill mud weight used for second circulation (ppg)
6.7.8 Determine Displacement Times and Corresponding Cumulative Pump Strokes
These calculations will be the same as for the first circulation.(see Section 6.7.3 for more
information)
6.7.9 Plot Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
The drillpipe pressure schedule for the second circulation is drawn up in the same manner as for
the Wait and Weight Method (refer to Figure 6.7).
6.7.10 Killing the Well- Driller’s Method
The following is a guide for the procedure of circulating the hole to kill weight mud:
(1) Bring the pump up to speed for the second complete circulation:
(a) Change pump suctions without stopping the mud pump, and begin pumping the kill
weight mud. (An alternative is to stop pumping and then restart using the procedure
for the Wait and Weight Method.)
(b) Once the pump has been switched to the kill mud, record the ICP.
The ICP should be the same as the drillpipe pressure during the first complete
circulation. If this is the case, continue the displacement and adjust the drillpipe
pressure schedule accordingly.
If the ICP has changed considerably, stop the pump, shut-in the well, and investigate
the cause.
(c) Zero the stroke counter on the choke panel when the kill weight mud has reached the
rig floor.
(2) Circulate the hole to kill weight mud, maintaining constant bottomhole pressure.
As the drillpipe is displaced with kill weight mud, the drillpipe circulating pressure is stepped
down according to the drillpipe pressure schedule.
Page 284 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Once the drillpipe has been displaced to kill weight mud, the final drillpipe circulating
pressure is held constant by manipulating the choke.
As kill weight mud is circulated up the annulus, the drillpipe pressure will decrease when
the kill weight mud reaches the surface without choke adjustments. The choke is adjusted
to maintain FCP which will keep bottomhole pressure constant.
When the returned mud is at kill weight, the pump is stopped, the well shut-in then checked
for pressure.
Once the well has been killed, a flow check on the choke line return is carried out before
the BOPs are opened.
An overbalance (trip margin) can be added to the mud during a third circulation, if needed.
6.8 Procedures for High-Angle or Horizontal Wells
6.8.1 Kick Prevention and Detection
All techniques used in vertical wells for avoiding and detecting kicks can be applied to high-angle
or horizontal wells.
The swab and surge pressure is relatively larger in a high-angle or horizontal well. To prevent
swabbed kicks, confirm:
 The mud rheology is conditioned prior to tripping out.
 The tripping speed is controlled below the maximum allowable speed.
 The correct tripping procedures are followed.
The ECD is typically larger when drilling a high-angle well.
This means a greater bottomhole pressure reduction when circulation stops. Flow check the well
prior to making a connection or tripping, to confirm the well is stable without the ECD effect.
6.8.2 Well Shut-in
When a kick occurs in a high-angle or horizontal hole section, the drillpipe pressure (Pdp) will be
close or equal to the casing pressure (Pa) when the well is shut-in. This is because the influx only
causes a negligible hydrostatic pressure reduction in the annulus.
Zero shut-in pressures (Pdp and Pa) do not mean there is no influx. Together with a positive pit
gain, this may indicate the influx is still in the horizontal hole section. This may be caused by
swabbing or incorrect hole fillup on trips.
6.8.3 Implementation of Kick Circulation Methods
The procedures for implementing one of the conventional kick circulation methods are essentially
the same for both the vertical and high-angle or horizontal wells (as covered in the previous
sections). The Wait and Weight method has fewer advantages over the Driller’s Method in a high-
angle or horizontal well. This is because the weighted mud will not reduce the surface and casing
shoe pressures until it has passed the horizontal or high-angle section. By then, the kick may
have entered into the casing.
6.8.4 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
When pumping the kill mud through the drillpipe in a vertical well, the surface pump pressure is
reduced linearly from the ICP to the FCP, in order to maintain the bottomhole pressure constant.
After the FCP is reached, the pump pressure is kept constant at the FCP until the kill mud returns
to surface. The pressure schedule while pumping the kill mud through the drillpipe can be
obtained by simply joining a straight line between ICP and FCP. This is covered in Plot Drillpipe
Pressure Schedule (refer to Section 6.6.5).
Page 285 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
This is not the case in a high-angle or horizontal well because the change in the hydrostatic
pressure due to the kill mud is not linear. When the front of the kill mud is going through a
horizontal section of the drillpipe, the hydrostatic pressure at the hole bottom does not change at
all. In this case, the pump pressure is kept constant (or increased slightly due to friction pressure
increase with kill mud).
The drillpipe pressure schedule may be modified to take into account the effect of hole angle. To
achieve this, the drillpipe pressures are calculated for when the kill mud reaches several critical
depths in the drillpipe. These include, for example., the depths at the kick-off, end-build, and end-
tangent. The calculations can be performed as follows:
(1) Calculate the drillpipe size factor ( ) and the friction constant ().
L1
1  2
(Equation 6-11)
ID1
Where:
1
2
= size factor for Drillpipe Section 1 (ft/in )
L1 = length of drillpipe Section 1 (ft)
ID1 = ID of drillpipe Section 1 (inch)
If there is more than one drillpipe section (tapered string), then the size factor is calculated for
each of the sections. BHA can be treated as part of the drillpipe section.
FCP  Pscr
 (Equation 6-12)
1   2
Where:

2
1, 2 =
2
drillpipe size factors for Sections 1 and 2 (ft/in )
Pscr = slow circulating pressure with original mud MW1 (psi)
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the critical
If the critical depth is above and/or at the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD
friction   (Equation 6-13)
ID1 2
Where:
MD = measured depth at the critical depth (ft)
If the critical depth is below the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
 ( MD  L1 ) 
Pfriction   x 1   (Equation 6-14)
 ID 2 2 
Where:
Pfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
Page 286 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

(3) Calculate the static drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the critical
depths:
 TVD 
Pstatic  Pdp x 1.0   (Equation 6-15)
 TVDh 
Where:
Pdp = drillpipe pressure before the kill weight mud is circulated (psi)
TVD = vertical depth at the critical depth (ft)
TVDh = vertical depth at the open-hole kick zone (ft)
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the critical
depths.
Pstand = Pscr + Pfriction + Pstatic (psi) (Equation 6-16)
Where:
Pstand = drillpipe pressure (psi)
Example:
(1) Calculate drillpipe size factors (1 and 2) and the friction constant ().
Where:
L1 = 9 100 ft
ID1 = 4,276 in
FCP = 335 psi
PSCR = 310 psi
L2 = 380 ft
ID2 = 2,875 in
L1 9 100
1  2
  498 ft / in2
ID1 4,2762
L2 370
2  2
 2
 45 ft / in2
ID 2 2,875
FCP  Pscr 335  310 25

    0,04604 (psi in2 / ft)
1   2 498  45 543
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the critical
Where:
L1 = 9 100 ft
ID1 = 4,276 in
Page 287 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
ID2 = 2,875 in
If the critical depth is above/at the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD = 9 100 ft
MD 9 100
 0,04604 x  23 psi
ID1 4,2762
If the critical depth is below the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD = 9 500 ft
 ( MD  L1 ) 
Pfriction   x 1  
 ID 2 2 
 ( 9 500  9 100 ) 
Pfriction  0 ,04604 x 498    25 psi
 2 ,8752 
Where:
Pfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
(3) Calculate the static drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the critical
depths:
Where:
Pdp = 400 psi
TVD = 9 100 ft
TVDh = 9 670 ft
 TVD   9 100 
Pstatic  Pdp x 1.0    400 x 1.0    23,6 psi
 TVDh   9 670 
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the critical
depths.
Pstand = Pscr + ΔPfriction + Pstatic
Pstand = 310 + 25 + 23,6 = 358,6 psi
The results of the above calculations are recorded on the kill sheet (refer to Figure 6.6). These
calculations are carried out if the hole has a maximum angle greater than 30 degrees. Figure 6.6
shows an example of a completed kill sheet for a vertical well.
Figure 6.7 shows the drillpipe pressure schedule for pumping down the kill weight mud. It shows
the drillpipe pressures needed to maintain a constant bottomhole pressure are lower for a high-
angle well (with build-hold profile) than if the well was vertical. If the drillpipe pressure schedule
for a vertical well was used (dotted straight line in Figure 6.7), excessive well pressures would
result, which would increase the risk of fracturing the formation at the casing shoe or open-hole
weak point.
6.8.5 Trapped Gas in Inverted or Horizontal Hole Section
If a kick containing free gas occurs in an inverted hole section (i.e., the hole angle is greater than
90 degrees), then the free gas will be trapped there unless the mud is circulated fast enough to
Page 288 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
flush the gas out of the inverted section. Similar scenarios also occur in washouts or undulations
of a horizontal hole section.
A combination of the following is an indication that a kick has occurred in the inverted or
horizontal hole section:
 There is an increased mud return flow rate.
 There is a positive pit gain.
 When the well is shut-in, the drillpipe and casing pressures are the same (under-balanced
kick) or both are zero (swabbed kick).
 The casing pressure is stable (no gas migration).
The influx density and type (gas, water, or oil) cannot be determined based on the above data. A
gas kick will be recognized when it reaches a low-angle or vertical hole section, since gas
expansion will cause a continuous increase in the casing pressure. The first attempt to kill the
well needs to be using one of the conventional techniques.
6.8.6 Free Gas Kicks in Inverted (greater than 90 degrees) Hole Section
 Planning operations for highly deviated hole sections will typically involve advanced flow
analysis. Such analysis is assisted by advanced computer programming and BP has software
which aids this effort.
 Free gas may remain trapped in the horizontal hole unless the annular mud velocity exceeds
roughly 100 ft/min, which is greater than common SCRs used during well killing operations.
Special well killing techniques may have to be considered.
 The trapped gas may be flushed out by gradually increasing the SCR to a corresponding
annular velocity of around 100 to 150 ft/min for a short period of time (a typical volume would
be 1/4 of bottom-up). Rate is then reduced to a regular SCR and mud is circulated using a
standard well killing technique (Driller’s or Wait and Weight). Depending on the kick volume
and the length of the hole section, the procedures may need to be repeated in order to
remove the trapped gas completely. Prior to drilling the hole section, the pump pressure at a
SCR corresponding to 100 to 150 ft/min are recorded.
 If the above technique fails to remove the trapped gas, consider bullheading the gas back
into the formation. As the trapped gas nears the kicking formation, bullheading is more likely
to succeed in an inverted hole section.
6.9 Blind Drilling Operations
Well control while blind drilling (drilling without returns to the surface, sometimes with a floating
mud cap) is a non-routine operation which requires extensive pre-planning and approval. Some of
the primary indications of a well kick are not available. An increase in flow rate from the well
cannot be observed if no fluid is returning to the surface. Since there is no flow, an increase in pit
volume will not be noticed. An increase in penetration rate and change in pump pressure are the
only two warning signs immediately observable.
6.9.1 Potential Well Control Situations While Blind Drilling
The assumption is that blind drilling will not be employed unless the well is under control before
starting the blind drilling operations. One of the causes of a kick or blowout is lost circulation. With
lost circulation, the fluid level can fall in the wellbore. The reduced hydrostatic pressure could
allow another zone to kick. If lost circulation occurs, the well is observed long enough to confirm
that a kick has not entered the wellbore before starting blind drilling operations.
Even if the well has not kicked after the initial lost circulation, continued drilling without returns to
the surface could lead to a kick. There are two possibilities for a kick. The first is a kick from a
formation deeper than the lost circulation zone. As drilling continues, the formation pressure can
increase. The increased formation pressure combined with the loss of hydrostatic pressure to the
Page 289 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
lost circulation zone could lead to a kick from a deeper formation. The second possibility is a kick
from a formation above the lost circulation zone. If the formation pressure continues to decrease
as the well gets deeper, the fluid level can fall even farther in the well. The increased loss of
hydrostatic pressure could lead to a formation above the lost zone kicking.
If a well kicks while blind drilling, conventional well control techniques (such as the Driller’s
Method, the Wait and Weight Method and the volumetric method) will not work. In blind drilling,
lost circulation is already a challenge and conventional well control procedures do not work with
lost circulation. Well control will be much more challenging.
6.9.2 Precautions While Blind Drilling
There are a number of precautions that can be taken while drilling blind in order to mitigate any
potential well control challenges. They are:
 When drilling blind, the rig will go through large quantities of drilling fluid. A large enough
supply of drilling fluid to allow circulating for several hours if needed. Typically the drilling fluid
is water since it is challenging to mix mud fast enough to drill with mud.
 Redundant pumping capabilities.
The drilling fluid will need to be moved to the rig via a pump. If a well control challenge arises,
pumping fluid into the wellbore may be required. The reliability of the transfer pumps is
therefore crucial.
 Hard Shut-in.
Review and prepare for a hard shut-in. If the well begins to flow, shut it in quickly.
 Minimise Downtime.
Time required for connections and any other downtime are minimised. While circulating, fluid
will be entering the lost circulation zone. Usually a pressure differential is needed to pump
fluid into the permeability of the formation. In blind drilling, pressure differential may be small,
but any additional pressure in the wellbore may help keep the well under control.
 Monitor Returns.
Continue monitoring for return of circulation. The assumption in blind drilling is the lost
circulation zone will not plug easily; otherwise, alternative methods of controlling the lost
circulation would have been used. Lost circulation challenges can change from well to well in
the same field. Even though the assumption is made that the lost circulation zone may be
challenging to control, the cuttings from drilling may plug the lost circulation zone and the well
will start circulating to the surface again. It also may be that another zone has kicked and the
reduction in hydrostatic pressure has caused the well to start flowing to the surface. If
circulation returns, the well is observed closely to determine if a kick has entered the
wellbore.
6.9.3 Indications of a Well Kick While Blind Drilling
All the indications of a well kick are not necessarily observed in a well that is being drilled blind
(no returns to the surface). The indications of a kick are:
 Change, usually an increase, in penetration rate. An increase in drilling rate due to drilling
a formation with porosity and permeability may still be an indication of a kick. In some cases,
there may actually be a reduction in penetration rate when the formation changes.
 Increase in flow rate. An increase in flow rate will not be observed since there are no returns
to the surface.
 Increase in pit volume. Since there are no returns to the surface, an increase in pit volume
will not be observed.
 Change in pump pressure. If a formation kicks and the density of the fluid in the annulus
changes, a reduction in drillpipe pressure can still be observed.
Page 290 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Gas, oil, or water cut mud. There will be no gas, oil, or water cut mud to the surface without
returns.
 Change in drill string weight. A change in the string weight may be observed. The well may
be flowing to the surface before a decrease in string weight is noticed. If the pressure in the
well is reduced due to the introduction of a lighter fluid, then the weight of the string may
increase. The reduced pressure in the well may cause the well to start flowing first.
 Regain circulation. Resumption of circulation is the primary indication of a kick. Flow can
resume for two reasons. First, if the lost circulation zone has been plugged, then flow can
return to the surface. Second, an influx of oil or gas has caused a reduction in hydrostatic
pressure and the fluid flows to the surface rather than to the lost circulation zone. A
resumption of flow to the surface is a matter to be taken very seriously.
Monitoring the well continuously for flow to the surface using both a flow sensor and PVT
equipment is essential. If flow is observed, stop drilling, space out, and shut off the pump If the
well is still flowing, immediately shut the well in using the hard shut-in method. Record the shut-in
pressures. The situation will have to be evaluated to determine the best option for well control.
If the kick zone is above the lost circulation zone, the classic response is to fix the lost circulation
zone or bridge the annulus first and then try to kill the kick zone. It is likely not achievable to get
enough hydrostatic pressure to kill the well without losing the fluid to the lost circulation zone.
If the lost circulation zone is above the kick zone, the kick zone is killed first with heavy mud
between the kick zone and the lost circulation zone. The pressure in the loss zone plus the
hydrostatic pressure from the loss zone to the kick zone must be equal to or greater than the
pressure in the kick zone. Determining the pressure in the kick zone will be challenging and will
probably need to be estimated.
6.9.4 Well Kick While Tripping During Blind Drilling Operations
During blind drilling operations there are no returns at surface for well monitoring purposes. This
is true for tripping operations as the standard trip monitoring practices will not be possible. To
compensate for this, the well is filled with a greater volume of fluid than the steel displacement
removed. The purpose of this is to maintain the annulus fluid height and reduce the risk of losing
the hydrostatic column. Unlike in a conventional trip situation, the hole needs to be filled
continuously rather than having the option of filling the hole each 5 stands of drillpipe or 75 psi of
hydrostatic reduction (whichever occurs first).
If returns are noticed at surface this is an indicator of a kick. The well is shut-in using the hard
shut-in procedures while tripping. If the surface pressures allow, the drillpipe is stripped back to
bottom. In cases where surface pressures exceed values considered safe for stripping, kill mud is
pumped down the kill line to reduce the casing pressure and allow stripping.
Page 291 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
7 Well Control Procedures While Tripping

7.1 Introduction
Well control incidents occur more frequently while tripping than while drilling. Typically, the wells
involved in these well control incidents were under control when the trip commenced. During the
trip a reduction of effective hydrostatic pressure may have created an underbalanced condition
and resulted in an influx.
Factors that potentially reduce the effective hydrostatic pressure in the annulus are:
 Reducing the pump rate or shutting down the pumps will decrease or remove the ECD.
 Pulling pipe faster than the mud can fall past the BHA will create and upward swab effect.
 Improper hole fill or failure to fill the hole as pipe is pulled will reduce the height of the mud
column.
The procedures for dealing with an influx when the pipe is off bottom, are more challenging than
when the pipe is on bottom. To prevent off bottom well control events, the well is determined to
be stable by performing a flow check prior to starting the trip, by monitoring the well throughout
the trip and by following tripping procedures.
7.2 Trip Procedures
7.2.1 Trip Tanks and Trip Sheets
An influx during a trip can be avoided by maintaining hydrostatic overbalance during a trip. As the
drill string is removed from the hole, the volume of the drill string displacement is replaced or the
fluid level will drop. If the fluid level is allowed to drop, there will be a corresponding drop in
hydrostatic pressure. This loss in hydrostatic pressure may allow a kick to occur. In order to
maintain full hydrostatic pressure during the trip, a volume of mud is added to the hole which is
equivalent to the volume of the steel in the drill string which has been removed.
Without the capability to fill the hole continuously, a volume of steel is removed and the tripping
operation is interrupted while the equivalent volume of mud is pumped into the well. Typically, the
hole will be filled until it is visually determined to be full. The volume of mud pumped is then
compared to the calculated volume of the steel removed to determine that the hole remains in a
stable condition.
In order for the hole to be filled properly and the Trip Sheet to be completed accurately, the drill
string is slugged to enable pulling dry pipe. It is very difficult to correctly determine the volume of
mud used to fill the hole if the string is pulled wet. A slug is a calculated volume of heavy mud that
is pumped prior to initiating the trip to avoid pulling a wet string. It is not uncommon to pull a few
wet stands in order to gauge hole conditions before pumping the slug. Even when pulling wet, the
trip is monitored. If the volume from the mud bucket is sent to the trip tank, displacements will be
the same as tripping after pumping a slug. It is not unusual to lose some of the mud from the mud
bucket onto the rig floor. This volume of mud is estimated for the purpose of monitoring the well. If
the volume from the mud bucket is not sent to the trip tank, then the displacement would be
calculated based on the outside diameter of the pipe. The following formula can be used to
calculate the volume of slug necessary to confirm a length of dry pipe:
Page 292 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
MW x L x Cp
Vsl  (Equation 7-1)
(MWsl  MW)
Where:
Vsl = volume of slug (bbl)
L = length of dry pipe (ft)
Cp = internal capacity of the pipe (bbl/ft)
MW sl = slug weight (ppg)
MW = mud weight in the hole (ppg)
Example:
Calculate the volume of slug with the following data:
Where:
L = 500 (ft)
Cp = 0,05156 (bbl/ft)
MW sl = 12,0 (ppg)
MW = 9,8 (ppg)
MW x L x Cp 9,8 x 500 x 0,05156
Vsl    115 bbl
(MWsl  MW) 12,0  9,8
Page 293 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 7.1 Typical Offshore Trip Tank

A typical trip tank is shown in Figure 7.1. With this arrangement, the trip tank pump can
continuously fill the hole. The fact that the hole remains full does not necessarily indicate that no
hydrostatic pressure has been lost. The hole is filled with a volume of mud calculated to be equal
to or greater than the volume of the steel removed. To monitor trips, a Trip Sheet is used to
facilitate documenting and comparing the actual versus the theoretical volumes of fluid added
when tripping out of the hole and the volumes displaced when tripping in the hole.
Figure 7.2 shows a completed example of the BP Trip Sheet. This Trip Sheet may be used if the
contractor cannot provide a similar sheet. The Trip Sheet provides a method of comparing
Page 294 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
calculated with actual hole fill volumes. The cumulative discrepancy between the two values is
also recorded. The Trip Sheet for the last trip out of the hole is referenced for comparison.
7.2.2 Trip Preparations
Prior to beginning the trip, checks are made to determine that the tripping equipment is available
and configured for the trip. From a well control perspective, this includes an full open safety valve
(FOSV) and a safety valve (e.g., Install an Inside BOP (IBOP). These two valves are equipped
with crossovers of the correct I.D. and strength to enable installation to any tubular connection in
the string (e.g. drill collars). The safety valve is typically used in the event that the full opening
drillpipe valve does not hold pressure or if stripping in the hole is likely and a dart sub was not run
in the string.
Well control drills are conducted to increase rig crew competency when responding to a kick.
Tripping-specific, well control drills can be performed to simulate a kick while tripping and provide
the rig crew with training and experience concerning shutting-in a kick that is taken during a trip.
Refer to Section 8.3.1 of this manual for guidelines for conducting a Well Control Tripping Drill.
7.3 Kick Detection while Tripping
Note: Refer to Section 10, ‘Fingerprinting and Well Monitoring’
7.3.1 Causes of a Kick while Tripping
The trip is monitored on a Trip Sheet to determine that the well condition remains stable. If the
calculated quantity of mud is not being used to fill the hole as the pipe is being pulled, the trip is
stopped in order to determine the reason and appropriate action going forward.
As outlined in Section 6, kick detection is the most critical aspect in well control. A small kick is
easier to control than a large kick. A kick while tripping is caused by one of the following:
 Failure to keep the hole full.
 Swabbing and/or surging.
The focus for kick detection centers on these two causes.
7.3.2 Indications of a Kick while Tripping
If the trip procedures are followed, an influx will be readily detected. As the drill string is pulled
from the hole, the Trip Sheet is completed and the actual volumes are compared to the
theoretical volumes. It is not unusual for the actual volume of mud (to fill the hole) to vary from the
theoretical volume. Generally, the actual volume to fill the well will be greater than the theoretical
volume. In addition to comparing these volumes, it is helpful to compare trends noted from
previous trips into or out of the same hole section. (See Figure 7.2 BP Trip Sheet - Example of a
Completed Sheet)
With these considerations, the first indication of a kick will be an anomaly in the Trip Sheet such
as:
 A discrepancy in the volume of mud used to fill the hole as the drill string is removed.
 A discrepancy in the volume of mud displaced as the drillstring is run into the hole.
 Well flowing without moving pipe or pumping.
Page 295 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 7.2 BP Trip Sheet - Example of a Completed Sheet
Page 296 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
7.4 Example Shut-in Procedures while Tripping

If there is any indication that the well is not static at any time:
 The trip is stopped and the trip tank pump is shut down (if in use).
 Flow is checked.
 Gains and losses are checked.
 Refer to Section 10 for ‘Variations in hole fill-up on trips’
No Flow is Observed
If no flow is observed, the trip may be continued. If any uncertainty remains, the drill string can be
run back in the hole (continuously, carefully monitoring for flow) and bottoms circulated up.
If the drill string is run back into the hole, a Trip Sheet is kept and a flow check conducted after
each stand. If flow or a Trip Sheet anomaly is observed, the trip is discontinued, the well is shut-
in, and pressures monitored as per the general procedure below:
Flow is Observed
(1) Space out.
(2) Install open safety valve in drill string.
(3) Close safety valve.
(4) Close blowout preventer.
(5) Line up to read drillpipe pressure.
(6) Record shut-in pressures.
(7) Determine kick volume.
(8) Monitor shut-in pressure at frequent intervals.
(9) Determine anticipated top of the influx.
(10) Calculate displacement for each stand of drillpipe with a float installed.
(11) Record the maximum allowable shut-in casing pressure.
(12) Prepare to strip back to bottom.
Since the kick has most likely been swabbed in, and the influx is below the bit, the shut-in drillpipe
pressure and shut-in casing pressure will likely be equal. The influx volume and calculated top of
influx is recorded. Obtaining the shut-in drillpipe pressure is complicated by the presence of a
non-ported float in the drill string, but can be accomplished by bumping the float.
As a general rule, circulating is not attempted with the bit off-bottom once flow has been observed
and the well shut-in. Circulating with the bit off-bottom and with an influx in the well could result in
escalating the event.
Strip in the Hole
Once flow is observed and the well shut-in, the drill string may be stripped back to bottom, if the
casing pressure does not preclude stripping through the annular. Since the present mud weight is
adequate to control formation pressures, the Driller’s Method is used to circulate the kick from the
well. If a kick while tripping is detected early and shut-in, the shut-in pressures will be minimised
and stripping pipe to bottom is a possibility. If a large influx is taken, the shut-in pressures may
prevent stripping and might necessitate snubbing the pipe. If more than routine low-pressure
stripping is necessary, a well control service provider is consulted.
Page 297 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Effective stripping involves accurate volume control and pressure management. The choke
manifold is hard-lined to a calibrated stripping tank or to the trip tank for accurate measurement of
the mud bled from the annulus.
Prior to beginning the trip, with the bit on bottom, the mud density provided a hydrostatic
overbalance adequate to control the well. Therefore, if a kick is present, it was swabbed in. An
increase in mud density may not be needed to kill the well. For the case of a swabbed kick, the
Driller’s Method is the preferred kill method.
Volumetric Stripping Procedure
After the well is shut-in, the following procedure can be used as a guideline for the
implementation of the annular volumetric stripping.
Shut-in pressures and volumes are recorded to establish the location of the influx and estimate
the type of influx. A stripping sheet can then be completed.
(1) IBOP on top of the full opening safety valve and then open the FOSV.
(2) Rig up and monitor surface pressures.
The annulus surface pressure is monitored after the well has been shut-in to check for
influx migration. If the influx is migrating, volumetric control is implemented while preparing
to strip, or while stripping. If a drillpipe float valve is installed, it can be bumped open in
order to obtain the drillpipe pressure.
(3) Determine the capacity + displacement of the drillpipe.
Bleed mud from the well to compensate for the volume of pipe introduced into the hole.
This volume is equal to the sum of the capacity and the displacement of the pipe. There are
tables which outline these quantities, but a close estimate can be made from the following
equation for triple stands:
Displacement per stand:
do 2 x L
Disp std  (Equation 7-2)
1 029,4
Where:
do = outside diameter of the pipe (in)
L = Length of stand (ft)
Dispstd = Displacement per stand (bbl/std)
(4) Perform calculations, as below, and complete the stripping worksheet.
Calculate hydrostatic pressure per bbl of mud:
53,5 x MW
Phe  2 2
(Equation 7-3)
dhc  do
Where:
Phe = hydrostatic pressure equivalent (psi/bbl)
dhc = hole/casing ID (in)
do = drill string Outside Diameter (OD) (in)
Page 298 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
or if the pipe is above the influx:

53,5 x MW
Phe  2
(Equation 7-4)
dhc
Determine the anticipated top of the influx

Top of influx = D – V/Ch (Equation 7-5)
Where:
D = depth (ft)
V = volume of influx (bbls)
Ch = hole capacity (bbls/ft)
Estimate increase in surface pressure due to BHA entering the influx.
The maximum pressure increase due to the BHA entering the influx can be estimated as follows:
Maximum surface pressure increase (psi):

 1 1 
PSurf (Max Inc )  53,5 x (MW  Gi ) x V x   2
(Equation 7-6)

 (dhc  do ) dhc 
2 2

Where:
PSurf (Max-Inc) = maximum surface pressure increase (psi)
Gi = influx gradient, converted to (ppg)
V = volume of influx (bbl)
dhc = hole/casing ID (in)
do = BHA OD (in)
Note: Many BHAs have minimum drill collars in use and rely on heavy weight drillpipe. If this is
the case, the relevant geometry is used in the analysis.
Example:
Calculate hydrostatic pressure per barrel of mud, hydrostatic pressure equivalent:
Where:
Phe = hydrostatic pressure equivalent (psi/bbl)
MW = 9,8 (ppg)
dhc = 8,5 (in)
do = 5,0 (in)
53,5 x MW 53,5 x (9,8)
Phe    11,10 psi / bbl
2
dhc  d o
2
(8,5) 2  (5) 2
Page 299 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
or if the pipe is above the influx:

53,5 x MW 53,5 x (9,8)
Phe  2
  7,26 psi / bbl
dhc (8,5) 2
Determine the anticipated top of the influx:

Where:
D = 9 670 (ft)
V = 20 (bbls)
Ch = 0,0702 (bbls/ft)
Top of influx = D – V/Ch = 9 670 – (20/0,0702) = 9 385 ft
Estimate increase in surface pressure due to BHA entering the influx.
Calculate the maximum surface pressure increase (psi):
Where:
MW = 9,8 (ppg)
Gi = 1,6 (ppg)
V = 20 (bbl)
dhc = 8,5 (in)
do = 6,25 (in)

 1 1 
PSurf (Max Inc )  53,5 x (MW  Gi ) x V x   2

 (dhc  do ) dhc 
2 2

 1 1 
PSurf (Max Inc )  53,5 x (9,8  1,60) x 20 x   
 (8,5  6,250 ) 8,5 2 
2 2
PSurf (Max-Inc) = 143 psi

(5) Line up choke manifold so returns are taken to a calibrated stripping tank or to the trip tank
allowing accurate measurements to be recorded.
Flush all surface lines prior to commencing the stripping operation.
(6) Hold pre-stripping meeting and confirm personnel roles and responsibilities are understood.
(7) Reduce annular closing pressure.
Consult the annular preventer OEM for the suggested annular closing pressure for stripping
operations. Typically, the annular pressure is reduced, prior to stripping, until a slight
leakage occurs through the annular element. This reduces the wear on the annular by
lubricating the element during stripping. Tool joints are inspected and any burrs removed.
Oil or grease is applied to the bottom of the tool joint as it passed through the rotary.
(8) Strip in the hole.
While bleeding the calculated displacement per stand, the pipe is slowly lowered through
the annular. After stripping in each stand, record the depth of the bit, the volume bled and
the surface pressure.
Page 300 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The running speed is reduced when a tool joint passes through the annular.
(9) Monitor surface pressures and volumes, noting the significance of changes:
The surface pressure will remain constant, until the bit reaches the influx, as the pipe is
stripped into the hole and an equivalent mud volume is bled to account for the steel added,
if no migration is occurring. As the drill string enters the influx, the length of the influx will
increase, effectively replacing mud hydrostatic pressure with influx hydrostatic pressure.
The surface pressure will increase to the amount determined in Step 4.
Any other increase in surface pressure during the stripping operation could be due to influx
migration. Influx migration is not a concern provided the pressure on the annulus does not
equal or exceed the maximum allowable annulus pressure. If the increase in annulus
pressure does become a concern, it can be reduced by bleeding mud from the annulus in
accordance with the calculations in Step 4. The minimum allowable annulus pressure to
keep the bottom-hole pressure constant is increased by the amount calculated in Step 4 for
each barrel bled.
For example, assume the initial shut-in pressure was 200 psi and the hydrostatic pressure
equivalent was calculated to be 20 psi/barrel. Then, for each barrel of mud bled from the
annulus, the minimum shut-in annulus pressure would have to be increased by 20 psi in
order to keep the bottom-hole pressure at or above the original shut-in value. If one barrel
is bled, the minimum annulus pressure would be e.g., 220 psi; two barrels, 240 psi; three
barrels, 260 psi.
(10) Strip to bottom.
The procedure is continued until the bit is as near to bottom as possible, while spacing out
the drillpipe to keep the uppermost tool joint as close to the rotary as permissible and
allowing the ram preventers to close on pipe tube.
(11) Kill the well.
With the bit near bottom, kill the well using the Driller’s Method. Prior to beginning to
circulate, check for trapped pressure on the drillpipe. Since the pre-trip mud weight
provided the correct overbalance, and the pipe is being stripped in, the drillpipe pressure is
zero once the drillpipe is returned to bottom. If drillpipe pressure exists once on bottom,
residual drillpipe pressure has been trapped.
The trapped pressure is slowly bled through the choke to the trip tank. Since there is a back
pressure valve in the drill string, this valve is typically bumped open to check the drillpipe
pressure. When the float valve is bumped open with the pump, the increase in pressure on
the drillpipe and annulus is the same. Allow time for the drillpipe pressure to react. Once
trapped pressure is bled from the well, the Driller’s Method of well control can be performed
to circulate the influx from the well. This method is performed as follows:
(a) Bring the pump up to speed, keeping the casing pressure constant.
(b) Read and record the drillpipe pressure.
(c) Circulate the influx out of the well, keeping the drillpipe pressure constant.
The maximum allowable shut-in pressure is determined based on the fracture gradient at the casing
shoe or open hole weak point, and the casing burst or BOPE rated working pressure when the influx is
inside the casing.
Consider the following example:
Page 301 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
VOLUMETRIC STRIPPING WORKSHEET

Well No. Rig: Date:
HOLE DEPTH 12 323 ft HOLE DIA 8,50 in = 0,0702 bbl/ft = 9,3 psi/bbl
BIT DEPTH 12 323 ft DC OD 6,50 in = 0,0292 bbl/ft = 22,3 psi/bbl
CSG SHOE 8 081 ft DP OD 5,00 in = 0,0459 bbl/ft = 14,1 psi/bbl
DC Length 984 ft DC annulus Vol 28.68 bbl Ave Std Length = 93 ft
SIDPP 100 psi Influx size 28 bbl Mud Grad 12,5 ppg
SICP 100 psi Influx Grad 2,3 ppg C/E DP Disp 0,0243 bbl/ft
C/E DP Disp 2,25 bbl/std
Top of Influx = 11 924 ft
Fracture Gradient @ shoe = 0,88 psi/ft = 7 144 psi
Maximum Permissible Surface Pressure = 1 891 psi
Formation Pressure = 7 900 psi
Time Pipe Bit Choke Trip Trip Pipe Remarks

Stripped Depth ft psi tank vol tank inc disp bbl
ft bbl bbl (A) (B)
11 393 100 10 Static condition prior to stripping

93 11 486 100 12,25 2,25 2,25 Start opening choke – bleed
2,25 bbl
93 11 579 100 14,50 2,25 2,25
93 11 672 100 16,75 2,25 2,25
93 11 765 100 19,00 2,25 2,25
93 11 858 100 21,25 2,25 2,25
93 11 951 122 23,50 2,25 2,25 Drill string Entered Gas
93 12 044 191 25,75 2,25 2,25 Drill string in Gas
93 12 323 398 32,50 2,25 2,25 On bottom
Kill Well
1. Bring pumps to speed keeping choke pressure constant at 398 psi.
2. Read and record drillpipe pressure.
3. Circulate gas out of well, keeping drillpipe pressure constant.
Figure 7.3 Stripping Worksheet
Page 302 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
2. BHA has entered influx

¥ Height of influx in annulus has increased
¥ Overall hydrostatic in annulus decreases
¥ Surface pressure required to balance formation
1. Start stripping pressure increases
GAS GAS
INFLUX GAS INFLUX
MUD
MUD MUD
Figure 7.4 The Effect of the Pipe or BHA Entering the Influx
Page 303 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
FROM
CHOKE
MANIFOLD MUD GAS
Abbreviated Choke SEPARATOR
Manifold Shown –
Manual Choke
Operation May be
Preferred
MANUAL
CHOKE
TRIP
TANK
ACCURATE
P PRESSURE
GAUGE
PREFERRED STRIP
OPTION TANK
KILL
LINE
Figure 7.5 Typical Schematic Layout of Volumetric

Stripping Using the Annular Preventer
Page 304 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
7.5 Special Considerations

7.5.1 Pipe Off-Bottom – Drillpipe in the Stack
If trip procedures are followed, the most likely scenario is the pipe is off-bottom with drillpipe in
the BOP stack. Surface pressures will be minimal and regaining control is relatively
straightforward. The surface pressure and string weight will be factors in determining the method
for returning the pipe to the bottom.
The first option, when the pipe is off-bottom, is stripping the pipe to the bottom using the rig
equipment. Annular stripping is the most common method. If the shut-in pressure precludes
stripping through the annular preventer, well control personnel are typically consulted. Ram to
ram stripping is rarely an option using only rig equipment. If pipe-heavy, a snubbing stack may be
rigged up and used to strip the pipe to bottom.
If the pipe weight is neutral or pipe light (less string weight than the upward force created by the
well pressure), the pipe cannot be stripped. For neutral pipe weight or pipe light cases, a
snubbing unit is used to snub the pipe to bottom.
7.5.2 Pipe Off-Bottom – Drill Collar in the Stack
Well control is particularly important when the BHA is across the stack. A flow check is usually
performed before the BHA enters the stack. When drill collars or tubulars, other than drillpipe, are
across the stack, the annular preventer is the only preventer designed to shut-in the well.
Stripping tubulars, other than drillpipe, through an annular preventer may not be possible or may
introduce additional risks.
If the kick was swabbed in, and gas is at the surface, bringing the well under control by bleeding
gas and lubricating mud into the well may be an option (Lube and Bleed Technique). The surface
pressure is typically controlled while the influx is migrating by using the Volumetric Technique.
Once the influx is at the BOP, the lube and bleed technique may be used to remove the influx
from the well. However, if the influx contains a liquid component, it is likely the pipe will have to be
stripped to bottom before the well can be killed.
There are considerable operational challenges presented by attempting to strip the BHA through
the annular. Many BOP stacks, especially on land, have only one annular BOP. The BOP
element will be subject to considerable stress if any collars are stripped through it. If the element
fails, there is no back-up and the options available to control the well using rig equipment are
limited. To mitigate this, the crossover and a stand of drillpipe are kept available and run in
immediately prior to stripping. This will enable the well to be shut-in on drillpipe and facilitate
stripping operations.
7.5.3 No Pipe in the Hole
If a kick is detected following a trip, once pipe is out of the hole, the blind rams are closed to shut-
in the well. Attempting to open the well and run pipe, is typically not an acceptable option. If shut-
in pressures indicate migration, the influx expansion can be controlled while the influx migrates to
the surface using the Volumetric Technique. Once the influx has reached the surface, it can be
removed from the well using the Lube and Bleed Technique.
7.5.4 A Kick while Running Casing or Liner
In general, a kick while running casing is handled exactly the same as if it is a drill string. The
situation can be avoided, if trip procedures are followed. Before tripping pipe out of the hole, and
prior to running casing, aim to maintain well control to minimize the possibility of issues arising
during the casing operation.
Causes of a kick while running casing may include the following:
 A kick that was swabbed in on the last trip out of the hole.
 Swabbing in a kick on a connection while running the casing.
Page 305 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Surge pressures while running casing breakdown formation, leading to losses and inducing a
kick.
 Additional challenges may be encountered when casing is used as a response to a well
control issue, such as after drilling with a floating mudcap or after controlling an underground
blowout.
Items to consider when deciding whether to install casing rams include the following:
(1) Absence of porous and permeable hydrocarbon intervals on the log and minimum levels of
drill gas as in the case of an intermediate casing interval.
(2) Large mud overbalance compared to the estimated formation pore pressure (e.g., 12,9 ppg
mud weight in an interval estimated to have a pore pressure of 11,3 ppg). This would lead
to a reduced MAWHP (perhaps less than 1 000 psi) which would be more favourable for an
annular preventer in terms of reducing wear on the element and improving the element’s
sealing capability.
(3) Greater pore pressures than expected, and elevated gas levels while drilling.
(4) Wildcat wells or development wells with a field history of well control while running casing,
or with pressure depletion, which may increase the chance of lost returns.
Page 306 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8 Special Considerations
8.1 Volumetric Technique
The Volumetric Technique may be used to control the expansion of an influx that is migrating
during shut-in periods. It may be used if measureable migration is occurring. This occurs in the
case of gas kicks.
This technique may be used during shut-in periods as a means of allowing an influx to migrate in
a well prior to displacement, or in circumstances which prevent the implementation of
conventional well control techniques.
Situations in which the Volumetric Technique may be applicable include:
(3) During any shut-in period after the well has kicked.
(4) If the pumps are inoperable.
(5) If there is a washout in the drillstring that prevents displacement of the kick.
(6) If the pipe is a considerable distance off bottom, out of the hole, stuck or parted.
(7) If the bit is plugged.
(8) If the pipe has been dropped.
(9) There are four techniques used to deal with an influx that is migrating up the hole. These are
as follows:
(10) Static Volumetric Control (with drillstring on bottom): This is used when the drillpipe is on or
near the bottom, and may be used to measure bottomhole pressure.
(11) Static Volumetric Control (with drillstring off bottom or out of hole): This is used when the
drillpipe may not be used to measure bottomhole pressure.
(12) Lubrication: This is used when the influx has migrated to the stack. It is used to replace the
influx with mud as the influx is bled at the choke.
(13) Dynamic Volumetric Control: This technique may be used as an alternative to the above, but
is most applicable as an alternative to lubrication on a floating rig.
8.1.1 Static Volumetric Control Technique (Drillpipe Pressure used to Monitor Bottomhole Pressure)
This procedure is easier to implement if the drillpipe pressure is available to monitor bottomhole
pressure.
This procedure may be implemented any time the well is shut-in after a kick has occurred. This
situation may arise while preparations are being made to kill a well, or when operations are
suspended due to bad weather or equipment failure. The following guidelines may be used:
(1) Record the Shut-in Drillpipe and Annulus Pressures.
After the well has been shut-in, the surface pressures may be used to identify the influx
type. These calculations are covered elsewhere in this section. A large gas influx may
migrate faster than a small one in WBM. Heavy mud may increase migration rate but may
become easily flocculated, which can slow migration. OBM tends to slow or even prevent
migration at high temperature and pressure, as gas may go into solution. Slow migration in
OBM due to diffusion may occur. Migration creates increased surface pressure. Use the
calculations in this section or GWETK, to calculate the volume of mud to bleed in order to
let the gas bubble expand. This will reduce the internal pressure of the gas bubble while
maintaining bottomhole pressure and preventing a secondary influx from occurring.
Page 307 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(2) Develop Annulus Pressure Profile.

