Mortar Admixtures – Types, Uses and Benefits in Masonry Construction

Mortar admixtures typically offer properties such as waterproofing, water-repellency, efflorescence control, air
entrainment using plasticizers to enhance workability, accelerating and retarding setting times etc. These mortar
admixtures are used for ratios 1:3 or leaner mixes for use in masonry construction.

Admixtures for masonry mortars are different from those used in concrete mortars which are generally ineffective in
case of mortars. For instance, air entrainment mortar admixture is used as a plasticizer as it lubricates the interlock
between sand particles and reduces the amount of water required for mixing. It also reduces the density of mortar
which in turn improves the troweling characteristics and provides freeze-thaw resistance after the mix has hardened.

The effect of admixtures in a mortar depends largely on the mortar mix, mixer, and the time in a day when it is mixed.
While accelerating mortar admixtures accelerate the setting times, the retarders are used to enhance the setting time
of mortars, which is generally used for ready-mix or ready-to-use mortars. The use of retarders allows up to 36 hours
for the mortar to be used after mixing or delivery.

When mortar with retarding admixture is placed between masonry units or blocks, some water and retarder chemical
are sucked out by blocks; thereafter the hardening process begins. So, this retarding admixture for mortar should
generally be used for masonry construction which has absorbent units.

Types and Uses of Mortar Admixtures

Types of mortar admixtures decide their respective uses, such as:
1. Waterproofing admixture is used to reduce moisture movement through bedding of masonry or renders.
2. Water retaining admixtures reduces the suction of water from mortar into the masonry blocks or units and
enhances the workability, cohesion and reduces the bleeding.
3. Air entraining mortar admixture enhances the workability.
4. Accelerating mortar admixture reduces the setting times and is used where early strength gain is necessary.
5. Retarding admixture increases the setting times and are generally used for ready-mixed mortars.
6. Polymer dispersion admixture helps in air bonding and provides flexibility and water repellency to masonry
mortars.

Benefits of Using Mortar Admixtures

1. It helps to maintain water content in mortars
2. Reduces efflorescence
3. Improves workability/consistency
4. Improves strength
5. Minimizes water absorption

Proportioning of Mortar
Masonry mortars should be proportioned in accordance with ASTM C-270, Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit
Masonry.

How to Use Masonry Admixtures

Masonry admixtures are used for different purposes and affect different properties in masonry construction. The use
of these depends on the type of masonry construction, mix ratio, mixer and mixing times. The admixture manufactures
specifications and recommendations should be followed during the use of masonry admixtures.

Standards and Tests for Masonry Admixtures

Following ASTM standards can be used for testing different properties of mortar construction using admixtures:

 ASTM C270 – Standard Specification for Mortar of Unit Masonry

 ASTM C90 – Standard Specifications for Load Bearing Concrete Masonry Units
 ASTM C1384 – Standard Specification for Admixtures for Masonry Mortars
 ASTM E514 – Standard Test Method for Water Penetration and Leakage Through Masonry
 ASTM C1072 – Standard Test Method for Measurement of Masonry Flexural Bond Strength
 ASTM C140 – Standard Test Method for Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units and Related Units
 ASTM C780 – Standard Test Method for Preconstruction and Construction Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and
Reinforced Unit Masonry
Concrete 3-Day, 7-Day and 28-Day Strength Test Results and Acceptance
The standard concrete compressive strength test is carried out at 28 days. 3-days and 7-days concrete tests are carried
out only to monitor the early strength gain and are useful in construction where high early strength of concrete is
required as per construction documents. But the values of 3-days and 7-days test results are not used for acceptance
purpose.

Concrete 28-Day Strength Test

The 28 days concrete test results are accepted as standard compressive strength values. The compressive strength
acceptance is specified by 26.12.3.1 of ACI 318-14 as :

1. Average of three compressive tests results should be equal to or more than the specified strength.
2. At least three 4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) cylinders or at least two 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) cylinders should be
used for compressive strength test as per sections 26.5.3.2 and 26.12.1.1 of ACI 318-14, ACI 301-16
“Specifications for Structural Concrete”, and ACI 311.6-18 “Specification for Testing Ready Mixed Concrete”.
3. For concrete with specified strength up to 35 MPa (5000 psi), no strength test results should fall below the
specified compressive strength by more than 3.5 MPa or 500 psi.
4. For concrete with specified strength above 35 MPa (5000 psi), no test results should fall below the specified
strength by more than 10%.

Concrete Delamination- Causes, Effects, and Precautions

Concrete delamination is the detachment of thin layers of concrete from the concrete surface. The peeled-out concrete
surface then becomes prone to all kind of abraders in the atmosphere which consequently weaken the structure. It,
therefore, becomes extremely essential to find the area to be remedied before it spreads any further. Generally, the
emergence of a drummy sound on striking the surface of the concrete by a hammer is an indication of concrete
delamination. Here, the causes, effects, and precautions for delamination of concrete are explained in brief.

Causes of Delamination
The timing of final trowelling operations is the main factor that leads to delamination of the concrete surface. It is
recommended that the finishing operations i.e. trowelling, is supposed to start only after the initial setting time of the
concrete. Else, there could be chances to have delamination issues.

Fig.1.Concrete Delamination; Fig.2. Delaminated Concrete Chips

Conducting the trowelling operation before the initial setting time makes the bleeding water or air underneath to form
blisters. When the surface is subjected to any sort of load action, these blisters would delaminate out.

Going with the finishing processes before the bleeding is completed traps the water or air-voids below the finishing
layer. These, as a result, form subsurface voids which make that concrete zone weak. As time passes, these subsurface
voids detach with loads.

Delamination can also occur due to :

1. The use of a sticky mortar mix with a huge amount of fines.
2. High rate of evaporation.
3. Hastily performed finishing works.
When the finishing process is performed hastily, the delamination issue would be widespread over an entire area. This
affects larger zones of the concrete surface. This detachment layers may be in 3 to 6mm thick. Delamination is mainly
observed in concrete slabs.

Effect of Delamination on Concrete Performance

Having delamination on a single spot is not an issue. But when this delamination begins to spread, the performance of
the concrete surface is affected badly. Delamination also results in the separation of the flooring material from the top
surface of the concrete.

Delamination splits up any top coat on the concrete surface which makes pathways to facilitate pathways for moisture
intrusion. Moisture intrusion propagates cracks and the performance of the structure is affected.

