168 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 38, NO.
3 , AUGUST 1989
Estimate of Indicated Torque from Crankshaft
Speed Fluctuations: A Model for the
Dynamics of the IC Engine
Abstract-Over the last decade interest in the application of control
theory to passenger vehicles has been increasing: stringent governmental
regulations constraining fuel consumption and exhaust emissions have
required a shift to integrated electronics controls. This effort has been
hampered in part by the lack of robust global models for the dynamics of
the internal combustion (IC) engine. A small contribution is made to the
challenging task of constructing a global model for the IC engine. A
robust submodel is formulated for the dynamics of the IC engine, wherein
the engine is viewed as a system with input given by cylinder pressure and
outputs corresponding to crankshaft angular acceleration and crankshaft
torque. The formulation is well-suited to closed-loop engine and trans-
mission control applications. In the model, cylinder pressure is determi-
nistically related to net engine torque through the geometry and dynamics
of the reciprocating assembly. The relationship between net engine torque
and crankshaft angular acceleration is explained in terms of a passive
second-order electrical circuit model with constant parameters. Experi-
mental results confirm the validity of the model over a wide range of
engine operating conditions, including transient conditions. The model
provides a powerful tool for estimating average and instantaneous net
engine torque based on an inexpensive noncontacting measurement of
crankshaft acceleration, thus providing access to one of the primary
engine performance variables.
I. INTRODUCTION
0 VER THE LAST decade interest in the application of
control theory to passenger vehicles has been increasing:
stringent governmental regulations constraining fuel consump-
tion and exhaust emission have required a shift to integrated
electronic controls. A sample of the literature describing the
research efforts in this direction can be found in [9]-[22].
Unfortunately, the lack of robust global models for the
dynamics of the internal combustion (IC) engine has limited
the application of control theory in this area.
The objective of this paper is to present a model for the
dynamics of an N-cylinder IC reciprocating spark ignited (SI)
engine, explaining the relationship between net engine devel-
oped torque and angular acceleration of the crackshaft. This
task is accomplished by developing a deterministic model to
explain the dynamic relationship between engine variables
such as cylinder pressure, engine and load torque, and
crankshaft acceleration, taking into account the effects of both
rotating and reciprocating dynamics.
A system viewpoint will underlie these developments,
Manuscript received June 1986; revised June 1989.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science, Vehicular Electronics Laboratory, 42 18 EECS Building, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2122.
IEEE Log Number 8931042.
0018-9545/89/08OO-0168$01.OO
P
Te ROTATIONAL -+ %o,a
DYNAMICs
Tr TfP
Fig. 1. Model structure
whereby the engine is represented by a lumped parameter
system with input given by cylinder pressure variations and
outputs given by load torque and crankshaft angular accelera-
tion. This is schematically shown in block diagram form in
Fig. 1. In essence, the model identifies the block labeled
“engine dynamics” in terms of an equivalent electrical
circuit.
Modeling the input processes Pi(t)and T,(t)-which will be
defined later as indicated pressure and net engine torque-is in
itself a nontrivial task; in fact, the choice of an appropriate
interpretation of the forces generated by the combustion
process, and then transmitted to the reciprocating and rotating
assemblies, determines how efficiently and compactly one can
model the dynamics of the engine.
11. THEINPUTPROCESSES
The forces giving rise to the net torque generated by the
engine and acting on the crankshaft may be subdivided into
three classes for modeling purposes.
Gas Pressure Forces
The torque generated by gas pressure forces is usually
referred to as indicated torque T(t).(Symbols are defined in
the Nomenclature at the end of the paper.) The relationship
between the indicated pressure for each cylinder Pi(t) and the
resulting indicated torque contribution for that cylinder T.(t)is
a purely deterministic one and is a function of engine
geometry. A precise derivation of the functional relationship
between Piand Ti may be found in [6] for the general case. Let
us express this relationship as
where 8 represents the crank angle.
T,and Pi are, in general, functions of time; however, the
geometry of the engine imposes a periodicity with respect to
the crank angle on these processes, as indicated by the function
g(8). It is one of the goals of this study to characterize the
0 1990 IEEE
RIZZONI: MODEL FOR DYNAMICS OF IC ENGINE 169

engine processes at steady state as a cyclic function of crank
angle 0, where 0 I0 I4n (for a four-stroke cycle engine).
The effects of departures from this assumed idealized steady-
State behavior Of the dependent processes are
treated in [1]-[6]. At this point it will be assumed that
o 5 e 5 4a
pi=pi(e), (2)
T,= Ti(e), o1e14~ (3)
represent the combustion pressure and the subsequent indi-
cated torque applied to the crankshaft during one engine cycle.
In an N-cylinder engine, each of the cylinders contributes
to the total indicated torque acting on the crackshaft, that is
net engine torque is now formally defined as
T,(e)= T(e)+~ @ ( e ) T,(e),
+ 01e54~, (7)
the net engine torque applied the crankshaft Over one engine
cycle. Let us establish some notation at this point that will
carry throughout this paper. Let each of the terms in (7) be
composed of average (or dc) and time-varying (or ac)
components; then
TX(Q = TI+ T x ( e ) (8)
where lower case Greek letters denote the ac components (x is
any of the subscripts previously defined) and upper case
Roman letters symbolize the dc components. Thus