The annular pressures, during migration of the influx, will be similar to those resulting from
circulation with the Driller’s Method. The maximum wellbore pressures may be estimated
along with the anticipated pit gain.
(3) Determine Migration Rate.
After the surface pressures have built up to values that reflect the kick zone pressure,
further increases will be due to migration. The rate of migration may be estimated from two
pressure readings, recorded either on the drillpipe and/or on the casing, taken at known
time intervals.
The distance D (ft), migrated up the annulus of constant cross-section, in the time interval T
(min), is given by:
P2  P1
D
MW x 0,052
(Equation 8-1)
Where:
P1 = surface pressure at start of interval (psi)
P2 = surface pressure after interval ‘T’ (psi)
The migration rate may therefore be estimated as follows:
D x 60
MR 
T (Equation 8-2)
Where:
T = time interval (minutes)
MR = migration rate (ft/hr)
Example: Calculate distance migrated and the migration rate.
Where:
P1 = 1 550 psi
P2 = 1 740 psi
MW = 11,2 ppg
T = 45 min
MR = migration rate (ft/hr)
P2  P1 1 740  1 550
D   326 ft
MW x 0,052 11,2 x 0,052
D x 60 326 x 60
MR    435 ft / hr
T 45
(4) Allow Drillpipe Pressure to Build by Operating Margin.
The drillpipe pressure is allowed to build by the overbalance margin.
Page 308 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
This margin will be registered on the drillpipe as an increase in pressure over and above
the final shut-in pressure. The overbalance margin may typically be in the range of 100 to
200 psi. Record this as the shut-in drillpipe pressure. The objective is to keep this pressure
constant as the influx migrates.
(5) Bleed Increment of Mud from the Annulus to Reduce Drillpipe Pressure.
After the drillpipe pressure has increased by the sum of the overbalance margin and the
operating margin, the kick zone will be overbalanced by the sum of these two values. The
drillpipe pressure will increase when the influx migrates. As the drillpipe pressure
increases, bleed the annulus until the drillpipe pressure is at same level as the recorded
shut-in drillpipe pressure (determined in the previous step). A manual choke may provide
improved bleeding control for the operation. Small volumes of mud are bled off to allow
time for the drillpipe pressure to respond. There will be a considerable time-delay between
changes in choke and drillpipe pressures in a deep well, especially if the influx contains
gas.
It is crucial that only mud is bled from the well, but no gas at this phase of the operation.
Once gas reaches the surface, and no further increase is observed from a secondary
influx, stop bleeding and leave the well shut in. If possible, conventional circulation
methods are used to remove the influx, or implement the lubrication and bleed method.
Note: Gas needs to be replaced with mud to maintain hydrostatic pressure and prevent any
further influx.
(6) Continue the Process until Influx Migrates to the Stack.
This process is repeated until the influx migrates to the stack. Arrival of the influx at the
stack may be preceded by bleeding gas-cut mud from the well. If gas is observed at the
choke, the well is shut-in and mud is lubricated into the well. When the influx has migrated
to the stack, surface pressures will no longer rise since the migration has ended. This may
not be the case on a floating rig when some migration may occur up the chokeline.
The Volumetric Control Worksheet may be used to record all the data (refer to Figure 8.1).
(7) Lubricate mud into the hole, or implement the Dynamic Volumetric Control Method.
Page 309 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.1.2 Static Volumetric Control Technique (Choke Pressure used to Monitor Bottomhole Pressure)
Figure 8.1 GWETK Volumetric Data Sheet
Page 310 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
The second of the four methods (Static Volumetric Control using choke pressure) mentioned
above, is used if the drill string is stuck off bottom, out of the hole, unable to be stripped back to
the bottom, or if the bit is plugged. In these cases, the bottomhole pressure cannot be monitored
with the drillpipe during the process. The choke pressure is used in conjunction with the volume
of mud, bled from the well, to calculate the bottomhole pressure. The principle of this procedure is
that bottomhole pressure is maintained slightly over kick zone pressure by bleeding mud from the
annulus to allow the influx to expand as it migrates up the hole. Mud is bled in increments from
the well as the choke pressure rises due to migration.
The amount of mud bled off for each increment is determined from the increase in choke
pressure. The pressure behaviour, of the influx, will be influenced by the geometry. A pressure
increase will be noted as the influx is elongated when it reaches the BHA. The increase is not due
to migration as much as the change in geometry. The pressure increase is not bled off since this
would result in an underbalanced condition, allowing a secondary influx.
Similarly, as the influx migrates into a larger annulus, the pressure would decline or not increase
as rapidly. Bleeding off, as shown by the pressure schedule, may result in additional
underbalance in this case. Knowing the location of the bubble in the well helps to prevent the
creation of an underbalanced condition, or breakdown in the open hole. If the location of the
bubble is unknown, a worst case scenario is assumed, and the correct action is taken. If it is
known that the bubble is initially beneath the bit, and will migrate around the BHA, the pressure
will be permitted to increase due to the change in geometry. That value will be held as the
minimum.
If the choke pressure increases by 100 psi, a volume of mud equivalent to a hydrostatic pressure
in the annulus of 100 psi is bled at the choke. In this manner, control over the bottomhole
pressure is achieved. The surface pressure increases when the influx is migrating. If the influx is
not migrating, the surface pressure will not increase and there is no reason to bleed mud from the
annulus. The annulus pressure is not reduced to a value less than the original shut-in
annulus pressure, plus a safety factor and the additional increase needed to offset the lost
hydrostatic pressure. The rate of influx migration determines the time required to bleed each
increment of mud from the well.
Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure gradient with the following properties:
Assumed initial shut-in pressure = 100 psi
Operating margin = 150 psi
Annulus = 8-1/2 in x 5 in
Mud weight = 15,4 ppg
Hydrostatic pressure equivalent of mud:
53,5(MW)
Hyd.Grad 
(D2 2  D12 )
(Equation 8-3)
53,5(MW) 53,5(15,4)
Hyd.Grad    17,4 psi / bbl
(D2 2
 D12 ) (8,52  52)
When the surface pressure increases to 250 psi, the influx has risen past a corresponding
amount of mud.
Calculate the mud volume:
P2  P1
Vmud 
Hyd Grad (Equation 8-4)
Page 311 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
P2  P1 250  100
Vmud    8,6 bbl
Hyd Grad 17,4
Calculate the distance migrated:
P2  P1 250  100
D   187 ft
MW x 0,052 15,4 x 0,052
Beginning from this calculated point, the pressure equivalent of one barrel is added to the
pressure for every barrel of mud bled from the annulus.
In this case, assume the surface pressure will be permitted to increase to 500 psi. The bubble
has risen another 250 psi in equivalent hydrostatic pressure, or 312 ft., for a total of 499 ft. Now
for every barrel of mud bled, the minimum permissible shut-in pressure is increased 17,4 psi.
Bleed one barrel, but do not go below 267,5 psi (whichever occurs first). Then, bleed a second
barrel, but do not go below 285 psi = ([2 x 17,44] + 250). Then, bleed a third barrel, but do not go
below 302,5 psi = ([3 x 17,44] + 250). Once the desired pressure is attained, the well will be shut-
in, and the influx permitted to continue migration until the surface pressure reaches a new
accepted surface pressure – perhaps 600 psi. At that point, mud would again be bled from the
well, the influx permitted to expand, and a new minimum permissible surface pressure is
established.
This procedure would be continued until gas reaches the surface. The volumetric technique is
stopped, and the well remains shut-in once gas reaches the surface. The well could remain in this
configuration until the well can be circulated, or the influx lubricated from the hole.
8.1.3 Lubrication Technique (Lube and Bleed)
This technique is also referred to as Lube and Bleed. It is only applicable when the influx is
predominantly gas and is at the surface. It is generally used to vent the influx from below the
stack, while maintaining constant bottomhole pressure. Lubrication is most suited for fixed
offshore and land rigs. It may be used to vent gas from the stack after implementing the Static
Volumetric Method and to reduce surface pressures prior to an operation such as stripping,
snubbing or bullheading.
Ideally, this procedure involves an influx of dry gas into a water based mud system. If the influx
contains liquids, the ability to reduce the surface pressure to zero is diminished. If the influx is
virtually all liquid, the procedure is not applicable. If the mud system being used is oil based, a
gas influx will likely remain in solution and the ability of the influx to separate and migrate is
greatly diminished. Any combination of these will adversely impact the chances for success.
The fact that this procedure is one of the most used, yet least understood, accounts for its
numerous failures. The most often used procedure involves liquid being pumped into the well,
while an equivalent gas pressure is bled from the well, e.g.500 psi in mud hydrostatic pressure is
pumped into the well, and the gas pressure is reduced by 500 psi. In most cases, the remaining
gas column is less dense than the previous gas column, primarily because the pressure in the
gas column has been reduced. The well becomes under-balanced and an additional volume of
gas enters the wellbore, resulting in an endless cycle.
Another reason for frequent failure is not dedicating ample time to assure that gas has fully
migrated. Often, the mud is pumped into the well and then bled off with the gas. This procedure is
successful only when dry gas is bled from the well.
A final reason for the procedure not working is a lack of basic data. If this procedure is to be
applied successfully the reservoir pressure and the fracture gradient at the casing shoe need to
be known. The following guidelines may be used to lubricate mud into a well:
Page 312 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(1) Calculate the Hydrostatic pressure per Barrel of the Lubricating Mud.
This is done in the same manner as for the Volumetric Method. The best chance of
success occurs when the mud used to lubricate the gas out of the hole is substantially
heavier than the mud needed to balance the bottomhole pressure.
(2) Slowly Pump a Measured Quantity of Mud into the Hole.
After determining the safe upper limit for the surface pressure, the pump is started slowly
on the hole. Mud is lubricated into the well until pump pressure reaches a predetermined
limit. At this point, the pump is stopped and the well is shut-in. These calculations are
detailed in Section 4 of this document, Fundamental Well Equations.
(3) Leave Well Static.
The well is left static for a period while the gas migrates through the mud that has been
lubricated into the well. The surface pressure will rise as the gas migrates through the mud.
The surface pressure will stabilize when the gas accumulates at the surface.
(4) Bleed Gas from the Well.
Gas is bled from the well to reduce the surface pressure by an amount determined by the
calculations (presented previously). The surface pressure cannot be reduced by the
equivalent of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud lubricated into the well, since the
remaining gas will be at a lower pressure and density. If the surface pressure is reduced by
the equivalent of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud lubricated, the well will become
underbalanced and more gas will enter the wellbore.
Bleed surface gas from the well. If mud appears at the choke, before the surface pressure
has been reduced to the calculated value, shut the well in and allow the gas to migrate
through the mud.
(5) Repeat until all Influx has been vented.
This procedure is repeated until all the gas has been vented from the well. Reduce the
volume of mud lubricated into the well at each stage during this procedure. This is due to
the reduction in volume of gas in the well. If the influx was swabbed into the well, and the
mud weight is enough to balance formation pressures, the choke pressure will eventually
reduce to zero.
8.1.4 Dynamic Volumetric Method
This technique may be used as an alternative to the Static Volumetric Method. It is used as a
method of safely venting an influx, from below a subsea stack, due to both the complexity of the
operation, and the level of stress imposed on well control equipment during circulation.
For more detailed information, please see Section 9.11, Dynamic Volume Control.
8.2 Annulus Pressure Profiles
This section covers the variations in surface and subsurface pressures during these methods,
and explains the factors that affect the magnitude of these pressures.
When a kick is taken with the pipe on bottom, the well can be killed using either the Wait and
Weight Method or the Driller’s Method. The choice of kick circulation method will be based upon
the specific well conditions. Advantages and limitations of both common methods may be
evaluated, and the use of well control modelling software may be implemented to aid in this
choice. Both methods, when correctly employed, will maintain the bottomhole pressure equal to,
or slightly greater than, the kick zone pressure.
Page 313 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
In order to fully understand the implementation of these methods, it is crucial to understand the
surface and down-hole pressures caused by displacing a kick from the hole using the Driller’s
Method, and/or the Wait and Weight Method.
All the pressure plots shown in this section are developed by computer program. The pressures
are determined by simulating the displacement of a gas kick from a well with the model of a
discrete bubble of gas. The actual pressures seen when a kick is taken may be different from
those predicted by the program. The plots demonstrate the influence of the major factors that
affect the wellbore pressures during circulation.
The pressure plots contained in this section are generated on the basis of maintaining a constant
bottomhole pressure equal to the kick zone pressure.
8.2.1 Displacing a Kick from the Hole
Driller’s Method
The Driller’s Method is designed to kill the well in two circulations. The original mud weight is
used to displace the kick from the hole, and then the kill weight mud is pumped during the second
circulation.
During the first circulation, the drillpipe circulating pressure is held constant at a value equal to
the shut-in drillpipe pressure, plus the circulating pressure loss in the system at the slow
circulating rate.
During the second circulation, the drillpipe circulating pressure is adjusted for the increased
circulating pressure due to the heavy mud, as well as, for the reduction in underbalance as the
drillpipe is displaced. This is accomplished by holding the casing pressure constant, while
displacing the kill weight mud to the bit, provided that nothing other than the drillpipe pressure is
changing (i.e., choke size, casing pressure, and pit level remain constant). Once the drillpipe has
been displaced by kill weight mud, the drillpipe pressure is held constant as the kill mud is
circulated to the surface. Indications of a pressure anomaly between the casing pressure and drill
pipe pressure may suggest a secondary influx has entered the annulus If it is suspected that a
secondary influx has been let in the annulus during the first circulation, continue to circulate until
the influx has been removed from the annulus. It is not uncommon to shut the well in after the first
circulation to build or to continue to build kill weight mud. Once the first circulation has been
completed and there is no indication of a secondary influx, hold the casing pressure constant and
slowly bring the pump off line while maintaining a constant casing pressure plus a safety factor
until the choke can be closed. It is essential to control the casing pressure which will maintain
bottom hole pressure while shutting down after the first circulation. If a secondary influx has
occurred and the casing pressure is held constant during the second circulation until KWM has
entered the annulus the well will be underbalanced. If it is suspected that a secondary influx
occurred or the casing pressure starts to rise after shut in, then calculate and use a Wait and
Weight drillpipe decline schedule for the second circulation. When coming on line for the second
circulation hold the casing pressure constant until the pump is up and stable at SCR then
maintain the drillpipe decline schedule until KWM is circulated up the annulus and back to
surface.
The pressure at each point in the annulus will vary as the kick is displaced from the hole. Once
the well has been shut-in, the major factors that determine the pressure at any point in the
annulus, during displacement of the kick, are the height of the influx in the annulus, and the
relative position of the influx in the annulus.
Figure 8.2 shows the choke and drillpipe pressures during the displacement of a kick (using the
Driller’s Method) for a surface BOP. Point A represents the shut-in casing pressure. From Point A
to Point B, the casing pressure drops as the influx is displaced past the BHA. This drop is caused
by a reduction in the height of the influx, as the influx is displaced past the BHA to the smaller OD
drillpipe. The choke operator will open the choke to maintain the needed drillpipe pressure.
Page 314 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
From Point B to Point D, the influx is expanding as it is circulated up the hole, and the choke
pressure, used to balance the kick zone pressure, is increasing. The choke operator will close the
choke to maintain the correct drillpipe pressure.
At Point C, the gas is opposite the casing shoe.
At Point D, the gas arrives at the choke. The choke operator will have to close the choke to make
sure the choke pressure does not drop rapidly as the low-density gas passes across the choke.
From Point D to Point E, the gas is passing the choke. The choke operator will open the choke to
reduce the choke pressure to maintain the correct drillpipe pressure. The choke pressure,
necessary to balance the kick zone pressure, reduces as the gas passes the choke because the
column of gas in the annulus is continually decreasing in height.
At Point E, the gas has been displaced from the well, and the choke pressure will stabilize at a
value equal to the underbalance of the mud.
Figure 8.3 shows the pit gain, or the volume of the kick, as it is displaced to the choke.
Figure 8.4 shows the pressure at the casing shoe as the kick is displaced from the hole. From
Point P to Point Q, the pressure drops as the influx is displaced past the BHA. From Point Q to
Point R, the pressure increases as the influx expands as it is circulated up to the casing shoe. At
Point R, the top of the influx has arrived at the casing shoe, and from Point R to Point S, the influx
is circulated past the casing shoe. Once the influx has been circulated past the shoe, the
pressure at the shoe will remain constant while the influx is circulated to the choke, and as long
as the choke is correctly manipulated. It can be seen from Figure 8.4 that the shoe pressure was
at maximum when the well was shut-in. The influx did not expand to its original height in the
annulus before it arrived at the choke. If the shoe was shallower, the maximum shoe pressure
might have been when the top of the influx first reached the shoe.
Figure 8.5 shows the drillpipe and choke pressure during the second circulation during which the
well is circulated with kill weight mud. Having established the initial circulating pressure, the
drillpipe pressure is reduced as the drillpipe is displaced to kill weight mud. In theory, no choke
manipulation is necessary during this stage because the drillpipe pressure will drop automatically
as the kill weight mud is pumped down the drillpipe. Once the kill weight mud starts up the
annulus, the drillpipe pressure is held constant and the choke opening will have to be increased.
Once the hole has been displaced with kill weight mud, the choke pressure to maintain the final
circulating pressure will be zero. The choke will be wide open at this point and it may not be
possible to keep the drillpipe pressure from exceeding the final circulating pressure.
Page 315 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.2 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure - First Circulation of the Driller's Method
Figure 8.3 Pit Gain - First Circulation of the Driller's Method
Page 316 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.4 Shoe Pressure - First Circulation of the Driller's Method
Figure 8.5 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure - Second Circulation of the Driller's Method
During the Wait and Weight Method, the kick is displaced from the hole with kill weight mud. An
advantage of this method over the driller’s method is that wellbore pressures during displacement
of the kick are generally lower, and the well is under pressure for a shorter duration.
Page 317 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.6 shows the choke and drillpipe pressure during displacement of the influx with kill
weight mud. The choke pressure during the Driller’s Method is included for comparison. Note that
the choke pressure during both techniques is the same until the kill weight mud starts up the
annulus at Point B. (This is because the bottomhole pressure is kept equal and constant for both
methods.) After this point, the pressure at every location in the annulus will be lower using the
wait and weight method.
Between Points D and E, the drillpipe volume of original mud behind the influx is displaced from
the well until, at Point E, the kill weight mud arrives at the choke.
Figure 8.6 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure Profile - Wait and Weight Method
Figure 8.7 compares the pressure, at the casing shoe for the Wait and Weight Method, versus the
Driller’s Method. Between Point P and Point Q, the shoe pressure decreases as the influx is
displaced past the BHA. The influx expands as it is circulated to the shoe at Point R, after which,
the pressure at the shoe decreases. At Point S, the kill weight mud starts up the annulus and
reduces the choke pressure below that for the Driller’s Method. Between Point T and Point U, the
original weight mud is displaced past the shoe until Point U, when the kill weight mud arrives at
the shoe. The pressure at Point U represents the pressure at the shoe once the well has been
killed.
As shown in Figure 8.7, the maximum shoe pressure is the same for both techniques; however,
the shoe will be under pressure longer if the Driller’s Method is used.
Page 318 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.7 Shoe Pressure - Wait and Weight Method

8.2.2 Factors that Affect Wellbore Pressures
Influx Size
The factor that has the greatest effect on the wellbore pressures during circulation is the volume
of the influx. The greater the volume of influx, the greater the wellbore pressures will be during
circulation. Figure 8.8 shows the choke pressure as the various influx volumes are displaced from
the well using the Driller’s Method. Similarly, Figure 8.9 shows the choke pressure as the same
influx volumes are displaced from the well using the Wait and Weight Method. Figure 8.8 and
Figure 8.9 illustrate that a smaller influx volume will result in lower wellbore pressures.
Page 319 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.8 Choke Pressure - Driller's Method with Differing Influx Volumes
Figure 8.9 Choke Pressure - Wait and Weight Method with Differing Influx Volumes
Figure 8.10 shows the shoe pressures as the influx volumes are displaced from the well using the
Driller’s Method. Figure 8.11 compares shoe pressure with the Wait and Weight and Driller’s
Methods for influx volumes of 20 bbl and 50 bbl.
Page 320 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Influx volume is a variable that influences wellbore pressure during the displacement of a kick. A
rig crew can provide a positive impact by training for and implementing shut-in procedures
immediately and minimising kick size.
Figure 8.10 Shoe Pressure - Driller's Method with Differing Influx Volumes
Figure 8.11 Shoe Pressure - Wait and Weight Method versus

Driller's Method with Differing Influx Volumes
Page 321 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Kick Intensity
The intensity of a kick is the measure of the degree of underbalance as determined by the shut-in
drillpipe pressure, usually expressed as a mud weight difference. The intensity of the kick is a
major factor in determining the wellbore pressures during displacement of the kick. Monitoring for
the indicators of increasing pore pressure, as discussed in Section 2, will help avoid high-intensity
kicks.
Figure 8.12 displays the choke pressure during the displacement of various kick intensities using
the Driller’s Method. Figure 8.13 displays the same kick scenarios using the Wait and Weight
Method. Comparing the figures demonstrates how, for a given kick intensity, the Wait and Weight
Method results in lower choke pressures.
Figure 8.14 displays this comparison of choke pressures, for each method, for both a low-
intensity and a high-intensity kick.
Figure 8.15 shows a comparison of the shoe pressures during displacement of the same two
kicks. The Wait and Weight Method reduces the pressure that the shoe experiences during
displacement. In the case of the high-intensity kick, the surface pressure is significantly reduced
once the kill weight mud starts up the annulus.
Figure 8.12 Choke Pressure - During Displacement of a Gas Kick Using the
Driller's Method with Various Kick Intensities
Page 322 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.13 Choke Pressure - Wait and Weight Method with Different Influx Volumes
Figure 8.14 A Comparison of the Choke Pressure - During Displacement Using the
Driller's and Wait and Weight Methods with Gas Kicks of Different Intensities
Page 323 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Hole Geometry
Length of Open hole Section

The maximum surface pressure during displacement of a kick will always be lower if the Wait and
Weight Method is used, provided the kill weight mud starts up the annulus before the kick arrives
at the choke. The maximum shoe pressure is not necessarily affected by the technique used to
displace the kick. In many cases, the maximum shoe pressure will be at initial shut-in. In a long
open-hole section, the maximum shoe pressure may occur as the influx is displaced to the shoe.
In this instance, if the kill weight mud, used in the Wait and Weight Method, is to have an impact
on the maximum pressure at the shoe, the hole geometry will be such that the kill weight mud
starts up the annulus before the kick reaches the shoe.
Figure 8.15 A Comparison of the Shoe Pressure during Displacement Using the Driller’s Method
and the Wait and Weight Method with Gas Kicks of Different Intensities
Once the kill weight mud starts up the annulus, shoe pressures will be lower than if the Driller’s
Method is used. As discussed, the greater the kick intensity, the greater the difference between
wellbore pressure profiles for the Wait and Weight and Driller’s Methods. For a given kick
intensity, the difference between the two techniques is also influenced by the depth of the shoe.
The shallower the shoe, the greater the effect of having the kill weight mud in the annulus using
the Wait and Weight Method on pressure reduction at the shoe.
Figure 8.16 illustrates a comparison of the shoe pressures for the same kick displaced with the
Driller’s Method and varying lengths of casing and open-hole. In this example, a 20 bbl kick is
taken at 11 483 ft and then displaced. This figure shows the pressure at the casing shoe if the
shoe is at depths of 3 281 ft, 6 562 ft and 9 843 ft. For a given total depth, the pressure at the
shoe is greater when the casing shoe is shallower and the open-hole interval is greater.
Figure 8.17 to Figure 8.21 compare the shoe pressures during displacement of a gas kick for
different shoe depths, using both the Driller’s and the Wait and Weight Methods.
Page 324 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
WELL DEPTH: 11 483 ft BHA: 6-¼ in/590 ft

SHOE DEPTH: 3 281, 6 562, 9 843 ft PIPE: 5 in DP
MW1: 14,2 ppg TECH: BOTH
KICK ZONE EMW: 15,3 ppg INFLUX: 20 bbl GAS
Figure 8.16 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during Displacement of a

20 bbl Gas Kick with Differing Shoe Depths
WELL DEPTH: 11 483 ft BHA: 6-¼ in 590 ft

SHOE DEPTH: 9 843 ft PIPE: 5 in DP
Figure 8.17 A Comparison of Shoe Pressure during

Displacement of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at 9 843 ft
Page 325 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
WELL DEPTH: 11 483 ft BHA: 6-¼ in 590 ft

Figure 8.18 A Comparison of Shoe Pressure during Displacement

of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at 8 202 ft

Figure 8.19 A Comparison of Shoe Pressure during Displacement

of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at 6 562 ft
Page 326 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

Figure 8.20 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during

Figure 8.21 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during

Page 327 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.17 shows the shoe pressure for a 20 bbl kick taken at 11 483 ft with the shoe at 9 643 ft.
From initial shut-in to Point P, the pressure decreases as the influx is displaced past the BHA.
From Point P to Point Q, the pressure increases because the influx expands as it is displaced up
towards the shoe. At Point Q, the top of the influx arrives at the shoe, and from Point Q to Point
R, the pressure at the shoe drops because the influx is displaced past it. From Point R to Point S,
the pressure at the shoe remains constant because the original mud occupies the annulus from
the bottom of the hole to the shoe. The pressure at the shoe is further reduced at Point S using
the Wait and Weight Method because the kill weight mud enters the annulus.
Figure 8.18 shows the shoe pressure for the shoe at 8 202 ft. A similar pressure profile is shown
to that in Figure 8.17. In this case, the influx expands more before it arrives at the shoe due to the
greater length of open-hole. Figure 8.19 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 6 562 ft.
In this case, the kill weight mud starts up the annulus at Point R, when the tail of the influx is
passing the shoe.
Figure 8.20 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 4 912 ft. In the case of the Driller’s
Method, the shoe pressure almost reaches its original shut-in value. In the case of the Wait and
Weight Method, the kill weight mud enters the annulus at Point P, before the influx arrives at the
shoe, and the shoe pressure is reduced by the kill weight mud from this point on.
Figure 8.21 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 3 281 ft. In the case of the Driller’s
Method, the shoe pressure is greater than the shut-in value when the influx is circulated to the
shoe. With the Wait and Weight Method, the kill weight mud enters the annulus at Point P and
reduces the maximum pressure at the shoe when compared with that attained using the Driller’s
Method.
The time that the shoe is subject to elevated pressure is substantially reduced when the Wait and
Weight Method is used. The reduction in shoe pressure, due to the kill weight mud, is most
important when there is a long section of open-hole.
Changes in Annulus Size

Any change in the size of the annulus will impact the pressure in the annulus. The previous
figures show that the annulus pressure drops as the influx is displaced from around the BHA and
into the drillpipe annulus. This decline in annular pressure is due to the shortening of the influx as
it passes from the BHA annular area into the drillpipe annular area.
The annulus pressure will be impacted if there is any change in annular area. For example, in a
deep well with a liner, the annulus pressure will decline as the influx passes from the liner into the
larger pipe. The reason for the decline is that the influx is shorter in the larger cross sectional
area. For example, if a 10 bbl influx passed from a 7-5/8 in liner into 9-5/8 in casing the height of
the bubble would decrease as the width of the influx increases. This would cause a reduction on
the surface pressure gauge because of the decrease in the height of the gas bubble. .
Influx Type
All the pressure profiles in Figure 8.2 to Figure 8.21 represent the displacement of gas kicks. As
seen from the pressure profiles, the expansion of the gas as it is displaced from the well greatly
affects the wellbore pressures.
A water kick will not have the same effect. Water is essentially incompressible and, consequently
will not expand appreciably as it is displaced up the well. This will mean that the wellbore
pressures will not be affected by the displacement of the influx to any great degree, unless, the
water contains a large quantity of gas. A water kick may cause special challenges as a result of
hole deterioration as the water is displaced from the hole.
Figure 8.22 shows a typical choke pressure profile for a salt water kick displaced from the hole by
the Wait and Weight Method. From Point P to Point Q, the choke pressure remains relatively
constant as the drillpipe is displaced with kill weight mud and provided there is no change in
Page 328 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
annular geometry. From Point Q to Point R, the choke pressure drops as the kill weight mud
starts up the annulus. This is in contrast to the gas kick where the expansion of the kick, at this
stage, increases the choke pressure. From Point R to Point S, the influx passes the choke with a
corresponding drop in choke pressures. From Point S to Point T, the choke pressure drops as the
original mud behind the influx passes the choke. At Point T, the kill weight mud arrives at the
surface.
Figure 8.22 Choke Pressure during Displacement of a

Water Kick using the Wait and Weight Method
An oil kick is likely to have a similar effect as a gas kick when displaced from the well. The term
‘oil’ covers a large variety of fluids. Oil ratios range from highly viscous oil that contains very little
gas, to very light oils that have large amounts of gas. Most oils will entrain gas at reservoir
conditions which will break out of solution and expand as it is displaced up the hole.
8.2.3 Calculating Annulus Pressure Profiles
The annulus pressure profiles shown in this subsection have been developed by computer. The
software used applies Boyle’s Law to the original influx at the bottom of the hole, and then
calculates the pressures in the wellbore and maintains bottomhole pressure equal to the kick
zone pressure.
The benefit of the computer is that it can process a great number of calculations in a relatively
short time. At the rig site, it is not essential to make all these calculations prior to displacing a kick
from the hole. Prior to displacing the kick from the well, it is useful to have a simple method of
hand-calculating both the maximum pressures that may be experienced at the open-hole weak
point and at surface.
The annulus pressure worksheet shown in Figure 8.23 provides a means of determining these
pressures. The techniques for using it are described on the reverse side of the worksheet, shown
in Figure 8.24, Figure 8.25, and Figure 8.26 are used in conjunction with the annulus pressure
worksheet. The benefit of using this worksheet is that it may help in developing an understanding
of the pressures involved during the displacement of a kick.
Page 329 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
ANNULUS PRESSURE WORKSHEET
Units (US/UK)
For worksheet calculations, enter information into shaded cells Rig Name _____________________________________________ Well No ___________________________________ Date ______________________
Drillstring Internal Volume bbl
Kick Zone Depth: TVD, ft Original Mud Weight: ppg
Annulus, in. ID x 00 length, ft bbl/ft Volume bbl
Casing Shoe Depth: TVD, ft Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure: psi
Kick Zone Pressure: psi Mud Weight to Displace Kick: ppg
Pit Gain; psi Surface Temp: °F
Influx Height: ft Temp Grad: °F/ft
Influx Hydrostatic: psi
Total Annulus Volume bbl
Hydro
Original Mud Kill Mud Height of Pressure Original Mud Hydro-
Volume of Below Influx Below Original Mud Mud of Mud Influx Influx Influx Temp Influx Size above Influx static of Req’d Pressure
Mud Below Below Hydro- Mid-point Annulus Back at the
Pumped Vol Height Pressure Vol Height Pressure Influx Influx static Pressure Z Vol Height Height Pressure Fluids Pressure Shoe
(bbl) (bbl) (ft) (psi) (bbl) (ft) (psi) (ft) (psi) (psi) (psia) °F °R Factor (bbl) (ft) (ft) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)
Page 330 of 465

Figure 8.23 Annulus Pressure Worksheet
28 March 2012
SG 4.1-0035
Figure 8.24 Annulus Pressure Worksheet (cont'd)

If a computer is not available, consider the following formulae for use at the rig site for quick
estimations of annulus pressures during the displacement of a kick.
Page 331 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

The applicable equations are as follows:
1/ 2
 S 2 K x 0,052 x MW2  S
PD     
 4 C  2
(Equation 8-5)
S = (TD – D) x MW 2 x 0,052 – H1 x 0,052 x (MW 2 – MW 1) + Pi – Pf (Equation 8-6)
Po x Vo x Z D x TD
K
Z o x To
(Equation 8-7)
Where:
S = intermediate equation
K = Po x Vo (if temperature and compressibility effects are ignored)
TD = influx temperature for influx at Depth D (°R)
ZD = influx compressibility factor for influx at Depth D
Po = formation pressure (psi)
Vo = original influx volume (bbl)
MW 2 = kill mud weight (ppg)
C = annular capacity immediately below the influx (bbl/ft)
H1 = height of original mud below influx (comes from drill string volume) (ft)
Pi = hydrostatic pressure influx (psi)
Pf = kick zone pressure (psi)
To determine the choke pressure at gas to surface, D = 0. To determine the pressure at the
open-hole weak point when the top of the influx is at the open-hole weak point, D = Depth of
Open hole Weak Point.
The hydrostatic pressure of the influx is assumed to remain constant during displacement. It may
be approximated assuming a gas gradient of 0,1 psi/ft multiplied by the height of the influx when it
entered the wellbore. It may be adjusted for changes in annular geometry using the following
formula:
C1
Pi2  Pi1 x
C2
(Equation 8-8)
Where
Pi1 = hydrostatic pressure of influx at original conditions (psi)
Pi2 = hydrostatic pressure of influx at point of interest (psi)
Page 332 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
C1 = original annular capacity (bbl/ft)

C2 = annular capacity at point of interest (bbl/ft)
Driller’s Method
This formula may be used both for the Driller’s Method and for the Wait and Weight Method when
kill weight mud has not yet been circulated to the bit.
1/ 2
 S 2 K x MW1 x 0,052  S
PD      (Equation 8-9)
 4 C  2
 
Where:
S = (TD – D) x MW 1 x 0,052 + Pi – Pf psi (Equation 8-10)
A Completed Example
Estimate the maximum choke pressure during displacement of a gas kick for the following
conditions:
Volume of influx, Vo = 20 bbl gas
Kill mud weight, MW 2 = 15,2 ppg
Original mud weight, MW 1 = 14,1 ppg
Annular capacity below the influx, C = 0,0489 bbl/ft
Well total depth, TD = 11 500 ft
Hole/casing ID = 8 68 in
Drill string: 5 in drillpipe
BHA = 600 ft – 6-1/4 in OD – 2-3/4 in ID
Drillpipe ID = 4,276 in
Drillpipe capacity = 0,0178 bbl/ft
BHA capacity = 0,0074 bbl/ft
BHA annular capacity = 0,0353 bbl/ft
Drillpipe annulus capacity = 0,0489 bbl/ft
Capacity of the drill string = (11 500 – 600) (0,0178) + (600) (0,0074) = 198 bbl
Height of original mud in annulus, H1 = 198/0,0489 = 4 049 ft
Formation pressure, Pf = 0,052(15,2) (11 500) = 9 090 psi
K = VoPo = (20) (9 090) = 181 800
If the Weight and Wait Method is used:
S = (TD – D) MW 2 x 0,052 – H1 x 0,052 (MW 2 – MW 1) + Pi – Pf
= (11 500 – 0) (15,2) (0,052) – (4 049) (0,052) (15,2 – 14,1) + 0,1(20/0,0353) – 9 090
= –175.3
Page 333 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Substituting:
1/ 2
 S 2 K x MW2 x 0.052  S
PD     
 4 C  2
 