Precautions for Concrete Delamination

The risk of delamination can be avoided by the control of following factors:
1. The uniformity at which the concrete is placed
2. The rate of bleeding
3. The setting time of the concrete surface
4. The rate of surface evaporation
5. The process of finishing

As mentioned earlier, premature finishing process is the major cause of delamination. Giving enough time for the
bleeding water to rise up and evaporate prior to finishing process helps in avoiding the issue of delamination. This time
is mainly the initial setting time of the concrete.

Some of the dos and don’ts to avoid concrete delamination are :

1. Sealing of the concrete surface before the completion of the bleeding process must be avoided. The concrete
mix with high cement or high sand content tends to bleed more easily.
2. If the concrete contains air-entrained admixtures i.e. air content greater than 3%, the finishing process must
be carried out lightly with care. A dense hard troweled finishing is not necessary. It just requires a light steel
trowelling.
3. If the concrete surface is made over an impervious surface, it is recommended not to perform the finishing
process too early. Because the only way for the bleeding water to evaporate is the top surface so time has to
be given for that. Bleeding water and the bleeding time is higher for a concrete surface made over an
impervious surface compared to a porous surface.
4. If the temperature of the ground subgrade is less than 40 degree Celsius, it is recommended not to place the
concrete. Placing concrete on such cold subgrades delays the setting and the time of finishing cannot be
predicted. It is advised to keep the subgrade covered till the time of concrete placement.
5. Accelerators can be used to obtain a uniform concrete setting. This helps in increasing the final setting time of
the concrete.
6. If the site has a rapid evaporation rate due to hot temperatures, lower humidity and huge wind rate, special
ways are adopted to decrease the evaporating rate. The wind can be reduced by the use of windbreaks and an
evaporative retardant can be used to reduce the rate of evaporation.

As a remedy for a concrete area affected by delamination, it is recommended to remove the defective concrete layer
at a depth till sound concrete layer is observed. The unsound concrete can be removed by :

1. Shotblasting
2. Hydrodemolition
3. Grinding

After the removal of the affected surface, a new layer is placed. The whole area can be then ground and smoothened
to obtain a final smooth and sealed finish
Groynes and their Classification
A groyne is a rigid hydraulic structure built either from the shore (in case of seas) or bank (in case of rivers) in order to
dissipate the wave energy or to protect the banks from erosion by trapping the sediments. In general, Groynes are
perpendicular to the shore line or river bank or sometimes slightly oblique. Classification of groynes based on different
factors is explained in this article.

Classification of Groynes
Groynes are classified into different types based on different factors which are as follows :

 Materials used for construction

 Permeability characteristics
 Height of groynes
 Function of groynes

Types of Groynes based on Materials Used for Construction

Based on the materials used in construction, the groynes are classified into :
1. Wood groynes
2. Sandbag groynes
3. Rock groynes
4. Concrete groynes
5. Sheet pile groynes
6. Rubble-mound groynes

1. Wood groynes
Wooden groynes are built with timber piles. Generally, single
row or double row wooden groynes are constructed as they
suffice the requirement. The durability of wooden groynes is
very low but they are economical and useful for short term
purposes.

Fig 1: Wooden Groyne

2. Sandbag Groynes
Sandbag groynes are constructed using sand or earth-filled
bags which are stacked in the form of barrier. They are used
for temporary or short-term purposes. To prevent the sinking
of sandbags into the ground, a special type of filter cloth is
provided under the bags.

Fig 2: Sandbag Groyne

3. Rock Groynes

Rock groynes, constructed using large sized rocks have more durability compared to other materials. They absorb a
good amount of wave energy and maintain a good stability in any situation.
Fig 3: Rock Groyne Fig 4: Concrete Groyne

4. Concrete Groynes
Concrete groynes are constructed using reinforced concrete or pre-fabricated concrete blocks. These are the most
stable and durable structures. Good foundation and appropriate soil conditions are required to construct concrete
groynes.

5. Sheet pile Groynes

Sheet pile groynes are constructed using steel sheet piles. The sheets pile groynes constructed are either single sheet
pile or double sheet pile. However, double sheet pile walls are more durable and stable.

Fig 5: Sheet Pile Groyne Fig 6: Rubble Mound Groyne

6. Rubble-mound Groynes
Rubble-mound groynes are widely used structures along the seashores. They are built using stones or specially made
concrete units such as tetrapods. To attain more strength, sheet piling is provided inside the rubble-mound groynes.
Durability and stability of rubble-mound groynes are very high.

Types of Groynes based on Permeability Characteristics

1. Permeable groynes
2. Impermeable groynes

1. Permeable groynes
Permeable groynes permit water through it but with a reduced velocity of flow. Groynes built using wood, sandbags
etc. come under this category. This type of groyne is suitable when a river is carrying a certain amount of sediment in
suspension.
2. Impermeable groynes
Impermeable groynes do not permit water to flow through them. They are made of rock, gavel, gabions etc. Since they
are impermeable, the water may overflow during peak conditions hence, a thick protection layer is necessary for this
type of groynes.

Types of Groynes based on Height

1. Submerged groynes
2. Non-submerged groynes

1. Submerged groynes
Submerged groynes are constructed where river depth is very deep. Their submergence condition varies according to
the water surface level in the river. Permeable materials are used to construct this type of groynes and they reduce
flow velocity that results in preventing erosion of the top portion of the groyne.

Fig 7: Submerged Groyne Fig 8: Non Submerged Groyne

2. Non-submerged groynes
Non-submerged groynes are constructed with a height greater than maximum flood level. They are generally built using
impermeable materials.

Types of Groynes based on functions

1. Attracting groynes
2. Repelling groynes
3. Deflecting groynes
4. Sediment groynes

1. Attracting groynes
Attracting groynes are constructed in such a way that their head is pointing towards the downstream side of the river
as shown in the figure below. They are built with an angle of 45 to 60 degrees with the bank. Since it is inclined towards
downstream, the water-flow will attract towards the bank on which groyne is located.

Upstream side of attracting groynes undergoes severe attack by

water flow hence, it should be constructed with proper protection.
They provide safety to the opposite bank but adjacent banks may
get affected by this type of groynes. Silting is also not possible in
this type of groyne. Hence, these are not recommended.

Fig 9: Attracting Groyn

2. Repelling groynes
Repelling groynes are built with their head towards upstream
with an inclination of 60 to 80 degrees with the bank. They repel
the water-flow towards the bank on which it is located.

The head portion of repelling groynes is under the main attack

by the flow. Hence, it should be built with strong protection. The
sediments carried by the water gets deposited in the silt pocket
which is formed at the upstream side of repelling groyne. These
groynes are more advantageous than attracting groynes and are
used widely for river training and bank protection.

Fig 10: Repelling Groyne

3. Deflecting groynes

Deflecting groynes are built perpendicular to the bank and they

just deflect the water-flow without repelling and provide local
protection to the banks.

Fig 11: Deflecting Groyne

4. Sediment groynes

Sediment groynes are constructed when

there is a considerable amount of sediments
carried by the river water. These reduce the
stream velocity and allow the sediments to
deposit. They do not repel or deflect the flow.
Generally, permeable groynes are used as
sediment groynes.

Fig 12: Groynes along River Bank

Plate Girder and Its Components
A plate girder is a built up I-beam section, used to carry heavy loads which cannot be carried economically by rolled I-
sections. It is made by riveting or welding the steel plates in I-beam shape. Components of a typical Plate girder and
their functions are discussed in this article.

Components of Plate Girder

The components of typical plate girder are as follows :

1. Web
2. Flanges
3. Stiffeners

1. Web
The deep central vertical plate is called as a web in plate
girder. It separates the two flange plates by a required
distance. Web is responsible to resist shear developed in
the plate girder.

Fig 1: Web and Flange Plates of Plate Girder

2. Flanges
Flanges or flange plates are horizontal elements of plate
girder which are provided at the top and bottom and they
are separated by the web. The main purpose of flange
plates is to resist the bending moment acting on the girder.

The top flange resists the bending moment by developing

compression and the bottom flange resists the tensile
force. They should be provided with a required width and
thickness to offer good resistance against bending moment.

3. Stiffeners
Stiffeners are classified into two types :

1. Vertical Stiffeners
2. Horizontal Stiffeners

Fig 2: Stiffeners of Plate Girder

Vertical Stiffeners
Vertical stiffeners are provided at right angles to the flanges and they are also called as transverse stiffeners. These are
again classified into two types namely end stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners based on their position in the plate
girder.

End stiffeners are provided at both the ends of the girder. They receive the load from the beam and transfer it to the
support. In plate girder, some part of the end portion of the web is subjected to compressive loads. Due to these loads,
the web of the section may get crushed. Here, the end stiffeners play an important role by keeping the web safe from
crushing. End stiffeners are also called as bearing stiffeners.
Intermediate stiffeners are required when there are
concentrated loads acting on the plate girder. When the
thickness of the web is very less (less than 1/85th of the
depth of the web), then the web may buckle due to
shear. In that scenario, intermediate stiffeners are
provided in order to improve the buckling strength of the
web.

Fig 3: Plate Girder with Vertical Stiffeners

Horizontal Stiffeners
Horizontal stiffeners are provided in parallel to the flange plates. They are also called as longitudinal stiffeners. These
stiffeners will improve the buckling strength of the web portion. Horizontal stiffeners are either continuous or
discontinuous.
Continuous horizontal stiffeners connect all the traverse stiffeners and also take load coming from the flange and web
portions. Discontinuous horizontal stiffeners are provided between the traverse stiffeners without touching them. They
do not take any load coming from the flange or web portion, they just provide buckling resistance to the web.

Fig 4: Longitudinal and Transverse Stiffeners

Welded wire Fabric Concrete
Welded wire fabric is a series of parallel longitudinal
wires welded to cross wires by electric fusion method
with accurate spacing. The welding work is done by
machinery which ensures the precise dimensions and
results in considerable savings in time, labour and
money.

Fig 1: Use of Welded Wire Fibre is embankment

concreting.

In this article, we will study the general specification,

advantages, uses and comparison of welded wire fibre
concrete.

General Specification of Welded Wire Fibre Concrete

1. Material
The material used in manufacturing the wires for welded fibre is either stainless steel rebar rods or galvanized steel
rods that have excellent resistance to corrosion and can be used in wet conditions.
The wires conform to IS:432-Pt II/1982 which specifies an ultimate tensile strength of 570 N/mm2 and a characteristic
strength of 480 N/mm2.

2. Shape and Size

The commonly available shapes of the welded wire fibre are rectangle and square. The fabric can be manufactured for
widths up to 3000mm with lengths limited by transportation considerations. When supplied in ready-to-lay flat sheet
form the standard length is 5500mm. Otherwise, the fabric can be supplied in the rolled form in standard lengths of
15m,30m or 45m.

Wires used for the manufacture of fabric are generally manufactured in the range of 2mm to 12mm diameter. It is
manufactured conforming to IS:1566-1982 with long and cross-wire spacings varying from 25mm to 400mm.

3. Cutting and Forming

Welded wire fabric can be easily cut with the help of wire cutters. If the mesh is to be laid in a staircase, it can be easily
bent into the required size and laid down.

Fig 2: Welded Wire Fibre in floor slab.

4. Lapping and Clearance

As the wire fibres are available in any sizes required,

lapping is not usually required, but in the case, if
lapping is required, a minimum of 6 inches of lapping
is recommended.

As a standard practice, 1 to 3 inches of clearance is

given between the wire fabric and formwork.

5. Vibrating

Vibrating plastic concrete reinforced with welded fibre

mesh is recommended in order to ensure the mix is
distributed completely and the fabric is properly
embedded all around to reduce the cracking.
Comparison between Welded Wire Fibre and Conventional Reinforcement
Welded Wire Fabric
Increased permeability.
Bond can deteriorate over time
No surface protection provided
Minor resistance provided if properly placed
Difficult to install and expensive – high labor costs
Difficult to place, especially if rolls – 1″ minimum
cover required
No effect on finish, but difficult to maintain
placement in slab
Will deteriorate if not properly placed and protected
Will deteriorate if not properly placed and protected
Corrodes when exposed to water and chemicals
Increases tensile strength if properly placed
Provides reinforcement in one plane
Increases ductility if properly placed
Permanent if visible with little remedy possible
Meets ASTM specifications if placed properly
Storage difficult and detrimental if stored outside
Conventional Reinforcement
Reduction of permeability
Bonds effectively with concrete permanently
Improves surface durability
Improves impact, shatter and abrasion resistance
Easy to use and cost effective – no labor costs
Easy to place in concrete mix – No minimum cover
Easy to finish with minor effect on workability of mix
Alkali resistant
Acid resistant
Corrosion resistant
Increases tensile strength of plain non-reinforced
concrete
Provides three dimensional reinforcement
Increases ductility
No lasting aesthetics and can be easily
remedied if necessary
Meets or exceeds ASTM specifications
Can be stored for long periods of time

Advantages of Welded Wire Fabric in Concrete

1. Higher Design Strength
The structural behaviour of welded wire fabric is the same as that of HYSD bars or plain mild steel bars. The higher
strength is due to the characteristic strength of welded wires.