1/ 2
  175,3 2 181 800 x 15,2 x 0,052    175,3 
PD      
 4 0,0489   2 
 
= 1 804 psi
The maximum anticipated pressure during displacement is 1 804 psi.
Figure 8.25 Graph of Pseudo-crucial Temperature and Pressure for Hydrocarbons
Page 334 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.26 Compressibility Factors for Natural Gas
Page 335 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.3 Safety Factors

During well control operations, the objective is to maintain the bottomhole pressure slightly
greater than the kick zone pressure. This will provide a margin of error for the choke operation
that will prevent a second influx. Excessive additional pressure may overpressure the wellbore
and possibly cause the formation to fracture.
Avoid applying additional pressures to the open-hole at early stages in the displacement of the
kick when down-hole pressures will generally be at a maximum. If a safety factor is added, the
additional pressure may contribute excessive stress to the open-hole and subsequent formation
fracture.
8.3.1 Annulus Frictional Pressure
During displacement of a kick, the annulus back pressure will always provide a safety margin
over and above the kick zone pressure. Annulus back pressure is a result of the frictional
pressure while circulating at the SCR. Conventional well control techniques take minimal annulus
frictional pressure into account. The use of these techniques maintains the bottomhole pressure
at the kick zone pressure plus the annulus frictional pressure.
The annulus frictional pressure may vary considerably from well to well in a kick situation. The
significance of the annulus friction pressure needs to be assessed before a kick is displaced.
8.3.2 Heavier than Calculated Kill Weight Mud
When standard techniques are used to displace a kick, the use of heavier than kill weight mud will
result in elevated wellbore pressures. This is because additional choke pressure is applied to
account for the fact the drillpipe and annulus will be out of balance and the level in the drillpipe
side has a tendency to fall because of u-tube effects. The maximum additional u-tube pressure
will be applied when the heavier than calculated kill weight mud arrives at the bit. The use of
heavier than kill weight mud is not advisable during conventional well kill operations.
Figure 8.27 shows the choke pressure during displacement of a kick for differing mud weights
using the Wait and Weight Method. Figure 8.28 shows the equivalent shoe pressures displacing
the same mud weights as Figure 8.27.
Heavier than calculated kill weight mud is sometimes used in order to add a small overbalance in
an attempt to kill an underground blowout, but such a technique is left to specialists who tailor
techniques for individual cases. From the examples in Figure 8.27 and Figure 8.28, it can be seen
that even a relatively small overbalance will increase the wellbore pressures during kick
displacement. If additional mud weight is needed for a trip margin or before drilling ahead, any
overbalance is added after the well is brought under control.
Page 336 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.27 Choke Pressure for Various Mud Weights using the
Figure 8.28 Shoe Pressure During Displacement of a Gas Kick with Overbalanced Mud
Page 337 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.3.3 Additional Choke Pressure

An increase in choke pressure will exert an additional pressure throughout the circulating system.
If the choke pressure is increased by 100 psi, the pressure at the casing shoe, at the bottom of
the well, and in the drillpipe will increase by 100 psi. Therefore, additional choke pressure can be
used to apply additional pressure to the kick zone during displacement of the influx. Additional
choke pressure is also applied directly to the casing shoe. Before applying additional choke
pressure to the shoe, it is determined if the additional pressure will exceed the fracture gradient at
the shoe and risk inducing an underground blowout.
8.4 Complications in Well Control
8.4.1 Plugged Bit Nozzle
A plugged nozzle in the bit is indicated by an unexpected increase in drillpipe pressure with little
or no change in the choke pressure. The choke operator may be tempted to open the choke in an
attempt to reduce the drillpipe pressure to the original circulating pressure. This will result in a
drop in choke pressure and a corresponding drop in bottomhole pressure. If a plugged bit nozzle
is suspected, the pump is stopped and the well shut-in. Circulation is re-established and the new
drillpipe pressure determined that will maintain a constant bottomhole pressure.
If the bit becomes totally plugged, this will cause an abrupt and continually increasing drillpipe
pressure. As in the previous instance, the pump is shut down and the well shut-in. If
communication cannot be re-established through the bit, the string is perforated as deep as
possible in order to re-establish circulation. Field experience has shown limited success in
perforating drill collars.
8.4.2 Plugged Choke
A plugged choke is indicated by an unexpected increase in choke pressure, accompanied by an
equal increase in drillpipe pressure. Some plugging of the choke is to be expected if the annulus
is loaded with cuttings. The first course of action is to open the choke in an attempt to both clear
the restriction in the choke, and to avoid pressuring the well. If this action is not successful, stop
the pump immediately. After switching to an alternate choke, the excess pressure in the well may
be bled at the choke, and the displacement is restarted in the usual manner.
One of the reasons for displacing a kick, at slow circulation rates, is to avoid overpressuring the
well if cuttings plug the choke. Circulation rates are minimised if the annulus is likely to contain a
substantial volume of cuttings.
8.4.3 Cut-out Choke
A choke is unlikely to suddenly cut out, and there will not be any obvious indication this is
occurring. As a choke wears, it is gradually closed to maintain circulating pressure. If the operator
finds that he has to continually close in the choke in small increments, to maintain circulating
pressure, the first reaction is to check the pit volume to confirm lost circulation is not occurring.
The pump rate is not increased to maintain a constant circulating pressure. Having determined
there is no loss of circulation, choke wear may be suspected. At this point, while the primary
choke is repaired, the backup choke is used.
8.4.4 Pump Failure
The most obvious indicator of failure at the fluid end is likely to be erratic drillpipe pressure
together with irregular rotary hose movement. This may be preceded by an unexplained drop in
circulating pressure. If pump failure is suspected, the pump is stopped and the well shut-in. The
displacement is then resumed with the second rig pump or the cement pump. The faulty pump is
repaired immediately.
Page 338 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.4.5 Pressure Gauge Failure

Pressure gauges are maintained in working order. Backup gauges are available in the event of a
failure of a pressure gauge during a well control operation. If a gauge failure occurs during a well
control operation, the gauge is replaced immediately. If no backup gauge is immediately
available, the operation is stopped and the well shut-in.
8.4.6 String Washout
A washout in the drill string may be indicated by an unexpected drop in drillpipe pressure, while
the choke pressure remains unchanged. The procedure, in the event of a drill string washout, is
to stop the pump and shut the well in. Extended circulation can enlarge the washout and
complicate the event. If the kick contains gas or is predominately gas it can start migrating. The
appropriate Volumetric Method is implemented to control surface pressure increases while
maintaining a constant bottom hole pressure during gas migration.
If the Driller’s Method is being used, the location of the influx relative to the hole can be
determined by shutting in the well and comparing the drillpipe and casing pressures. If they are
equal, the influx is below the hole, the well will remain shut-in, and the influx permitted to migrate.
If the casing pressure is greater than the drillpipe pressure, the influx is above the hole and
consideration may be given to attempt to circulate the influx out of the hole. In the event the influx
can be circulated out, careful consideration is given to the volume of mud that will be pumped.
The second circulation cannot be conducted in the usual fashion since kill weight mud will not be
circulated to the bottom.
If the Wait and Weight Method is being used, the well is shut in and the influx allowed to migrate
using the Volumetric Method.
In both instances, once the influx has migrated to the surface, consideration may be given to
attempt to circulate the influx out of the hole while keeping the drillpipe pressure constant, or to
utilize the lube and bleed technique. Killing the well, and keeping it killed, may be problematic
since the depth of the hole is unknown. An option to determine the depth of the washout is to
pump a tracer.
Special stripping or snubbing techniques may be needed in case of a severe washout. Additional
personnel and equipment, provided by well control service companies may also be needed.
8.4.7 Stuck Pipe
The complication of stuck pipe during a well control operation may cause serious challenges,
especially if the pipe is stuck off bottom. In order to minimise the risk of the pipe becoming stuck
during a well control event, the pipe can be reciprocated through the annular. Pipe movement
creates an increased risk of BOP equipment and drill string failure. This possibility is weighed
against the risk of stuck pipe.
Due to the relatively greater wellbore pressures during a well control operation, the most likely
cause of stuck pipe is differential sticking. Mechanical sticking may result if the hole sloughs and
packs off as a result of the contact with the influx fluids. If the pipe is differentially stuck with the
bit on bottom, continue the kill operation. Efforts to free the pipe can be made once the well has
been killed.
If the pipe becomes differentially stuck with the bit substantially off-bottom (and above the influx),
the well is shut-in, and the influx is permitted to migrate to the surface using the Volumetric
Method. Once the influx reaches the surface, it can be circulated out of the hole. Since the kick
occurred while tripping, it is more likely that the influx was swabbed into the hole and unlikely that
the well is underbalanced. Once the influx has migrated to the surface, it can be safely circulated
out, and the well will be under control.
Page 339 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.4.8 Wellhead Pressures Approach the MAWHP

In general, a kick zone is purposely underbalanced in exceptional circumstances, such as when
the zone is known to be tight. The MAWHP is usually determined from the leak-off test data which
gives an upper limit of pressure based on formation strength minus an influx pressure gradient,
as discussed in Section 4.14.2. Wellhead pressures, in excess of the MAWHP, may not cause
down-hole failure if lighter fluids (such as a hydrocarbon influx) occupy the annulus above the
open-hole weak point.
Consequently, during a well control operation, from the moment that the top of an influx is
displaced past and above the open-hole weak point, the MAWHP may be exceeded. How much it
may be exceeded cannot be known. Casing and surface equipment integrity remains a
consideration at all times.
There are two alternatives in the event wellhead pressures risk exceeding the MAWHP when the
kick is still below the open-hole weak point, thus resulting in excessive down-hole pressures. The
alternatives are overpressuring the open-hole weak point or under balancing the formation. Below
are considerations for each alternative.
The consequences of overpressuring the open-hole weak point may be assessed by considering
the following factors:
(1) The depth of the casing shoe.
(2) The quality of the cement job.
(3) How much the open-hole weak point will be overpressured.
(4) The length of time that the open-hole weak point will be over pressurized.
(5) The characteristics of the open-hole weak point.
(6) Any safety factor added to the calculation of the MAWHP.
(7) The possibility of broaching around the casing.
(8) The consequences of underbalancing the formation may be assessed considering the
following factors:
(9) The type of kick zone fluid.
(10) The permeability of the kick zone.
(11) The degree of underbalance.
(12) The length of time that the kick zone will be underbalanced.
(13) The course of action is selected on the basis of specific conditions.
8.5 Identifying the Influx Type
The shut-in pressures recorded on the drillpipe and the casing, after taking a kick, are rarely
equal. This is because the density of the influx is almost always less than the density of the
drilling fluid. It is unlikely that any kick fluid will enter the drillpipe because this is effectively a
closed system if the kick was taken while drilling.
In water based mud systems, the pit gain will closely approximate the volume of the kick. For oil-
based mud, the solubility will obscure the size of the influx. Knowing the kick volume, annular
geometry, and the surface pressure, we can estimate the influx density. The type of influx fluid
may then be calculated, using the following as a guide:
Page 340 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Influx Calculated Influx Gradient

Fluid (psi/ft)
Gas 0,05 to 0,26
Oil 0,26 to 0,4
Water >0,4
HOLE DRILLSTRING
DIMENSIONS PRESSURE BALANCE
855 500
1. Determine the 2. Determine the hydrostatic
bottomhole pressure pressure of the influx
DRILLPIPE ANNULUS
SURFACE SURFACE
PRESSURE PRESSURE
MUD
14,2 ppg MUD
+ +
MUD
HYDROSTATIC HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE OF PRESSURE OF
8-1/2 in HOLE MUD IN THE MUD IN THE
DRILLPIPE ANNULUS
+
6-1/4 in COLLARS =
INFLUX
INFLUX
BOTTOMHOLE HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE PRESSURE
20 bbl INFLUX
HEIGHT OF BHA =
=621 ft
BOTTOMHOLE
PRESSURE
13,123 ft
1. Determine the bottomhole pressure

Bottomhole pressure = Drillpipe pressure + mud hydrostatic pressure
= 500 + (14,2 x 0,052 x 13 123)
= 500 + 9 690
= 10 190 psi
2. Calculate the height of the Influx in the annulus
Influx volume = Recorded pit again = 20 bbl
Annular capacity at collars = 0,0322 bbls/ft
Height of Influx =20/00,032 = 621 ft
3. From pressure balance
Annulus surface pressure + Hydrostatic pressure of the mud + Hydrostatic pressure of the Influx =
Bottomhole pressure
855 + 14,2 x 0,052 x (13 123 – 621) + PI = 10 190 psi
Pi, hydrostatic pressure of the influx = 10 190 – 855 – 9 231

= 104 psi
Influx gradient =Pi/height of the influx
=104/621
=0.17 psi/ft
Therefore the influx is mainly gas
4. The following formula can also be used routinely to calculate the Influx density
Density of the Influx (ppg) =MW – Pa – Pdp
h x 0,052
=14,2 – 855 – 500
621 x 0,052
=3,21 ppg = 0,17 psi/ft
Figure 8.29 Determing Influx Type
Page 341 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.29 shows an example for determining the influx type. This calculation is an
approximation. First, it is assumed that the influx is a discrete bubble. This is rarely the case. It is
more likely to be contaminated with mud. Second, the effective mud weight in the annulus is not
likely to be the same as in the drillpipe. This is due to cuttings loading the annulus and the
reduced density of the formation fluid. Also, the hole may be out of gauge. This calculation is
performed to provide a check on the validity of the kick data.
It is useful to know the type of influx before circulation is initiated. Although most formation fluids,
including formation water, contain some gas, the calculated influx gradient provides a guide to the
proportion of gas in the fluid. The proportion of gas in the influx determines two factors. First, it
will allow for the anticipated wellbore pressures during displacement. Second, it enables
calculation of the expected pit gain during displacement. If the gas contains heavy hydrocarbon
molecules at reservoir conditions, condensate fluids may form as the gas is displaced from the
hole. This will not occur for a dry gas. Gas will break out of solution from an oil influx when the
influx pressure is reduced below the bubble point pressure during displacement. For light oils, a
large quantity of gas will be produced. All kicks are assumed to contain a certain proportion of
gas. This data could influence the type of kill method employed. If wellbore pressures will be
excessive, using either the Driller’s or the Wait and Weight methods, then a bullhead kill may be
considered.
8.6 Bullheading
Bullheading is defined as pumping mud into the wellbore as a closed system in order to displace
an influx back into the formation. During drilling operations, bullheading is a last resort. This
technique may result in fracturing any exposed formation and not the zone which kicked. During
drilling operations, bullheading is limited to instances where casing is set immediately above the
productive horizon. With casing set immediately above the productive horizon, the influx can be
forced back into the zone of origin, given satisfactory casing strength.
(1) Bullheading may be considered when a very large influx has been taken and where
conventional well control procedures are likely to result in breakdown of the shoe, or open-
hole weak point. Elevated surface pressures can be expected, and bullheading heavy mud
may reduce the surface pressures to satisfactory levels.
(2) Bullheading can be considered as a method of reducing surface pressures. For example,
during underground blowouts, the surface pressure may become unacceptably high. Heavy
mud is bullheaded to reduce surface pressures.
(3) In cases where the influx is suspected to contain an unacceptable concentration of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), it may be preferable to bullhead, rather than circulate, in order to keep the H 2S
from reaching the surface.
(4) Generally, bullheading is done at rates high enough to produce a solid column of liquid. At
slow rates, the mud can merely bypass the gas within the wellbore, which will not drive the
influx back down the hole.
8.7 Barite Plugs
8.7.1 Characteristics of Barite Plugs
Hydrostatic Pressure Kill
Since barite settling is inherently slow, and the results of settling are unpredictable, the use of a
settling recipe is not a dominant factor in designing a well control operation. The goal in using a
barite kill slurry is the same as with any other kill weight mud – to achieve a hydrostatic pressure
kill.
Three factors contribute to achieving a hydrostatic pressure kill:
(1) The density of the fluid.
(2) The volume of the fluid.
Page 342 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(3) The rate at which the fluid is pumped.

The density and volume of the kill weight mud is large enough to control the formation, and the
pump rate, during the kill, will exceed the influx rate by a margin great enough so that the kill
weight mud is not blown out of the wellbore. The pumping job is designed with the above three
factors in mind. The ideal kill weight mud would be simple to mix and handle over a wide range of
densities. Deflocculated barite slurries fit this description. However, the settling of the barite may
be a challenge in surface handling and pumping.
Bridging Effect
It has been suggested that a barite plug can stop unwanted flow by a bridging effect, and thus,
achieving a hydrostatic pressure kill is not needed. There is some empirical evidence to support
this view. There are cases where a well has stopped flowing after being treated with a small
barite plug.
Laboratory tests show that even very small gas volumes (0,01 Mcf/d at bottomhole conditions)
can flow through a settling barite plug. This fact, as well as field experience, has indicated the
bridging action of a barite plug is not reliable.
The strength of the settled barite is another important factor in well control. Laboratory tests show
the strength of a settled barite plug is variable. Settled barite may appear rock-solid when pushed
hard, and yet move slowly out of the way of a persistent, gentle force. This behaviour is actually a
well understood property of deflocculated cakes. A barite plug can fail unexpectedly if an
overbalanced kill condition is not maintained.
Settling or Non-settling
Since barite settling is of little value down-hole and is troublesome on the surface, it is an optional
feature of the slurry recipe. The correct approach would be to use the settling recipe for small
jobs, or where the settling barite may be helpful down-hole. For large kill operations, the non-
settling recipe is preferred.
Bentonite, or some polymer other than XC, could be used to suspend the barite in a non-settling
slurry. Recipes that are prepared easily in both fresh and saltwater, and are designed to be
shear-thinning enough to be easily pumped, while suspending the barite in the pits effectively, are
chosen.
Barite plug type slurries can be prepared with all of the barite substitutes which are now on the
market. The standard recipes will allow for the use of density building substitutes with specific
gravities greater than barite. These substitutes allow slurry weights in excess of those obtainable
with barite. For example, hematite slurries can be prepared to 25 ppg using the non-settling
recipe. Replace the barite with 870 lb hematite per final bbl of slurry. The non-settling recipe is
strongly indicated for hematite slurries because of the relatively coarse grind of oil-field hematite.
8.7.2 Design of Weighted Plugs (Settling and Non-settling) for Water-based Mud (WBM)
One use of settling weighted plugs (barite pill) is under extreme or emergency conditions, where it
is imperative that some measures are taken to seal off the bottom section of a borehole. One
example might be when a well is simultaneously kicking and losing circulation.
Ideally, a successful barite plug will accomplish two things. Initially, the weight of the barite slurry
will stop the flow, and after a period of time, the settled barite plug will mechanically block any
further flow in the wellbore.
Figure 8.30 summarizes the factors that are taken into account when designing and mixing a
barite plug in water-based muds.
Page 343 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
1 Slurry Weight
The design of a settling barite plug is that the barite settles rapidly, but not so quickly that it cannot be
pumped and displaced, without plugging off the drill string. The settling rate is inversely proportional to the
slurry weight. The range of slurry weight is generally 15,8 to 21,7 ppg. Lighter weight slurries, in the range
of 14,2 to 15,8 ppg, are suggested for setting plugs, inside casing or drill strings, where filtration does not
occur and rapid settling is the object. Denser slurries are suggested for the open-hole where both settling
and filtration aid in making an immovable seal. Barite pills (settling) built with water as the base fluid, are
largely ineffective over 19 ppg as the solids content of the barite is large, and the system becomes “self
suspending” without the addition of gel. For Oil based or synthetic fluids this occurs ~ 17,5 ppg.
2 Slurry Volume
The effective settled and/or compacted height of the barite is less than that of the slurry as pumped, which
needs to be taken into account when determining the volume. As a guideline, tests on a 20 ppg slurry
indicated that the settled height is approximately 70% of the original height. In general, a settled plug
height of 150 to 500 ft is used.
3 Slurry Viscosity
The greater the viscosity of the slurry, the lower the settling rate will be. A rapid settling rate is desirable
from the stand point of blocking flow from the well. In addition, the greater the settling rate, the harder the
settled pack of barite is.
Settling rates for dense slurries are slow, and a dispersant can increase the rate. Because of variations in
conditions, including barite quality, it is essential to pilot test the slurry.
The mix is made in drill water in which the pH has been adjusted to 9,5 to 10,5 with caustic. Barite and drill
water mix volumes are listed below for differing slurry weights.
Slurry Weight Drill Water Barite
ppg gal/bbl lbs/bbl
14,2 33,0 313,5
15,8 29,8 424,0
17,5 26,7 534,6
20,0 26,6 645,2
22,1 20,4 755,8
4 Mixing Procedure
The slurry can be mixed in either a well agitated slug pit, blender, or using the cementing unit. If the slug
pit is used, particular attention will be given to prevent the barite from settling while mixing. The mixing
system may include two centrifugal pumps as the slurry weight increases towards 20 ppg. If the cementing
unit is used, the liquid phase is mixed in the mud pits, and then transferred to the cementing unit for
weighting up.
5 Displacement Procedure
A non-settling slurry is spotted either as a balanced plug, or slightly under displaced. When calculating the
volume for the displacement, it is adjusted so that the height of the slurry, inside the drillpipe, is 2 bbl
greater than outside the drillpipe. This allows the drillpipe to be withdrawn with a natural slug. It will also
minimise movement of the slurry in the hole which causes contamination.
After spotting the plug, the drill string is withdrawn immediately from the plug to prevent sticking due to
barite settling. Circulate clean mud on top of the plug. A displacement rate of 5 to 8 bbl/min is generally
adequate. The plug is displaced either open ended, or through a bit containing no nozzles. The plug is not
displaced through a bit containing nozzles unless, the string contains a circulating sub, or the WTL is first
consulted.
Figure 8.30 Design of Barite Plug for WBM
Page 344 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
8.7.3 Design of Barite Plugs for Oil-based Mud

The application, function and design of barite plugs in oil-based mud, with respect to weight,
volume, and viscosity, is identical to those for water-based plugs. The basic design consists of
base oil, barite and an oil wetting agent. Due to the very different natures of oil wetting agents
used by different mud companies, it is more difficult to define standard formulation than for water-
based. Individual formulations are supplied by each mud company and are pilot tested in the field.
The requirements for a 6,7 ppg oil and barite at differing slurry weights are listed below.
Slurry Base Oil Barite
Weight gal/bbl lbs/bbl
ppg
14,2 31,1 381,8
15,8 28,1 485,9
17,5 25,1 589,9
20,0 22,1 693,9
22,1 19,2 797,9
8.7.4 Dispersants
For settling plugs, it has been standard practice to add a thinner to barite slurries used in well
control. Both lignosulfonates and phosphates have been used, with the phosphate SAPP having
the widest acceptance. Chemicals of either type can disperse a barite slurry, improve pumpability,
and allow settling into a firm cake.
The choice of dispersant will influence the barite slurry properties as follows:
(1) Use of SAPP results in a slurry with an elevated fluid loss (50 cc). SAPP will not disperse in
saltwater or in the presence of some contaminants which occur in natural barite.
(2) Use of lignosulfonate results in a slurry with a fluid loss of 5 cc. Lignosulfonate is effective in
saltwater and tolerates both contamination and elevated temperatures.
Use of an elevated fluid loss barite slurry is advantageous, because it might dehydrate and plug
the wellbore, or promote hole instability, which may create sufficient bridging to stop the flow. On
the other hand, a reduced fluid loss slurry would reduce the chances of differential sticking. Faced
with these choices, experience indicates using the more reliable lignosulfonate rather than SAPP.
8.7.5 Pilot Tests
Because of variation and contamination of ingredients throughout the world, it is advisable to pilot
test a barite slurry. Prepare a sample of the slurry using the recipe chosen and the ingredients at
the wellsite. After being stirred thoroughly, the sample will have the expected density and be
easily pumpable. Settling of 2 in, in a mud cup after 15 min, is typical. The settled cake will be
hard and somewhat sticky, rather than soft and slippery..
8.7.6 Slurry Volume
Slurry volumes depend upon the amount of open-hole and the severity of the kick. These
volumes usually range from 40 bbl to 400 bbl. The slurry volume needs to be 125 to 150% of the
annular capacity to give the height of plug desired.
8.7.7 Pumping and Displacement Rate
Barite plugs are pumped with the drillpipe close to the bottom of the hole. If there is a large
volume of mud under the barite slurry, the barite slurry will mix with the mud because of the large
differences in density. If the influx zone is somewhat above the bottom of the hole, then the barite
Page 345 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
slurry is pumped to bottom and then above the influx zone far enough to provide the desired
hydrostatic pressure kill height.
A barite plug is pumped and displaced at a rate greater than the kick rate. If the kick rate is
unknown, a rate of 5 to 10 bbl/min is used for the first attempt.
8.7.8 Preparation of a Barite Plug
For field preparation of either a settling or non-settling barite slurry, prepare the mix water first,
and then add barite to increase the slurry density. Equipment needed on location to prepare and
pump a barite plug are a cementing unit, equipped with a high-pressure jet in the mixing hopper,
a means of delivering the dry barite to the cementing unit, and clean tankage for the mix water so
the lignosulfonate and caustic soda can be mixed in advance. Weighting up to 20,8 ppg in one
pass may not be possible. The non-settling slurry may be re-circulated through the mixing hopper
several times, if necessary, to obtain a particular weight. This will limit the pill to the size of a
single mixing vessel.
Settling-type barite slurries may be stored in ribbon blenders, or similar equipment, which provide
a continuous, thorough agitation. Non-settling slurries may be stored in standard mud tanks,
although even these slurries may drop out a few inches of barite per day if not continuously
agitated.
The barite slurry may be pumped into the drillpipe either through a cementing head or through the
drillpipe and Kelly. The pump tie-in to the drillpipe contains provisions for hooking up both the
cementing unit pump and the rig pump so either can be used to displace the slurry. If this is not
done, and the cementing unit breaks down, the barite may settle in the drillpipe before the mud
pump tie-in can be made or the cementing unit repaired. Blockage of the drill string by barite
settling will complicate the well control operation.
8.7.9 After Pumping a Barite Plug
Barite plugs may be used in a variety of situations. After placing a barite plug, decide whether to
pull pipe. The goal of pumping a densified slurry is to achieve a hydrostatic pressure kill. The
decision to pull pipe depends on an assessment of the success of this kill. If a hydrostatic
pressure kill was achieved, then it is usually advisable to pull up above the slurry and attempt to
circulate mud. If there is doubt, regarding the hydrostatic pressure kill, it may be better to stay on
bottom to be ready to pump a larger barite plug. The risk in pulling out is that the pipe may
become stuck off bottom or may have to be stripped back to the bottom if the barite plug fails.
The risk of staying on bottom is that the pipe may become stuck or plugged.
8.7.10 Barite Plug Procedure-Settling Slurry
The following is an example barite plug procedure when using a settling slurry.
(1) Mix and pump the slurry at the appropriate rate. Monitor the slurry density with a densometer
in the discharge line or a pressurized mud balance. Displace the slurry immediately at the
same rate.
(2) Over displace the slurry by 2-5 bbl (based on the confidence in the accuracy of the pumping
equipment) to clear the drill string. Continue to pump 1/4 bbl at 15 min intervals to keep the
drill string clear while POH.
(3) Determine if underground flow has stopped. A noise log may be used in conjunction with
temperature surveys. If temperature surveys are used, wait 24-36 h for the temperatures to
stabilize. (Temperature surveys are the first log run and are logged from top down). The
survey will show a hotter than normal temperature in the zone of lost returns. Wait another
12 h, then run a second survey. If the underground flow has stopped, the temperature in the
loss zone will have decreased. Logs run after the pumping of the barite plug are ‘overlaid’ on
the previous log runs, when the well was in a flowing condition, allowing for comparison.
Page 346 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(4) After it has been determined the flow is stopped, pump cement through the bit to provide a
permanent seal. Observe the annulus during the pumping for signs of a plug failure.
Note: If the casing pressure begins to vary appreciably, or if a sudden change in the pumping
pressure occurs, the barite plug may have been disturbed. Over displace the cement to
clear the drill string.
Additional cementing to obtain a squeeze pressure might be desirable. For cases where
adequate squeeze pressure was not achieved during the cement job, a contingency plan is
available for over displacing the drill string.
Note: For cases where the drill string is over displaced, the WOC time is based on the lab test
results before pumping the next cement job.
 Plug the inside of the drill string. The cement in Step (4) can be under displaced if personnel
are confident in the accuracy of the pumping equipment to within a 1 bbl tolerance, but a wire
line bridge plug set near the top of the collars is preferred. In this case, cement is dump
bailed on the wireline bridge plug for additional safety.
 Pressure test the inside plug.
 Perforate the drill string near the top of the barite plug. Attempt to circulate.
8.8 Well Control Considerations in Slim Hole Well
A slim hole well is commonly defined as one in which 90% or more of the length of the well is
drilled with drill bits less than a 7 in diameter. A well with hole sizes smaller than those in a
conventional well is also broadly considered a slim hole.
The immediate difference between a conventional well and a slim hole well is their respective
hole sizes. Other major characteristics of slim hole wells include, the practice of long sections of
continuous coring and the requirements of elevated drillpipe rotary speeds, reduced- weights on
bit, lower mud flow rates and special mud systems. A slim hole requires changes in the well
design, well operation and the well control procedures.
8.8.1 Slim Hole Characteristics
In terms of well control, a slim hole has distinctly different characteristics when compared with a
conventional well.
Greater Influx Length
Due to the reduced annular size in a slim hole, the same volume of formation influx will occupy a
much longer section of the annulus in a slim hole than in a conventional well. As shown in Figure
8.31, a 10 bbl influx occupies 216 ft in a conventional 8,5 in x 5 in well and is 1 716 ft long in a
3,5 in x 2,5 in slim hole well.
Greater Bottomhole Pressure Reduction
As the result of the greater influx length, the same volume of formation influx will result in a
greater reduction in the bottomhole pressure in a slim hole well. As shown in Figure 8.32, a 10 bbl
gas influx will reduce the bottomhole pressure by approximately 743 psi in a 3,5 in x 2,5 in slim
hole well, and 94 psi in a conventional 8,5 in x 5 in well.
Greater Annular Friction Pressure
Due to the reduced annular size, the annular friction pressure drop may be many times greater in
a slim hole than in a conventional well, as shown in Figure 8.33. The friction pressure drop may
become large during well control operations in a slim hole. This pressure drop is generally
ignored in the case of a conventional well.
Page 347 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Greater Swab and Surge Pressures

Figure 8.34 compares the swab pressure in both slim hole and conventional wells. The swab
pressure is much greater in a slim hole well than in a conventional well. The swab pressure
increases more rapidly in a slim hole well with increasing the trip speed.
Effect of Elevated Drillpipe Rotational Speed
During a slim hole drilling operation, the drillpipe is often rotated at a faster speed compared to a
conventional drilling operation. Together the smaller annulus size and the higher drillpipe rotation
speed results in a substantial increase in the annular friction pressure and ECD. This effect is
taken into account during well control procedures. If the annular friction pressures are not
accounted for, the weak formation may be broken down when the drillpipe starts to rotate, or a
kick influx may be induced when rotation stops (while still maintaining circulation).
8.8.2 Kick Detection System
As described earlier, a small volume of influx may occupy a long section of the annulus in a slim
hole well, and greatly reduce the bottomhole pressure. This will cause the influx flow to intensify
rapidly. As a result, a kick may develop more rapidly in a slim hole well than in a conventional
well. It is crucial that kicks are detected at a very early stage during a slim hole operation.
Although the basic principles in the kick detection methods remain the same for slim holes, the
sensitivity of the detection system is enhanced. The system will be able to detect a small volume
of pit gain (typically 1 or 2 bbl). The system is able to detect the difference between the mud flow
in and out of the well (typically 25 gpm). When the influx flow is fast, the flow in versus flow out
method is more reliable than the pit volume detection method. Finally, the system will be able to
detect a kick while making a connection. The annular friction pressure creates an elevated ECD
during drilling. The most likely time for a kick to occur will be when the pumps are shut down to
make a connection. ”Fingerprinting” flowbacks, as described in Section 10, on connections
greatly benefits early kick detection in this type of well.
8.8.3 Well Kill Technique
Since the annular friction pressure is small in a conventional well, it is not accounted for during
well control operations and it becomes a safety factor during a well kill operation to maintain
bottomhole pressure above the formation pressure. In a slim hole, the annular friction pressure is
not used as a safety factor. The failure to account for annular friction pressure could result in
breaking down the formation at the weak point and cause lost circulation.
When drilling a slim hole, a decision is made as to whether the conventional well kill technique
can be applied. To determine this, the annular pressure loss is calculated. The annular friction
pressure, at the slow circulating rates, may be added to the annular pressure profile to evaluate
the impact at the weak point in the wellbore. If lost circulation is unlikely, the conventional well
control technique may be applied. If losses are likely, the slim hole well control technique will be
used.
Page 348 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.31 Height of a 10 bbl Gas Influx in Annulus
Figure 8.32 Reduction in Bottomhole Pressure due to a 10 bbl Gas Influx
Page 349 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Brine with 4.0 cp

Mud with PV=15; YP= 10
Figure 8.33 Annular Friction Pressure Drop.
Figure 8.34 Swab Pressure in a 1 000 ft Hole

8.9 Shallow Gas
Refer to Section 1 for discussion of the geological origins of shallow gas.
8.9.1 General
Shallow gas kicks are generally caused by loss of hydrostatic pressure head due to one, or a
combination of, the following:
 Overloading the annulus with cuttings, thereby causing losses.
 Drilled gas expanding and unloading the annulus.
 Incorrect hole fill while tripping.
The following general precautions help to minimise the possibility of inducing a shallow gas flow:
 Drill a pilot hole.
 Drill riserless.
 Control ROP.
 Accurately monitor the hole.
Page 350 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Weighted muds, rather than seawater, may be used for drilling these sections. However, this may
contribute to the increased possibility of lost returns. Shallow gas flows are often extremely
prolific, producing very large gas flow rates and considerable quantities of rock from the
formation. This is especially the case when a long section of sand has been exposed. In the
event of a shallow gas flow, the Well Control Response protocol will be initiated to make
preparations to evacuate non-essential personnel from the rig. The possibility of completely
evacuating the rig will also be addressed.
A shallow seismic anomaly (bright spot) may indicate the presence of shallow gas. If a bright spot
is present at the proposed drilling location, the rig can be moved to avoid the hazard. A better
drilling location would be on a shallow seismic shot point. This process will directly involve BP’s
geohazards team.
The absence of bright spots does not rule out the possibility of shallow gas. Such a situation will
be reflected in the well control response guide contingency plan. Additionally, the absence of
shallow gas in one well of a series, drilled from a surface location, does not guarantee the
absence of shallow gas in subsequent directional wells drilled from the same surface location.
Severe shallow flows have been encountered in the past as a result of a shallow zone becoming
charged by a deeper zone. The shallow zone may have been charged by a faulty cement job in a
previously drilled well. This is particularly important in development drilling scenarios.
Shallow gas flows may vary in size and severity. Shallow gas flows will deplete or bridge off. A
contingency plan is prepared for recovering from a shallow gas flow once the rig is safe.
8.9.2 Gas Encountered with a Riser - Bottom Supported Rigs
Shallow gas reservoirs are potentially much more hazardous when penetrated from a jack-up or
platform. The conductor is a conduit to the rig floor, and the products of a kick are discharged
directly into a hazardous work area.
In the event of a shallow gas flow, the diverter will immediately be closed in order to direct the
flow overboard. The reliability of the diverter system while subject to the stress of a shallow gas
flow is uncertain and the possibility of equipment failure is considered.
On a bottom supported rig, a potentially hazardous situation is created if a restriction forms in the
diverter line. The subsequent pressure build-up may cause gas to broach around the casing to
the seabed. In this event, there is a risk that the seabed will become fluidized, inducing a sudden
reduction in spudcan resistance.
The following precautions are taken while the surface hole is open:
(1) Care is taken to be sure the annulus does not become overloaded with cuttings, causing
losses or gas to be liberated from the cuttings to such an extent that the annulus unloads.
This is achieved by drilling a pilot hole, limiting the ROP, and circulating at a rate to distribute
the cuttings and drilled gas.
(2) Facilities are available to rapidly fill the annulus from the surface in the event of total losses.
(3) The well is monitored and kept full while tripping.
(4) A non-ported float valve is run in the drill string.
(5) Consideration is given to pumping out of the hole and displacing the hole to weighted mud
prior to tripping out.
(6) Equipment is installed to divert flow away from the rig, without restricting flow or imposing
backpressure on the well, and is available for immediate activation.
(7) Enough mud is kept onsite to fill the hole volume twice.
Page 351 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
If the well starts to flow, the following procedure may be used as a guideline:
(1) Maintain maximum pump rate.
(2) Space out so the lower Kelly valve is just above the rotary table.
(3) Confirm overboard diverter lines are open, close shaker valve and diverter element.
(4) Shut down all non-essential equipment and machinery to minimise potential sources of
ignition. Deploy fire hoses beneath the rig floor.
(5) Evacuate all non-essential personnel.
(6) Monitor the sea for evidence of broaching. (Evacuate all personnel if any evidence is
detected).
8.9.3 Gas Encountered Drilling Riserless- Bottom Supported Rigs
The potential hazards of drilling in a riserless environment need to be addressed. The risk of
drilling riserless from a bottom supported rig is considerably greater than drilling riserless from a
floater. If shallow gas is encountered when drilling riserless from a bottom supported rig, the rig,
crew, and rig equipment are put into a hazardous situation with few options since no equipment is
in place to manage the flow from the sea floor.
If the flow is small and voids itself to the sea floor, the situation is not crucial, but this is unlikely.
Most of the shallow kicks are low-pressure and high volume. The gas may quickly dissipate away
from the rig environment (i.e., sea current diversion). The rapid decline of the pressure within the
shallow gas zone may result in sea water killing, or substantially reducing, the gas flow rate.
Another potential hazard which needs to be considered is broaching of a surface formation near
the conductor shoe. This presents a real potential of seabed cratering and loss of rig stability.
The riserless environment does not entirely solve the potential broaching hazard which can be
caused by additional backpressure created by a restriction in the flow path of diverter lines when
using a riser. A similar result may be seen from an open-hole bridge forming when drilling
riserless. In this situation, the broaching mechanism will follow the path of least resistance and
may impact key areas of the surface location. The flow of gas may fluidize the seabed reducing
the stability of the spudcans or jacket piles.
8.9.4 Onshore Shallow Gas
The shallow geology of onshore locations varies widely, but shallow gas is a rare occurrence
onshore. Geological control is usually precise enough to predict formations accurately and
specific contingency plans are made to counter potential events. Shallow onshore reservoirs are
generally older, more consolidated, and less permeable than those offshore, which will tend to
reduce the flow potential of a shallow kick onshore.
Onshore, most wells are spudded through a thin layer of weathered formation into a bed rock.
The conductor and surface casing strings are usually set in competent formation which may
permit pressure control by standard means. Since the existence of either a shallow gas
accumulation or a weak casing shoe is not excluded, a means of diverting the flow away from the
rig is provided. Provisions are made so that an ample supply of water is available to pump in the
hole at a predetermined rate without returns in the event of encountering losses.
Diverter procedures for an onshore well will be similar to those for a bottom supported offshore
rig. If the water supply is known to be limited, a barite plug may be the chosen method of halting a
shallow gas flow.
Most flows from shallow onshore reservoirs are associated with aquifers that outcrop at greater
elevations (or lower elevations if air or foam drilling fluid is in use). A water flow of this type is
usually predictable and of limited consequence. However, severe shallow flows have been
Page 352 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
encountered as a result of a shallow zone becoming charged by a deeper zone. The shallow
zone may have been charged by a faulty cement job in a previously drilled well.
8.10 Aspects of Underbalanced Drilling
8.10.1 General
Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) refers to the practice of intentionally drilling a well with the
hydrostatic pressure less than the formation pore pressure. Specialized well control equipment,
drilling fluids, practices and procedures have been developed to allow these wells to be drilled
while the formations are flowing. Well control practices during UBD differ from conventional
drilling, for example:
(1) Flow from the formation is intentionally induced by reducing the effective drilling fluid
density.
(2) Drilling ahead is maintained when formation fluids flow into the well.
(3) Drilling is maintained when there is a loss of drilling fluid to the well.
(4) The drillpipe may be pulled off bottom with the well flowing.
(5) The pit level may be maintained constant when circulating the well under pressure.
In the past, the practice of UBD has been limited to a few areas where the formations were
known to have great strength and diminished permeability. The availability of surface equipment
with greater working pressures is allowing this technique to be applied to a much wider range of
formation depths and pore pressures.
Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD), or near-balanced drilling, is a condition where the hydrostatic
pressure of the wellbore fluid column is reduced to be in balance, or slightly less than, the
formation pressure. To prevent hydrocarbons or formation fluids from entering into the wellbore,
surface pressure is applied. Since much of the technology used in MPD is the same as for UBD,
it is useful to consider UBD methods in these circumstances.
8.10.2 UBD Well Control Barrier Theory
Unlike conventional drilling practices, the primary annulus barrier to well flow while drilling
underbalanced is the rotary seal or rotating head around the drillpipe. The surface equipment is
designed to control the well (even when flowing) without the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid column. All UBD effectively allows formation fluids to blend with the drilling fluid over the
entire length of the annulus. This does not mean that drilling fluid is inconsequential. The correct
use of drilling fluid may be effective in controlling the degree of underbalance. The underbalanced
margin allows surface pressures and flow rates to stay safely within their rated working
capacities. These UBD fluids are designed to minimise formation damage if they invade the
formation during a well kill or brief periods of overbalance.
The primary internal barriers are the floats. The BOP stack, choke manifold and FOSV are the
secondary well control barriers. The criteria and procedure for shut-in depends on the type of
drilling system being used.
To safely conduct drilling operations means managing surface pressure. The surface equipment
and operating procedures are designed to handle the pressures and flow rates experienced while
drilling. UBD operations are a continuous pressure control situation. Purpose-built equipment is
specified, inspected, tested and maintained.
Well control concerns are not the only limitation for UBD. Because the formation fluids are not
prevented from flowing into the wellbore by the drilling fluid, as they are in conventional drilling;
different well control practices and procedures are used. Under most circumstances, correctly
sized and rated surface equipment contains and controls produced fluids while drilling
underbalanced. Large hydrocarbon production rates and elevated pressures are beneficial in
Page 353 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
regards to the long term profitability of the well, but they may complicate some UBD operations.
The surface equipment will be able to safely handle the maximum rate of production, and be able
to contain the maximum anticipated surface pressure, which could be substantial. If excessive
production rates are encountered, there may be little alternative but to kill the well. Take care to
understand the pressures induced from the well and from the drilling fluid.
Many people assume that production of hydrocarbons during drilling confirms the entire well is
being drilled in an underbalanced state. This is not the case, and is an over simplified
assumption. Large pressure drops, compounded by localized reservoir inflow, may exist over the
horizontal section, resulting in underbalanced conditions near the casing, and overbalanced
conditions at the bit.
This means hydrocarbons seen at surface may be produced near the casing while formation
damage and/or fluid loss occurs at the bit, which defeats the purpose of UBD. Hydrocarbon
production confirms the well is underbalanced at some point along the wellbore. Through direct
measurement, or modelling, of annular pressure can UBD drilling conditions be confirmed.
Modelling alone, may not confirm what is happening in the reservoir. The models can be made to
show a wide variety of results. This is due to the complex nature of three-phase multi-component
systems.
8.10.3 UBD Well Control Equipment
UBD can take many forms. The equipment and cost depend on the magnitude of the surface
pressures expected, the method of pipe rotation (e.g., topdrive, rotary table), the nature of the
reservoir fluids to be encountered, and the type of drilling system to be used. Listed below are
different types of UBD systems applicable for use with jointed pipe:
(1) Air, gas (exhaust or natural gas), nitrogen (cryogenic or membrane separation).
(2) Mist systems.
(3) Foam drilling.
(4) Aerated fluid drilling.
(5) Flow or ‘live’ drilling underbalanced with mud, brine, or aerated fluids.
Each method of underbalanced drilling uses fit for purpose, surface, bottomhole, and return
systems.
RBOP versus Rotary Control Head
A key element of this piece of surface equipment is a device to seal on the Kelly or drillpipe, to
divert well flow, while allowing rotation and reciprocation of the drill string. The two types of rotary
seals are the Rotating Control Head (RCH) and the Rotating Blowout Preventer (RBOP). The
industry has many names in common usage for the RBOP (due to trademark restrictions), e.g.,
rotating diverter preventer. The main criterion of the RBOP is it has hydraulically activated
rotating seals, as opposed to the sealing element being energized by well pressure, as in the
case of the RCH, as shown in Figure 8.35.
Page 354 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.35 Rotating Control Head