2. Better Bonding
The main factor responsible for the bonding of concrete is the peripheral surface area. The rigid mechanical
interconnections by means of welds to cross-wires are primarily responsible for stress transfer from concrete to steel
and vice-versa in the case of welded wire fabric.

Each of the rigid welds capable of resisting up to 210 N/mm2 ensure quick and complete stress transfer within 2 welded
joints from the critical section.

3. Effective Crack Resistance

The two major properties of welded wire fibre which help in reduction of cracks in the concrete are the strong
mechanical anchorage of the welds at each intersection and the close spacing of thinner wires.

The close spacing of wires serves as most effective in countering the non-load phenomena or strain induced stresses
due to shrinkage and temperature changes. This property of the welded wire fibre preserves the structural integrity of
the slab.

4. Economical
The most obvious and clinching advantage in the use of welded wire fabric is the immediate and positive savings in
labour and time. There is no cutting of bars, no marking and spacing them out, and above all no laborious tying of
binding wires.
5. Flexible in Handing and Placing
The usage of thinner wires lends the fabric as extremely flexible in handling. Coupled with the availability in long lengths
in roll form, welded wire fabric provides the ideal and convenient solution for all kinds of repair work by Re-plastering
or Guniting.

Uses of Welded Wire Fabric in Concrete

1. Structural flat slabs or in slabs with beam slab construction.

2. Large area floor slabs on ground, pavements, airport runways, aprons etc to achieve crack-free joint fewer
surfaces.
3. Concrete elements of curved or difficult shapes such as arches, domes, lotus petals etc. where the flexibility of
welded wire fabric and its ready to use nature aids all the way.
4. Precast elements which are thin or are difficult to reinforce such as curved arch flat members, Hyperbolic
Paraboloid Shells, folded plate roof girders, fins, thin pardis or chajja drops.
5. Standard mass production precast R.C.C and prestressed elements like slab panels, wall panels.
6. As a bonding fabric during guniting or during re-plastering required for Repairs and rehabilitation of structures.
7. Unstressed shaping or form reinforcement used in Prestressed Concrete Girders of Box, I, T or Double T-section.
8. Ferrocement or Ferrocrete works where welded wire fabric is the only solution for forming the reinforcing
matrix for precast elements such as water tanks, fins, shelves etc
What is A Cooling Tower?
A cooling tower is used to remove excess heat that is generated in large industrial and commercial units by cooling the
area by lowering the temperature.

Working of Cooling Towers

In powerplants and industries, a large amount of
heat is continuously dissipated due to industrial
processes and heavy machines. This heat must
be taken out into the environment by means of
a heat exchange process. This heat exchange
process is the basic principle of cooling tower
technology.

As shown in the figure-1 below, the working of

the cooling tower system involves the influx of
the warm water into the tower system which
then gets evenly spread at the top. The
equipment spreads the hot water entered over
a large area thus increasing the water-air
contact. This water-air contact helps to enhance
the heat transfer by means of evaporation.

Fig:1.Schematic Diagram of a Cooling Tower System; Image Courtesy: Araner

A large volume of air is constantly flowing through the large fans present in the tower system. Water loses its heat as
the evaporation proceeds and this warm air then enters the tower sump present at the bottom and the warm air is let
out.

The cooled water moves back to the initial source of heat generation and, further, the cycle repeats. All these processes
occur simultaneously in a continuous loop.

Classification of Cooling Towers

Latest technologies present a large variety of cooling towers in different types and sizes. Some categories of cooling
towers include:
1. Shape characterised cooling tower
2. Cooling tower based on the method of heat transfer
3. Atmospheric cooling tower
4. Mechanical draft cooling tower
5. Air-flow characterised cooling tower

Mainly, there are three types of cooling towers based on how air or the water passes through them. They are :
1. Crossflow Cooling Towers
2. Counter-flow Cooling Towers
3. Hyperbolic Cooling Towers

1. Crossflow Cooling Towers

In this type, a splash fill is used to make the air flow in horizontal path over the stream of water from the upper
reservoirs. This is the most expensive cooling tower system with less maintenance. One main disadvantage of this
system is that it is more susceptible to frost action when compared to other types.

2. Counter-flow Cooling tower

Here, the in-flowing air takes a vertical path over the splash fill as the water streams from the reservoirs present above.
The system is smaller than crossflow. As more energy is required to push air up against the downward flowing water,
the system is costly.
3. Hyperbolic Cooling Towers
This is a well-built system with a minimum amount of resources. As these require few resources, large-scale tasks within
big power plants can be managed efficiently.

Selection of Cooling Towers

The selection of cooling towers can be conducted based on the following features :
1. System Operation
2. Material

There are several important factors that govern the operation of a cooling tower:

 The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air.

 The temperature of warm water.
 The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of the volumetric mass transfer coefficient and the
contact time between the air and the water.
 The uniformity of distribution of the phases within the tower.
 The air pressure drops.
 The desired temperature of the cooled water.

The material selection of cooling tower is also important. Cooling towers tend to be corrosive since they are always in
direct contact with the water. Proper material selection or additional water treatment is then needed to keep the
cooling tower safe.

Applications of Cooling Towers

The chief applications of cooling towers are in:
1. Power Plants
2. Commercial, HVAC and Industrial applications
3. Cold Storage
4. Electrical Power generation plants
5. Die casting machine
6. Water cooled air compressors

Structural Stability of Cooling Towers

The cooling towers are susceptible to wind damage and several other failures. Special building codes are made to take
into consideration these effects and provide structural support to the system.
How to repair Active cracks in concrete
Active cracks in concrete are live cracks which expand in length, width, and depth over time. These cracks are formed
due to overloading and thermal expansion e.g. cracks due to freeze-thaw. Common methods to repair active cracks are
drilling and plugging, stitching, external prestressing and flexible sealing of cracks.

Repairing active cracks is difficult because if the cause of the crack development is not fixed, a new crack may form next
to the repaired active cracks due to their uncontrolled propagation.

Methods of Repairing Active Cracks in Concrete

Different methods to repair active cracks in concrete structures are explained briefly in the below section.

1. Drilling and Plugging through Crack

This method can be applied to the cracks
that appear in straight lines. In this
method, a hole is drilled near to the crack
and this is filled with grout. This grout
forms the key to lock the crack preventing
it from further propagation. Leakages and
loss of soil are prevented by the grout.
This method is cost-effective and
consumes less time.

Fig.1: Drilling and Plugging

Another way of plugging the drilled hole is filling it with epoxy mortar or any epoxy formulation with reinforcement
bars placed in the drilled hole. The bars used are of predetermined length and size such that it stitches the cracks
across.

The procedure involves drilling a hole of 50 to 75mm diameter depending on the width of crack following the crack
location. The hole must be large enough to intersect the crack along its full length and provide sufficient repair material
to structurally take the loads exerted on the key.

If water tightness is primary need over structural load transfer, then the drilled hole can be filled by a resilient material
of low modulus. If both properties are required, the first hole is filled with grout and the second hole is filled with a
resilient material.

2. Stitching of Cracks
Stitching of cracks seems to be simple and a durable
method. In this method, holes are drilled in a way that
entry and exit points are made across the cracks.
Through the holes, a number of U-shaped metallic
staples are passed through and at the ends, the holes
are anchored strongly. Grout or epoxy can be used to
anchor the ends.

Stitching of cracks is shown in figure-2 below.

Fig.2: Stitching of concrete cracks

3. External Prestressing
Post-tensioning method can be employed to seal flexural cracks in
reinforced concrete. This can either arrest the cracks from further
widening or correct it completely. The method provides
compression force in order to compensate the tendons and then
additional residual compressive force.

This method requires anchorage of the tie-rods to the anchoring

device attached to the beam as shown in figure-3

Fig.3: Post Tensioning Cracked Beam

Any adverse effect of external prestressing on the structure as a part of crack correction must be studied by
approximate stress checks.

4. Flexible Sealing
Another method for healing active cracks is the use of the
flexible sealing method. This method makes use of bond
breaker as shown in figure-4 below.

Before choosing a repair method for active cracks, it must

be determined whether it is necessary to improve the
flexural or tensile strength across the crack. If strength
must be restored, it is recommended to install an
expansion joint near to the repaired crack in order to
avoid the occurrence of future cracks nearby the
corrected one.

Fig.4: Flexible Sealing

Post tension slab – Working Principle, Components and Construction
Post tension slab is a combination of conventional slab reinforcement and additional protruding high-strength steel
tendons, which are consequently subjected to tension after the concrete has set. This hybridisation helps achieve the
formation of a much thinner slab with a longer span devoid of any column-free spaces.

Working Principle of Post Tensioning

We all know that concrete has a high
compressive strength and steel has a high
tensile strength, and when their combination
is used to bear loads, the efficiency increases
manifold.

When a heavy live load is brought upon a

structure, its concrete slab undergoes
tension, which leads to the formation of
cracks and ultimately deformation occurs. To
mitigate this problem, post tensioned steel
tendons are inserted at the time of concreting
and tensioned after concreting with
conventional rebars.

Fig 1: Typical Details of Post Tension Slab

When these post tensioned steel tendons are stressed, the concrete is squeezed, in other terms, the concrete is
compacted which increases the compressive strength of the concrete and at the same time the steel tendons that are
pulled increase the tensile strength. As a result, the overall strength of the concrete increases.

Components of Post Tensioning Slab

1. Ducts
Thin sheet metal pipes with claw coupling or welded
overlapped seam supplied in lengths of 5 and 6 m respectively
are used as a standard. Ducts are connected to each other by
an external screw coupling and sealed with PE tape. Plastic
ducts are also available in the market these days which are
water tight , frictionless and fatigue resistant

Fig 2: Type of Ducts used to encase steel tendons.

2. Tendons
The basic element of a post-tensioning system is called a
tendon. A post-tensioning tendon is made up of one or
more pieces of prestressing steel, coated with a protective
coating, and housed inside a duct or sheathing.

The prestressing steel is manufactured as per the

requirements of ASTM A-416 and typical strand sizes are
0.50 and 0.60 inch in diameter. A typical steel strand used
for post-tensioning will yield about 243,000 psi. In contrast,
a typical piece of rebar will yield about 60,000 psi.

Fig 3: Steel tendons used in Post Tensioning of Slab.

3. Anchors

Anchors are used to anchor the tendons into the

concrete while terminating or joining two tendons. Main
function of anchorage is to transfer the stressing force
to the concrete once the stressing process is completed.

Fig 4: Slab Anchor.

Construction of Post Tensioned Slab

1. The installation of post tensioning tendons in the concrete and stressing it requires skilled labour and a
personnel who are certified in doing the tensioning works.
2. The tendons are laid down along with the conventional rebars. The position of laying of the tendons is decided
by the engineer. These tendons are encased in plastic or steel ducts so that they do not come in contact with
the water in concrete.
3. One end of the tendons are anchored with the help of anchor and the other end is left open with plastic pocket
former, where the tendons are stressed. Couplers are used in between if any construction joint is formed.
4. Concrete is poured and the alignment of these tendons are taken care of so as to let their positions
unaltered. Once after the concrete has achieved its 75% of strength , that is around 20 – 23 days, these tendons
are stressed with the help of stressing jacks.
5. The tensioning is done to a force equal to 80% of a strand’s tensile strength. For a typical ½-inch grade 270
strand, the strand is tensioned to a force of 33,000 pounds. As the tensioning comes into effect, the steel gets
elongated, and the concrete is compressed.
6. When the proper tensioning force is reached, the prestressing steel is anchored in place. The anchors are
designed to provide a permanent mechanical connection, keeping the steel in tension, and the concrete in
compression.
7. The extra tendons that are left out at one end are trimmed and non shrink grouting is put in the anchor pocket.

Advantages of Post Tension Slab

1. Architectural Benefits
Post-Tensioned Slab has an advantage over others as it makes a very efficient base for floor design with thin slabs and
columnless spaces in larger spans. It provides an architect the freedom to work freely with his designs.

2. Commercial Spaces
Post-tensioning results in thinner concrete slabs making the valuable savings in floor to floor height available as
additional floors. This can provide extra rentable space within the same overall building height.

3. Reduces Deadload
As the post-tensioned slabs have lesser thickness, the quantity of concrete and reinforcement used is reduced upto
20% – 30% when compared to conventional concrete slabs.

4. Structural Durability
Post-Tensioned slabs show reduced cracking, improved durability and lower maintenance costs. Their deflection can
be controlled by varying the amount of post-tensioning to balance any portion of applied loads immediately after
stressing.