RCH have been used successfully in air and foam drilling operations for many years, but have
several inherent limitations. The RCH tends to develop low-pressure leaks with minor amounts of
wear due to the design of the element. In the RCH, closing forces, pressing the steel reinforced
rubber elements against the Kelly or pipe, are generated by wellhead pressure and assisted at
low-pressures by the elastic deformation of the seal. The use of multiple rubber sealing elements
provides redundant protection against a sudden, large leak and allows a greater working pressure
to be achieved. API does not recognize the RCH as a BOP component, as it relies on well
pressure alone to energize its sealing element. There is no way to monitor the wear on the
element during use, so life expectancy cannot be predicted. Periodic visual inspection of the
sealing elements for wear is performed to prevent failure and the subsequent release of
hydrocarbons. The surface pressure, number of tool joints stripped up and down, and surface
condition of the pipe (tong marks) can all greatly affect the life of the sealing elements. Another
common source of wear are the grooves in S-135 drill pipe. Depending on the circulating fluid
used, very little pressure (a few psi) exists in the annular flow at the rotating head. If reverse
circulation is used, a pressure of several hundred psi can be exerted on the RCH. These devices
are now available with working pressures more than 2000 psi (14,000 kPa).
In contrast to the RCH, the RBOP is certified by API and is rated by pressure containment. Figure
8.36 shows an example RBOP. They are hydraulically actuated and the elements (split) which
facilitates their being replaced while the drill string is in the hole. RBOPs are common at 1500 psi
working, 3000 psi static, and are now on the market at 2500 psi working, 5000 psi static.
The use of a RCH or RBOP does not replace a conventional BOP stack.
Page 355 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.36 Rotating Blowout Preventer

BOP Stack Configuration
The BOP stack guidance is discussed in Section 5 of this manual and may consist of:
(1) A diverter line and rotating diverter preventer.
(2) The capability to bleed off to a flare, or through a manifold in the event of a diverter line
obstruction, or other operations involving bleed-off, separate from the production vessel.
(3) The capability to equalize pressure between the diverter lines and the lowermost ram type
preventer.
(4) The accumulator system, used to control the rotating diverter, is independent of the rig’s
standard accumulator system.
In areas where UBD is routine, such as West Texas, drilling with the well flowing is common and
the wear on the well control equipment creates challenges. In these areas, it is common to have
more than one choke line to the manifold. The secondary choke line will usually come from the
kill-line side, or from a secondary drilling spool below an additional pipe ram, and will meet the
same specifications for dimension and pressure rating as the primary choke line. Figure 8.37
represents an example UBD BOP stack configuration.
Page 356 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.37 An Example BOP Stack for UBD

Surface Separation Equipment
The fluid and gas separation systems are characterized as either open or closed. This
designation depends on whether or not the vessels are open to the atmosphere or sealed. Closed
separators are not used with drilling fluids containing flammable mixtures. This minimises any
explosion hazard. A closed system is used if hydrogen sulfide is present in the produced fluids.
There are two distinct strategies currently used to effect phase separation:
(1) All phases are separated simultaneously in a single vessel.
(2) Each phase is separated in sequence in a series of vessels.
Texas Atmospheric Surface System for Flow-drilling

An open, or atmospheric, system is commonly used in most flow-drilling applications.
The Texas Atmospheric System (TAS) is one method of surface fluid separation while flow-
drilling. The components of this system are illustrated below in Figure 8.38.
Page 357 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.38 Atmospheric Phase Separation System
Closed Loop Pressurized System

In high gas content formations, or if hydrogen sulfide gas might be encountered, a closed loop, or
pressured, separator system is used upstream of a vacuum degasser for improved gas
management and safety. The Closed Loop System (CLS) as shown in Figure 8.39, requires
additional manpower, and a nitrogen source available to supply operating pressure for the
separator system before the onset of natural gas production.
Figure 8.39 Four-phase Separator Vessel
Page 358 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Float Valves
Float valves are placed in the drill string, one near the surface and one, just above the bit. These
may be flapper or dart (piston) type valves. Both are illustrated in Figure 8.40.
The drill string is not run without, at least, the lower float valve. The floats are pressure tested in
their sub prior to running in the hole. This is often a dart-type valve. In the absence of a string
float, the lower float prevents any flow, from the annulus, back up the string during drilling and
tripping.
The upper floats are commonly termed the string float. This is usually a flapper-type valve for
fishing considerations. It prevents most of the compressed air, or nitrogen, in the drill string from
being lost at the rig floor when a connection is made. It prevents bleeding the pressure from the
entire string when making a connection, and this reduces the time taken to make a connection. It
is not usually installed when drillpipe pressures are low. A string float will not be added to the
string until the well depth reaches 3000 to 4000 ft. If a down-hole motor or percussion hammer is
in use, the drillpipe pressure will be greater than for conventional rotary drilling operations. In
these instances, a string float will often be added to the drill string at shallower depths. Typically
floats are designed to prevent the flapper from opening past vertical which could prevent closing
due to upward flow (the flow will actually hold them open under these circumstances). When the
drillpipe manifold is opened, to bleed off air pressure before making a connection, the air flow up
the string will close the valve.
After the air pressure below the valve has bled down through the annulus, the valve will fall open
if the flapper valve spring has been removed. This will allow running wireline tools and inclination
survey tools through the string float. However, great care has to be exercised when pulling the
survey tool back up through the float valve. Alternatively, the string can be tripped, the float valve
removed, and the string run back to the bottom before taking a survey. The string float will then
be re-installed at the surface before resuming drilling operations.
Figure 8.40 Float Valves

Custom-modified float valves may be included in the drill string to prevent the flow of air down the
drill string in the event of a down-hole fire (refer to Figure 8.41). A fire stop will usually be run near
the top of the collars. This is basically an inverted flapper valve, in which the flap is held open by
a zinc ring. If a down-hole fire occurs, the zinc ring melts and allows the flapper to close. Since
the fire stop does not obstruct the inner bore of the drill string, wireline tools can safely be run
through it when it is open. A fire float is a modified dart-type float valve, run instead of the
conventional lower float. Under regular circumstances, it functions like a conventional dart-type
Page 359 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
valve. It opens in response to air pressure in the string above the valve and closes when
circulation is shut down. If there is a fire down-hole, the zinc ring melts, allowing a sleeve to close
the flow ports in the valve body, preventing flow in either direction through the valve.
Figure 8.41 Drill String Floats for Air Drilling: Fire Stop and Fire Float Valves
Additional Instrumentation
Air Drilling
Some supplementary instrumentation, in addition to that found on a conventional drilling rig, is
advisable for air drilling. A low-pressure gauge, with a range somewhat greater than the
compressor or booster pressure rating, is installed in the air delivery line, close to the
compressors. An equivalent pressure gauge, with a range exceeding the delivery pressure rating
of the booster, is installed between the booster and the drillpipe.
An orifice meter is installed in the air line, between the booster and the mist pump, to measure
the air injection rate. An air pressure gauge and a thermometer are located upstream of the
orifice meter. This flowing air pressure may be converted from gauge to absolute pressure by
adding the normal atmospheric pressure for the rig site altitude.
An additional drillpipe pressure gauge with a low-pressure range, 0 to 1 000 psi for example, is
installed. The rig-up enables this gauge to be isolated from the drillpipe if operations result in
higher pressures. During gas drilling operation, small fluctuations in drillpipe pressure may be an
indication of larger pressure changes down-hole. The drillpipe pressure gauge needs to be
capable of reliably indicating any pressure change as small as 10 psi.
Flow Drilling
Flow drilling is the practice of drilling slightly underbalance and producing reservoir fluids while
drilling. The flow is typically water or oil, and rarely gas, as migration may make this method
difficult to control. Flow drilling may either be an open system or a closed system. Because of the
variable setup of this system, instrumentation could be as simple as improved drillpipe pressure
gauges and Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) monitors. Conversely, they could be as sophisticated as
full instrumentation on a four-phase separator.
8.10.4 Hybrid SCRs
Managed Pressure Drilling well control includes the concept of Hybrid SCRs. These are defined
as the pressure losses with the kill pump rate – the Slow Circulating Rate – under dynamic
conditions using back pressure from the choke in the measurement.
Page 360 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
To obtain a Hybrid SCR, start from a static condition, i.e., pump shut off and choke closed. Then
bring the pump up to the chosen kill rate SPM while maintaining the same constant annular back
pressure that will be used while drilling. Often the choke function is automated, but the WSL will
understand the concept and how to acquire this data with a manually operated hydraulic choke.
8.10.5 Practices and Procedures for UBD
General
(1) Have at least two non-ported floats, installed near the bottom of the drill string, to prevent flow
up the drill string while drilling underbalanced.
(2) When the top float sub is pulled to the floor, procedures are in place and followed, to safely
remove trapped gas from below the float before removing the float sub.
(3) A pressure indicator with a read-out visible at the driller’s station, is installed below the blind
rams to monitor wellbore pressure while drillpipe is out of hole. If the well is killed on trips, a
bubble hose, to indicate minor pressure increases, is considered.
Example UBD Well Control Tripping Procedure – Deep Hard Rock
Described below is an example of simple tripping procedures when drilling deep hard rock.
General Requirements
(1) Use a suitable float near to the bit.
(2) Place an ‘N’ nipple with properly sized BPV or a similar device in the drillstring at the top of
the BHA or at the base of S-135 drillpipe (dart will drift upper drill string and still fit the dart
sub profile). This nipple will be a ‘backup’ to the drill string float.
(3) Replace the bottom float each bit trip.
(4) Limit differential pressure on the float to 2 000 psi on trips by filling drillpipe with fluid.
Drillpipe Connections: Well Flowing
(1) Pick up off the bottom. Pump enough volume to clear cuttings above the BHA. Set slips.
Shut down pump while closing choke keeping annulus pressure constant. Break topdrive
connection. Observe drillpipe and annulus for pressure change. Confirm that there is no
flow up the drilling string, and the integrity of the BHA float valve. If flow is observed, notify
the BP WSL to determine the next course of action. Consider killing the well, and pulling
the BHA and replacing the check valve.
(2) If the drillpipe is static, pick up a new joint and make the connection. Observe the annulus
pressure. When ready to resume drilling, open choke while bringing the pump up to speed
while keeping the annulus pressure constant. Resume regular drilling operations.
(3) If the annular pressure approaches the RBOP dynamic pressure rating, stop rotating the
drillpipe. Do not reciprocate the pipe until pressure is reduced to a safe level below the
maximum RBOP dynamic pressure rating.
Bit Trip: Well Flowing
Note: A properly designed venturi system, working in conjunction with all compressors turned
through the blooie line, will keep gas off the rig floor while the RCH is not engaged. Tests
are conducted to determine the efficiency of the system before disengaging the RCH.
(1) Pick up off the bottom and pump enough volume to clear cuttings above BHA. Shut down
the pump. Close choke. Set slips. Measure and record both drillpipe and annulus pressure.
At a minimum, confirm that the drillpipe pressure is zero and is static. Prepare a drill string
Page 361 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
displacement volume versus depth schedule to follow during the trip. If flow rate is >1 to
3 MMscfpd, pump an 18,5 ppg trip slug.
(2) Strip the drill string out of the hole through RBOP with top drive. Circulate mud as the hole
condition dictates being careful to lubricate the pack-off element with mud or water.
While stripping out, monitor the well pressure and maintain pit level constant – less drill
string displacement volume.
(3) When pipe weight approaches nearly balanced conditions, reduce the surface pressure.
Bullhead a weighted pill down the annulus or circulate a weighted pill down the drillpipe and
around to the surface in order to remove gas. Alternatively, if the kick flow rate is low, allow
the well to flow until the bit clears the blind ram and then shut-in the well.
(4) Strip to the BOP stack. Close the blind rams when the bit clears the ram. Inspect the BHA
and install a new float valve.
(5) Open the well up and allow it to flow until the bit and lower BHA clears the BOP. Strip to the
bottom.
(6) While stripping in, follow the drill string displacement volume schedule. Monitor the well
pressure and maintain a constant pit level– plus the drill string displacement volume.
(7) If the flow rate is low, it may be possible to trip out of the hole and back into the hole
without a slug or stripping. This has been done on deep wells using non-aqueous or oil-
based mud at rates >1 MMscfpd.
8.11 Well Control for Air or Gas Drilling
8.11.1 General
In most air or gas drilling operations, the potential production zones are usually low-pressure
zones, or are production zones that do not provide commercial production (such as coal bed
methane wells) without stimulation. In such situations, air drilling is continued into the production
zone, and the produced fluids are simply carried to the surface by the circulating volumetric flow
rate.
There is no rule for the amount of oil or gas that can be safely circulated from a production zone
while continuing drilling operations. If production zones are drilled with air as a circulating fluid,
misting operations are used to minimise down-hole fire and explosion hazards. Natural gas or
membrane nitrogen may be used as a circulating fluid for production zone drilling. Down-hole fire
and explosion hazards are discussed in more detail in Section 8.14.3.
Air drilling operations may be continued when the producing formations have pore pressures up
to 500 psi, but greater pressures make air drilling too risky, unless the productivity is low. In air
drilling, all returns are vented to an earthen pit. If the well produces large quantities of oil, the oil
will accumulate in the earthen pit, which is environmentally unacceptable. Small amounts of oil or
condensate can be burned with the gas, if local regulations permit.
When high-volume formations are encountered during air drilling, the blowout of production fluids
is evident at the blooie line as a large flare. Prior to surface evidence, the drillpipe injection
pressure will sometimes increase or decrease measurably (for open bit orifice drilling) as the
production zone is penetrated. This change is due to the increased velocity of flow in the annulus,
which is the result of the producing formation injecting fluid to the low-pressure annular space. If
the production rate is large enough, annular friction losses may increase bottomhole pressure,
resulting in increased drillpipe pressure. If the well produces large quantities of oil or water, the
drillpipe pressure can increase substantially. At lower gas production rates, the increased annular
velocity will serve to reduce the total cuttings in the annulus and decrease the bottomhole
pressure slightly.
Page 362 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
There is no such thing as a kick in air drilling. There is no hydrostatic pressure head, or heavy
drilling fluid, in the annulus to contain the influx in the formation. The formation fluids rise to the
surface with the air flow. Therefore, in an air drilling operation, which drills through production
zone, the well is in a controlled blowout configuration.
If the production zone pressure and/or the rate of flow to the annulus from the formation are
deemed too hazardous for conventional air drilling operations, mud or foam is used as the drilling
fluid.
To switch over to mud drilling operations, the well is first killed using a dynamic kill technique.
Typically the well is not shut in unless the bottomhole pressure will not exceed the fracture
gradient in the open-hole. Once the well is shut-in, and the pressure has stabilized, it is more
challenging to kill. Wells that have not been shut in are usually easily killed by the momentum of
mud free-falling out the drillstring as pumping is initiated.
Conventional pressure control techniques cannot be used to kill the well. First, classic pressure
control (Driller’s Method and Wait and Weight Method) begins with a shut-in well, and the
reservoir pressure be calculated from the shut-in drillpipe pressure. If the well has been flowing
for an extended period, it will take hours, or days, for the wellbore pressure to build to reservoir
pressure. Additionally, shut-in pressures on the drillpipe and casing will be elevated, which can
add risk. In the case of a weak fracture gradient at the casing shoe, an underground blowout can
occur.
As an example, assume a well has been drilled to 8 000 ft with casing set at 2 000 ft.
The bottomhole pressure is equivalent to 6,7 ppg or 2 787 psi. If the well was shut-in, the average
pressure in the well would be around 2 500 psi. The average temperature in the well would be in
the range of 100°F or 560°R and the calculated, average gas gradient would be ±0,064 psi/ft with
a 0,6 specific gravity gas (mostly natural gas). The pressure at the casing shoe could be
calculated with the following formula.
Pshoe = PBH – [GGrad x (DTD – DShoe)] psi (Equation 8-11)
Where:
PBH = bottomhole pressure (psi)
Ggrad = gas gradient (psi/ft)
DTD = total depth (ft)
DShoe = shoe depth (ft)
Calculate: Pressure at the Casing Shoe at 2 000 ft.
Pshoe = PBH – [GGrad x (DTD – DShoe)] = 2 787 – [0,064 x (8 000 – 2 000)] = 2 403 psi
In this example, the pressure at the casing shoe would exceed 1.0 psi/ft and would probably
result in an underground blowout. If the casing is set deep enough, and the bottomhole pressure
is not excessive, an option is to shut the well in.
The best way to kill an air drilled hole is to use a dynamic kill procedure. The procedure is
designed for pumping into a flowing well. The idea is to get mud into the annulus faster than
bottom-hole pressure can recover. In order to kill the well, it is necessary for the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud, along with the friction losses, to exceed the bottom-hole pressure. The
ability to kill the well is a function of the flow rate, pump rate, mud density, and hole geometry.
A dynamic kill is performed by pumping a few barrels of water, followed by mud, through the drill
string and up the annulus. No backpressure is maintained on the well during the dynamic kill
procedure. The water is pumped ahead of the drilling mud, as a spacer, to keep from
contaminating the mud with mist products. (If contamination is not an issue, the water spacer can
Page 363 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
be eliminated.) If done properly, all the gas will be out of the well by the time the mud reaches the
surface. The water can be displaced through the blooie line into the sump.
Once good drilling mud reaches the surface, the well is shut-in, and the shut-in pressures are
recorded. The shut-in drillpipe pressure will be zero. If not, some pressure may be trapped in the
wellbore. If there is annulus pressure, the well is then circulated, through the choke manifold and
separator, at a reduced rate, until all the gas is out of the system. Start pumping down the drill
string at a reduced rate, keeping the annulus pressure constant at the shut-in annulus pressure,
until kill pump rate is achieved. Read and record the drillpipe pressure. For the remainder of the
kill, the choke is adjusted to maintain constant drillpipe pressure until all the gas has been
circulated out of the well.
Most wells can be killed with the rig pumps. If the flow rates are excessive, additional pump
horsepower will be needed to kill the well. A dynamic kill program can be used to calculate the kill
rate. Most wells will kill at a lower pump rate than calculated due to drawdown.
In air and mist drilling operations, the well is not shut-in unless the surface equipment is leaking,
and the well cannot be vented through the choke manifold. It is unlikely that there would be a
simultaneous leak between the rotating head and the end of the blooie line, and in the choke line.
8.11.2 Shut-in Procedures for Air and Gas Drilling
Most air drilling operations have a BOP stack consisting of a rotating head, a pipe ram, and a
blind ram, as shown in Figure 8.42. Nearly all air drilling operations have at least one float valve
installed in the drill string at the bottom of the string.
Figure 8.42 Surface Rig-up
Page 364 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
If the drill string is not at the bottom of the hole when the uncontrolled flow occurs, the drill string
will not be run to the bottom before the shut-in procedures are carried out.
If equipped as shown in Figure 8.43, and drilling is underway when the uncontrolled flow occurs,
the well may be shut-in. The procedures that follow can be used as a guideline:
(1) Pick up the drill string.
(2) Shut down the compressors and booster, and close the Kelly safety valve and/or drillpipe
valve. Close the manifold valve from the compressors and booster to the drillpipe.
(3) Close the pipe rams.
(4) Read and record the pressure at the drillpipe gauge.
(5) Read and record the shut-in casing pressure.
Because the drill string is equipped with a top-vented float valve, the pressure in the line at the
drillpipe gauge (when the Kelly safety valve is opened slightly) may initially read slightly less than
the last air injection pressure. If the drillpipe pressure rises steadily, the float valve system is
leaking, or there is a small leak in the drillpipe joints in the drill string.
If equipped as shown in Figure 8.44, and tripping operations are underway when the uncontrolled
flow occurs, then the well may be shut-in. The procedures that follow may be used as a guideline:
(1) Assemble and install a fully opened safety valve in the drillpipe.
(2) Close the safety valve and the pipe rams.
(3) Pick up and assemble the Kelly.
(4) Read and record the shut-in casing pressure.
When the safety valve is opened, the pressure at the drillpipe will read zero gauge pressure
(considering an intact drill string) since float valves are installed in the drill string. If the pressure
at the drillpipe gauge begins to rise, the float valve system is leaking, or there is a small leak in
the drillpipe joints in the drill string.
Be aware of the shut-in pressure and string weight. The drill string will be raised until the tool joint
contacts the bottom of the pipe rams if the pipe is light.
Whether the pipe is on bottom or off bottom, the well is shut-in because the pressure rise
indicates that equipment is not functioning properly. Repair the surface equipment so the well can
be flowed and prepare to kill the well with a dynamic kill. If the pipe is off bottom, the well may be
flowed and the pipe stripped back to bottom, if it can be done safely, in order to kill the well.
Page 365 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
GAS
OIL
FLOAT
VALVE
OIL AND/OR
GAS SAND
Figure 8.43 Air Drilling Well Control (One Float Valve)
Page 366 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
SECOND
FLOAT VALVE
GAS
OIL
FIRST FLOAT
VALVE
OIL AND/OR
GAS SAND
Figure 8.44 Air Drilling Well Control (Two Float Valves)

8.11.3 Down-hole Fires
The possibility of down-hole fires is a potential limitation on the use of dry air drilling. Fires occur
when a mixture of oil, or natural gas, and air, with the hydrocarbon concentration in a combustible
regime, is exposed to an ignition source. Figure 8.45 illustrates the influence of pressure on the
combustible.
Note: A concentration of 5 to 15% natural gas is combustible at atmospheric pressure. The
upper limit is extended with increasing pressure, reaching 30% when the pressure is
300 psi.
Page 367 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 8.45 The Influence of Pressure on the Combustible

These limits vary somewhat with gas composition. Consider a typical air drilling flow rate of
2000 scfm. Combustion limits suggest gas inflows of 100 to 600 scfm (144 to 864 Mscf/D) would
be necessary for a combustible mixture to occur during regular air drilling. Most down-hole fires
are preceded by formation of a mud ring that obstructs airflow. Down-hole fires are infrequent
when dry gas is encountered while drilling with dry air. Some liquid, either water or oil, is usually
present. The role of the liquid in causing a fire is presumably to moisten the cuttings, permitting
the formation of a mud ring. Bridging of cuttings in the annulus has also contributed to down-hole
fires.
Once flow is obstructed, the air pressure will rapidly rise to the delivery pressure limit of the
compressor system. This increases the temperature of the gas below the mud ring. Since airflow
has been obstructed, any hydrocarbon content in the flow can rapidly lead to combustible
mixtures. Once the gas mixture is in the combustible range, the compression can ignite the
mixture. Sparking, from the drill string rubbing against the borehole wall, particularly where the
rock penetrated is strong and has a quartz content, can ignite the gas mixture. Frictional heating
of the string by airflow through pinholes has also been cited as a potential source of ignition.
Page 368 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Down-hole fires may be very difficult to detect since the combustion rarely reaches the surface. A
temperature survey may be run through the drill string to confirm a fire has occurred. Down-hole
fires usually melt the drill string at the combustion site. Slag from a down-hole fire may be blown
several hundred feet up hole. The damaged string may be very difficult to retrieve and down-hole
fires usually result in sidetracking. The heat from combustion could alter the rock, in the area of
the fire, to a large degree.
Two obvious ways to avoid a down-hole fire are to prevent formation of a combustible mixture
and to remove the source of ignition. The formation of a combustible mixture can be avoided by
changing the circulation medium from air to natural gas or an inert gas. This may not be
economically or logistically feasible. Preventing the formation of mud rings will help to effectively
avoid down-hole fires. The most common method used to avoid a fire, when natural gas is
encountered, is to use mist rather than dry air. However, down-hole fires have occurred with mist
and foam when the annulus packs off due to poor hole cleaning and sloughing, especially in
horizontal wells.
The following steps may be used to minimise the probability of a down-hole fire. First, provide
attentive monitoring of the drillpipe pressure. An increase of 5 to 10 psi, without any
accompanying decrease in compressor output, may indicate the onset of mud ring formation or a
gas inflow. Once a mud ring has developed fully, the flow of air and cuttings from the blooie line
will stop. By then, the string may be stuck, or a fire may already have started. If the drillpipe
pressure increases when approaching a gas bearing zone, or when there is a gas show at the
flare pit, the following steps are taken:
(1) Stop drilling.
(2) Shut off the air and monitor the gas flare at the pit. If the flare continues to burn, any of the
following indicates the gas is wet:
 Wet cuttings, black smoke, yellow flame, sparking at the blooie line exit (the last three
conditions indicate condensate).
 If the flare does not continue to burn with the air shut off, resume air circulation and
determine if the gas is wet, using the indicators above. Do not drill. New cuttings will
promote the formation of a mud ring. Reciprocate the string to avoid formation of a mud
ring.
 If the gas is wet, switch to mist, nitrogen, or natural gas drilling.
 If the gas is dry, drill ahead in 5 to 10 ft intervals, reciprocating the string between
intervals. Continue to do this until it is certain there is no further possibility for wet gas to
be encountered.
8.11.4 Contingent Barriers for Air Drilling
Typically, there are two barriers for all well operations. As there is no hydrostatic pressure barrier
in air drilling, the primary well barrier while air drilling is composed of the following well barrier
elements: rotating head packoff, open BOP, high pressure riser, wellhead and valves, last casing
string, annulus cement, drill pipe, and float.
The secondary well barrier while air drilling is composed of the following well barrier elements: the
closed BOPs, high pressure riser, wellhead and valves, previous casing string, and annulus
cement. If the ram BOPs (not BSR) were closed, the FOSV would be connected onto the drillpipe
and become part of the secondary barrier.
Page 369 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9 Subsea Well Control

9.1 General
This section discusses the differences between well control with surface and subsea BOP stacks.
The basics of well control are covered in the previous sections. Section 8 provides guidance on
shallow gas hazards, as well as, encountering gas on bottom supported offshore operations.
The operation of subsea equipment are discussed in Section 5, and will not be covered here
unless necessary to illustrate a point.
9.2 Deepwater Considerations: Well Control Prior to BOP Installation
9.2.1 Shallow Water Flows
Shallow Water Flows (SWFs), or gas flows may be a challenge when drilling with seawater with
returns to mudline before the BOP and riser are installed. A SWF is generally associated with, but
not limited to, deepwater drilling. While pressurized zones may be encountered after the BOP is
set, the difficulty of dealing with them is reduced if they can be shut-in.
Pore pressure of shallow sands may be up to 80 to 90% of overburden. Gas may be seen with
SWFs and is, more than likely, solution gas. As water depth increases, the corresponding
increase in hydrostatic pressure allows increased solution gas content. In some cases, the flow
may even be predominantly gas.
Flowrates may range from near levels of no detection to hundreds of barrels per minute and often
contain large amounts of sand.
The consequences of sustained shallow flow may include:
 Hole erosion.
 Post cementing annular flow and broaching which leads to crater formation and poor zonal
isolation.
 Surface subsidence.
 Loss of any combination of the well, the conductor, and/or the template support.
 Buckling of conductor casing set across shallow flow sands.
While permeability of SWF zones may be high on the order of darcys, the origins of
overpressured shallow formations are of a geologic nature and include:
 Trapped salt water that is pressured by the overburden loading, which is known as
undercompaction.
 Massive turbidite depositions during the last ice age along the continental slope. The pore
water may be fresh.
SWF may not be noticed at first, as the zone may be cased and cemented. The flow may be a
delayed reaction after the cement sets and may broach to the surface at a distance away from
the wellbore. An ROV is regularly used to monitor both the well and the vicinity of the well for
evidence of flow.
9.2.2 Approaches to Drilling SWF Zones
The primary control method has been avoidance.
Page 370 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.1 includes examples of approaches to mitigating the risk of SWF challenges:
Table 9.1 Approaches to Drilling SWF Zones
Approach Comments
Use high resolution 3-D seismic Geohazard surveys used to avoid shallow gas (or gas hydrates)
surveys, and available offset data, to may also help in selecting casing setting depths to limit
select a location that minimises exposure to potential SWF reservoirs in the conductor and
shallow sand content. surface hole sections.
Drill the hole sections with water- When riserless, large volumes of mud; e.g., 25 000 bbls, pass
based mud. Have kill weight fluid through the bit once and then flow out on the sea floor.
available for maximum predicted SWF This technique has provided success in getting 20 or 22 in
pore pressure conductor casing to 4 000 ft BML.
Page 371 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.2.3 Procedures for Mitigating SWF Challenges While Drilling

Table 9.2 provides examples of precautions and mitigations to consider in drilling SWF potential
hole:
Table 9.2 Procedures for Mitigating SWF While Drilling
Factor Comments
Kill weight drilling Dynamic and/or weighted fluid kill procedures, including mixed mud, are prepared
fluid and ready to implement immediately.
At least two hole volumes of kill mud are typically needed. If the well is not dead
after pumping two hole volumes, further pumping is rarely effective. Change mud
density or pump rate.
Adjust mud weight, up to maximum, if large flowrate is expected.
Add tracers (dye, mica) to kill weight mud sweeps to help identification in ROV
video.
Pump rates Kill using maximum pump rate with multiple mud pumps.
It is very difficult to pump too fast because the annular pressure drop is very low.
The pump rate may be limited by available mud pumps and drillstring internal
pressure drop (i.e., drillstring ID).
Consider how bit nozzle selection may affect the kill circulation procedure.
Consider PWD/LWD equipment maximum circulation rate capability when pre-
planning dynamic kill procedures.
Exposure time: A small pilot hole (9-7/8 in or less) increases the capability of dynamic kill
pilot hole procedures, including decreasing the needed pump rate, mud volumes and density.
Exposure time: Minimise exposure time to SWF in order to limit hole erosion.
drill/ underream It is common to simultaneously drill and underream a large hole quickly to minimise
exposure time and hole enlargement.
In this case, the kill procedure relies on kill fluid density and elevated pump rate to
minimise mud dilution by the influx flow.
Annular flowrate Pump tagged sweeps at regular intervals, to fingerprint annular flow rate, by timing
returns at the sea floor at a constant circulation rate.
There is not anticipated to be any annular flow after a successful kill even with
seawater in the drillstring.
Tripping mud Fill hole with weighted mud to confirm pore pressure overbalance and improved
weight wellbore stability.
Maximum weight of mud is determined by pressure integrity (overburden pressure)
of any previous casing shoe, i.e., structural casing.
U-tubing U-tubing will occur after shutting down pumps and may look like continued well flow
on ROV video.
Page 372 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.2.4 Other Procedures and Observations