5. Popularity
The demand for Post-Tensioned slabs, throughout the world, continues to increase because of the significant benefits
for developers, architects, engineers, contractors and end users.
Efflorescence on concrete -Causes, Prevention and Removal
Efflorescence in concrete is a whitish coloured powdered
deposition of salts on the concrete surface that is formed
due to evaporation of water from the concrete. It is
caused when water soluble salts are present in the
concrete material, which comes on to the surface while
evaporation of water from the concrete.

Fig 1: Efflorescence in concrete wall.

Causes for Formation of Efflorescence in Concrete

The formation of efflorescence in concrete is factored by many external factors.
1. Presence of salts in one of the materials of concrete. Commonly salts are found in the fine aggregate or sand
taken from the river beds.
2. If the concrete is not cured properly, the hydration process is incomplete on which the un-hydrated products
near the surface form the efflorescence on the surface of concrete.
3. Slow rate of evaporation of water allowing time for salts to permeate to the surface (this is why efflorescence
tends to be more of a problem during the winter months; in summer, high temperatures may cause evaporation
and hence depositing of salts within the concrete rather than on the surface)
4. If the water content in the concrete mix is more, it makes the concrete porous. Thus, allowing the path for
water and salts to come to the surface and for efflorescence.
5. In wet conditions such as rainy season, the surplus water acts as a medium for the salts to transport to the
surface of concrete and form crystalline white powder.
6. Variability of concrete (compaction or curing) can result in localized problems where water can permeate more
easily through the concrete.

Type of Salts in Efflorescence

1. Calcium Sulphate
A common efflorescence salt source in brick
2. Sodium Sulphate
Often seen in cement-brick reactions
3. Potassium Sulphate
Noticeable in many cement-brick reactions
4. Calcium Carbonate
May be discovered in mortar or concrete backing
5. Sodium Carbonate
Frequently seen in mortar
6. Potassium Carbonate
Like sodium carbonate, commonly found in mortar
7. Vanadyl Sulphate
Usually found in brick
8. Manganese Oxide
Often present in brick.

Prevention of Efflorescence in Concrete

The preventive methods that can be used to avoid efflorescence in concrete are,
1. Inclusion of Class-F fly ash or metakaolin can lock up significant amounts of calcium hydroxide in the concrete.
2. Installing vapour barrier to prevent the movement of moisture from the sub grade to the surface of a slab.
3. Application of sealers and coatings can prevent surface water from penetrating slabs.
4. Waterproofing agents to be used to reduce permeability of concrete.
 5. Making the concrete denser will reduce the permeability of concrete to a greater extent.
6. Preventing the hardened concrete from exposure to moisture by maintaining surface sealers and site drainage,
and from rising groundwater by placing a plastic membrane under slabs.
7. Avoiding the concrete from premature drying.
8. Use of concrete ingredient such as aggregate, cement and sand which contains very less amount of salts in it.

Removal of Efflorescence in Concrete

Before removal of efflorescence in concrete, the source for the cause for the efflorescence must be found out and tried
to mitigate it. Further the removal of efflorescence can be done in 3 methods,

1. Pressurized Water
Efflorescence in the concrete can be removed using the
pressurized water jet. Applying pressurized water may dissolve
efflorescence quickly. But care must be taken that the water
after removing of efflorescence is completely dried off. If not
dried, the same water can cause efflorescence to reappear.

Fig 2: Removal of efflorescence using pressurized water.

2. Brushing
Some type of efflorescence that are easily removable can be
easily removed using a stiff? bristle broom or brush. If the result
is not satisfactory by dry brushing, scrub with clean water then
lightly rinse the surface.

3. Dilute Acid Solution

Concentrated acid is not recommended to be applied on
concrete, diluted proportion of 1:20 is used. the surface in which
the acid is applied must be moist but without any free water. The
applied solution should be allowed to react on the concrete
surface for 10 to 15 minutes. The surface should then be
thoroughly rinsed and scrubbed with lots of clean water. Repeat
rinsing at least twice or until all traces of the acid solution have
been removed.

Fig 3: Removal of efflorescence using diluted acid and brush.

Washing with acid may cause color variations and alter the surface texture. For colored finishes a more dilute acid
solution (2% or 1 part acid to 50 parts water) may be required. A small trial area should be done first to assess the
results.

Proper safety to be followed while doing this procedure. Ensure good ventilation and avoid contact between the acid
and the reinforcement.
Acids used in Removal of Efflorescence in Concrete
 Hydrochloric acid.
 Phosphoric acid.
 Phosphoric acid.
 Prepackaged efflorescence removers.

4. Chemical Cleaning Methods

Chemical cleaning is might be needed when calcium hydroxide efflorescence combines with carbon dioxide. In this
case, the efflorescence becomes insoluble. In this technique, mild acid solution such as vinegar, muriatic acid, or citric
acid is used.

Household diluted white vinegar is less harmful compare with other acids. Muriatic acid is the most harmful acid and
need to be diluted, and proper safety measure shall be considered during its utilization.

As soon as acid cleaning is finished, the concrete slab should be rinsed completely and neutralized with sodium
bicarbonate or other material with similar effect.

Finally, if the application of aforementioned acid were not successful, stronger acids can be used for instance
ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid. This type of material may could deteriorate concrete surface. hence, it should be
tested on small portion of concrete surface prior to its application.

Applying of Coating to Prevent Efflorescence in Concrete

Clear water repellents, silicone and acrylic coatings also may help you remove efflorescence as well. The coating will
absorb water across a masonry surface and prevent efflorescence from recurring. Plus, the combination of warm water
and white wine vinegar has been shown to eliminate efflorescence.

Application of sealant coat is done in 3 steps,

1. Rinsing of Concrete
Rinse the building surface with water. If the surface is outdoors, you can use a hose to spray down the surface. Or, if
the surface is indoors, you can use a spray bottle filled with water to rinse the surface thoroughly.

2. Applying the Solution

Spray the cleaning solution onto the building surface and allow it to sit for several minutes. If necessary, you may need
to apply multiple coats of the cleaning solution to the surface for optimal results.

3. Rinsing of Concrete Again

Rinse the building surface with water one last time. Then, use a fresh, dry cloth to clean the surface. Ensure the surface
is dry to minimize the risk of ongoing efflorescence.