Using an external casing packer to seal the annulus is a technique used by some operators to
handle SWFs. This packer is energized after the cement has been placed.
PWD tools may be used to help detect SWFs by showing the reduction in equivalent circulating
density as the flow enters the wellbore. LWD resistivity may be used along with PWD in 26 in
diameter holes, but the results may be inconclusive due to the hole size. The use of a small pilot
hole may improve the response of the LWD.
Mud loss after a successful kill can present challenges. Sands that have been drilled
underbalanced with no filter cake formation may cause seepage losses after overbalance is
established. Mud losses, due to permeability of these uncompacted sands, may be mitigated with
the use of fiber and a varying range of bridging solids.
Any water flows are killed with kill weight mud prior to the execution of a cement job.
Foam cements have been used successfully to prohibit influx from SWFs as the cement sets. Any
uncemented (mud filled) channels may be a potential route for continued water flow after
cementing. Mud displacement and minimising cement transition time at reduced temperatures is
key to reducing the potential for continued water flow after cementing. Hole erosion may also lead
to poor mud displacement. The mud chemistry is typically optimized for rheology to facilitate
cementing.
Annulus shut-off valves may be used to isolate the annulus immediately following cementing to
prevent flow after cementing.
9.2.5 Drilling Riserless from a Floating Rig
Drilling riserless helps prevent the major cause of blowouts from shallow, normally pressured gas
reservoirs namely, the potential for loss of hydrostatic pressure head is eliminated. There remains
the potential of penetrating an overpressured reservoir.
Consider developing a contingency plan prior to spud to handle a shallow gas flow during
riserless drilling from a floating vessel. The items addressed include:
 The procedures to be adopted in the event of a shallow gas flow. This could include pump
and dump procedures.
 A preparation to drill checklist (e.g., watertight doors secure, anchors ready to release) to be
in place.
 A shallow gas duty roster outlining personnel responsibilities during drilling this hole section.
 The procedure for moving the rig off location.
The contingency plan is communicated in detail at the pre-spud meeting.
A gas blowout in open water typically produces a 10 degree plume of entrained gas and water
along with a discharge of flammable gas, a “plume”. The nature of the plume depends, to a large
extent, on the water depth and current. The plume is likely to become more dispersed with
greater water depth, and the effect of a current may displace the plume away from the rig.
Within a plume of expanding gas, a floating vessel will incur some loss of buoyancy. This loss of
buoyancy diminishes rapidly with water depth, so the effect on a semi-submersible at operating
draft would be negligible. The flow of the gas would tend to displace a vessel, and if a vessel is
constrained by its moorings, the displacement might cause a vessel to keel towards the plume,
thereby reducing its freeboard further. Under calm conditions, the gas plume may disperse slowly
and may constitute a fire hazard if the gas becomes entrapped in a confined area.
The impact of the gas flow may only be fully assessed at the time of occurrence. While it is
unlikely to be an immediate danger to personnel or the rig, consider the following before and/or
while the surface hole is open:
Page 373 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 For moored vessels, the rig is moored with lengths of moorings remaining in the locker to
allow the rig to be winched away from the plume some distance as based on water depth and
plume modeling. In this case, the windlasses are held on their brakes, and the chain stoppers
only applied after surface casing is set. Dynamically positioned rigs are maintained in a state
of readiness for moving off location if shallow gas is encountered.
 All hatches are secured to prevent invasion of voids by flammable gas, or down flooding, if
the freeboard is reduced by loss of buoyancy or heel. This is important for a drillship.
 The availability of facilities and personnel at short notice to slack off the moorings closest to
the plume and heave in those up current (but not downwind). Before spudding, a contingency
plan is prepared detailing individual responsibilities and duties.
 Consider drilling a pilot hole, limiting the ROP, and circulate at an elevated rate to distribute
the cuttings and drilled gas.
 A ROV with sonar may be used to monitor for gas flow.
 A non-ported float valve is run in the drillstring.
 The shallow gas contingency plan typically includes having enough mud on site to fill the hole
volume twice.
 Weather conditions and currents may be continuously monitored, and the sea surface
checked for evidence of gas.
If a shallow gas flow is detected and there is no immediate danger to the personnel or the rig,
attempt to control the well by pumping mud or seawater at a maximum rate.
If the gas flow is endangering personnel or the rig, the shallow gas contingency plan may include:
(1) Dropping the drillstring
(2) Moving the rig to a safe position outside the gas plume.
9.2.6 Drilling with a Riser from a Floating Rig
In offshore environments, the conductor is usually set in a formation too weak to contain the
pressure of a gas kick. If a kick is detected in such circumstances, the well is diverted in order to
avoid an underground blowout and the possibility of the gas broaching around the conductor
shoe.
Diverter systems are not typically used to control shallow gas blowouts. Shallow gas flows are
controlled at the seabed using riserless mud returns or subsea dump valves at the mudline and
the annular preventer. Immediate preparations are then made to unlatch the LMRP and move off
location.
A contingency plan to address a shallow gas flow is prepared prior to spud, and may include: .
 The procedures to be adopted in the event of a shallow gas flow.
 The procedure for moving the rig off location.
 A preparation to drill checklist (e.g., water tight doors secure, anchors ready to release)in
place.
 A shallow gas duty roster outlining personnel responsibilities during drilling on this hole
section.
 The procedure to be implemented in the event of failure of any of the major components of
the BOP/riser/diverter system.
The contingency plan is typically communicated in detail at the pre-spud meeting.
The surface diverter system provides a back-up system in the event of a failure of the subsea
system. It can also be used to divert gas which may be in the riser above the stack.
If the well starts to flow, the following procedure may be used as a guideline:
(1) Close the annular preventer and allow the gas to vent at the seabed.
Page 374 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(2) If there is no immediate danger to personnel or the rig, attempt to control the well by
pumping sea water or mud at a maximum rate.
(3) If the gas flow is endangering personnel or the rig:
(a) The drillpipe would be sheared with the casing shears or BSR.
(b) Unlatch the pin connector or LMRP, and winch the rig to a safe position outside the
gas plume.
9.3 Subsea Wellheads
A typical subsea wellhead consists of one or two wellhead housings, casing hangers and/or pack-
offs and a guide base. It is positioned just above the seabed. Figure 9.1shows a typical subsea
wellhead.
They perform four functions:
 Support of casing strings by means of an internal upset on which the first casing hanger
lands. Subsequent casing strings can land on support shoulders and seal in the appropriate
surfaces provided by the wellheads.
 Pressure isolation of the casing annulus from the wellbore by providing a polished bore on
which the seal assembly packs off.
 Pressure containment between the wellhead housing and the BOP by provision of a polished,
stainless steel, inlaid profile for a gasket in the hub bore.
 Support of the stack that lands on the hub and latches onto a profile on the outside of the
hub.
Commonly 21-1/4 in housings are rated to 2 000 or 5 000 psi, and 18-3/4 in or 13-5/8 in housings
rated to 10 000 psi or 15 000 psi.
The following subsections discuss the major items of equipment associated with the subsea
wellhead:
9.3.1 Casing Hangers
Casing hangers are screwed onto the top of the casing string and are landed in the wellhead on a
retrievable landing string.
9.3.2 Seal Assembly
The seal assembly provides a means of isolating the casing annulus by sealing between the
hanger and the wellhead housing. In most systems the packer is energized with weight or by
right-hand torque. Some deep water designs are set hydraulically. Generally, the energized
packer is locked into a recess in the housing.
9.3.3 Stack Connector
The BOP stack is connected to the wellhead by means of a hydraulically actuated connector
which clamps onto a profile on the outside of the hub. The connector has the same pressure
rating as the stack. The connector retains a metal gasket that is weight and pressure energized to
seal between the wellhead and the connector.
Page 375 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 9.1 Typical Sub-Sea Wellhead
Page 376 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.3.4 Permanent Guide Base

A permanent guide base is locked onto and run with the low pressure wellhead housing. It acts as
an anchor for the guidelines and a guide for locating the stack connector vertically over the
wellhead. For deep water guidelineless operations, the standard square, four-posted guide base
may be replaced by a funnel or petal shaped guide box.
Some areas no longer use guidelined operations or funnels due to improvements in the current
DP systems.
9.4 Shut-in Procedures
The following form is an example of the information that is provided to the driller (refer to Figure
9.2).
Page 377 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 9.2 Kick While Drilling, Floating Rig, Hard Shut-in
Page 378 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Preparation for a kick includes the following: as outlined in Table 9.3

Table 9.3 Pre-drill Preparation
Casing shoe Measure pressure integrity of casing shoes, e.g., by leak-off or integrity
tests.
Both ppg equivalent and associated surface pressure for the mud weight
in use are typically posted in the doghouse and site office.
Update this pressure periodically and when drillstring mud property
or other changes occur that may affect pressure loss.
Slow circulation Post slow circulation data (for at least two pumps) on both drillpipe
data friction loss and Choke and Kill Line Friction Pressures (CLFP).
Take pressures on two gauges reading from separate sources to guard
against gauge failure.
Note the pressure necessary to break circulation the first time, and
record this value for use in kick detection and circulation procedures.
CBU so that mud is consistent and not affected by cuttings content.
Additional methods may be employed at the time of the kick to update
this data, e.g., using static choke and kill line, or subsea BOP pressure
sensor.
Choke and kill line Use CLFP to help establish initial circulating casing pressure.
friction pressures In deepwater, the CLFP is likely to change, so test data is only an
estimation.
Measure and record pressure losses with slow circulation rate through
the lines in parallel.*
*One option, to reduce friction losses during well control in deepwater
wells is to circulate the kick using both choke and kill lines in parallel.
Kill sheet Maintain an up-to-date kill sheet designed for subsea BOP.
A float valve is used to prevent backflow when removing the top drive (or
Kelly) from the drillstring during an emergency disconnect.
Note: Flow from the drillpipe can impede the ability to stab a safety
valve.
Choke and kill line Show choke and kill line valve positions on a chart and/or white board
valve positions indicating which valves are open and/or closed and choke and kill line
fluid contents (mud versus water).
Show the relationship between the surface tool joint location and
corresponding tool joint location opposite the BOP stack rams and
annulars.
Calculate and post the distance and correct spacing for each stand to
help with space out if variation in stand length warrants such.
Note: As water depth increases, the variation in drillpipe joint length
may create too much uncertainty in tool joint position. This
potential challenge may be reduced by arranging joints so that
10-stand average lengths do not vary by more than a set
amount, e.g.., 0,1 ft, if feasible.
Page 379 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Mud-gas separator Post liquid and gas handling capacity of mud-gas separator in the
capacity doghouse and/or site office.
Compare these to the maximum anticipated gas rates that would result
from planned well control procedures, and well and choke and kill line
geometry, e.g., pumping rate, design kick. Software tools are available
to assist with this calculation in the GWETK.
Diverter Keep the diverter insert packer installed and locked except when
handling BHA larger than the vendor’s stated diameter capacity. (The
diverter insert packer is older equipment and is not available on most
rigs).
Post diverter element status (in or out) in the doghouse and/or site
office.
Designated Identify designated hang-off ram.
hang-off ram If it is a VBR type, post the hang-off capabilities for all the drill pipe sizes
in the hole.
Specify if rams are to be locked after closure (if independent locks).
Personnel drills Perform BOP drills (pit and trip) regularly, including tool joint space out
to enhance crew competency.
Consider having crews perform ‘stripping drills’ prior to drill out of the
casing shoes to measure and increase crew competency in handling
stripping.
9.4.1 Annular Shut-in versus Ram Shut-in

Although rams will shut-in more quickly than annular preventers, there are advantages to using
each approach as outlined in Table 9.4:
Page 380 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.4 Annular Shut-in Versus Ram Shut-in
Shut-in Approach Favourable Factors
Annular shut-in Eliminates the need to space out tool joint near the BOP ram
(increasingly difficult as the water depth increases due to such
considerations as vessel offset effect on length and more joints of pipe
to consider).
Provides a means to effectively shut-in while still allowing for
movement of the drillpipe to reduce the possibility of sticking of the
drillstring.
Shut-in and Allows well to be closed in more quickly than with an annular.
hanging-off operation Minimises the amount of gas that may be trapped in the BOP.
with a ram
May provide a greater pressure rating than annulars.
The well is ready for challenging events, e.g., severe weather, drive-
off, mooring failure, loss of riser.
Eliminates potential wear on BOP due to vessel heave.
Shut-in with an Does not necessitate space out prior to shutting in the well.
annular, then Simplifies space out procedure.
promptly switch to
Minimises amount of gas that may be trapped below the annular.
hang-off on a ram
BOP Minimises chance that sticking of the drillpipe will preclude hanging off
the drillpipe.
May provide greater pressure rating than annulars.
After being hung off, the well is ready for challenging events
If drilling near a productive zone (or if the well is flowing), priority is given to shutting in the well
rather than performing the flow check, and observe the pressures.
9.4.2 Shut-in While Drilling
Table 9.5 contains an example procedure for shut-in while drilling:
Page 381 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.5 Shut-in While Drilling
Step Action
1 When a warning sign of a kick has been observed, promptly raise the drillstring until
the bit is off bottom and string is at the correct space out.
2 Stop the mudpumps and check for flow.
Confirm that the riser boost valve is closed.
Note: A gas influx may have risen above the BOP given deepwater conditions.
3 Close the upper annular BOP.
4 Open the selected subsea choke, and kill line valves.
5 Monitor for flow from the riser.
Notify the WSL and/or toolpusher as specified in the pre-determined communication
plan.
6 Check for surface leaks.
7 Read and record SIDPP, SICP (on both choke and kill lines) and pit gain.
Monitor and record this data (at specified intervals).
9.4.3 Shut-in While Tripping

Many top drive systems incorporate one or more FOSVs that remain in service during drilling or
tripping. These provide a backup in case the rig floor FOSV cannot be stabbed. In case the rig
floor FOSV cannot be stabbed, the top drive FOSVs are able to be stripped through the casing in
the well.
Table 9.6 contains an example procedure for shut-in while tripping.
Page 382 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.6 Shut-in While Tripping
Step Action
1 When a warning sign of a kick has been observed, promptly set the pipe on the slips
with the upper tooljoint at a working height above the rig floor.
2 Install and close the FOSV.
Note: The FOSV and IBOP (with crossovers as needed) are checked at the
beginning of each tour to determine they function. These valves are kept in
the open position and ready for installation.
3 Pick up the drillstring and remove slips.
Position drillpipe for correct space out to allow ram type preventers to be closed on
pipe tube.
Check for flow.
4 If there is flow detected, close the annular BOP.

5 Open the selected subsea choke, and kill line valves.

plan.
8 Read and record SIDPP, SICP (on both choke and kill lines), and pit gain.
Monitor and record this data.
9 Prepare to strip back to bottom through the annular BOP.
9.4.4 Shut-in during a Connection

Confirm the well is stable before making the connection. Flow after making the connection, may
result in the inability to slack off and hang-off drillpipe on the rams.
This situation is treated the same way as a shut-in while drilling (refer to Table 9.5). Typically, the
well is shut-in with an annular BOP. Hang-off depends on rig specific BOPE considerations.
9.4.5 Shut-in with Bit above the BOPs
If kick indicators are observed while out of the hole or inside the riser, the first action is to shut-in
with the blind/shear rams. A quick response reduces the risk of gas in the riser.
Page 383 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.7 contains an example procedure for shut-in with the bit above the BOPs.
Table 9.7 Shut-in with Bit above the BOPs
Step Action
1 At the first indication of flow from the well, close the blind/shear rams after confirming
the bit is above the ram.
2 Open the selected subsea choke and kill line valves.
Typically, the diverter is closed as a precaution against gas in riser.
plan.
5 Record SICP (on both choke and kill lines) and pit gain.
Monitor and record this data.
6 Evaluate the feasibility of stripping or bullheading operations.
Implement volumetric pressure control as needed.
9.4.6 Shut-in While Running Casing or Liner

While running casing or liner, it is necessary to track the location of the shoe and hanger being
run.
If kick indicators are present, then the shut-in sequence will depend on whether the following
conditions are present:
 Casing or liner is inside the riser.
 Casing or liner is inside the BOPs.
 Hanger is below the BOPs.
 Drillpipe is in a position that allows the well to be shut-in.
If a kick does occur with the casing or liner in the well and also at the rig floor, a crossover is
needed to connect drillpipe to casing or liner. Crossovers are designed for adequate strength to
support any casing load for which they may be used. Also, both internal and external dimensions
are compatible with subsequent tool runs and surface handling equipment.
9.4.7 Masking of Casing Pressure by Gel Strengths in Choke and Kill Lines
Depending on the results of the slow circulation rate test for CLFP, the gel strength of the fluid in
the choke and kill lines can mask SICP. If this is the case, the following procedure may be used
to break the gel strength. Carefully monitor pump pressures and returns during these procedures
for any indications of plugging of the choke and kill lines.
Page 384 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.8 provides guidance in support of breaking gel strengths in choke and kill lines.
Table 9.8 Procedure to Break Gel Strength
Step Action
1 Close another BOP so the well is isolated, and there is a choke and kill circulation
path between the two closed preventers.
2 Align the subsea BOP and choke and kill valves to isolate the well and set up a flow
path between the choke and kill lines.
3 Circulate the choke and kill lines to break the gel strength.
4 Stop circulating and reopen a choke and kill valve below the BOP to determine casing
pressure.
9.4.8 Hang-off Guidelines

On floating rigs, hanging off on a pre-determined hang-off ram is a necessary part of the shut-in
and kill procedure. There are two major considerations for selecting a hang-off ram which are:
 The tool joint is not placed across any rams.
 The OEM-recommended hang-off weight for the ram component is not exceeded.
Precise instructions and drills on spacing and landing the string may help to increase crew
competency. Closing a ram on a tool joint may result in damage to the ram body, elastomer
and/or the tubular.
If a circulating head is to be used in well control operations, the hang-off procedure will include
the installation of a circulating head. Consider limiting the use of multiple casing crossovers in the
circulating head makeup.
Table 9.9 describes conditions related to hanging off the drillstring.
Give consideration to hanging off the drillstring if any of the conditions listed in Table 9.9 exist
during well control operations:
Page 385 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.9 Hanging Off the Drillstring
Consider hanging off drillstring if: Comments
Ram BOP is closed. To prevent element wear due to vessel heave.

Confirm the location of the tool joint before closing
any pipe ram to prevent damage to the BOP.
Confirm the ram hang-off capability for the drillpipe
size and string weight.
Note: VBRs typically have lower hang-off weight
capacity than fixed pipe rams.
Specify if rams are to be locked after closure (if ram
locks are an independent function).
Weather and sea conditions are creating This may result in wear damage to the annular BOP
heave or loop current. element.
Using dynamic-positioned rig where There may be a need for prompt disconnect.
drift-off potential exists or where a This consideration may also apply to a moored rig if
mooring line failure would cause large mooring line failure causes an offset that exceeds
offset transient. slip joint or tensioner travel limits or would put
bending moment on the structural casing or
wellhead.
Drillstring is beginning to stick. Decide to hang-off the drillstring while the pipe is
free.
Motion compensator cannot prevent the Set the motion compensator to a value greater than
drillpipe from moving through the the weight of the drillpipe above the BOP, but less
annular due to vessel heave. than total string weight (in order to place some
hang-off weight on the ram).
Riser angle at the LMRP is greater than Auto disconnect will be activated.
the established operating limit.
Surface flow from the riser indicates There is the possibility of collapse of the riser due to
annular preventer may be leaking gas into the riser.
formation fluid or gas above the BOP
stack.
Unable to establish full returns or
evidence of an underground flow exists.
Casing pressure increases above
operating limits for the annular with or
without drillpipe movement.
9.5 Chokeline Implications for Well Killing

Well control utilizing a subsea stack presents unique challenges that are not encountered with
surface stacks. The primary challenge relates to the fact that the well is killed while circulating
through a small diameter chokeline. Some of the challenges presented may be summarized as
follows:
Page 386 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 The frictional pressure generated by circulating through the chokeline may cause excessive
pressures in the wellbore or in the circulating system.
 The entry of the influx into the chokeline may cause an uncontrollable drop in bottomhole
pressure.
 As the mud displaces the influx from the chokeline, the rapid increase in hydrostatic pressure
in the annulus may cause increased pressures in the open-hole.
These challenges are particularly present in deep water. Mitigation of these challenges involves
modifying well control procedures. The drillpipe pressure may still be used to control and maintain
bottomhole pressure.
SCRs are taken to include chokeline friction pressures, even in shallow waters, to determine if the
friction pressures are negligible for a kill operation. The calculations which cover the standard
implementation of the Wait and Weight Method and the Driller’s Method are still applicable.
Chokeline friction pressure may be important when added to the wellbore pressures resulting
from the displacement of a kick. In certain circumstances, it may be enough to cause formation
breakdown. The effect of chokeline losses is especially important in deepwater.
Table 9.10 Estimated Chokeline Losses (psi) for Differing Chokeline Lengths (3 in ID)
3 bbl/min Mud Weight (ppg) 12,5 14,2 15,9 17,5

Chokeline Length (ft)
3 000 ft 160 180 200 225

1 500 ft 80 90 100 115
300 ft 16 18 20 23
4 bbl/min Mud Weight (ppg) 12,5 14,2 15,9 17,5
Chokeline Length (ft)
3 000 ft 240 270 300 330
1 500 ft 120 135 150 165
300 ft 24 27 30 33
There are special techniques to monitor the effect of chokeline friction pressure during
displacement of a kick. One such technique, which uses the kill line, is described below.
When slow displacement rates are used (such as 1 bbl/m), chokeline losses are generally
inconsequential even in deepwater.
The redundant choke and kill lines on floating rigs provide the following:
 Backup for first line (e.g., plugs and/or leaks in a line are overcome by using the backup).
 A static line to monitor BOP pressure to compensate for choke and kill line friction in
deepwater (a BOP pressure sensor may be used for this, if available).
 Ability to circulate a well that has drillpipe hung-off and disconnected below the closed blind
rams.
 Ability to circulate across closed BOP (trapped gas).
 Ability to pump through both the choke and kill lines to reduce friction loss.
 Circulation up both the choke and kill lines.
 Reduction in friction by approximately 50 to 75% for same circulation rate.
 Reduction in casing shoe loads at zero surface pressure, i.e., at end of kill.
Page 387 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Precludes use of second choke and kill line to monitor BOP pressure.
 Reduction in the probability of breaking down the shoe.
9.5.1 Monitoring with the Kill Line
,As discussed above, the kill line can be used to monitor for constant bottom-hole pressure
The following procedure may be used to account for chokeline losses for the Wait and Weight
Method (the same principles are applicable to the Driller’s Method):
(1) Assess the effect of chokeline losses at pump startup.
In order to determine the best circulation rate, the additional pressure acting in the wellbore due
to chokeline friction is estimated at a range of circulating rates.
The following two cases may be applicable at this point:
 Case A: When SICP is greater than the chokeline friction pressure at the desired
SCR (refer to Figure 9.4).
 Case B: When the SICP is less than the chokeline friction pressure at the desired
slow circulation rate (refer to Table 9.10and Figure 9.5).
In Case A, compensation will be made for the chokeline friction pressure until such time during
the displacement that the necessary choke pressure is less than the sum of chokeline friction
pressure and the wide open choke pressure. In most cases, this will only occur when the original
mud behind the influx is passing the choke, at which time subsurface pressures are unlikely to be
of concern. If Case A is applicable, the chokeline losses will not impose a limitation on the
circulation rate.
Case B represents a situation in which part of the chokeline frictional pressure will be applied on
the open-hole. This additional open-hole pressure is the sum of the frictional pressures developed
by the chokeline and surface fittings less the shut-in annulus pressure.
Page 388 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
DRILLPIPE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
MUD
PUMP
GAS
CHOKE
KILL LINE PRESSURE
MONITOR GAUGE
VALVE VALVE
CLOSED OPEN
RETURNS
SEA
KILL LINE
(KILL LINE VALVES OPEN) CHOKELINE
SEABED
Figure 9.3 Use of Kill Line to Monitor for Wellhead Pressure on Rig with Subsea Stack
Page 389 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
INITIAL SHUT-IN CONDITIONS CIRCULATION STARTED AT 40SPM

CHOKE PRESSURE
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE DROPS BY CHOKELINE
INCREASES BY PRESSURE DROP
SCR PRESSURE
800 400 800 800 1385 430
KILL LINE PRESSURE

HELD CONSTANT
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
STAYS APPROXIMATELY
CONSTANT
SCRs AND CHOKELINE LOSSES

MUD
SPM 20 30 40
GAS
PaCR 400 680 985
PCL 150 250 370
MINIMUM RATE FOR PUMP
Figure 9.4 The Effect of Chokeline Losses – Casing Pressure After

Initial Circulation is Greater than Chokeline Pressure (Case A)
Page 390 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
CHOKE PRESSURE
INITIAL SHUT-IN CONDITIONS CIRCULATION STARTED AT 30SPM DROPS BY
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE CHOKELINE
INCREASES BY PRESSURE DROP
SCR PRESSURE
400 100 400 400 780 150
KILL LINE
PRESSURE HELD
CONSTANT
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE STAYS

APPROXIMATELY CONSTANT
INFLUX CIRCULATED OUT CIRCULATION STARTED AT

WITH ORIGINAL MUD WEIGHT MINIMUM RATE, 20SPM
CHOKE
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE EQUALS THE SUM
PRESSURE WITH
OF THE ORIGINAL SHUT-IN DRILLPIPE
CHOKE WIDE
PRESSURE PLUS THE SCR PRESSURE E
OPEN
100 100 100 250 500 0
UNABLE TO KEEP THE KILL

LINE PRESSURE
CONSTANT. EVEN WITH
THE CHOKE WIDE OPEN
THE KILL INE PRESSURE
INCREASES BY THE CHOKE
LINE LOSS
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
INCREASES
SCRs AND CHOKELINE LOSSES

SPM 20 30 40 MUD
PaCR 400 680 985 GAS
PCL 150 250 370
MINIMUM RATE FOR PUMP
Figure 9.5 The Effect of Chokeline Losses – Casing Pressure

After Initial Circulation is Less than Chokeline Loss (Case B)
Page 391 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.5.2 Higher Choke Pressures

While circulating out a kick, the choke pressure for a well, drilled with a subsea BOP, will be
greater than that for an equivalent well, drilled with a surface BOP. This is due to the fact the
length of the influx is increased as it is displaced from the annulus to the chokeline.
Figure 9.6 shows a comparison between the choke pressure during displacement of a gas kick
from a well drilled in 3 281 ft of water and a similar well drilled from a fixed rig. The influence of
the chokeline is in the maximum choke pressure increase from 1 200 psi to approximately
2 600 psi. Figure 9.6 depicts theoretical calculations and represents a worst case scenario. The
calculations assume the gas remains a single bubble. Unless it is a large gas kick, the bubble will
mix with the mud as it is pumped to the surface, resulting in gas cut mud and lower surface
pressures. Oil kicks would have lower surface pressures also.
Figure 9.6 Comparison of Choke Pressures - During Displacement of a

Gas Kick on a Surface BOP and Subsea BOP
Figure 9.7 shows the choke pressures during displacement of the same 20 bbl influx for a variety
of water depths. It can be seen that the choke pressure is not, in this case, affected by a water
depth of 328 ft.
Page 392 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 9.7 Choke Pressure for Differing Water Depths

During Displacement of a Gas Kick
9.5.3 Choke Manipulation – Gas Entering Chokeline
As seen in the example depicted in Figure 9.8, the needed increase in choke pressure as the
influx is displaced up the chokeline is equivalent to 64 psi/bbl. This may be converted to a rate of
choke manipulation for displacement rates as follows:
 At 4 bbl/min = 64 x 4 = 256 psi/min
 At 0,1 bbl/min = 64 x 0,1 = 6,4 psi/min
Normal displacement rates have the potential to call for an unrealistic rate of manipulation of the
choke. In this case, the most satisfactory solution is to slow the rate of displacement to the order
of 1 bbl/min. This increases the chance that the choke operator can properly manipulate the
choke, and thus minimises the possibility of a secondary kick entering the wellbore.
Page 393 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 9.8 Determination of the Necessary Rate of Choke

Manipulation for a Deepwater Subsea Well
These calculations are based on the assumption that the gas influx enters the chokeline as a
discrete bubble without mixing with the mud ahead of it. This may not always be the case. The
figures quoted above, in Section 9.5.4 or in Figure 9.8, indicate that usual kick displacement rates
have the potential to mix with the mud ahead of the gas influx.
When the gas enters the chokeline, the drillpipe pressure will only register the drop in bottomhole
pressure after the lag time for bottomhole pressure changes to register at the gauge, which may
be significant in deep wells.
On a surface BOP rig, the impact of lag time will not be as significant because the necessary rate
of choke manipulation is generally lower. The bottomhole pressure will drop only very slightly
before the drillpipe pressure registers drop, and the choke operator closes in the choke to
increase the choke pressure and hence, the bottomhole pressure.
The lag time between the choke and the drillpipe pressure gauges is generally considered to be
of the order of 2 s per 1 000 ft of drillstring length. This lag time will be affected by the type and
size of the influx in the hole. Therefore, there may be a lag time of approximately 40 s in a 20 000
ft well. If the needed rate of choke manipulation is 420 psi/min as the influx is displaced up the
Page 394 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
chokeline, the bottomhole pressure may have dropped 280 psi before the drillpipe pressure
gauge registers this drop. This is an additional reason for displacing the influx through the
chokeline at a rate that is substantially slower than normal SCRs.
9.5.4 Choke Manipulation – Mud Following Gas into Chokeline
The needed rate of choke manipulation as the mud behind the influx enters the chokeline may be
unrealistic at typical SCRs.
In this case, the risk is that the well may be overpressured leading to the possibility of fracturing
the exposed formation.
The example depicted in Figure 9.7 shows the choke pressure would have to be reduced at
71 psi/bbl which corresponds to the following rates for displacement rates as noted:
 At 0,1 bbl/min = 71 x 0,1 = 7,1 psi/min
This is an indication that usual displacement rates are challenging when displacing a gas influx
through a long chokeline.
9.6 Circulating Kill Methods
A number of factors are considered prior to implementing a method for circulating a kick to the
surface. Some of these factors are listed in Table 9.11
Table 9.11 Factors Related to Methods of Circulating a Kick to Surface
Factor Consideration
Gas Gas migration and location at the shut-in relative to casing shoe.
Circulation rate SCR pressure and rate data.
Consider reducing the circulating rate as influx and kill weight mud
approach BOP stack and choke and kill lines to offset increasing
pressure on casing shoe.
Adjust drill pipe pressure for new rate using static line pressure, if
available, or otherwise, active line pressure.
Decision to circulate up one or two chokelines.
Mud Mud viscosity data and effects.
If choke and kill gel strength is elevated and mud weight and/or
formation integrity margin is low, consider breaking choke and kill
circulation.
Frac gradient Typically lower in deepwater.
MGS loading May be greater in deepwater.
9.6.1 Driller’s Method

Advantages of the Driller’s Method include a quicker removal of the influx from the wellbore, and
a reduced probability of hydrate formation due to the following factors:
 Circulation brings wellbore heat up the BOP and choke and kill lines where it may help to
keep temperatures above hydrate formation temperature.
 Circulation tends to keep BOP equipment temperatures elevated above that of a static well.
Page 395 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.6.2 Wait and Weight Method

Advantages of the Wait and Weight Method may include:
 Fewer circulations for total kill.
 Reduced pressure at the casing shoe when the gas influx approaches this depth.
In deepwater applications, the drill string capacity generally exceeds the open hole volume and
there is no benefit to using this method.
9.6.3 Typical Circulating Well Kill Procedure
When using either the Wait and Weight Method or the Driller’s Method on a rig with subsea stack:
(1) Bring the pump up to speed.
(a) Line up to monitor Wellhead Pressure (WHP) through the kill line. Refer to figure 9.3
for a schematic of the kill line monitor.
(b) Line up to circulate down the drillpipe, and route returns through the choke manifold
to the MGS.
(c) Set the stroke counter on the choke panel to zero.
(d) Record the pressure registered on the kill line monitor.
(e) Open the remotely operated choke at the same time as the pump is started.
(f) Hold the kill line monitor pressure constant as the pump is brought up to speed.
(g) Once the pump is up to speed, the initial circulating pressure is checked.
(2) Circulate the kick to the wellhead maintaining constant bottomhole pressure.
In the case of the Wait and Weight Method, the drillpipe pressure is reduced in line with the
drillpipe pressure schedule.
In the case of the Driller’s Method, the drillpipe pressure is maintained at initial circulating
pressure as the kick is displaced from the hole.
When the total strokes pumped indicates that the influx is approaching the wellhead, the kill
line is monitored for a rapid decrease in pressure. The drop in pressure registered on this
gauge indicates that the influx has entered the chokeline, however, this drop may not
always be detected.
(3) Circulate the influx out of the well maintaining constant bottomhole pressure.
The influx is displaced up the chokeline at a reduced rate, to allow for choke adjustment.
This may involve shutting in the well at this point and restarting the displacement at the
reduced rate.
An increase in choke pressure is necessary to replace the hydrostatic pressure lost as gas
or lightweight influx displaces mud from the chokeline.
An increase in the pressure recorded at the kill line monitor may indicate the original mud
behind the influx has started up the chokeline.
In the case of the Wait and Weight Method, once the returns are at kill weight, the pump is
stopped and the well is checked for pressure.
In the case of the Driller’s Method, the well will be circulated to kill weight mud prior to Step
4.
Page 396 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(4) Remove BOP gas.

Note: Some gas might accumulate under the closed BOP during displacement of the kick.
This gas is removed from the stack before the BOP is opened.
Hydrate formation inhibited water or base oil may be used for the stack sweep operation.
(Note: Prior to conducting the stack sweep operation, confirm that facilities are available for
handling the returned fluids.)
For the example stack shown in Figure 9.10, for which trapped gas has the potential to be
a challenge, removing gas from the BOP may be implemented as follows:
(a) Isolate the well from the BOP stack by closing the lower pipe rams (refer to Figure
9.11).
(b) Circulate kill mud down the chokeline, across the stack, and up the kill line. Route
returns through the degasser. Record the kill line circulating pressure (refer to Figure
9.12).
(c) Shut the well in. Line up to circulate mud or base oil or treated water down the kill
line and up the chokeline. Where non-aqueous drilling fluids are in use, consider the
use of base fluid instead of water.
(d) Slowly displace the kill line to treated water or base fluid. As the kill line is displaced
to water, mud or base fluid, increase the kill line circulating pressure by an amount
equal to the difference in the hydrostatic pressure between the kill mud and water or
base fluid at the depth of the stack. This will help maintain a constant gas pressure.
(e) Keep pumping water or base fluid across the stack and maintain the final circulating
pressure. When the returns are clear water or base fluid, stop the pump and shut-in
at the choke (refer to Figure 9.13).
(f) Close the subsea kill line valve(s).
(g) Bleed pressure from the chokeline (refer to Figure 9.13).
The pressure that has been trapped in the gas bubble is used to help the gas bubble
expand and, as the choke is opened, to displace all the water or base fluid from the
chokeline. Having bled all the pressure from the chokeline, the gas bubble will be
almost at atmospheric pressure.
(h) Close the diverter. Line up the trip tank pump to circulate the riser under the diverter.
(i) Slowly bleed back the upper annular closing pressure. Open the annular.
(j) Allow the riser to U-tube. Take returns up the kill line. Fill the hole as necessary (refer
to Figure 9.8.). Be prepared to address gas in the riser.
(k) Displace the riser and the choke and kill lines to kill weight mud.
(l) Open the lower pipe rams.
(m) Open the diverter and flowcheck the well.
9.7 Bullheading
Bullheading may be a viable alternative unless the open-hole section is lengthy. Forcing influx
fluids down the wellbore may induce underground cross flow.
Consider bullheading if other options would exceed pressure limits, or excessive hydrogen sulfide
is expected and the wellbore conditions allow.
Page 397 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.7.1 Dynamic Volumetric Control

Dynamic Volumetric Control is a procedure requiring specialized equipment and expertise and is
only undertaken after careful analysis. The discussion below is for reference only.
This technique may be used as an alternative to the Static Volumetric Method. It is a method to
safely vent an influx from below a subsea stack, due to both the complexity of the operation, and
the level of stress imposed on well control equipment during circulation.
The Dynamic Volumetric Method is the most reliable method of venting gas from a subsea stack
if the drillpipe cannot be used to monitor bottomhole pressure.
The principle of the procedure is identical to the Static Volumetric Control technique, but the
implementation is different. Circulation is maintained across the wellhead, while the surface
pressure and pit gain are controlled with the choke. The kill line pressure is used to monitor the
well.
The working tank is selected so that it is possible to distinguish very small changes in volume.
Typically, changes of even 0,5 barrels are reliably detected.
The following guidelines may be used to implement the Dynamic Volumetric Method once the
influx is at the stack.
(1) Confirm the kill line is full of mud.
If there is any possibility the kill line contains gas, the well is isolated and the kill line circulated to
mud. This will help to accurately monitor pressure at the stack during the operation.
(2) Circulate down the kill line and up the chokeline.
Monitor the active pit level from returns through the MGS.
(3) Bring the pump up to speed.
As the pump is brought up to speed, the kill line (or pump pressure) increases by an amount
equal to the kill line pressure loss. While compensating for the chokeline pressure loss, the kill
line pressure will increase by more than the kill line pressure loss.
The kill line circulating pressure will be monitored during the operation to remove gas from the
well.
(4) Reduce kill line pressure in line with drop in pit level.
As gas is bled from the well, the pit level will drop, The choke operator adjusts the choke to
maintain a constant kill line circulating pressure. This will result in mud being lubricated into the
well.
If the kill line circulating pressure is held constant as mud is lubricated into the well and gas is
removed, the bottomhole pressure will increase. As the pit level decreases, the kill line pressure
is reduced to account for the greater hydrostatic pressure in the annulus.
Example:
Drop in pit level = 10 bbl
Annulus = 8-1/2 in x 5 in
Mud weight = 15,4 ppg
Hydrostatic pressure equivalent of mud:
53,5 x MW 53,5 x 15,4
PHYD    17,4 psi / bbl (Equation 9-10)
(d2  d1 )
2 2
(8,5 2  5 2 )
Page 398 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Reduce kill line circulating pressure by 17,4 x 10 = 174 psi.

This procedure is continued until all the influx has been vented from below the stack. This will be
indicated by a constant pit level.
If the well has been completely killed by removing gas from the stack, the final circulating kill line
pressure will be equal to the sum of the kill line pressure loss, the chokeline pressure loss, and
the wide open choke pressure. If the well is not yet completely killed at this point, the final
circulating kill line pressure will be greater than this value.
Refer to Figure 9.9 for an example kill line pressure schedule for this technique.
Figure 9.9 Dynamic Volumetric Method - Kill Line Pressure Schedule

9.8 Trapped Gas Cleanout
During well control after a gas influx with a subsea BOP, stack gas may accumulate in the space
between the closed preventer and the outlet used for circulation.
It can create challenges in water depths of 1 000 ft and greater, and as water depth increases, so
does the trapped gas effect.
The volume of gas in the BOP will depend on the BOP arrangement, the diameter of the BOP,
the dispersion and separability of the gas and mud, and the type of drilling fluid.
Synthetic-based Muds (SBMs) and Oil-based Muds (OBMs) can absorb a considerable amount of
gas, which may not evolve back from the mud until the pressure is below the pressure in the
BOP, i.e., in the riser or even downstream of the surface choke.
The effects of gas in the BOP has a strong dependence on water depth. The pressure of this gas
will be the mud hydrostatic pressure, and the deeper the water, the greater this pressure will be.
The greater the pressure, the greater the expanded volume of this gas will be when it reaches the
surface.
Page 399 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
For example, in 1 500 ft of water with 12,0 ppg mud, the pressure would be 950 psia. For an
18-3/4 in BOP, with a 15 ft distance between the annular (assumed shut-in BOP) and the upper
choke outlet, the gas volume could be 5 bbls. If these 5 bbls of gas migrate as a single gas
bubble to the surface, it expands to over 300 bbls (for an ideal gas).
The characteristics of the bubble rise need to be understood. At first, the upward velocity will be
simple migration, perhaps tens of feet per minute (plus circulating annular velocity), with slow
expansion.
There is a critical bubble depth at which it becomes capable of pushing the mud above it out of
the riser, and the migration turns immediately into a rapid expansion and release of the gas out of
the riser. This critical depth is a function of gas bubble size and mud density, but it is often at a
depth of 100 to 300 ft.
The riser may lose the entire expansion volume, dropping its level several hundred feet. Such a
drop could underbalance a formation in the wellbore if the BOP is open.
9.8.1 Field Test Results
Since the volume of gas in the BOP is a function of pressure, its impact increases with water
depth. Field test data has confirmed this potential challenge. This effect can occur in water-based
or non-aqueous muds. The evolution of dissolved gas in the riser is a consideration for any mud
system and all water depths.
The test was run in ± 3 100 ft of water with a 13,2 ppg density mud. Gas (air) volumes of 10 to
50 bbls were placed below a closed BOP, and then the BOP was opened to allow the gas to
migrate. In each case, the air did not migrate as a slug, but rather dispersed itself and did not
displace a large volume of mud from the riser.
The 30 bbl air volume test (equivalent to 110 ft BOP to choke outlet distance in the 18-3/4 in
BOP) unloaded only 19 bbls of mud from the riser.
Surface observations of the returns were small boiling bubbles, air-cut mud, and minor slugging.
Tests were also conducted that circulated out gas of 10 and 30 bbls at 6 BPM. The 10 bbl test still
strung out the bubble and did not unload any mud. The 30 bbl test unloaded over 100 bbls of
mud, indicating that the circulation rate brought some of the large bubble up before it could
disperse.
9.8.2 Equipment Considerations for Gas in the BOP
 Stack configuration.
 Location of choke and kill outlets.
 Condition of annular (will affect ability to hold differential across element).
 Surface gas handling capacity.
 A choke and kill line outlet between annulars.
9.8.3 Operational Considerations for Gas in the BOP
 Water depth.
 Type of fluid in the hole (treat any fluid in the BOP as gas).
 Diverter system configuration.
 Chokeline friction with kill fluid in the chokeline and with water-based or oil-based fluid in the
line.
 The string is hung off.
Page 400 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.8.4 Removing and Venting Trapped Gas

It is likely that gas will have accumulated under the closed annular or pipe ram (if hung off) during
displacement of the kick.
If a choke or kill outlet is immediately below the annular or ram used for shut-in, this volume will
be small and does not pose a notable risk. A stack sweep procedure, for removing and venting
trapped gas, is performed prior to opening the BOP to the riser.
A general procedure for removing and venting trapped gas is shown in Table 9.12. It is necessary
to consult with the drilling contractor for stack sweep procedures before any operations are
undertaken.
Note: Consult annular vendor regarding the maximum allowable pressure differential from above
the BOP.
Table 9.12 Operational Example - Stack Sweep Procedure
Step Action
1 Close lower VBRs.
2 Open middle VBRs.
3 Line up going down lower inlet/outlet choke failsafes and up upper inlet/outlet kill
failsafes.
4 Pump two choke and kill line volumes of kill mud down the chokeline into the lower
inlet/outlet choke failsafes, out of the upper inlet/outlet kill failsafes, and up the kill line at
a rate sufficient to create turbulent flow and sweep any gas.
5 Displace base oil down the kill line to the upper inlet/outlet kill failsafes.
6 Close lower inlet/outlet choke failsafes.
7 With trip tank circulating on the riser, open upper VBRs to allow U-tube of riser mud into
kill line.
8 Close upper VBRs and open the lower inlet/outlet choke failsafes.
9 Displace remaining base oil in chokeline by pumping kill mud down the chokeline and up
the kill line.
10 Close upper inlet/outlet kill failsafes and lower inlet/outlet choke failsafes.
11 Open upper VBRs.
12 Weight up riser with kill mud.

Note: This step may be completed before this point after the well has been killed
(through the mud boost if conditions allow).
13 Open lower inlet/outlet kill failsafes and check for pressure.
Page 401 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
14 If no pressure is observed, open lower VBRs.
15 Work pipe and CBU.
16 Check for pressure, if no pressure is observed proceed with planned operations.
Page 402 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS Upper
Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.10 Subsea BOP Stack Prior to Removing Gas from Below the Preventers
Page 403 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS Upper
Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.11 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack – Lower

Pipe Rams Closed, Hang-off Rams Opened
Page 404 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS Upper
Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.12 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Kill and
Chokelines Displaced to Kill Weight Mud
Page 405 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS
WATER Upper
(OR DIESEL) Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.13 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Choke and Kill Lines Displaced to Water
Page 406 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS
WATER Upper
(OR DIESEL) Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.14 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack – Gas Pressure Bled Down, Gas Occupies
Chokeline
Page 407 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS
WATER Upper
(OR DIESEL) Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.15 Removing Gas from a Subsea Stack - Diverter is Closed, the
Annular is Opened and the Gas is Displaced from the Stack
Page 408 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.8.5 Gas in Riser: Riser Diverter

After the well is killed and trapped gas removal procedures are completed, consider the following:
 There is potential for trapped gas to remain within the BOP. When circulating returns
up the riser, closely monitor for increases in flowrate and gains in the pit, as these are
signs gas is expanding within the riser.
 If gas or flow increase is detected, shut down pumps and line up to divert overboard.
The following are general steps that can be taken on deepwater floating drilling vessels where
gas may be present in the riser:
(3) When to Apply Gas in Riser Procedures.
(a) After shutting in a kick, where some of the gas influx gets above the subsea BOP.
The potential for this increases with water depth and is also influenced by mud type,
i.e., gas solution in synthetic mud.
(b) As a result of a BOP leak across ram, or annular into riser.
(c) For removal of trapped gas.
(4) Actions and Considerations in Handling Gas in Riser.120
Limit personnel on rig floor to only those who are needed for the riser diverter operation.
Note: If gas surfaces, it may do so abruptly and at a substantial rate giving little, if any, warning
Monitor the riser during well control operations to assess if any gas is in riser. If gas is present,
monitor its expansion.
If riser flow is detected, confirm the BOPs are not leaking. Close a second BOP, above the first
one, and bleed and monitor pressure between the BOPs. Line up equipment prior to gas arrival,
including diverting all riser return flow directly overboard, bypassing the MGS.
(5) Closed BOP During Riser Gas Handling.
A BOP will be closed during riser gas handling for the following reasons:
 If the BOP is left open, gas expansion may underbalance the hole potentially leading to
additional influx if formations are exposed.
 A closed BOP isolates the wellbore from riser.
 The well may be monitored through a choke and kill line outlet below the closed BOP.
 The riser can be circulated with a riser booster line and/or choke and kill line with outlet
above closed BOP.
(6) Riser Circulation Rate and Diverter Flow.
Circulation rate depends on the following:
 Size and capacity of diverter and circulation system.
 Liquid and gas handling capacity of surface equipment.
 If pumping kill weight mud, the capacity of the mixing system to maintain density.
Note: The default procedure is to divert riser gas directly overboard with whatever mud volume is
needed to clear the riser. With proper risk assessment and management approval of pre-
planned scenarios, diverter flow may be directed to MGS depending on the following:
 Mud type.
Page 409 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Mud and/or gas separator capacity (riser discharge is likely to peak at a large rate).
 Predetermined estimated exit rates of gas and liquid that result from different pump
rates and riser gas volumes.
9.9 Hydrates
Natural gas hydrates have the appearance of hard snow and consist of chemical compounds of
light hydrocarbons and liquid water. They are formed at temperatures above the freezing point of
water at specified conditions of temperature and pressure (refer to Figure 9.16). The
temperatures at which hydrates can form may be above the temperature at which pure ice would
usually be formed, particularly at higher pressures. This formation process is accelerated when
there are substantial gas velocities, pressure pulsations, or other agitations, (which cause the
mixing of hydrocarbon components) such as downstream of a choke and at elbows.
During well control operations, gas hydrates may cause the following challenges:
 Plugging of subsea choke and kill lines, preventing opening and closing of subsea BOPs,
sealing off wellbore annuli, and immobilizing the drillstring. There have been recorded
incidences of such occurrences with subsea stacks in water depths of 1 150 ft and deeper.
 Plugging of surface lines at and downstream of the choke or restriction. This is particularly
hazardous when large gas flowrates are experienced through low-pressure equipment (such
as the MGS and gas vent line). The formation of hydrate plugs under these conditions can
rapidly overpressure low-pressure well control equipment.
The major factors which determine the potential for hydrate formation are gas composition, liquid
content, pressure and temperature. A typical set of graphs showing the temperatures and
pressures at which hydrates can form in hydrocarbon gas-flow situations is shown in figure 9.16.
If a pressure and temperature plot for a particular gas is above the line for that gas, then hydrates
may form.
The conditions for hydrate formation may be created at a subsea stack operating in a cold water
environment.
Graphs such as Figure 9.17 may be used to predict the temperature drop associated with a
pressure drop (across a choke, for example). As an example, if gas at 3 000 psi and 90°F was
choked to 1 800 psi, the temperature would be expected to drop to 55°F in an adiabatic
expansion, in which case hydrate formation could be expected.
Page 410 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 9.16 Temperature and Pressure at which Gas Hydrates will Form (Katz)
Page 411 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Figure 9.17 Natural Gas Expansion - Temperature Reduction Curve (NATCO)

The risk of hydrates can be mitigated by one or a combination of the following:
 Injecting antifreeze agents, such as methanol, into the gas flow has the effect of dissolving
liquid water deposits, thus lowering the temperature at which hydrates would be expected to
form.
Page 412 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 The most accessible and effective place to inject methanol at the surface is at the choke
manifold. The point of injection is upstream of the choke. Chemical injection pumps are used
in this application.
 Reducing line pressure in order to allow the hydrates to melt. This is a temporary measure
and is not always effective. Once hydrates have formed, the time it takes to clear the line is
difficult to predict.
If the potential for hydrate formation exists, a contingency plan to deal with them is developed.
Check subsea water temperatures and pressures, as well as, the potential for hydrate formation
at surface in the event of a gas kick.
9.9.1 Potential Hydrate Formation
The presence of a gas kick in a non-inhibited water-based drilling mud creates the potential for
hydrate formation, which may plug the choke and kill lines. Hydrates can also form behind BOP
rams, preventing them from opening. Hydrate formation may also prevent the BOP from
disconnecting from the wellhead.
The deeper the water, the more likely hydrates are to form because of both decreasing
temperature and increasing hydrostatic pressure.
For example, at a 10 ppg hydrostatic pressure of 2 000 ft of water (1 040 psi), the hydrate
equilibrium temperature for methane is 48°F, just above the range of 40° to 46°F which is the
typical ocean floor temperature in deepwater GoM. In northern seas, seabed temperature may be
near 28°F.
In 4 000 ft of water, the equilibrium temperature is 61°F, approximately 20° above the typical
ocean floor water temperature.
There is a time factor for the formation of hydrates, both chemically, and due to the cooling that
occurs with time after circulation is stopped. Formation of hydrates during circulation is unlikely
due to the heat brought up from the wellbore, as well as, the decreased time that gas is in the
BOP.
The time factor lends support to the use of the Driller's Method of well control. Prior to beginning
the Wait and Weight Method, the well is not circulated while increasing the pit mud density.
The time that the circulation must be stopped for the Wait and Weight Method can be reduced if
kill weight mud (of needed density) is already available in the reserve pits (riser volume not
needed at this time).
9.9.2 Inhibiting Drilling Mud with Salt
Salt (NaCI) may be used to achieve some hydrate suppression for much of the wellbore. For
maximum suppression with NaCI (near saturated), the resulting mud density will be greater than
10 ppg.
Saturated salt may suppress the hydrate-formation temperature to the region of 36°F at
2 000 psi, or 40°F at 4 000 psi.
Because salt increases the density of the fluid while drilling below shallow casings in deeper
water, the fracture gradient may prevent the use of this salt-based fluid.
Page 413 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 9.13 identifies alternative drilling fluid inhibition methods:

Table 9.13 Alternative Hydrate Inhibition Methods
Additive/Method Comments
Glycerol Commercial examples: HF-100, Aquacol-D.

Additional hydrate depression of 8°F may be achieved with 5%
concentration.
Often justifies improved mud solids treatment and recovery of the
glycerol.
Synthetic-based and Laboratory studies show that for effective hydrate inhibition, the
other non-water based salinity (typically CaCI2) of the water internal phase should be
systems maintained above hydrate conditions.
Maintain correct salinity to avoid the possibility of rapid hydrate
formation (especially in water-based fluid).
Gas dissolves more readily in synthetic fluids, bringing gas and
emulsified water into close contact.
Dissolved gas is less likely to migrate during shut-in, so there may
be no gas in the BOP. This facilitates the use of the Wait and
Weight Method, if desired.
Note: Salt content in the water phase may affect the shale
stability performance of the mud.
Glycol After a kick, a glycol pill may be spotted in the BOP stack via the
choke and kill lines.
To prevent hydrates, glycol may be pumped down a dedicated
glycol injection line from the surface to the BOP if the rig is
equipped with this line.
Methanol Toxicity, flammability issues are considered.
9.9.3 Hydrate Removal

Once hydrates form in subsea equipment, their removal is challenging. While concentrated
inhibitors, such as methanol, may decompose them, it may be difficult to get the inhibitor in
contact with the hydrate, especially if a plug has formed. There are similar challenges with heated
fluid approaches, plus the tendency of heated fluid to be cooled before it can reach the subsea
BOP.
In one of the cases where heated fluid was used effectively, it was pumped down coiled tubing
that was run inside the drillpipe to a depth a few thousand feet below the hydrates.
Heat exchange with the annulus fluids, both in the riser and below the mudline, creates a
complex thermal simulation challenge, the results of which will depend on the site specific
situation. There are no 'rules of-thumb' that will accurately predict the effectiveness of the heated
fluid.
One approach to remove hydrates involves running coiled tubing down a choke and kill line with a
surface lubricator pack off (i.e., access through a mouse hole). When considering this approach,
be aware that not all rigs will have access to the choke and kill lines. This approach offers two
choices:
Page 414 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Circulate and wash methanol to bottom of choke and kill line.

 Pump nitrogen or air into the choke and kill lines through coil to displace fluid and reduce
hydrostatic pressure to disassociate the hydrates.
9.9.4 External Hydrates in the Wellhead Connector
Where near-mudline sediments can evolve gas (biogenic sources), there is the potential for
hydrates to form in the locking mechanism of the wellhead-to-BOP stack connector. Once
formed, these may prevent unlocking of the connector.
There are a number of equipment options available with the connector and mud mats, which may
guard against such gas entering the connector.
There may be inhibitor injection features, although these may not be effective in getting inhibitor
to the hydrate. Operationally, these features are checked (e.g., seal in place, injection lines not
plugged) before running the BOP stack.
9.9.5 Removing Wellhead Connector Hydrates
Table 9.14 presents options to consider in removing wellhead connector hydrates:
Table 9.14 Procedures for Removing Wellhead Connector Hydrates
Step Action Comments
1 Circulate at a maximum rate Heat is generated by friction loss in the drillpipe

(e.g., three pumps) with the and by dissipating hydraulic horsepower across
drillpipe in the BOP stack and the nozzles.
specially selected nozzles. Depending on mud pump capacity and water
depth, this technique may need augmenting by
surface heaters.
Best rate, nozzle size, and when or whether to re-
circulate returns, may be calculated by wellbore
thermal simulation software.
Modelling includes the temperature distribution
from the inside of the BOP to the outer diameter
areas of the connector where the hydrate plugs
are located.
2 Use a conveyed heating device Some devices are proprietary technologies of third
to decompose the hydrates. parties and involve mixing of reactive chemicals to
generate heat.
Correct chemical recipe depends on several
factors that are assessed for specific conditions.
3 After the well is appropriately This precludes subsequent use of the well.
abandoned, cut off the wellhead
and pull it along with the BOP
and connector.
4 Methanol injected or spotted via A good hydrate inhibitor that may also dissipate a
ROV. hydrate plug.
Note: Assess toxicity issues prior to use.
Page 415 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.10 Emergency Procedures

9.10.1 Use of Shear Rams
Blind shear rams have two functions. They can be used to cut drillpipe and act as a blind ram in
order to isolate the well. Shearing the pipe is only done in exceptional circumstances.
The use of the blind shear rams may be considered in the following situations:
 In the case of moving a floating rig off location at short notice.
 When there is no pipe in the hole, the blind shear rams may be used.
Most blind shear rams are designed to shear the body (tube) of the drillpipe. Procedures for
drillpipe hang-off are written to prevent attempting to shear with a tool joint across the ram. Many
subsea stacks have a lack of clearance, between top pipe rams and the blind shear rams.
Measurements are taken to determine the ram that will be used for hanging off the drillpipe.
Specialty shear rams, such as the Cameron Super Shear Rams and Shaffer Casing Shear Rams
are designed to shear 7 in drill collars and casing up to 13-5/8 in OD. The capabilities and
operating parameters of the shear rams installed in the rig’s BOP stack are typically understood
by rig site personnel.
Best shearing results are typically obtained when the pipe is stationary and under tension.
Typically, the pipe weight is only partially hung-off prior to shearing. Hanging the pipe off also
confirms that there is no tool joint across the shear rams, since the distances have been
previously checked. Maximum operating pressure is used to shear the pipe.
The following procedure may be used as a guideline for shearing the pipe in the case of an
internal blowout:
(1) Space out to make sure there is no tool joint opposite the shear rams.
(2) Close the hang off ram.
(3) Hang off on the rams.
Note: Keep the pipe above the hang-off rams in tension.
(4) Close the shear rams at maximum accumulator pressure.
(5) Monitor the well. Implement control procedures.
9.10.2 Emergency Disconnect
Plans for emergency disconnect and riser margin management are mutually developed and
agreed between BP and the drilling contractor prior to commencing operations.
In some shallow water areas, government regulations require a mud weight in excess of the
formation pressure. This excess mud weight is calculated to be able to balance the formation
pressure of the well. This added mud weight is referred to as riser margin and compensates for
the loss of hydrostatic pressure of the mud column from the wellhead back to the rig when the
BOPs are closed and the riser is disconnected.
Hydrostatic pressure lost in the well, after disconnect, may be calculated as follows:
Lost hydrostatic pressure = (MW –water gradient)(WD in ft)(0.052)
In deepwater drilling, where the difference between formation and fracture pressures may be very
small, this approach is not always possible. Formation pressure exceeds a saltwater gradient,
and excessive mud weights can fracture formations causing lost circulation. For this reason, the
BOPs are designed to seal the well in the event of an EDS.
Page 416 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
9.10.3 Adverse Weather

Adverse weather can increase well control challenges on offshore rigs.
On a floating rig, a crucial situation is reached if it becomes necessary to unlatch the riser during
a well control operation. If this situation occurs the ability to monitor the well and control the
migration of the influx is lost.
If weather conditions deteriorate with very little warning, the following may be implemented:
(1) Attempt to bullhead the influx back into the formation.
(2) Displace the drillstring to kill weight mud.
(3) Close lowermost pipe rams (in addition to the hang off rams).
(4) Shear the pipe.
(5) Prepare to unlatch, monitoring wellbore pressures until unlatching.
If sufficient time is available, consideration may be given to spotting a heavy pill or plug on bottom
to either kill the well with hydrostatic pressure, or to provide a barrier to migration.
Adverse weather may interrupt the supply of chemicals and barite to all types of rigs. The Driller’s
Method may be implemented to remove the influx from the well, if there are not ample chemical
or barite stocks at the rig site.
In certain areas of the world, cold temperatures may cause operational challenges. Particular
items affected by cold temperatures are BOP operating fluid, manifolds, and flowlines.
9.11 Plug and Abandon Issues
Deepwater affects the well control aspects of the following plug and abandonment operations:
 Casing perforating for lap squeeze cementing.
 Casing cutting.
 Seal assembly removal.
During subsea well abandonment, there is potential for gas to be in the casing by casing annuli
underneath the seal assembly. On subsea wellheads, there are generally no openings to these
annuli to check for and bleed this gas. There is potential for the release of this gas when the
annulus is exposed by removing the seal assembly, cutting casing, or even perforating the casing
for squeezing.
Gas can accumulate in the casing annulus by several mechanisms. One mechanism, brought on
by deepwater, may occur in the following scenario:
 Casing is set through a hole section that contains permeable zones, one or more of which
contains gas.
 The casing seal assembly is set, isolating the top of the annulus from the mud hydrostatic
pressure above.
 Filtration or seepage losses into the down-hole permeable zones can occur.
 The lost volume is made up by expansion of the annulus mud, and there is an associated
loss of pressure in the annulus. At some point, the pressure under the seal assembly may
reach zero, and no further pressure loss will occur. The amount of pressure that may be lost
is a function of water depth and wellbore pressure profile.
 The pressure decline may attempt to fall below that in a permeable zone elsewhere in the
wellbore. If this is opposite a gas zone and occurs before adjacent cement sets, some gas
may enter the wellbore.
Page 417 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Influx gas will likely migrate up the annulus. An annular gas flow may develop, or the gas may
simply migrate up to the wellhead without any further fluid movement. Either way, a bubble of
overpressured gas may exist below the seal assembly.
9.11.1 Perforating Prior to Squeezing
The annuli between casing strings are often verified to assure that they are sealed as part of
abandonment. If adequate isolation was not achieved during the primary cement job, then the
subject casing string may be perforated and cement squeezed through the perforations to gain
isolation.
When perforating the casing for this squeeze, personnel monitor for pressure build up due to gas
behind the casing. If the well does flow upon perforating, the planned shut-in and well control
procedure is implemented (e.g., close annular or rams).
If there is a likelihood of such gas, another approach is to use drillpipe as a lubricator to a
distance below the stack shut-in, then run the perforating gun through and below the drillpipe.
9.11.2 Casing Cutting
Sometimes casing recovery is implemented to cut and pull certain production and intermediate
casings from a point somewhere above the respective previous casing shoes. Similar to the
circumstance described for perforating casing in the previous section, there may be overpressure
in the annulus. The considerations described in the previous section generally apply for this
operation.
9.11.3 Seal Assembly Removal
When removing the seal assembly, trapped gas may escape, either rapidly, if it is over pressured,
or slowly, by migration. While flow can be monitored to determine if the preventers need to be
closed, also consider the option to close a BOP and pump down either the drillpipe or a kill line
(and up a chokeline) to remove any influx and monitor flow. This may minimise the potential for
influx gas to get above the BOP and into the riser before detection.
Another precaution is to perforate the casing immediately below the seal assembly prior to
pulling. This approach may reduce the potential rate of gas influx because of the small area of
perforations.
Page 418 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
10 Well Monitoring and Fingerprinting

10.1 Well Monitoring
In the design of a well, key parameters such as MAWHP, temperature, reservoir fluid
characteristics, potentially troublesome zones with lost circulation, unstable shales, and
overpressure are considered. This defines the expected well construction environment, against
which a monitoring program is planned. Variations from this expected well construction
environment are signs of potential trouble and will typically trigger remedial action, including
cessation of operations.
It is crucial that rig crews continuously monitor the status of the wellbore regarding influxes by
means of both leading and lagging indicators. This monitoring is performed during the entire well
construction process:
 Drilling.
 Tripping.
 Logging.
 Running casing.
 Completion phase.
 During a temporary suspension.
The responsibility for the accomplishment of correct well monitoring and fingerprinting procedures
falls on the field team. They use the indicators as outlined below, as well as monitoring and
recording systems present on the rig. Depending on the operation taking place, the classic
indicators may not yield obvious and intuitive data.
When multiple simultaneous tasks are planned, a job safety analysis, a risk assessment, or both
may be needed in addition to specific procedures to confirm that the wellbore is properly
monitored. Simultaneous tasks are planned so that there is no impact on well monitoring.
On critical wells, an independent automated means of recording the wellbore parameters is used.
Crucial parameters to monitor are:
 Flow Out.
 Flow In.
 Pit Volumes.
 Mud Weight.
 Mud Gas.
 Wellbore Pressure (as needed).
 Swab and Surge Pressures (as needed).
 ECD (as needed).
10.1.1 Mud Logger - General Standing Orders
 Leaving Station.
 The mud logging station is manned at all times. If the station is going to be unmanned, the
drill floor is informed.
 Notifications.
(1) The driller or derrick man will alert the mud logger prior to fluid transfers, or if any
changes to the pit volume or flow rate will occur as a result of a procedure.
(2) Notations of changes in wellbore parameters are made on the real time monitoring or
recording system.
Page 419 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(3) Any indication of increasing, or decreasing, stand pipe pressure (SPP) or pump pressure,
without a corresponding change in pump speed, is brought to the attention of the driller
immediately. This is followed by notification to the BP WSL.
(4) The pressure changes in PSI are annotated on the real time monitoring or recording
system
 Typical Well Bore Displacement Procedure.
(1) A pump schedule is prepared prior to displacement of one type of fluid to
another.
(2) This schedule is provided to the mud logger for monitoring during the displacement.
(3) Any variation in pressure, rate, or volume from the schedule is immediately brought to the
attention of the driller and the BP WSL.
 Typical Fluid Transfer Procedure
(1) Prior to a planned fluid transfer, the active system is defined and isolated
such that the well may be monitored without interference from transfers to or from the
inactive system, e.g., a workboat.
(2) Once defined, there is no movement of fluid between the active and non-active systems.
(3) During the planned transfer, there are no fluid transfers from the inactive system to the
defined active system.
(4) All transfers are taken to or from the defined portions of the system that are not active, to
be certain that all fluids are accounted for and communicated as per the communication
plan.
 Typical Stimulation Procedure.
(1) Fluid monitoring during stimulating operations are incorporated into the
procedure.
(2) The plan is discussed prior to beginning the job, and during the safety meeting, so that all
pumped fluid is accounted for during the job.
10.2 Fingerprinting
Pit volume monitoring is a fundamental well control tool. Wellbore gains or losses are best
detected early, and they usually result in a fluid level change in the working pits. Proper and rapid
response to changes in pit level reduces the severity of an event.
Routine operations result in frequent surface signs that could indicate a flow anomaly. A partial
list of factors affecting pit volume includes:
 An influx from a kicking zone.
 Mud loss into a lost circulation zone.
 Hole ballooning.
 A temperature profile change that causes measurable fluid expansion or compression.
 Drain-back from circulating equipment, e.g., Kelly hose, swivel and/or top-drive, charging
pumps or other active equipment that may drain from time to time.
 A trip slug continuing to settle for a time after being pumped.
The process of monitoring pit volume, with respect to trapping anomalies, is referred to as
“fingerprinting.” This consists of a detailed collection of data and the ability to compare trends and
changes over a period of time. Properly executed, fingerprinting may discriminate between
Page 420 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
expected changes caused by hole conditions or surface variables, and assist in providing early
warning of impending well control challenges. Fingerprinting is useful in the following situations:
 Normal drilling or workover operations – mud mixing and weight additions.

 Making routine connections.
 Variations in hole fill up during trips.
 In cases of hole ballooning.
10.2.1 Fingerprinting During Drilling Operations
Monitoring flowrate out of the well is essential since this is one of the primary indicators of a kick.
Most flapper sensors are not quantitative. They are simple devices that signal that flow from the
well is positive. Often, small flows are not detected by a flapper type flow sensor. For critical
situations, Coriolis meters are available. They provide accurate mass flowrates and flowout fluid
density, if properly calibrated. Pit monitoring serves to establish trends.
Mud volumes in tanks may be increased or decreased due to fluid transfers, mechanical sources,
or a well flow. Knowledge of any type of change in the tanks is crucial. Electronic pit monitoring
systems are beneficial to well operations, when properly calibrated. They are able to quantify pit
level anomalies quickly. The system may be arranged such that the monitor may determine the
volume in barrels on any single pit, and that a pit volume totalizer may determine the volume on
all pits. In many cases, the pit volume totalizer can be adjusted to total mud volume only in certain
pits which have been selected. Mud loggers are typically the primary custodians of the fingerprint
process.
One item to evaluate is changing the wellbore temperature profile after a trip. Following a trip, the
mud in the wellbore has heated towards a thermal equilibrium. As the relatively cool mud is
pumped down the drillstring it will be at a hydrostatic imbalance with mud in the annulus that is
warmer and less dense. This is particularly likely for deep, hot wells where non aqueous fluid
(NAF) is in use. Table 10.1 lists temperature effects on completion brines.
Table 10.1 Temperature Effects on Completion Brines
Brine Type: Density

NaCl (Sodium Chloride) 8,34 – 9,8
CaCl2 8,34 – 11,6
NaCl + CaCl2 10 - 11,7
KCl (Potassium Chloride) 8,34 – 9,7
CaCl2 + CaBr2 (Calcium Bromide) 11,7 – 15
CaCl2 + CaBr2 + ZnBr2 (Zinc Bromide) 15,2 – 19,2
Brine density loss due to thermal expansion:
Weight Required (EMW) Density Loss Factor (ppg per degree F)
8,4 – 9,0 0,0017
9,1 – 11,0 0,0025
11,1 – 14,5 0,0033
14,6 – 19,2 0,0040
17,1 – 19,2 0,0048
Page 421 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Formula for fluid weight: EMW formation + (BHT - Surface Temp) x ppg loss/deg F
Examples:
9.0 EMW + (400 - 80) x 0.0017 = 9.5 ppg required fluid weight (or 0.50 ppg density loss)
14.0 EMW + (400 - 80) x 0.0033 = 15.1 ppg required fluid weight (or 1.1 ppg density loss)
The examples above are somewhat extreme as the entire temperature profile along the wellbore
is unlikely to change by 320°F. However, it does show what may happen. Drilling mud, especially
NAF systems, shows measurable thermal expansion. The service company providing the drilling
fluids can supply temperature and density information on the systems in use.
An additional complication is fluid compressibility which may influence flow signals. Figure 10.1
below is representative of a known brine system. Mud fluids show similar behaviour. Again, the
service company can supply complete details of their fluid behaviour, and this information is vital
to a fingerprinting program.
In deepwater drilling, thermal expansion and contraction may be a contributor to mud flowback,
although typically, when it is not circulating the drilling fluid will contract due to the large volume
(and the lower temperatures) contained in the riser. With the use of oil or synthetic based drilling
fluids, fluid compressibility may lead to further confusion. Surface drainage and fluid deceleration
are the largest contributing factors to flowback.
Ballooning is discussed below. The early stages of hole ballooning may cause anomalies during
regular drill-ahead operations.
Figure 10.1 Deepwater 200°F BHT surface density14,8 ppg CaBr2/ZnBr2

14,88 ppg Equivalent Static Density
10.2.2 Making Routine Connections
Pit volume monitoring during connections is influenced by mud flow in surface connections, and
actions of the hole. Connection Flow Monitoring (CFM) is a large portion of the fingerprinting
exercise. Surface drain-back may present a challenge. The following figure is an example taken
from an actual deepwater rig.
Page 422 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Because flowback is directly related to circulating rate, the same pump rate that will be used for
drilling the open hole section is used when establishing the base curve. Also, because surface
equipment drainage can cause confusion, changes to surface equipment configuration are
avoided until the section has been drilled. If equipment is changed out, a new base curve is
measured. Figure 10.2 gives an example of the relationship between circulating rate and
flowback volume. As expected, flowback increases with depth at constant circulating rates.
Figure 10.2 Flow-back is Influenced by Circulating Rate and Hole Depth

In order to quantify the above flowback effects, surface volumes are accurately measured while
drilling the intermediate casing shoe and prior to exposing productive formation in the wellbore.
By plotting the volume against time, a reference or base curve is established. During the drilling
of the section, the flowback, volume against time curves, are compared against this base curve.
This curve is a crucial guide to determining if the well is breathing or if a kick has been taken
when drilling the open hole section. This method of fingerprinting has proven to be a rapid and
accurate method of early kick detection and is currently used on many BP deepwater operations.
Page 423 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Table 10.2 Example Calibration Sheet for Fingerprinting Flowback
Drainback (bbl) in active pit at different flow rates
Time (min) 500 gpm 750 gpm 1000 gpm
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
....
Note: Regions typically develop ballooning detection techniques for their respective areas. The
example above is for reference. More detail on the subject is found in “Ballooning – Not
for Children v2.1” by Hartford Prewett.
10.3 Variations in Hole Fill-up on Trips
While working on wells with productive formations exposed, a trip tank is used which is capable of
monitoring fluid while pulling out of the hole and tripping into the hole. Fingerprinting is employed
and compared from trip to trip.
The pre-trip flowback is monitored to:
 Determine that the well is stable.
 Observe at least the first 10 stands pulled off bottom.
 Determine that the well is taking the proper fill up.
If the trip tank pump is not kept on the hole constantly, the well is typically filled every 5 stands of
drillpipe, 3 stands of heavy weight drillpipe and each stand of drill collars or a 75 psi reduction in
hydrostatic head, whichever comes first.
A trip out of or into the hole will include the use of a trip tank for monitoring fill ups and pipe
displacement. A trip sheet is maintained to provide a documented comparison of the actual
versus calculated volumes. Typically a trip tank has the following characterisics:
 Two pumps manifolded.
 Ability to run continuously (during trips), keeping the hole filled at all times.
 A return line and valve to the pits.
 Is monitored electronically and with a visible gauge.
 Is not too large… < 50 bbls for most land operations (larger for offshore use).
 Is covered.
 Includes two lines to the bell nipple. The lower line is used for filling the hole and the upper
line returns fluid to the trip tank. Each line is equipped with an isolation valve.
Page 424 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Note: High-pressure hoses, valves, and piping are used if installed below a rotating head or
similar pressure equipment.
Where a mud logger is used, the mud logger also maintains a trip sheet. The sheet will indicate
slug size, slug density, stands or joints, theoretical volume of each set, and cumulative volume to
actually fill the hole. The sheet records the date, time and driller on tour. Records of the individual
trip sheets are kept by the mud logger and driller.
During each trip, the trip sheets are compared to the previous trip to indicate trends. The same
slug volume and over-balance is used for each slug. Several stands may be pulled before the
slug fully falls, and the sheets will indicate this trend.
When pulling wet pipe, a mud bucket with good seals is used. The volume in the bucket drains
back to the trip tank to confirm an accurate count of trip volumes. Tripping wet pipe does not
eliminate using the trip tank and maintaining a trip sheet. A spare set of new mudbucket seals are
kept on location at all times.
Slug size and weight are affected by depth, hole size, BHA geometry, and history of success of
past slugs. (e.g., when motors or turbines are in the BHA, a 60 bbls slug at 2-1/2 ppg over mud
weight is typical).
The trip tank is constantly monitored when the well is open and the pipe is out of the hole. If the
blinds are closed, the well pressure is monitored.
When tripping back to bottom, a non-ported float will increase the displacement by a large
percentage when compared to a trip out of the hole pulling dry pipe. Separate trip sheets, for trips
into the well are maintained and are compared with previous trip sheets, from trips into the well.
This comparison will aid in determining any anomalies.
Table 10.3 Example trip sheet
Stand No Calculated Actual Volume Cumulative Volume Comments

Volume Volume Last Trip
10
15
20
25
30
10.4 Ballooning Hole

Flowback is described as a symptom observed at the surface, resulting from the overall
phenomena known as supercharging. Two common theories that describe supercharging are
wellbore ballooning and the loss of mud to microfractures during drilling. Ballooning occurs during
drilling as the additional hydrostatic pressures cause slight expansion of the wellbore, thus,
increasing wellbore volume. Also during drilling, ECD pressures may cause the loss of drilling
fluid to the formation due to microfractures. These fractures increase in length with continued
Page 425 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
pressure. Once drilling is stopped, and the pumps shut down, the loss of ECD allows either the
ballooned formation to deflate or the fractures to close. In either case, this results in mud
flowback to the surface.
Often, the “bottoms-up” from a flowback event contains more gas than is observed during drilling
(BGG levels). This may lead to misinterpretation of observed data by incorrectly assuming gas
has entered the wellbore. In addition, flowback may be confused with surface equipment drainage
and the decay of flow seen at the flowline when pumps are stopped. Residual flow is due to a
combination of the time for the moving column of mud to decelerate, and the bleedoff of drillstring
internal pressure through the bit nozzles. The effects of thermal expansion on drill fluid may also
lead to misinterpretation at the surface.
These factors make it difficult to tell the difference between flowback and an actual kick. Since
ECDs are usually of greater magnitude (in 8-1/2 in. hole, ECD may exceed 300 psi), a real kick is
more easily detected when the pumps are off, and ECD is not exerted on the formation. An
incorrect interpretation means that rig time is spent circulating-out a false kick, or worse, a
flowback is assumed and an actual kick is not detected.
Any flowback from the well, when the pumps have been shut down, is treated as a kick unless
analysis of all data and trends indicates otherwise. Figure 10.3, Figure 10.4, and Figure 10.5 are
decision trees that may be used to help.
FLOWBACK DETERMINATION
Pumping has stopped but well continues

flowing or flow does not decay as previously
observed
Shut-in record pressures
READ
Use flowback chart to determine if flow is
likely to be:
Probable kick (Kill with W & W) Possible kick circulate out using constant
Possible
See on bottom kill (yellow chart) bottomhole pressure see on bottom kill
flowback
Figure 4.3 of BP WCM Vol. 3 (yellow chart)
Review with onshore management (unless

flowback regime previously confirmed)
proceed with the bleed-off test
Refer to Figure 10.5
Figure 10.3 Flowback Determination
Page 426 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Shut well in
Read and record SIDPP
SICP and pit gain
Calculate annulus friction pressure

(ECD) while drilling
No Any losses Yes No Was flow Yes Probable

SIDPP > ECD? 24 hrs while SICP > SIDPP? declining prior
flowback
drilling? to shut-in?
Yes No Yes No
Any losses Yes No Possible Flowback

last 24 hrs while SICP > SIDPP? Circulate OMW by Driller’s Method for 1st
drilling? circulation
No
Yes
Possible Real (Positive) Influx

- Can use Wait and Weight, but very little
SICP > SIDPP?
advantage – Circulate OMW using Driller’s
Method
Yes
Probable real (positive) influx – use

Wait and Weight to kill
Figure 10.4 Deciding between Flowback and a Real Kick
Page 427 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Well is shut-in and possible

and probable flowback
suspected (from figure 10.3)
Bleed off via choke – max of

2-5 bbl or 50% of kick
tolerance – whichever is
smaller
Flow decays?
Yes
Yes
Circulate bottoms up
And stops?
prior to drill ahead
No
No
Shut-in and record pressure
No
Pressures < previous?
Yes
No
Total gain < net loss since

No Use constant BHP method to
wellbore last allowed to
relax and still have static circulate bottoms up
overbalance?
No
Yes
Is the total volume bled Influx confirmed?