Apply coatings roughly 1/8 in. to 1/4 in. below the surface of the building material. This will prevent water from
evaporating and passing through the treated area as vapor and soluble salts.
Concrete laitance – Causes, Removal, Vs Efflorescence
Concrete laitance is a layer of weak and nondurable cement and fine particles originated from aggregate. These
materials are moved upward due to movement of moisture (bleeding) through concrete because of the presence of
too much mixing water.

The quantity of cement and fine particles (concrete latiance layer) increases due by overworking or overmanipulating
concrete at the surface, by improper finishing or by job traffic. In addition to poor curing of the surface which contribute
towards the formation of laitance. So, laitance comes in varying degrees of thickness, from a fine dust to several
millimeters or more, based on contributing factors.

Concrete Laitance- Causes, Removal, vs Efflorescence

Causes of Concrete Laitance
 Too much mixing water
 Overworking or over manipulating concrete surface
 Improper finishing
 Job traffic
 Poor curing regime

Methods of Concrete Laitance Removal

The removal of laitance is important to ensure that materials applied to the floor such as painting and coating adhere
to it adequately. There are several ways to remove laitance and the method chosen should depend on the working
environment and purpose of the floor.

1. Shot Blasting Method

Shot blasting is assumed to be fast and efficient
laitance removal technique. It involves firing abrasive
elements on the concrete surface at a high velocity.

Moreover, it is estimated that, shot blasting technique

clean minimum area of 1000 square meters per single
day. Shot blasting is a dry process which is an
advantage since floor laying might be continue in other
area of the room during shot blasting process.

Lastly, it is considered as far quicker, quieter and

cleaner than other methods such as mechanical
planning, scabbling, etc.

Fig. 1: Shot blasting

2. Mechanical Planing Method

Mechanical planning, which is also termed as concrete planing, is utilized to remove greater thickness of concrete
laitance. The machine carries rows of rotating tungsten-tipped cutters to provide an excellent removal of laitance.

3. Scabbling Method
It is a heavy-duty approach which composed of compressed air tools. The
compressed air tools vibrate and impacts the concrete surface. Scabbling is
a slow, very dusty, very noisy and dirty process.

4. Grinding Method
This method is used for smaller areas and edges. Handheld grinding
machines, designed for precision, control and safe operation to remove
concrete laitance.

Fig. 2: Grinding Method to Remove Concrete Laitance

5. Acid Etching Method
This method is employed for very thin concrete laitance and non-porous or low porous surface. The acid attacks and
breaks down the top surface and it is a very effective method. This should only be used if other options have been ruled
out.

6. Abrading Method
There are several approaches like blasting or using abrasive papers for abrading concrete and remove laitance. But
their applications are restricted and are not generally used for larger areas.

Concrete Laitance Versus Efflorescence

Laitance and efflorescence are totally different, but both are white and powdery materials. the difference between
laitance and efflorescence are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Concrete Laitance Versus Efflorescence

Concrete Laitance Efflorescence

laitance is formed when there’s too much water in the It is the deposit on concrete surfaces caused by
concrete mix soluble salts in concrete.

can be prevented, or minimized, through selecting

can be avoided by controlling the amount of water in the
materials free of harmful salts and by preventing
concrete mix
water from penetrating the concrete.

Removal methods include Shot Blasting, Mechanical

Removal technique involves pressurized water,
Planing, Scabbling, Grinding, Acid Etching, and Abrading
sand ballasting, and chemical acid cleaning.
Method

Fig. 3: Laitance vs Efflorescence

Subgrade and subbase for concrete slab
Subgrade and subbase are the foundation of a concrete slab and play critical role in its performance. According to the
ACI Code, the subgrade is a compacted and improved natural soil or brought infill whereas subbase is a layer of gravel
placed on the top of the subgrade.

Both subgrade and subbase shall be constructed according to design requirement so as to offer the expected
performance. They must be well drained, dry at the time of concrete placement, and provide uniform support for the
weight of the slab and anything placed on the slab.

If a floor slab is constructed on unstable subgrade or subbase, then the concrete placed may get wasted during
construction and concrete slab is highly likely to suffer from settlement after construction. Therefore, substantial
cautions shall be practised while subgrade and subbase are placed.

Subgrade and Subbase for Concrete Slabs

1. Subgrade for Concrete Slab
The subgrade is considerably significant for concrete slab since concrete slab load and imposed loads are supported by
subgrade. When required, Concrete slab can be placed on the top of natural soil without the need for extra layers
provided that it is clean and compactable. In this case, the only problem would be the improper drainage of the soil.

If the soil is wet due to rain or any other reason, then it cannot be compacted and flatted properly and suitable grade
cannot be obtained.

The project site is excavated to remove hills and fill pits and then compact the entire area so as to prepare the subgrade
for loads of subbase and concrete floor. The degree of work required to prepare the subgrade is controlled by different
types of soils namely: organic, granular, and cohesive soils.

The organic soil is the least desirable because it cannot be consolidated and hence shall be removed from the site.
Granular soil offers ultimate load carrying capacity and can be compacted easily.

Cohesive soil does not provide bearing strength as much as granular soil. additionally, it may suffer from shrinkage and
settlement and hardly compacted when it is wet. Finally, cohesive soil requires great effort to make it suitable for
subgrade of concrete floor.

2. Bearing Capacity of Subgrade

Generally, a weight of 15cm thick concrete slab is around 3.6 KN/m2, and live load imposed on concrete, According to
International Residential Code, ranges between 0.96KN/m2 and 2.9 KN/m2. Consequently, the total load imposed on
subgrade is around 6KN/m2.

It is reported that, the allowable soil pressure for clean sandy soil is around 95KN/m2, and for weaker soil such as silt
or soft clay is approximately 20KN/m2. Therefore, it can be concluded that, the allowable soil pressure for concrete
slab would not cause any problem.

Nonetheless, the subgrade shall be uniform so as to avoid crack development in the slab due to bending. This may be
achieved by recognizing cut and fill areas and compacting subgrade properly.

3. Subgrade Improvement Strategies

Commonly, all types of soil whether it is natrual soil or brought infill used for subgrade of concrete slab need certain
degree of improvement, and the following methods can be used to achieve that purpose:
1. Soil compaction.
2. Soil stabilization; Portland cement, calcium chloride, or lime blended into the soil then it is compacted.
3. Excavated subgrade, mix it with gravel then apply compaction effort.

4. Subbase for Concrete Slab

Subbase is a layer of gravel, which is fairly cheap material, placed on top of subgrade. The subbase placement is optional
and it serves as a work platform for construction of the slab and provide more uniform support for the slab.
As the thickness of subbase increases, the ultimate load carrying capacity of slab increases. Therefore, the designer
shall select thick subbase if the imposed load is large.