Yes
back since start of incident
<30 bbl or < 50% of kick No
Yes
tolerance
Repeat
Kill kick bleed-off
test
Figure 10.5 Flow Chart for a Bleed-off Test
Page 428 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
11 Relief Well Planning

11.1 Introduction
Some of the potential causes of blowouts are:
 BOP failure.
 Casing wear leading to casing failure.
 Unexpected pressure.
 Poor zonal isolation.
 Wellhead and/or connector failure.
 Blowout while testing (e.g., due to equipment failure, dropped object or collision).
 Shallow gas.
 Underground blowout or surface and/or seabed breach.
Blowout remediation can be divided into BOP intervention (i.e., efforts to “cap” the blowing out
well) and subsurface intervention (i.e., relief wells). This section focuses on subsurface
intervention (relief wells).
11.2 Scope
The typical objectives of relief well planning prior to spudding the primary well might include:
 Confirming that a relief well can feasibly be drilled (i.e., assure that surface locations are
available from which the primary well can be reached).
 Determining the equipment and resources that may be needed in a worst case discharge
scenario.
 Determining the availability and transit time for all the necessary equipment and services
within a predetermined time frame (e.g., rig, wellheads, casing, tangibles, directional drilling
tools and specialist equipment necessary to locate the original well).
 Expediting the planning of a relief well, in the event of a blowout, by providing a base plan.
It is very difficult to predict the exact circumstances related to a blowout before it occurs, e.g., in
which hole section did the blowout occur, at what depth, what is the blowout rate, is there a drill
string in the hole. For these reasons, it is recognized that prior to a blowout, only scoping level
planning is performed. Then, in the event of a blowout, detailed relief well planning can
commence to remediate the exact blowout circumstances. In this case, details such as the
ranging points, intercept type, and well kill program are then developed.
11.3 Local Legislation, BP Defined Practices and Guidance
Confirm that relief well planning and execution complies with local legislation.
The local wells organizations will identify and document compliance with legislation for relief
wells. This is best captured in the Relief Well Contingency Basis of Design (BoD).
11.4 Field and Well Data
To design and construct a relief well capable of killing the blowing well, assure that the latest data
is available and that all safety crucial documents are up to date, e.g., wellbore schematics, and
Pore Pressure and Fracture Gradient (PPFG) data.
11.5 Well Integrity
Determine the status of the integrity of the blowout well's physical components, particularly the
casing, tubulars and wellhead. These elements can affect the back pressure, flowrate, flow path,
electromagnetic casing detection, and magnetic ranging. Analysis will typically include:
Page 429 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Casing specifications.
 Casing setting points.
 Cement tops and cement quality behind casing.
 Drillstring specifications and depth of bit (if applicable).
 Production tubing specifications and depths of valves and packers (if applicable).
 Location and specifications of perforations (if applicable).
 Specifications, condition and access to wellhead and/or BOP or tree.
 Ratings for collapse and burst discs.
 Condition of tubulars with respect to known or suspected damage (e.g., holes, splits, breaks
and/or missing sections, fish and/or obstructions).
 Stability of tubulars with respect to blowout conditions (e.g., erosion may occur due to flowing
sand, stress corrosion may cause cracking or hydrogen embrittlement, accelerated corrosion
may become an issue).
 Any suspected reduction in original tubular specifications due to casing wear, poor material
and/or connections for applications, and/or corrosion.
11.6 Reservoir Characteristics
Certain conditions of the target reservoir could allow a kill to be achieved by intersecting the
reservoir near the blowing wellbore and other conditions might require a direct intersection with
the wellbore or casing to be successful. Points to consider when evaluating the reservoir can
include for example:
 Permeability.
 Reservoir thickness.
 Pressures.
 Fluid properties.
Blowout modelling for relief well planning can be conducted using the calculated worst case
discharge for the well. This relief well guidance is focused on potential blowouts from the
reservoir and does not address blowouts from shallow gas zones.
11.6.1 Blowout Fluid Properties
Estimates of the blowout fluid properties are needed to design the kill program (e.g., reservoir
temperature, oil density, bubble point, gas oil ratio, volume factor, viscosity). If the blowout is a
producing well, these factors are probably known and, if not, then estimates are made.
Offset wells, if available, might be used to refine the data. Uncertainties on each item may also be
estimated so that sensitivities can be analyzed with respect to changes in kill flowrate
methodology.
11.6.2 Potential Flowrate based on Reservoir Characteristics
The blowout well flowrate is generally determined by a combination of reservoir rock
characteristics, fluid properties, and the flow path. When designing a hydraulic kill, some of the
reservoir properties may be unknown or uncertain. Reservoir properties that can be used to
model the flowrate include:
 Permeability.
 Pressure.
 Blowout fluid properties.
11.6.3 Flow Path
The blowout flow path controls the friction pressure drops and back pressure for the kill fluid. If
the flow path is not well known, several scenarios are evaluated. Examples include:
Page 430 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Blowout through the annulus to surface.

 Blowout through the nozzles of the bit and up the drillpipe ID to surface (annulus packed off).
 Flow up annulus and drillpipe or drillpipe ejected with full blowout to surface.
Pressure Drops
Additional information will be needed with respect to pressure drops through known choke points
(e.g., valves, nozzles, perforations, communication channel), back pressures (e.g., at the
wellhead, seabed, receiving formation in an underground blowout), friction factors for tubulars
and/or open-hole, and fluid viscosities.
With most deep water wells, the majority of frictional losses occur in the choke and kill line and
not the annulus since large casing geometries are typically used.
11.6.4 Kill Point Formation Properties
If the kill point is above the reservoir, (e.g., at the closest casing shoe, below the bit, in the cap
rock above the reservoir, or a geopressured shale) the formation is analyzed with respect to the
following:
 Fracture strength (i.e., does it have the necessary strength to resist or overcome the reservoir
pressure during the pumping operation at the point chosen).
 Chemical and physical properties with respect to:
 Hole stability.
> Blowout wellbore washout.
> Lost circulation due to premature breakthrough before kill liner can be set (causing
well control problems associated with an underground blowout).
> Large pressure drop through the communication channel during pumping.
> Achieving communication by chemical or physical means if there is not a direct
intersection with the wellbore.
11.6.5 Blowout Modelling Results
Software is available to perform multiphase kill modelling. The Well Control Team and various
Well Control Service providers can perform multiphase kill modelling with this software. Any
software used for kill modelling is approved by the Well Control SETA.
Data input into multiphase kill modelling software to estimate well discharge (blowout) rates are
carefully reviewed to assure accuracy. Input is provided by the subsurface team, including the
reservoir engineer and geologist.
11.6.6 Common Process and Project Management
Relief well contingency planning fits into Beyond the Best Common Processes (BtBcp) for the
original well. The planning is completed during the Select Phase and the information added to the
SoR.
11.6.7 Technology Considerations
The manufacturing, delivery and qualification process for necessary equipment is understood and
typically documented at a pre-plan level. Additionally, plans for the use of standard equipment
and processes will typically be considered and formulated in the relief well plan.
If the relief well, or kill plan, calls for special, non-standard, equipment to be manufactured (i.e.,
non-standard casing designs, and novel methods of drilling and/or killing) the plans are
scrutinized accordingly. Implementing non-standard items, or unproved technology during the
crucial operations necessary for a well kill, can create additional risk. An exception might be new
ideas that have been through the analysis stage prior to the blowout, such as in a contingency, or
transferring proven techniques and/or equipment from another industry.
Page 431 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
11.6.8 Number of Relief Wells

Two or more surface locations are identified for relief wells.
Several factors are considered when planning the number of relief wells to spud. Technical
considerations for starting a second relief well are influenced by:
 Hydraulics - The needed hydraulics calculated to regain control of the blowout may
necessitate additional relief wells. Consideration is given to worst case scenarios.
 Position Uncertainty - Substantial position uncertainty of the blowout arises when a deep well
blows out without surveys, or under a platform with interference from other wells, or
sidetracked fish. The probability of locating the blowout, without multiple sidetracks, is
reduced with one relief well. In this case, two wells are usually started with one searching for
the blowout at a shallower depth, and a second drilling for the kill point.
 Drilling Problems - Drilling problems may be expected during the course of drilling the relief
well. Typical problems are shallow gas, elevated temperatures, deep kill point, lost
circulation, bad weather, and equipment.
 Pollution - If serious pollution, or other environmental damage, is being caused by the
blowout, two relief wells might be considered, regardless of the surface intervention plans.
11.7 Relief Well Planning Basis of Design
11.7.1 Directional Design
The objective of the directional design is constrained by the many parameters needed to deliver
the necessary hydraulic force, and the capacity to satisfy the kill plan. Nearly parallel, low incident
angle intercepts, and re-entry designs are common.
The ranging technology limitations encourage a well profile that permits ranging to the target early
on. This usually involves being less than 100-ft from the target well, often less than 50-ft from the
blowing well, and at a shallow depth.
As soon as the relief well is able to “range” the target well, the well position uncertainty will be
lessened, and the odds of “locating” the target will be improved.
Following the “locate” phase, a “pass-by” may be needed to reduce well-to-well distance
uncertainty, and to maintain the 2-dimensional (2D) profile. While performing a “pass-by” is not
essential, triangulating from the relief well to the target well is essential to fix the target well in
relative 3-dimensional (3D) space. The ranging distance measurement uncertainty has variation
without this information. The pass-by may actually increase risk of an early intercept and
communication, and this is weighed against the data quality and needs of each individual well.
Following the “locate” and “triangulate” phases, pass-by or not, it is advisable to “track” the target
well to the intercept depth. By tracking the target well, the target well MD can be measured using
magnetic signals from the casing and/or drillpipe to better enable depth interception. It is during
the tracking phase that the relief well is fine-tuned to set the final casing shoe before intercept.
The final casing shoe distance to the intercept point is preferably less than one stand. This will
more easily permit pulling the BHA back into casing during kill operations, if needed, and without
managing pipe connections. Consideration may be given to a non-magnetic casing shoe on the
relief well to allow ranging while drilling out.
11.7.2 Directional Drilling Constraints Specific to Relief Wells
Multiple constraints are listed throughout this document, such as shallow hazards, wireline
operation limitations, and doglegs. Those details are clarified in subsequent sections.
As smaller intercepts angles are common, so is the shallow locate phase needed to triangulate to
the target well. Triangulation may be advantageous for many reasons, but may also pose a
Page 432 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Health, Safety, Environmental (HSE) concern if there is an unintended early intercept, or early
well-to-well hydraulic communication.
Potential early communication issues, even during approach at the intercept depth, may warrant
special operational procedures.
Using active and passive ranging tools, safe separation distances are maintained between the
wells.
11.7.3 Selection of Surface Locations
Each well planning team will identify at least two relief well surface locations that have been
verified for use. Surface location considerations are well and/or field specific, and are not covered
in detail in this document. However, the selection will include the following:
 Regulatory requirements.
 Shallow hazard survey.
 Seabed survey.
 Surface facilities.
 Nearby well collision issues.
 Metocean conditions.
 Prevailing weather.
 Directional plan considerations.
 Close proximity of rigs and/or camps and room for support for the given rig(s) and vessels.
 Explosion considerations (if applicable).
 Toxic gas considerations (if applicable).
 Heat radiation (if applicable).
Note: While a 500 m radius around a rig needs to be attempted, it is not a necessity. The idea
is to be able to manage surface locations in a way that allows for Simultaneous
Operations (SIMOPS) to be conducted with multiple operations in close proximity.
 Anchor handling, i.e., confirming the selected relief well surface locations will conform for rig
deployment.
 Keep the Anchor Handling Vessels (AHVs) outside of hot zones to prevent them from getting
too close to the blowing-out well, and that the desired anchor spreads are achievable.
 For multi-well development sites, consideration is given as to whether more than two relief
well locations are advisable in order to intersect all the planned wells at the site.
 The final choice of relief well location is subject to the results of Shallow Hazards Assessment
(SHA), which may be based on new seismic data, if the blowing well has broached to
surface.
Offshore Wells
An overlay plot is used for offshore wells. The example plot below (Figure 11.1) illustrates:
 The predicted spill path from “Spill Modelling” (translucent black cloud).
 Planned pre-drill trajectories including casing shoes.
 500 m radius around blowing out well (green and black striped line).
 Formation faulting (pale gray bands).
 Seabed topography (contour lines).
 Seabed boulder location and size (yellow, green and red circles).
 Prevailing wind direction (graphic in top left corner).
 Potential shallow gas hazards below 500 m (dark blue, light blue and red shapes).
Page 433 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Selected relief well surface locations.
Figure 11.1 Example Overlay Plot for an Offshore Well

11.7.4 Wellbore Positioning
Wellbore positioning is one of the key issues for successful relief well planning and execution. It is
necessary that a relief well locate the target well accurately enough to intersect it. This is difficult
and may take several sidetracks or attempts at intersect if the target well is poorly surveyed. To
re-survey the wellhead location, after an incident due to a blowout, is problematic.
Additional efforts are typically made in the directional program to reduce positional uncertainty of
the relief well and the survey program may be more detailed than typical.
The well spud location is often surveyed to a more precise accuracy than usual for this stage. The
wellbore surveys often entail better resolution, e.g., survey interval, and better quality control,
(including survey redundancy and survey tool performance).
Common sources of error that are evaluated and either incorporated into the plan or no longer
considered because of irrelevance are:
 Enhanced geomagnetic values, e.g., crustal anomaly.
 Survey analysis, e.g., multi-station.
 Survey frequency, often less than 100-ft for any change in vector planned or otherwise.
 Full survey redundancy, rather than benchmarks or check shots.
 Use of all survey and formation data, e.g., near bit inclination.
 Effects of Earth’s curvature.
 Effects of depth error, e.g., pipe stretch to anticipate target position (it will often appear closer
than planned).
Wellbore Positioning for the Target Well
All raw data, BHA configurations, available enhanced geomagnetic information, and trajectory
measurement tools (e.g., Rotary Steerable System inclination may be post processed to reduce
target well uncertainty) if not processed during the initial drilling phase.
All depth control information is evaluated and cross referenced, e.g., rig elevation, any wireline
and/or slickline runs, as well as the pipe tally method used. Other depth control information
Page 434 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
including casing tallies, with casing hardware locations such as centralizers, are included in this
evaluation.
Wellbore Positioning for the Relief Well
The heading to the target will be established accurately, and awareness maintained, of the
relative bearing, like that acquired using Long Base Line (LBL) acoustics, from the relief wellhead
to the target wellhead. This awareness includes knowing the X and Y coordinates of each.
All available survey trajectory information that may be collected is used.
Survey instrument accuracy and survey station frequency are both essential factors. For any
planned change in trajectory, the survey frequency is reduced to no more than 45-ft, and for
doglegs, more than 2.5/100 Stations are planned no more than 30 ft apart.
When available, use secondary survey instrument data, e.g., Rotary Steerable System (RSS)
inclinations via Dual Inc. Joint Operating and Reporting Procedures (JORPs). Integrate survey
tools that use a different heading methodology into the program, like magnetic north (MWD)
versus earth rotation (Rate Gyros). Aside from the desire to minimise unobserved gross error, this
information may provide corrective actions in the event that the locate phase is unproductive.
Short Reach or Vertical Relief Well to Intercept a High-Angle or Horizontal Target Well
Designs for relief wells in each of the examples will be different.
A short- or medium-reach relief well, to intercept a vertical or low-angle target well, may not need
aggressive angle building and dropping. The angled section is used to position the relief well such
that the target can be approached in the same vertical plane and at a low incidence angle.
An extended-reach relief well, to intercept a high-angle target well, may be challenging to design
because it may need aggressive angle building and dropping to line up on the target. The
maximum dogleg allowed will depend on the vertical depth of the designed interception point. The
relief well may approach the target from any direction, however, lining up in the same vertical
plane is best as it eliminates some complexities.
Intersections between a short-reach, or vertical relief, well and a high-angle, or horizontal well,
are normally not considered for the horizontal section. Designs which include drilling at great
inclination into a target well are avoided
11.7.5 Relief Well Trajectory
A simple 2D profile for the relief well is preferred.
With the kill point, casing search point, and surface location fixed, a detailed trajectory planning
process can commence. The following items are usually considered in this process.
 Kick off Point (KOP), build, drop, and turn rates.
 Formation consideration.
 Well control and/or lost circulation.
 Casing detection considerations.
o Ranging tools can detect the target well when approximately 100-ft away (perpendicular).
 Survey accuracy considerations.
 Torque, drag, and casing wear.
 Hole sizes and casing points.
o When setting casing before intercept, plan to be less than one stand from the intercept
point.
 Kill point approach angle.
o Align the relief well trajectory in same plane as target borehole before the intercept point.
Page 435 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
o The relief well will ideally close on the target well at less than 10 deg closure angle.
 Surveying recommendations and procedures.
 Magnetic ranging recommendations and procedures.
 Logging recommendations and procedures.
 Drilling mud and loss of circulation procedures.
 Kill procedures.
Design Variations
Relief well design depends primarily on the trajectory of the target well, the relief well starting
location, and the desired location and depth of intercept. Examples of possibilities include the
following:
 Short or medium reach relief well to intercept a vertical or low-angle target well.
 Extended reach relief well to intercept a high-angle target well.
The contingency relief well trajectory will be very simple and follows the principles of the four
phases:
 Phase 1 – Drilling.
 Phase 2 – Locate.
 Phase 3 – Track.
 Phase 4 - Intercept.
Detailed Trajectory Planning
During planning, anticipate the need to intersect the target well at the last shoe, before the
shallowest, exposed hydrocarbon capable of flow (or uppermost perforated interval) is
penetrated. The best intersection point is the shallowest point at which a pore pressure or fracture
gradient is capable of withstanding pressures exerted by kill operations. In addition:
 Plan the relief well trajectory to be simple, ideally 2D.
 Inclination is kept below 50 deg for wireline operations.
 When planning a well intercept, the logical design approach is bottoms up rather than top
down, and involves working from the final objective, back to Phase 1, the beginning.
Phase 4 - Intercept
The general objective is to be in a defined proximity to the target well, and breach to it in some
fashion. This may be to simply knock a hole in it, mill into it, perform a re-entry, or establish some
minimum interval that is within the designed proximity to the target well in order to gain hydraulic
communication.
The intercept phase is initiated after setting the final casing string. It is often desired to set the
previous casing shoe at a depth less than 100 ft (30 m), or one stand, whatever is the lesser. The
concept is to permit pulling the BHA back into casing after a successful breach of the target well.
The angle of incidence is limited by the objective defined above. For a well-to-well intercept, this
angle is usually between 2 to 4 deg.
Phase 3 - Track
The objective of this phase is to position the final casing shoe on depth, and in the desired
trajectory, to permit a target intercept with the least amount of corrective steering.
This phase is initiated after the target well has been fixed in 3D space in Phase 2, the “locate”
phase.
Once the target well has been fixed in space, the tracking phase is adjusted for the ”as located”
target well position in order to pinpoint depth, and data from ranging technologies is not as
Page 436 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
reliable as the directional survey data. The ranging accuracy for both distance and direction will
improve as the position between the new well and the target shrinks.
The target well may seem to drift or maintain a constant offset, regardless of steering activity and
expected results. This may be due to actual changes in the well-to-well proximity, due to errors in
the ranging system, or interpretation of that data.
It is beneficial to maximise the tracking phase in order to yield the greatest confidence level on
the target well’s position. This needs to be balanced with the sail angle in the “Drilling” phase, and
the incidence angle in the “Locate” phase, discussed below.
Phase 2 - Locate
Undetected positional errors on the target, or planned well, may result in multiple side-tracks
before an intercept is completed.
The locate phase begins when the planned well is just outside the expected distance for
successful ranging. Depending on the ranging method used, this is often less than 150 ft (50 m),
and as little as 40 ft (13 m).
As an example, the locate phase ranging method referred to here, will be the Vector Magnetics
Wellspot™ tools using wireline in open-hole.
For best performance, the Wellspot™ tool will use 300 ft (100 m), or more, of open-hole below
the last casing shoe to minimise interference. Specific well details, like formation, wellbore fluid,
may impact some of these parameters.
The initial Wellspot™ results may provide an unreliable distance, or direction, when the target
response is of low amplitude, or depending on well profile and/or formation issues. While case
specific, it is typical to maintain the planned trajectory for a short interval, and range again before
making any steering corrections. It is common that these early measurements are not of the
quality necessary for steering decisions.
Provided that the target well is distant, and does not pose a risk of unintended collision, proceed
to drill ahead until a signal response will permit a triangulation from the planned well to the target
well.
The triangulation is often the result of a shallow pass-by of the target well. However, a pass-by,
i.e., from near side to far side, is not absolutely necessary. It is necessary that a minimum of
three measurements, from a non-parallel vector back to the target well, be obtained. These
measurements would occur over some interval, e.g., between 300 ft (100 m) and 600 ft (200 m).
Once the target well has been located and fixed in 3D space, the steering actions needed to track
the target and position the final casing shoe before well intercept, are initiated.
Phase 1 - Drilling
The drilling phase is representative of most typical of the drilling operations on the original well.
The differences, not described in detail here, are the challenges associated with spud location,
and include environmental issues such as plume and air quality due to volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and toxic fumes.
11.7.6 Formation Drillability
Formation drillability is considered with respect to the time needed to reach the chosen kill point.
This could be associated with slow drilling rates, deep intersection point, hole stability problems,
lost circulation zones, or over-pressured zones. These problems may necessitate a change in the
blowout intervention plans, which could include evaluation of a shallower kill point.
Page 437 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
11.7.7 Casing Detection (“Ranging”) Instruments

Primary ranging technologies today, both active and passive, need ferrous steel to be present in
the target well location. Stainless steels, other than austenitic stainless, may still provide ample
magnetic field response. The key is a material that has a residual magnetic field and/or that may
be induced to create a magnetic field.
Resistivity ranging tools may allow ranging on other materials depending upon the target
material’s electrical properties.
For wellbores, with no casing or drillpipe, standard ranging methodologies will be of no use.
There are currently available several casing or ferrous anomaly locator tools within the industry.
Depending on the design, these instruments can give:
a) Distance only.
b) Direction only.
c) Distance and direction readings between the two wells.
Instruments
The tools currently available are the electromagnetic or magnetostatic ranging tools. Intersecting
a blowout well with a relief well is more successful with precise measurements from ranging tools.
Ranging methods such as "passive" electromagnetic techniques, which use data collected from
MWD tools, are an option.
More reliable results are available from active tools, which use an electrode to transmit alternating
electric currents into the earth. The casing or drillpipe of the target well concentrates the current
and generates an electromagnetic field. Tool sensors detect the magnitude, direction, and radial
gradients of the electromagnetic and magnetostatic fields.
Limitations and Alternatives
The electromagnetic principle depends on having a long body (which is a good electrical
conductor) that collects the electrical current from the injection electrode. Any casing, drillpipe, or
tubing is a target. Wells which have no metallic material provide no target at all. If the metallic
material is confined to a small depth range (i.e., it is not long), it is a poor target for the
electromagnetic method.
Detection and Geometry Trade-offs
Detection range is also limited by the geometry of the wells. If the target well is approached at an
angle (greater than 45 deg), the electrode is then much farther away than the sensor and limits
the detection distance.
End-point Anomalies
Another difficult situation in detection is when the range point is near the end of the conductive
pipe in the other well. The current begins to flow off the target pipe a certain distance from the
end of the pipe such that, at the end, the current goes to zero. This causes the signal to go to
zero at the end of the pipe. If the target is close to the bottom of the pipe, a good signal can still
be obtained. At that point, a blowout kill can then be made by paralleling the target, and then
intersecting by kicking over to the wellbore.
Discontinuities
Breaks in the continuity in the target (e.g., from washouts of perforations or casing failure) will
reduce the signal over the depth range of the break, since the current will be forced out into the
formations and then return to the pipe.
Page 438 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Best Case
In summary, the ideal geometry for electromagnetic distance and direction accuracy is to make a
pass by of the target within ±20 ft, and at a relative angle between the wells of around 10 deg.
Furthermore, the target will have casing or drillpipe extending for at least 300 ft below the pass-by
point.
Error Sources and Limitations
The accuracy of measurement is dependent on several factors, including the instrument, relative
distance between the wells, formation conductivity and homogeneity, formation physical
properties (e.g., fractured zones, steeply dipping beds, faults, any anomaly that would severely
alter the flow of electricity), interfering magnetic fields from a source other than the target casing
e.g., a sidetracked fish, or adjacent wells under a platform. Length of casing and/or drillpipe
target, target resistance to electrical current flow, distance from the end of the target, breaks in
the casing, oil base muds (either in the relief well or in the blowout), upsets in the casing and/or
drillpipe connections, strength of magnetic poles, instrument misalignment, instrument error, or
modelling and interpretation techniques, are further items to be considered.
Formation Characteristics
 Steep Dip Non-homogeneous - Steeply dipping non-homogeneous beds and erratic resistivity
can cause increased uncertainty in the electromagnetic ranging information because of bias
signals from the formation. These bias signals are usually small and, as the well approaches
the target, the casing signal will negate the formation bias (particularly if the well is bypassed
and triangulated).
 Background Noise - The resistivity of the surrounding formations can generate a background
signal in certain cases which can affect the electromagnetic method of detection. If the
formations are uniform and have no dip then they will not generate spurious signals.
Typically, lateral resistivity changes and dipping beds will generate a small bias signal.
 Global Magnetic Field Effects - The average magnitude of the earth resistivity also affects the
amount of electrical current which flows onto the target well. However, over the normal range
of earth resistivity, this is a small effect.
 Long-range Accuracy - Faults are usually associated with resistivity changes and will
generate small bias signals of the type described above. Thus these faults will not typically
limit the range, as much as the accuracy.
 Fractures and Resistivity - Fractures are generally linear features, and as such, do not affect
the general resistivity structure of the formations and have little effect on the signal.
 Drilling Fluid Considerations - Normal salinity, water based muds provide the best
circumstances for transmitting current into the open hole, and on to the blowout casing.
Ideally, water based drilling fluids are used in the relief well, particularly at the initial ranging
points.
If hole stability problems dictate oil or salt saturated mud systems, a risk analysis is made on the
trade-offs between potential ranging problems versus hole problems. The potential problems of
these types of fluids can be qualified, and possibly quantified, by the electromagnetic ranging
company.
Oil based muds currently reduce the detection range of electromagnetic tools due to electrode
insulation, at the initial ranging point. This insulating effect can be overcome, to an extent, by
employing special proven techniques. The magnitude of the range reduction can be qualified by
the electromagnetic ranging company, and will depend on the resistivity of the formation and the
fluid.
Salt-saturated mud systems reduce the effective ranging distance of the instrument because the
transmitted electric current tends to flow up and down the borehole, due to its reduced resistivity,
instead of into the formation, and into the blowout casing.
Page 439 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Well Control Considerations - Magnetic ranging is conducted at depths where well control or
lost circulation problems are manageable. This is carefully analyzed in the kill plan, for the kill
point, and proximity to the blowout wellbore. It may be difficult to range in some of these
areas, thereby reducing the probability of accurate wellbore placement.
 Wellpath and Dogleg Considerations - Careful consideration is made with respect to the
approach angle of the relief well during ranging to avoid excessive doglegs and/or a sidetrack
to reach the objective. Ranging has increased error sources in large dogleg approaches.
In many situations, a relief well is located at a point with a particular inclination and direction.
Most directional drillers are not experienced and comfortable with this additional aspect. If the
directional operations are not closely monitored, a point of no return may be reached before the
mistake is discovered. For this reason, new wellpath proposal and/or projections are constantly
computed and evaluated during all phases of drilling and ranging.
11.7.8 Kill Point
The kill point is a crucial step in the well design and influences the entire relief well planning
process. An iterative analysis is necessary to produce an effective and proficient decision.
Several options exist for creating communication at the intercept point. The option used is
dependent on the specific situation, but generally, wells are most easily killed at bottomhole of the
blowing out well, or at the deepest available point.
11.7.9 Establishing Hydraulic Communication
To evaluate the kill point location, a primary concern is the method to establish communication
with the blowout wellbore. These might include, but are not limited to:
 Direct intersection of the blowout wellbore casing with a mill.
 Direct open-hole intercept immediately below previous casing shoe with bit.
 Perforating guns for penetrating drillpipe or casing.
 Flooding the reservoir with water or brine.
 Using cross linked polymers to aid frac propagation in very permeable reservoirs.
 Acid squeeze or worm holing techniques (depending on the formation).
In most situations, every effort is made to achieve direct communication, even if a sidetrack is
needed. This will remove uncertainties with respect to pressure drop through the communication
channel. In situations where the pore pressure and frac gradient differentials are small, additional
diligence is needed. Contingencies are also investigated, as a backup, if the primary
communication technique is unsuccessful.
Detailed, step-by-step procedures are developed and evaluated in order to confirm that the
operation is achievable. Consideration is given to the risk involved in tripping in and out of the
relief well, running wireline tools, or perforating guns when the relief well is in close proximity to
the blowing wellbore.
11.7.10 Interception in Cased Hole
Interception in cased hole is achieved by two methods:
(1) Perforation
Perforation across parallel casing strings involves drilling alongside the target well trajectory to
place the casings strings close together such that perforating charges will penetrate both strings.
This method provides somewhat better control of fluids in the relief well because there is no
open-hole below the casing shoe. However, this approach may introduce a choking effect when
circulating kill fluid through perforations.
Page 440 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(2) Milling a Window in the Casing

Intersection, in the cased section of the blowout well, can be accomplished by milling a window
into the blowout well casing either from an openhole section of the relief well, or when drilling out
cement after setting casing in the relief well. This method has the advantage of offering less
resistance to circulating fluid than perforations. It also does not need the two casing strings to be
as close together as does perforating.
11.7.11 Interception in the Reservoir
Depending on reservoir properties, communication may be established for a kill simply by
penetrating the reservoir in close proximity to the blowout well. If substantial injection rates can be
established, a flow path between wells will often develop as reservoir materials are "washed" into
the blowout well.
If injection to the reservoir does not result in the development of a flow path between wells, it may
still flood that section of the reservoir such that the blowout well begins producing kill fluid in
volumes great enough to kill itself.
Alternatively, an option is to inject acid into the reservoir to reduce cementation in the reservoir
matrix between the wellbores, thereby aiding in the development of a flow path.
11.7.12 Interception in Open-Hole
Generally, it is best to intercept deep in the open-hole to improve the possibilities of killing the
blowout well, however, the open-hole may be intercepted at any point simply by setting a casing
string in the relief well, and drilling out cement into the blowout well. Fracture gradients in the
relief well are considered carefully in designing the interception.
It is usually advisable to locate the blowout casing above or below a difficult drilling zone. This
might be an overpressured shale with characteristic hole stability problems, or just reduced
penetration rates. The primary reason is to prevent making sidetracks and/or course corrections
under difficult circumstances, especially if the blowout casing is not located on the first try.
11.8 Kill Techniques
Historically, the most common method for killing a blowout with a relief well has been
hydraulically. This is accomplished by pumping a kill fluid into the blowout wellbore near, or in, the
blowing reservoir. The hydraulic kill assumption is direct communication to the blowout with
minimal pressure drop, and little or no leak-off to the formation. Several methods are therefore
investigated such as dynamic kill with seawater followed by mud, brine followed by mud, or mud
as the only kill fluid (most common). The method used would be dictated by the circumstances at
the time of kill.
A hydraulic kill may also be performed by intersecting the blowout well at an intermediate or
“shallow” point. An example is if available drilling rig capability limits the relief well design, or
troublesome formations complicate relief well operations that are designed to penetrate near, or
in, the blowout reservoir. Pump rate, surface pressure, kill fluid density and volume all increase
with a shallow intercept. However, they are considered during the relief well planning process if
the circumstance indicates an advantage in doing so.
11.8.1 Dynamic Kill
The "dynamic kill" method uses frictional pressure drop to supplement the hydrostatic pressure
from the injected kill fluid. The kill may take place in multiple stages. The initial (dynamic phase)
uses an available lightweight fluid, such as seawater. It is pumped at a rate great enough to
balance the formation pressure and stop the flow. This is followed by mud, with additional density,
to hold the reservoir flow static.
This technique may be difficult to implement, however, depending on the blowout scenario. It
works best when the casing or tubing in the blowout wellbore is a relatively small diameter. This
Page 441 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
allows frictional pressure build-up to counteract bottomhole pressure without excessive pump
rate. Additionally, the relief well design uses relatively large pipe diameter, to prevent excessive
pressure loss, prior to reaching the intercept. These issues can cause a dynamic kill, with
seawater, to have large hydraulic horsepower demands, relief well tubular constraints, and
surface pressure of excessive levels. These levels might exceed pump equipment availability and
necessitate exotic casing designs, or multiple relief wells performing simultaneous pumping
operations.
11.8.2 Overbalance Kill
The "overbalance kill" is a method using heavy mud (equal to or greater than that needed to hold
static reservoir pressure) as the primary kill fluid. The increased density provides hydrostatic
pressure in conjunction with frictional pressure. This reduces the needed flow rate, to reach a
fitting pressure, to stop the inflow from the reservoir. It also reduces the surface pressure levels
and the resulting hydraulic horsepower. This method has been used on past relief wells with
mixed results.
It appears that few of these early kill attempts were made with quantifying calculations (because
of the analytical difficulty of modelling multi-phase flow until the hydrostatic head is great enough
to stop additional inflow into the wellbore) and, with poor well placement, the results were
fractured formations and incomplete kills. Even with direct intersections, pumping rates are
carefully controlled as the heavy fluid moves up the blowout wellbore. The bottomhole pressures
may increase rapidly past the fracture point as the flow changes from multi-phase to single
phase.
MWD tools can also be included in the intercept BHA, and used to monitor pressure, when the kill
is performed, by pumping down both the drillpipe and the annulus.
Kill fluid alternatives:
 Water or seawater.
 Brine.
 Mud only (including several phases of increasing or decreasing density).
 Water or seawater followed by mud.
 Brine followed by mud.
 Polymer.
 Cement.
 Reactive mixture.
11.8.3 Momentum Kills
The momentum kill is based on the concept that when two fluids traveling in opposite directions
collide, the one with greater momentum controls the direction of flow for both. Therefore, in the
blowout control operation, the formation fluid and the kill fluid collide at the injection string depth.
Conceptually, the momentum of the control fluid must be greater than the momentum of the
formation fluid to stop the blowout fluid, and force it back into the formation to bring the well under
control.
This procedure uses the kill fluid velocity and density to generate a greater momentum than that
of the formation fluid flow. Therefore, either substantial pump rates or kill densities, are expected
when this technique is used to design a blowout control.
Applying this concept, the kill density, employed to control the well, will generate enough
hydrostatic pressure to control the formation pressure in static conditions if done correctly. Once
the pump stops, the momentum of the kill fluid becomes zero, the well is dead, and enough
hydrostatic exists to keep it stable.
Page 442 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
11.8.4 Hydraulic Horsepower Necessary

Part of the kill model optimization process is to predict the maximum expected hydraulic
horsepower demands:
HHP = [flowrate(bpm) x pressure(psi)/40,81].
This is a simple procedure that is carefully evaluated to determine whether or not the approach is
sound. Consideration is given to the available footprint for equipment (especially offshore),
geographic location, number of units, weight of equipment, pump availability, as well as the
amount of back-up HHP to maintain. This is a function of the time duration the pumping is
expected to last, expected leak-off rate to the formation, estimates of the blowout flow path and/or
rate of pump breakdown. Taking into account the uncertainties surrounding dynamic kill
operations, system redundancy is very important. 100% - 200% redundancy is typical if
equipment is available and space allows. It is conceivable that certain situations may involve
more than 200% redundancy. On exceptionally long pump times, the need to perform repairs, or
preventative maintenance, on pumping equipment is inevitable. Where exceptionally long pump
times are expected, consideration is given to independent pumping locations capable of full kill
rates. Isolation between locations will allow for repairs, and preventative maintenance, to occur
without pressure on the lines.
11.8.5 Kill Mud Volume Necessary
Estimated kill mud volume, and time to achieve the kill, is necessary so that kill mud, kill mud
storage tanks, and mixing tanks are on hand at the time kill operations start (or if premature
communication is achieved). Hydraulic kill modelling provides a minimum volume of mud needed
to reach a static kill, and it is better to have additional mud available to account for losses to the
formation, mishaps, or additional circulation to remove oil and gas pockets trapped in the blowout
tubulars or fish. Allow for a minimum of three complete circulations (excluding losses) of the
theoretical blowout wellbore volume after the well is statically dead.
This volume of kill mud needs to be stored in tanks with good agitation and circulation to keep
correct mud quality, particularly if weighted mud is used, or settling of solids may occur.
11.9 Casing Design for Relief Well
This guidance will be focused only on the burst and collapse loads of those strings exposed upon
intercept with the flowing well. The requirements contained within the BP Tubular Design Manual
are applied to relief wells. Using the same casing program as used on the blowout well is an
option. However, additional effort is justified to analyze this aspect of the contingency plan on a
case-by-case basis.
In addition, the following load cases are investigated.
 The burst and collapse load cases are derived from target well intercept and fracture
gradient.
 The design burst load results from a screen-out at the intercept point, with a surface pressure
equal to the mud pump pressure pop-off setting, applied to a full column of drilling mud, with
the same density present, immediately prior to intercept.
 The design collapse load results from the mud level drop as determined by the target wells
flowing bottom hole pressure.
 The Relief Well Planning BoD states whether the Relief Well Load Cases will be included in
the Field Casing BoD, the Relief Well Planning BoD or a Standalone Relief Well Casing BoD.
11.9.1 Kill String Diameter Constraints
After evaluating the flow rates under the scenarios described above, the next step is to design the
relief well kill string. This is to confirm that its hydraulic diameter is large enough for control fluids,
Page 443 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
to be pumped at the needed rate, without excessive surface pressure. Each scenario will have
different needs, with dynamic water kills being the most severe.
Basic Procedure
The procedure is to pump the kill fluid down the relief well annulus while using the drill string or
tubing to monitor the Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP). The flow rate is adjusted to keep the BHP
above the reservoir pressure, but below formation fracture pressure. The control on this process
is the surface pressure required to achieve the kill flowrate. If the necessary pressure exceeds
the tubular burst specifications, or requires excessive surface pumping pressures, and manifolds
or hookups, then a larger hydraulic diameter may be needed in the relief well (to reduce the
pressure required for the needed flowrate), a heavier kill fluid used, or additional relief wells
drilled. This will be an iterative procedure to arrive at a solution. A safety margin will allow for
uncertainty in the kill rate.
11.10 Regional Planning
11.10.1 Well Specific Planning
The objective of this guidance is to minimise any well specific planning and limiting that planning
to peculiarities identified in the planning and execution of the original well, or in the post well
review process (if applicable).
11.10.2 Relief Well Statement of Requirements
A typical SOR will contain the following:
 Relief well surface locations (two per well).
 Shallow hazard assessments for the two relief well locations
 Metocean considerations.
 Initial relief well trajectory.
 No Drilling Surprises (NDS) summary.
 Seismic section through target and relief wells, highlighting overburden features, hazards and
differences between target wells and relief well trajectories.
 Well design concept.
 Confirmation that casing design conforms with GP 10-01 including the blowout screening case
and the relief well operational load cases.
 Well specific risks and mitigations.
 Timeline of operations (including rig move).
 Seasonal considerations (e.g., hurricanes).
 An example SOR Tab is shown below.
Relief Well Planning Methodology
The following iterative procedure describes the steps and work, typically performed for the relief
well requirements in the well SOR.
 The drilling engineer and wells team produces a drillable trajectory, from the relief well surface
location, in Compass using a "bottom-up" approach. This is done with the knowledge of
shallow hazards close to the development well location.
 Perform Shallow Hazard Assessment on the relief well location and/or trajectory. A standard
format for this has been agreed with EPT and Subsurface which shows overlaid amplitude
anomaly maps for different depth ranges.
 Well Planning Geologist produces a seismic section through the relief well trajectory and main
well trajectory.
Page 444 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Subsurface team uses the seismic section to compare overburdens and identify additional
relief well hazards. This is the NDS assessment.
 SOR tab is produced - This includes relief well location, trajectory, well design concept and
details of risks from NDS as shown in Figure 11.2 and Figure 11.3.
North Africa SPU B1-64/1 Relief Well Plan

(1) Summary
X Y Notes:
Surface Location #1: 727474 3353157 SECONDARY - Site and some road construction
Surface Location #2: 727667 3352729 PRIMARY - Site and some road construction
MD / ft TVDss / ft Formation Intercept Type
Intercept #1: 4103 3820 Ras Hamia through 9 5/8"
Intercept #2: 12452 12376 Akakus through 7"
Intercept #1 Notes: Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 2 - PRIMARY Site - mill casing below 13 3/8" shoe
Intercept #2 Notes: Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 2 - PRIMARY Site - mill casing below 9 5/8" shoe
(2) Surface Location
(3) Directional
Trajectory name: B1_Relief_300m_Ras-Hamia B1_Relief_300m_Akakus
Openworks name: PLAN_B1-64/1_Relief2 (Survey Openworks name: PLAN_B1-64/1_Relief2 (Survey
Name:2. RAS_HAMIA_DIR) Name:2. AKAKUS_DIR)
MD, ft Inc, deg Azi, deg TVD, ft DLS, MD, ft Inc, deg Azi, deg TVD, ft DLS,
deg/100ft deg/100ft
1800 0 0 1800 0 2000 0 0 2000 0
1900 3.69 214.67 1899.9 3.69 2600 2 21.96 2600 2
3087.2 47.7 214.67 2944.9 3.69 2954.4 9.09 21.96 2952.5 2
3100 47 214.67 2953.6 3.69 3000 9.09 21.96 2997.5 0
4103.2 10 214.67 3820 3.69 8721.8 9.09 21.96 8647.5 0
8800 7.52 21.96 8724.9 2
9176.2 0 0 9100 2
12452.2 0 0 12376 0
Anti-Collision: Pass Anti-Collision: Pass
PLAN_B1-64/1_Relief2
PLAN_B1-64/1
SW NB Note mismatch NE
between well picks gdm_CaracalSE_D_PSTM_K80_Int_SVM550_S
and depth horizons
gdm_CaracalSE_D_PSTM_K70_Int_SVM550_S
LIT_rc_C1-10_D_T90_Grd_SRAC-TDF_F_SVM_110430_MOC
GDN_T_PSTM09_W_FILT_FULL_SRAC_TDF_01.bri depth converted

using SVM_C1-10_550med_Scaled2B190Checkshot (SVM)
Figure 11.2 Example Relief Well SOR
Page 445 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(4) Relief Well Construction and conformance

Well Construction Conforms to the following Well BoDs: Libya Casing, Fluids, Relief Well Planning BoDs
Well Construction Conforms to BP DWOP and Wells ETPs Yes
Sites confrom to OPB GP 44-34, 44-30, 44-31, 44-35 as required Location #1 Yes Location #2 Yes
Notes: Design to conform to relief well contingency plan BOD and exploration well programmed design
(5) No Drilling Surprises Summary (Limit to Differences from Target Well)
RW #1 RW #2 Full NDS assessment & NDS risks from
Seismic Available: Yes Yes exploration well (B1-64/1) are being used for
Seismic Used to Identify Faults: Yes Yes relief wells due to their close proximity - risks
Major Fault Crossings: 1 none are the same - refer to B1-64/1 WPDP for
details
Nearby Pad Data Sheets Reviewed: Yes Yes
Additional Hazards Identified: No No
NDS hazard Common to Exploration & Comments
Relief wells
Surface Conditions NO (relief wells are <500m from B1-64/1)
Shallow Hazards (shallow gas) NO Each location unique
Predicted Pore Pressures NO Need to check if well within closure
Aquifer Protection YES -
Wellbore stability/Formation YES -
integrity
Potential Gas Hazard deeper in well YES -
bore (beneath 13 3/8” casing shoe)
Lost Circulation NO Same reservoirs - need to check if well within
closure (NB not carried out for Plan_B1-
64/1_Relief 1 (Primary) ‘shallow’ Ras Hamia
H2S & CO2 YES -
Faults penetrated by wellbore YES -
Dipping Beds NO Each location unique
Temperature profile YES -
YES -
NDS hazards unique to Relief well
Summary of Surface conditions (re-assessed for relief well)::
Risk Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 2 (Primary) Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 1 (Secondary)
NE of B1-64/1 SE of B1-64/1
At well location At well location
Slopes Topography <1° Topography <1°
Wadis/Sabkh No wadis or sabkha No wadis or sabkha
a No karst features No karst features
Karst Within 300m radius of well location Within 300m radius of well location
Slopes Topography <1° Topography <1°
Karst 6 suspected Karst/gararahs 2 suspected Karst/gararahs
Surface faults No surface lineaments (faults or fractures) No surface lineaments (faults or fractures) intersect the
intersect the well location well location
Well bore specific NDS risks (e.g. faults, shallow structure) were re-assessed for relief well (Plan_B1-
64/1_Relief 2):
Shallow Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 2 well location was found to be within closure (but not at the structural crest) at
horizon the K50 (Kiklah) horizon. It also sits at the edge of a small closre at the K80 level. The well location
mapping was out of closure for all other horizons (K0 & K70). For the horizons capable of displaying shallow gas
on seismic (K50 and deeper (K0)) no indications can be seen at the B1-64/1 location (see WPDP for
original work) Based on seismic velocity model depth conversion
Faults Coherency maps were used on shallow horizons - K80, K70, K50, K0, to highlight linear features
penetrated by (possible faults). This work, in combination with the shallow structural interpretation can conclude no
Wellbore clear lineaments (i.e. no seismically resolvable faults) intersect the planned borehole. However at T90
one can see an irregular coherency response (but still no clear linear feature) this could mean either
poor data quality or potential fault zones near to the wellbore. Therefore there is a medium risk of
encountering a fault zone at T90.
Figure 11.3 Example Relief Well SOR (cont’d)
Page 446 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Annex 1 List of Acronyms

2D Two Dimensional
3D Three Dimensional
AGTC Agarwal Gardner Type Curve
AHV Anchor Handling Vessels
BGG Background Gas
BHA Bottomhole Assembly
BHC Borehole Compensated
BHP Bottomhole Pressure
BHT Bottomhole Temperature
BOD Basis of Design
BOP Blowout Preventer
BOPE Blowout Preventer Equipment
BP British Petroleum
BSR Blind Shear Ram
BtBcp Beyond the Best Common Process
CDP Common Depth Point
CEC Caution Exchange Capacity
CG Connection Gas
CLS Closed Loop System
DE Drilling Engineer
DIL Dual Induction Laterlog
DLL Dual Laterlog
DST Drillstem Testing
ECD Equivalent Circulating Density
EMW Equivalent Mud Weight
EPT Exploration & Production Technology
FCP Final Circulating Pressure
FIT Formation Integrated Test
FOSV Full Open Safety Valve
GOR Gas Oil Ratio
GPM gallons per minute
GWETK Global Wells Engineering Tool Kit
HCR High Closing Ratio
Page 447 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
HCV Hydraulically Controlled (gate) Valve

HPHT High Pressure High Temperature
HSE Health, Safety Environment
HWDP Heavy Weight Drill Pipe
HWO Hydraulic Workover
IBOP Inside Blowout Preventer
ICP Initial Circulating Pressure
ID Internal (Inner)Diameter
ITT Internal Transit Time
JORP Joint Operating and Reporting Procedure
KCI Potassium Chloride
KOP Kick Off Point
KWM Kill Weight Mud
LEL Lower Explosive Limit
LMRP Lower Marine Riser Package
LOT Leak Off Test
LVE Low Volumetric Expansion
LWD Logging While Drilling
MASP Maximum Anticipated Surface Pressure
MAWHP Maximum Allowable Wellhead Pressure
MD Measured Depth
MEWSP Maximum Expected Wellbore Shear Pressure
MGS Mud Gas Separator
MPD Managed Pressure Drilling
MW Mud Weight
MWD Measurement While Drilling
NAF Non-aqueous Fluid
NDS No Drilling Surprises
NOV National Oilwell Varco
OBM Oil-based Mud
OD Outside Diameter
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PDC Polycrystalline Diamond Compact
PPFG Pore Pressure Frac Gradients
Page 448 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
PPG Pore Pressure Gradient

ppm parts per million
PSI lbs (force) per square inch
PVT Pit Volume Totaliser
PWD Pressure While Drilling
RBOP Rotating Blowout Preventer
RCH Rotating Control Head
Re Reynolds Number
RFT Repeat Formation Tester
RMS Root Mean Square
ROP Rate of Penetration
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
RSS Rotary Steerable System
SAPP Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate
SCR Slow Circulating Rate
SETA Segment Engineering Technical Authority
SF Safety Factor
SHA Shallow Hazard Assessment
SICP Shut-in Casing Pressure
SIMOPS Simultaneous Operations
S&OR Safety and Operational Risks
SOR Statement of Requirement
SPM Subsea Plate-Mounted (context specific)/Strokes per Minute
SRO Surface Read-out
STB Strokes to the Bit
STKS Strokes
TAS Texas Atmospheric System
TD Total (Target) Depth
TG Trip Gas
TVD True Vertical Depth
UBD Under Balanced Drilling
VBR Variable Bore Ram
WBM Water-based Mud
WCM Well Control Manual
Page 449 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
WOB Weight On Bit

WOGM Water, Oil, Gas and Mud
WSL Well Site Leader
Page 450 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Annex 2 Well Control BOP Drills

The purpose of BOP drills is to familiarize the drill crews with techniques that will be implemented
in the event of a kick. This section offers example procedures and roles and responsibilities.
Required roles and responsibilities are detailed either in OMS or applicable Group Practices. BP
details the requirements for frequency of drills in GP 10-10.
One of the major factors that influence the wellbore pressures after a kick is taken is the volume
of the influx. The smaller the influx, the less severe the pressures will be during the well kill
operation. The size of the influx is reduced when the drill crew reacts quickly and promptly
executes the prescribed control procedures. Drills are designed and conducted to reduce the time
that the crew takes to implement these procedures.
The drills are carried out as often as needed, and as hole conditions permit, until the WSL is
satisfied that every member of the drill crew is proficient in their role within the subject operation.
Drills are carried out in a realistic manner. It is important to minimize the differences between the
drills and well control procedures.
Once proficiency has been achieved, the Drills (D1, D2 and D3, as fitting) are held prior to
initiating drilling of a hole section and repeated every 7 days. The WSL may stipulate that the
drills are conducted more frequently. Typically, frequency is increased when crews are returning
to the rig from scheduled time off or new personnel have joined the crew.
The following example procedures demonstrate how to conduct each drill.
 Drill 1 – Tripping.
 Drill 2 – Drilling.
 Drill 3 – Diverter.
 Drill 4 – Well Kill.
 Drill 5 – Stripping.
Record the results of each drill tourly on the IADC, Contractor’s Drilling Report and BP’s daily
drilling report.
D1: Tripping
The purpose of this drill is to familiarize the crew with the shut-in procedure that will be
implemented in the event of a kick during a trip. This is only conducted when the BHA is inside
the last casing string.
Before the trip is started, the Standing Orders to the driller are posted as shown by example in
Figure A.4. This is intended as an action item. This form details the action that the crew will take
in the event a kick is detected.
Typically the WSL directs the Senior Drilling Contractor’s Representative to commence the drill.
The Senior Drilling Contractor’s Representative will then instruct the Driller to assume that a
positive flowcheck has been detected, and to implement the prescribed control procedure as
detailed in the Standing Orders.
The following general procedure may serve as a guideline:
(1) Without prior notice, the WSL and/or Senior Drilling Contractor Representative will start the
drill by manually raising the trip tank float to indicate a rapid pit gain.
Note: If using electronic sensors, consider having the monitoring software updated with a pit and
flow simulation program that may be initiated remotely.
Page 451 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
(2) The Driller is expected to take the following steps to shut-in the well.
a. Stop all operations and notify other personnel (alarm).
b. Install an open FOSV and close it.
c. Close the annular preventer.
d. Open the chokeline valve.
e. Begin recording the casing and drillpipe pressure.
f. Notify the Operator’s Representative that the well is shut-in.
g. Record the elapsed time for the drill on the IADC drilling report, Contractor’s Drilling
Report and BP Daily Report.
(3) The Senior Drilling Contractor’s Representative confirms the crew is correctly deployed and each
individual completely understands his or her responsibilities.
(4) The time taken for the crew to shut-in the well is recorded.
(5) After the well is shut-in, preparations are made to strip the pipe. The preparations include lining
up the equipment, assigning individual responsibilities and preparing the Stripping Worksheet.
Page 452 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
STANDING ORDERS TO DRILLER WHILE TRIPPING
WELL NO 15 RIG RIG 12
ORDERS EFFECTIVE ON ALL TRIPS
DATE 15/6/87 COMPANY REP K.D. SMB TOOLPUSHER
IF ANY OF THE FOLLOWING OCCUR:
1. HOLE NOT TAKING CORRECT VOLUME DURING THE TRIP

2. THE WELL IS FLOWING
3. ____________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________________
8. ____________________________________________________
Or if there is any other possible indication of a kick.
1. STOP TRIPPING OPERATIONS

2. FLOWCHECK THE WELL IF NECESSARY
IS THE
YES NO
WELL
FLOWING?
1. SET THE SLIPS 1. NOTIFY COMPANY REPRESENTATIVE AND

2. INSTALL OPEN DP SAFETY VALVE TOOLPUSHER
3. CLOSE DP SAFETY VALVE 2. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
4. CLOSE ANNULAR PREVENTER
5. OPEN CHOKE LINE VALVE(S)
6. CHECK THAT WELL IS SHUT IN
7. NOTIFY COMPANY REPRESENTATIVE
8. INSTALL KELLY
9. LINE UP STANDPIPE MANIFOLD
10. OPEN DP SAFETY VALVE
11. RECORD DP AND CSG PRESSURE
12. IF IN OPENHOLE: ENGAGE BUSHINGS,
ROTATE THE PIPE
13. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
Figure A.4 Example of Standing Order for Driller while Tripping

D2: Drilling
The purpose of this drill is to familiarize the crew with the control procedure that will be
implemented in the event of a kick while drilling.
This drill may be conducted either in an open or a cased hole. If the drill is conducted when the
drillstring is in open hole, the well is not shut-in.
When the pipe is on bottom, the following procedure may be used as a guideline for the drill.
(6) The WSL and Senior Drilling Contractor Representative gradually increase the apparent pit
level by manually raising the float.
Page 453 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Note: If using electronic sensors, consider updating the monitoring software with a pit and flow
simulation program that may be initiated remotely.
(7) The Driller is expected to detect the pit gain or increase in the return flow and take the
following steps.
a. Make up the Topdrive (or Kelly) until the tooljoint clears the BOPs and space the Kelly
valve or tooljoint at a working level at the rotary table
b. Shut down the pumps.
c. Check the well for flow.
d. Report to the WSL.
(8) Record the time for the crew to react and conduct the drill on the IADC Drilling Report.
When the bit has been tripped to the previous casing shoe, an additional drill may be conducted
that will result in the well being shut-in.
Therefore, after tripping the bit to the shoe, the following procedure may be used as a guideline
for this drill:
(9) Stop tripping operations and install the Topdrive (or Kelly) and start circulating.
(10) Once instructed to do so by the WSL, the Driller is expected to take the following steps to
shut-in the well.
a. Pick up the Topdrive (or Kelly) until the tooljoint clears the BOPs and space the Kelly
valve or tool joint out at a working level at the rotary table.
b. Shut down the pumps.
c. Close the annular preventer.
d. Open the chokeline valve (HCR) to the choke manifold
e. Record the casing and drillpipe pressure.
f. If required, notify the Well Team Leader that the well has been shut-in.
g. Record the time taken for the crew to shut-in the well on the IADC Drilling Report.
The procedures adopted during these drills are in line with the shut-in procedures as outlined in
the Standing Orders.
D3: Diverter
If shallow gas is encountered, and the well kicks, blowout conditions may develop very quickly. It
is crucial that crew initiate control procedures quickly in the event of a shallow gas kick.
Diverter drills are carried out to minimise the reaction time of the crews and check that all diverter
equipment is functioning correctly. The time taken for each diverter function to operate is
recorded. A drill is carried out prior to drilling out of the conductor casing.
Drills are designed in line with the specific procedure that will be adopted in the event of a shallow
gas kick.
The Senior Drilling Contractor’s Representative will confirm that the drill crew is correctly
deployed during the drill and that each individual understands his/her responsibilities.
The time recorded in the log is the time elapsed, from initiation of the drill, until the rig crew is
ready to initiate emergency procedures.
Page 454 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
D4: Well Kill

The objective of this drill is to give drill crews the most realistic type of well control training and a
feel for the equipment and procedures that they would use to kill a well.
This drill is carried out prior to drilling out the intermediate and production strings and not when
open hole sections are exposed. The following is a typical procedure:
(1) Run in hole, wash down, and tag the top of cement.
(2) Pull back one strand and install the Topdrive (or install Kelly).
(3) Break circulation and establish slow circulating rates and pressures (including chokeline
pressure for subsea). (Consider circulating bottoms up prior to this if the annulus possibly
contains contaminated mud.)
(4) Carry out standard BOP Drill D2, resulting in the well being shut-in.
(5) Consider applying low-pressure to the casing (typically 400 to 500 psi), bring the pump up to
kill speed, and control the drillpipe pressure according to a predetermined schedule.
(6) Complete kill sheets (independently performed by senior rig personnel).
(7) Circulate the well over the choke.
Circulating across a choke increases realism and provides the maximum effect. The objective is
to adhere to the previously determined drillpipe pressure schedule.
The choke operator will develop a sense of the lag time between manipulation of the choke, and
its subsequent effect on the drillpipe pressure. The lag time is recorded, so that it may be used for
reference if a kick is taken in the next hole section.
D5: Stripping
A stripping drill is performed prior to drilling out of the casing shoe after the BOP has been
installed and tested. It is only performed with the agreement of the Senior Drilling Contractor’s
Representative and the WSL.
A pre-stripping meeting will be held with a minimum of the WSL, Senior Drilling Contractor’s
Representative, on-shift Driller, AD and Derrickman in attendance.
The suggested procedure for a stripping drill is as follows:
(1) Run in the hole with the drilling assembly until the drillbit is +/- 10 stands above the float collar
or at a pre-determined depth.
(2) Install the full opening drillpipe safety valve. Close the valve.
(3) Close the annular preventer and open the choke line valves (HCR) to a closed choke. The
well is now shut-in. This is the same procedure as used for trip drills.
(4) In order to record the shut-in drillpipe pressure, make up the Topdrive (Kelly) and open the
drillpipe safety valve.
To include a contingency procedure for a failed float, simulate the installation of the dart as
follows:
 Close the drillpipe safety valve.
 Bleed off pressure above the valve.
 Break off the Topdrive (Kelly) and install the dart.
 Make up the Topdrive (Kelly).
 Pressure up through the Topdrive to equalize the pressure.
 Open the drillpipe safety valve to allow the dart to fall.
Page 455 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
 Close the drillpipe safety valve.

 Bleed off the pressure above the valve, and break off the Topdrive (Kelly).
 Install the IBOP above the full opening safety valve and open the valve slowly to make sure
the dart in the IBOP holding.
(5) Open the choke and circulate the well until returns are seen in the trip tank. This provides
confirmation that the line up is correct and all the lines are full from the choke manifold to the
trip tank. Close the choke.
(6) Pressure up the well to a value as agreed between the Senior Drilling Contractor’s
Representative and WSL. This is typically 400 to 500 psi. Close the drillpipe safety valve.
Bleed off pressure above the valve to confirm it is holding, and then remove the Topdrive
(Kelly). Alternately, you may pressure up the well via the kill line while keeping the full
opening safety valve closed. This will eliminate the need for breaking a connection with
pressure below the valve.
The Senior Drilling Contractor’s Representative and Driller typically complete a stripping
worksheet with bit depth, pressure and trip tank level recorded. Assign responsibilities for all
involved parties.
(7) Agree on an increase in the annulus pressure for the following:
○ Choke handling safety factor (for example 50 psi).
○ A working pressure increase for gas expansion (for example 50 psi).
○ An allowance for drillstring entering influx (for example 25 psi). These will be added to the
initial shut-in annulus pressure when stripping commences.
(8) Reduce annular closing pressure to a minimum as per OEM recommendations. Open the
surge bottle, if fitted.
(9) Commence stripping in the drillpipe at a lowering speed of approximately 30 ft/min. The
operator on the choke is to allow the pressure to increase to the initial calculated value as per
the worksheet. Once this value has been reached, the choke operator is to bleed off fluid to
maintain this value as the Driller lowers each stand. As the slips are set, the choke operator
will close the choke, maintaining the calculated value.
Note: The Driller notes the string weight loss needed to strip the pipe through the annular, as
well as the string weight loss needed for the tooljoints to pass the annular. This is useful
information to have in the case of an actual stripping operation.
(10) Strip two or three more stands in the hole with the choke operator bleeding off fluid to
maintain the calculated pressure as the Driller is lowering the stand. Consider stripping
additional stands to allow the rig crew to establish a routine pattern when stripping. Enter the
data on the stripping worksheet after each stand has been run.
(11) Bleed off all annulus pressure and open the annular preventer.
(12) Pull back and remove the drillpipe safety valve. Line up all well control equipment back to the
regular setup for drilling.
(13) Have a post-stripping meeting with all concerned to discuss all aspects of the drill
Note: Consider testing the annular after the drill to confirm equipment integrity.
Page 456 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
Annex 3 Blank Forms and Worksheets

1 BOP STACK Unit Type Size WP Pressure applied Remaining Pressure Test Duratio
PRESSURE TEST Annular
Annular
Blind Shear Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
UL Choke Line
CL Inner Valve
CL Outer Valve
UL Kill Line
KL Inner Valve
KL Outer Valve
Remote Kill Line
Diverter
2 CASING Casing in hole: Pressure Applied
PRESSURE TEST Pressure Remaining
Test Duration
Mud Weight: Packer Depth: Date Previous Test:
3 CHOKE MANIFOLD Pressure Applied: YES NO YES NO
PRESSURE TEST Test Duration: All valves tested Manifold good for H2S
Valves last serviced: All chokes operated Water left in manifold
Setting max, allowable Handles on all valves Water left in K&C lines
pressure on remote choke: Standpipe manifold tested K&C lines pumped through
Pressure applied: Manifold line-up OK after test
4 CHARGE PUMPS Electric pump cut in: Accumulator pressure: YES NO
Electric pump cut in: Accumulator pressure:
5 ACCUMULATOR Accumulators and Pumps Accumulators only
PERFORMANCE UNIT Time to Pressure Pressure
CHECK Time to
Close Volume Volume
Initial Final Close Initial Final
Annular
Annular
Blind Shear Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
CL Inner Valve
CL Outer Valve
KL Inner Valve
KL Outer Valve
6 EQUIPMENT Are the following items on the rig in good operating condition and pressure tested?
CHECK TEST YES NO YES NO YES NO
Circulating head Kelly saver sub & rubber Trip tank
DP Safety Valve Hang-off tool PVT and alarms
XOs to DCs for DPSV Gas buster Flo-show and alarms
Inside BOP De-gasser Nitrogen for precharge
Drop in BOP sub + dart Gas detector Engine H2O spray and s/d
7 FAULTY Mention here leaks experienced in testing parts used, faulty or missing equipment and remedial action
EQUIPMENT
8 SIGNATURES Driller: Toolpusher: Company Drilling Rep:
Figure B.1 BOP Equipment Test Report
Page 457 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
STANDING ORDERS TO DRILLER
WELL NO RIG
DATE ORDERS EFFECTIVE
DATE WELL SITE LEADER TOOLPUSHER
IF ANY OF THE FOLLOWING OCCUR:
1. DRILLING BREAK
*2. INCREASED RETURNS FLOWRATE
*3. PIT GAIN
4. CHANGE IN PUMP SPEED OR PRESSURE
5. SUDDEN CHANGE IN PROPERTIES OF RETURNED MUD
6. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
Or if there is any other possible indication of a kick.
1. PICK UP UNTIL ……………………………… IS …………………………………… ABOVE ROTARY

(Space out to ensure that a tool joint is clear of ………………………………..rams)
2. SHUT DOWN THE PUMPS
3. FLOWCHECK THE WELL IF NECESSARY
(Do not flowcheck if 2* or 3* as above has been detected)
YES IS THE WELL FLOWING? NO
1. …………………………………………………………………………. 1. NOTIFY COMPANY REPRESENTATIVE AND

2. …………………………………………………………………………. TOOLPUSHER
3. …………………………………………………………………………. 2. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
4. ………………………………………………………………………….
5. ………………………………………………………………………….
6. ………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
TOOLPUSHER : DATE: / /
Figure B.2 Kick While Drilling, Land or Floating Rig, Hard Shut-in
Page 458 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
WELL CONTROL OPERATIONS LOG
WELL NO RIG DATE AND TIME SHEET NO
FIRST READING AT / INTERVAL BETWEEN READINGS
TIME DRILLPIPE CHOKE PIT LEVEL/

PRESSURE PRESSURE VOLUME REMARKS
(hr min) (psi) (psi) (bbl)
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
Figure B.3 Well Control Operations Log
Page 459 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
KILL SHEET
For Vertical/Deviated Wells with Surface BOPs
Well No: Rig: Date: Time:

Hole Size (inch): Casing OD (inch): Shoe TVD (ft): Shoe MD (ft):
Openhole Weak Point: TVD (ft) MD (ft) Fracture Grad EMW (ppg):
Cen Burst (psi): Barite on Site (sack): Reserve Mud Vol (bbl):
Drill String Contents (From Surface to Bottom)
OD ID (bbl/ft) Len (ft) Depth (ft) Vol (bbl) Cumulative Volume (bbl)
DP Size 1
DP Size 2
Heavy Weight DP
Drill Collar
Annulus Contents (From Surface to Bottom)
Casing/Hole ID Strg OD Capacity (bbl/ft) Len (ft) Depth (ft) Vol (bbl) Cumulative Volume (bbl)
Casing:
Surf Input Line: OD = ID = Length (ft): Vol (bbl):

Choke Line: OD = ID = Length (ft): Vol (bbl):
Total Circ System Vol (bbl): Surf Active (bbl): Total Active Mud (bbl):
Pumping Data
Pump 1 Liner (in): Max Pres (psi): Vol Eff (%): 100% bbl/stk:
Pump 2 Liner (in): Max Pres (psi) Vol Eff (%): 100% bbl/stk:
PUMP 1 PUMP 1 KILL CIRCULATION TIMES (min)
SPM bbl/min Pscr bbl/min Pscr Pump No Surface to Bit Bit to Shoe Shoe to Chk Total
Kick Data Near vertical well 1

Time Shut-in: Bit at TD (ft) TVD (ft)
Mud Weight in Hole (ppg): PV (cP): YP (lbf/100ft^2):
SIDPP (psi): Shut-in Casing Pres (psi): Shut-in Pit Gain (bbl):
Kill MW (ppg), MW2= Barite Required (lb/bbl): Total (sack):
Pressure Losses
Kill Pump SPM: Circ Pressure Losses (psi): Annular Pressure Loss (APL) (psi):
Bit Nozzles
bbl/stroke: Surf Input Pipe: APL-Based on SCR Test:
(ln^2)
Kill Rate (bbl/min): Inside Drill String: APL-Directly Calculated:
SCR Pres (psi): Drill Bit: Accepted APL:
Conventional vertical/high angle kill

Kill Data
Kill Start Time: Kill Mud to Reach: Drill Bit: Choke: MASPs (psi)
Keep this cell blank: Pump Strokes: Static:
Initial Circ Pres (psi): Pump Pres (psi): Circulating:
Standpipe Pressure (For Pumping Down Kill Mud Through Drill String)
Section Point: MD (ft) TVD (ft) Vol (bbl) Strokes Time (min) Standpipe Pressure (psi)
From Surface: (=Pic)
To Drill Bit: (=Pic)
BP WSL : DATE: / /
Figure B.4 Kill Sheet
Page 460 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
TRIP SHEET
WELL NO RIG DATE AND TIME SHEET NO
REASON FOR TRIP DRILLER
HOLE DEPTH INITIAL BIT DEPTH
DISPLACEMENT OF in : bbl/ft: bbl/stand
Trip On Singles Doubles Stands NO OF STANDS TO CASING SHOE
NO OF STANDS TO TOP OF BHA AT THE STACK

STAND STAND Trip Tank
No Increment Volume Measured Hole Calculated
Discrepancy Remarks
(bbl) Fill/Disp Fill/Disp
Increment accum Increment accum Increment accum

(bbl) (bbl) (bbl) (bbl) (bbl) (bbl)
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
Figure B.5 Trip Sheet
Page 461 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
VOLUMETRIC STRIPPING WORKSHEET

Well No. Rig: Date:
HOLE DEPTH HOLE DIA = =

BIT DEPTH DC OD = =
CSG SHOE DP OD = =
DC Length DC annulus Vol Ave Std Length =
SIDPP Influx size Mud Grad

SICP Influx Grad C/E DP Disp
C/E DP Disp
Top of Influx =
Fracture Gradient @ shoe =
MASP =
Formation Pressure =
Time Pipe Bit Choke Trip Trip Pipe Remarks

Stripped Depth ft psi tank vol tank inc disp bbl
ft bbl bbl (A) (B)
BP WSL:_________________________________________________________________DATE:__/___/___
DRILLER:________________________________________________________________DATE:___/___/___
TOOLPUSHER:____________________________________________________________DATE:___/___/___
Kill Well
4. Bring pumps to speed keeping
5. Read and record drillpipe pressure.
6. Circulate gas out of well, keeping drillpipe pressure constant.
Figure B.6 Volumetric Stripping Worksheet
Page 462 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
VOLUMETRIC CONTROL WORKSHEET
For worksheet calculation enter information into shaded cells Units (US/UK) Version 1/1 1Q 95 by ODL/C Weddle
WELL NO RIG DATE AND TIME SHEET No
MUD WEIGHT IN THE HOLE, ppg LUBRICATING MUD WEIGHT, sg
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PER BARREL OF ppg MUD in x ANNULUS: psi/bbl
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PER BARREL OF ppg MUD in x ANNULUS: psi/bbl
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PER BARREL OF ppg MUD in HOLE psi/bbl Migration Rate Time (min)
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PER BARREL OF ppg MUD in HOLE psi/bbl P1 P2
OVERBALANCE MARGIN: psi OPERATING MARGIN: psi Distance (ft) Rate (A/W 1000)
TIME Maximum Operating Choke or DP Change in Monitor Hydrostatic of Mud Overbalance Volume in Mud Total Volume of
Pressure Pressure Bled/Lubricated Bled/Lubricated Mud
+ Monitor Pressure
(hr min) Safety Factor (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (bbl) (bbl)
+ve increase -ve bled +ve overbalance +ve bled
-ve decrease +ve lubricated -ve underbalance -ve lubricated
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
Figure B.7 Volumetric Technique Worksheet
Page 463 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012
ANNULUS PRESSURE WORKSHEET
Units (US/UK)
For worksheet calculations, enter information into shaded cells Rig Name _____________________________________________ Well No ___________________________________ Date ______________________
Drillstring Internal Volume bbl
Kick Zone Depth: TVD, ft Original Mud Weight: ppg
Casing Shoe Depth: TVD, ft Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure: psi
Kick Zone Pressure: psi Mud Weight to Displace Kick: ppg
Pit Gain; psi Surface Temp: °F
Influx Height: ft Temp Grad: °F/ft
Influx Hydrostatic: psi
Total Annulus Volume bbl
Hydro
Original Mud Kill Mud Height of Pressure Original Mud Hydro-
Volume of Below Influx Below Original Mud Mud of Mud Influx Influx Influx Temp Influx Size above Influx static of Req’d Pressure
Mud Below Below Hydro- Mid-point Annulus Back at the
Pumped Vol Height Pressure Vol Height Pressure Influx Influx static Pressure Z Vol Height Height Pressure Fluids Pressure Shoe
(bbl) (bbl) (ft) (psi) (bbl) (ft) (psi) (ft) (psi) (psi) (psia) °F °R Factor (bbl) (ft) (ft) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)
Page 464 of 465

Figure B.8 Annulus Pressure Worksheet

DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
28 March 2012
SG 4.1-0035
The worksheet provided can be used to estimate annulus pressures during the displacement of a kick.
The worksheet can be used as follows for the Wait and Weight method:
(If the Drillers method is used (5), (6), and (7) are left out of calculation)
(1) Barrels (bbl) of kill weight mud
Estimate the volume of kill mud pumped for the gas to arrive at the point of interest.
(2-4) Original mud below gas
This volume is equal to the volume of kill weight mud pumped until the drillpipe is displaced.
At this point and subsequently this volume will remain consistent at the drillpipe internal volume.
Convert this volume to height and hydrostatic pressure equivalent, in the annulus.
(5-7) Kill mud below original mud.
The volume is zero until the internal volume if the drillstring has been displaced.
Once the kill mud starts into the annulus, its height and hydrostatic pressure should be calculated.
(8) Feet of mud below gas
The total height of mud below the influx.
(9) Pressure of mud below the gas
Equal to (4) + (7)
(10) Gas hydrostatic pressure
In a constant annulus size it is assumed that the gas hydrostatic pressure remains constant as the influx expands. The gas
hydrostatic mud however be corrected for substantial changes in annular dimensions using the following relationship:
Gas hydrostatic (2) = Gas hydrostatic (1) x
(11) Gas mid point pressure
This is equal to the kick zone pressure minus the total hydrostatic pressure of the mud below the influx
and half of the gas hydrostatic pressure.
(12-13) This gas temperature
This is estimated for the surface pressure and the temperature gradient in the well unless more detailed information is available.
The temperature in ‘F’ can be converted to ‘R’ by adding 460.
Use Figure x.x (BP Well Control Manual) to determine the pseudo critical temperature and pressure of the gas
(assume gravity is 0.7 unless logging unit has detected presence of CO2 or H2S or unusually heavy hydrocarbon components).
The pseudo reduced values are then calculated as follows:
P absolute (psia)
P pseudo reduced =
P pseudo critical
T (*R)
and T pseudo reduced =
T pseudo critical
(14) z factor
The compressibility factor, Z can be determined from Figure 8.26 and 8.27 using the calculated values of pseudo reduced pressure
and temperature.
(15-16) Influx volume and height
The expanded volume of the influx can be calculated using Gas low relationships as follows:
T 2 x Z 2 x P1 x V1
V2 =
P 2 x T1
V = Influx volume (bbl)
T = Influx temperature (*R)
P = Influx pressure (psia)
Z = Compressibility factor
The influx height is determined as follows:

Influx volume
Influx height =
Annular capacity
(19) Total hydrostatic pressure annulus fluids.
This equals (9) + (10) + (18)
(20) Required back pressure
This is the difference between the kick zone pressure and the total hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the annulus (19)
(21) Pressure at the shoe
The pressure at the shoe is determined by either:

•Subtracting the hydrostatic pressure of the annulus fluids from the bottomhole is the shoe from the bottomhole pressure
•Adding the hydrostatic pressure of the fluids from the shoe to the surface to the required back pressure (20)
This procedure will be repeated until the influx is positioned at the appropriate point in the well. For example if the first calculation shows
that the top of the influx is above the shoe (assuming that the point of interest is when the top of the influx arrives at the shoe), the
calculation should be reworked for a smaller volume of mud pumped.
For the first approximation it is a good idea to neglect the effect of temperature and compressibility in order to speed the calculation.
Figure B.8 Annulus Pressure Worksheet con’t
Page 465 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

28 March 2012

EP SG 4 3-0035 Drilling Well Control Manual PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

EP SG 4 3-0035 Drilling Well Control Manual PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Upstream Guide

Drilling Well Control Manual

Issue date 28 March 2012

Next review date 28 March 2015

Content Approval Andy Krieger, VP Wells Operations, GWO Decide

Amanda Olson, Counsel, GWO

Well Control Director Andry Frazelle, GWO Recommend

Technical Authority Louis Romo, SETA, Well Control, S&OR Input

Area EA S&OR Area Engineers Input

Copyright © 2012 BP International Ltd. All rights reserved.

2 Formation Pressure Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 44

Page 2 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

2.5.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 119

3 Fracture Gradients ............................................................................................................................ 120

4 Fundamental Well Equations ............................................................................................................ 132

Page 3 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

4.14.1 Calculation of Maximum Anticipated Surface Pressure (MASP) ....................................... 190

5 Well Control Drilling Equipment ........................................................................................................ 197

Page 4 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

5.9.3 Subsea Choke and Kill Lines ............................................................................................. 248

6 Well Control Procedures While Drilling ............................................................................................. 263

Page 5 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

6.7 Implementation of the Driller’s Method ....................................................................................... 282

7 Well Control Procedures While Tripping ........................................................................................... 292

8 Special Considerations ..................................................................................................................... 307

Page 6 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

Page 7 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

8.10 Aspects of Underbalanced Drilling ............................................................................................. 353

9 Subsea Well Control ......................................................................................................................... 370

Page 8 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

9.6.3 Typical Circulating Well Kill Procedure .............................................................................. 396

10 Well Monitoring and Fingerprinting ................................................................................................... 419

11 Relief Well Planning .......................................................................................................................... 429

Page 9 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

11.6.5 Blowout Modelling Results ................................................................................................. 431

Annex 1 List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................................... 447

Annex 2 Well Control BOP Drills ............................................................................................................... 451

Annex 3 Blank Forms and Worksheets ..................................................................................................... 457

Table 1.2 Average Normal Formation Pressure Gradients ......................................................................... 25

Table 2.2 Calculation of Depths and Interval Transit Times ....................................................................... 56

Table 2.3 General Mudlogging Sensor Specifications .............................................................................. 100

Page 10 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

Table 3.1 Poisson's Ratio for Different Lithologies ................................................................................... 123

Table 4.1 Formulae in Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ................................................................................. 155

Table 4.2 Calculations of Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ............................................................................. 156

Table 4.3 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ...................................................................................................... 157

Table 4.4 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule ...................................................................................................... 159

Table 4.5 Directional Data for Example Problem ...................................................................................... 162

Table 5.1 Packing Unit Selection (from Hydril) ......................................................................................... 202

Table 5.3 Blowout Preventer Specification - Differing Vendors ................................................................ 213

Table 9.1 Approaches to Drilling SWF Zones ........................................................................................... 371

Table 9.3 Pre-drill Preparation .................................................................................................................. 379

Table 9.4 Annular Shut-in Versus Ram Shut-in ........................................................................................ 381

Table 9.5 Shut-in While Drilling ................................................................................................................. 382

Table 9.6 Shut-in While Tripping ............................................................................................................... 383

Table 9.8 Procedure to Break Gel Strength .............................................................................................. 385

Table 9.9 Hanging Off the Drillstring ......................................................................................................... 386

Table 9.12 Operational Example - Stack Sweep Procedure .................................................................... 401

Table 9.13 Alternative Hydrate Inhibition Methods ................................................................................... 414

Table 10.1 Temperature Effects on Completion Brines ............................................................................ 421

Table 10.3 Example trip sheet .................................................................................................................. 425

Page 11 of 465 SG 4.1-0035

Page 12 of 465 SG 4.1-0035