Apart from carrying slab load, subbase interrupts capillary and prevent water to move upward from groundwater into
the slab.

5. Materials for Subgrade and Subbase Construction

There are several soil types which might be used for subgrade and subbase construction. However, Certain types
provide the most desired result. Different soil type for subgrade and subbase include:

1. For subgrade natural soil at project site or fill is brought to the construction site.
2. For subbase, granular material is employed.

6. Saturated or Frozen Subgrade and Subbase

It is possible that subbase and subgrade get saturated due to rains or freezing conditions before concreting is started.
In that case subbase would turn into a soft layer which might not be suitable to support concrete.

The suitability of subbase for supporting concrete is checked by proof rolling. It involves driving across over the subbase
right before the beginning of concreting. If the tires sink more than 12.7mm, then the subbase needs improvement and
shall be recompacted.

Supervisor shall look for rutting or pumping during proof rolling. According to ACI 302.1, the former is when the surface
of the subbase is wet, greater than three percentage points above optimum moisture content, whereas pumping is
when the surface of the subbase is dry and the underlying soils are wet.

7. Subgrade and Subbase Construction Sequence

1. Removal of surface vegetation and topsoil
2. Excavation of high spots of grade
3. Prepare and Compact Subgrade
4. Brought in materials if natural soil bearing capacity is poor.
5. Compact subgrade fill
6. Place and Compact subbase

8. Compaction Equipment
1. Gravel and sand compacts best with a drum roller or a vibrating plate compactor.
2. Cohesive soil can best be compacted using a vibrating sheepsfoot roller or a rammer.
3. For small projects, or around the edges, pipes, or columns, a plate compactor provides good compaction for
sand or gravel.

9. Affect of Poor Subgrade and Subbase Preparation

1. Settlement.
2. Varying concrete slab thickness.
3. Poor drainage.
4. Cracking.
Cellular concrete – Material, Types and Advantages
Cellular concrete is a special engineered concrete which is manufactured by mixing Portland cement, sand, fly ash,
water and pre-formed foam in varied proportions to form a hardened material having an oven-dry density of 50 pounds
per cubic foot (PCF) or less.

As per the definition by ACI, the density of the cellular concrete must be lesser than 50 pounds per cubic foot. Anyhow,
cellular concrete can range in density from 20 PCF to 120 PCF.

One of the important characteristics of specially formulated cellular concrete is the self-compacting property wherein
no compaction is required and it steadily flows out of a pump outlet to fill the mould. Due to this property, it can be
pumped over major height and distances.

Fig 1: Difference between Cellular concrete and Aerated concrete.

This specially engineered concrete is also known as foam cement, foamed concrete, or lightweight flow-able fill.

Material Used in Cellular Concrete

The materials used in cellular concrete which reduce the density of concrete are :

1. Cement
Cellular lightweight concrete is a homogeneous
combination of Portland cement, cement-silica,
cement-pozzolana, lime-pozzolana; lime-silica
pastes having identical cell structure obtained
using gas-forming chemicals of foaming agents
at measured levels.

2. Fly Ash
As fly ash is a by-product and its disposal is very
expensive. It is used in the preparation of
cellular light-weight concrete. It is one of the
key ingredients which resolves the issue of
disposal and at the same time, it’s very
economical making it environmentally friendly.

Fig 2: Production Flow chart of Cellular Concrete.

3. Foam
The main constituent of the raw material of foam that is used in the production of cellular concrete is Genfil and its
organic substance. The size of the bubbles differs from around 0.1 to 1.5 mm in diameter. The foam generator is
employed to produce stable foam by using an appropriate agent.

Reference Codes on Cellular Concrete

1. ASTM C 869 – “Standard Specification for Foaming Agents Used in Making Preformed Foam for Cellular
Concrete”
2. ASTM C 796 – “Standard Test Method for Foaming Agents for use in Producing Cellular Concrete using
Preformed Foam”
3. ASTM C 495 – “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Lightweight Insulating Concrete”

Types of Cellular Concrete based on Density

Cellular concrete is differentiated into 3 types based on the range of density, which is produced for different purpose.

1. High Density Cellular Concrete

This is a structural grade concrete having the density ranging from 1200kg/m3 to 1800 kg/m3. It is used in the
construction of load-bearing walls, partition walls and in the production of pre-cast blocks for load-bearing brickwork.

2. Medium Density Cellular Concrete

The density range of this cellular concrete is 800-1000 kg/m3. The major use of this type of cellular concrete is found
in the manufacturing pre-cast blocks for non-load-bearing brickwork.

3. Light Density Cellular Concrete

Light density cellular concrete has a density in the range of 400 –600 kg/m3. LDCC is ideal for thermal and sound
insulations. They act as a resistance against fire accidents, termite and moisture absorbent. They have also proved to
be a better substitute than glass wool, wood wool and thermocol.

Advantages of Cellular Concrete

1. Lightweight
The low weight property of cellular concrete has a great advantage on building dead loads and craning works.

2. Fire Resistance
The air pockets formed acts as a barrier for fire. The structure made of cellular concrete is non-combustible and can
endure fire breakout for hours.

3. Thermal Insulation
Cellular concrete acts a perfect thermal insulator.

4. Acoustical Insulation
The low density increases acoustical insulation.

5. Environmental Friendly
Fly-ash based cellular lightweight concrete is suitable for surrounding because fly-ash is one of the by-products of
industrial waste.

6. Cost-Efficient
Cost of the material used is concrete is reduced as the foam is introduced into the concrete. Secondly, the use of
industrial waste such as fly-ash saves a considerable amount of investment on cement products.

7. Other Advantages
Cellular light-weight concrete is also termite-proof and resistant towards freezing issues.
Applications of Cellular Concrete

1. Cellular lightweight concrete is utilized as thermal insulation in the form of bricks and blocks over flat roofs or
non-loading walls.
2. Bulk filling by applying relatively low strength material for old sewer pipes, wells, unused cellars and basements,
storage tanks, tunnels and subways.
3. Production of heat-insulated light wall panel.
4. Maintain Acoustical balance of concrete.
5. Manufacture cement and plaster-based light plate.
6. Production of special of light heat-resistant ceramic tiles.
7. For soil water drainage purposes.
8. Application in the bridge to prevent freezing.
9. Utilized for tunnel and shaft filling and lightweight concrete manufacturing.
10. Production of Perlite plaster and Perlite lightweight concrete.