Te(O)= Te+ T e ( e ) (9)

where TY(8)is the indicated torque contribution of cylinder n.
In fact, these contributions have a phase difference of 4(n/h9,
radians of crankshaft rotation.
Friction and Pumping Losses
The second source considered here is in fact a loss term, due
to piston and ring sliding friction and to the pumping action of
the engine. These losses have traditionally been lumped
together due to the difficulty in separating the effects of one
from the other.
Define the frictional and pumping torque losses as the sum
of the contributions from each cylinder, where Tb(8)is also a
function of operating conditions (i.e., load and speed)
N
T,(e)= Tge), 05854~ (5)
n= I
and T&(8)is the frictional and pumping torque losses for
cylinder n .
Reciprocating Inertia Forces
The third source of net engine torque is due to the inertia
forces generated by the reciprocating assembly; a derivation is
outlined in [6]. This term does not contribute any net energy of
the system but strongly affects the time-varying behavior of
engine torque.
The rationale for modeling this purely deterministic term-
uniquely determined by engine speed and geometry-as a
source, is that, by separating the effects of reciprocating
motion from the rotating forces, it will be possible to express
the rotational dynamics of the engine in a very compact form.
The following notation is used to denote this term:
N frequency. It follows that, for a four-stroke cycle engine,
~ ~ ( e ) = T;(e), o d I a (6)
n= I
in words, Tr(f3)is the total reciprocating inertia torque applied
to the crankshaft during one engine cycle, and T;(O) is the
reciprocating inertia torque due cylinder number n . Having
identified the three fundamental sources of engine torque, the
where
The net engine torque Te(8)causes the crankshaft to rotate
at an angular speed Cl(@, where
n(e)= n + o(e) (12)
with
Q = average angular speed
w ( e ) = speed variations about Q . (13)
It is in fact the term w(0) which is of great interest to us, as it
relates to the ac component of net engine torque ~ ~ ( 0 In ).
particular, a precise relationship will be developed in the next
section between the acceleration of the crankshaft a ( @ and
both T, and Te(e). We define here
dwe)
a(@=-
dt
=cj(8). (14)
Small accelerations and decelerations of the crankshaft take
place around the mean speed due to the pressure pulsations in
the individual cylinders. The effect of this acceleration term is
small with respect to n but is related to the ac component of
T,(@ and is very important in terms of the model.
A note is in order now concerning the relationship between
the frequency of rotation of the engine and its firing frequency.
Let X denote radian frequency, to avoid confusion with the
symbol w , denoting angular velocity. Then define ho as the
frequency of rotation of the crankshaft and X, as the firing
N
A,=- (15)
2
where N is the number of cylinders.
Most of this study will then be concerned with engine
processes at steady state. Combined with the intrinsic perio-
170 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 38, NO. 3, AUGUST 1989

dicity of the same processes, this makes a Fourier series

decomposition a practical and compact tool for the analysis of
these signals. Define the complex Fourier series expansion for
the periodic function of 0, x(0) to be DYNAMICS

Fig. 2. Equivalent torque presented to engine dynamics.

engine, thereby relating input to output processes. For

where x(0) represents any one of the processes mentioned convenience, we immediately construct an analogy between
before and the complex constants c,, are its Fourier coeffi- mechanical quantities and their electrical analogs. To do so, a
cients. series electrical circuit analogy is employed, where torque is
Let us also hypothesize that all the engine processes are analogous to voltage; that is,
band-limited and can be expressed in terms of a truncated
Fourier series expansion, that is, torque T ( t ) = U( t ) voltage
angular velocity a( t ) = i ( t ) current
moment of inertia J=L inductance
1
where torsional stiffness K =- inverse of capacitance
c
lim EM=0 dissipative losses B =R ohmic resistance
M- m

and x(0) can be approximated to within a prescribed error by With this analogy in mind, we can model the torque generated
an appropriate choice of M . by each cylinder as an ideal voltage source of strength T:,
The coefficients c, are given by the well-known Fourier with the superscript n representing the individual cylinders, n
integral = 1, 2, * a * , N.
The combined effect of the N cylinders is depicted in Fig. 2
cn=-
1

2L
1
L

-L
x(O)e-;"O de, to be the series combination of the N sources, decoupled by as
many shunt capacitive terms representing the stiffness of the
crankshaft between individual cylinders. In practice the C, are
n=0, +1, k2, * e * , L=27r. (19) very small, the crankshaft being a very stiff element, and these
impedances may well be viewed as open circuits under all
The harmonic decomposition of engine processes allows us to engine operating conditions.
conveniently formulate another important hypothesis. Let The choice of a ground reference in the circuit of Fig. 2 is
dictated by physical considerations, related to the choice of the
frame of reference with respect to which engine torque is
measured [7]. Thus a net torque T, acts on the rotating parts of
the engine, where
be the Fourier series expansion for the cylinder pressure signal
N
at steady state. Then the coefficient Po represents the dc T,= TP).
component of Pi(@,while the 0, represent the ac components. n= 1
We postulate here that, due to the nature of the pressure
process, a functional relationship exists between Pi and pi(0), This torque imparts an angular acceleration to the rotating
i.e., between dc and ac components of cylinder pressure. inertia consisting of the crankshaft, flywheel, clutch assembly,
Write and effective inertial loading of the valve train. In an engine
equipped with a manual transmission, a set of torsional springs
pi=F[Pi(e)l (21) in the clutch isolates this rotating inertia from the transmission
or, alternatively, '
of load. Dissipative losses in the rotating assembly are mostly
contributed by the damping element in the clutch and, to a
PO= F' [ P n 1. (22) much lesser extent, be the frictional losses in the journal
bearings supporting the crankshaft.
The next section discusses a rational parameter model for the
If we assume all these effects to be lumped, then using the
rotational dynamics of the engine.
analogy given earlier we may model the rotating assembly as a
111. A LUMPED PARAMETER MODELFOR THE DYNAMICS OF THE series resonant circuit consisting of equivalent inductive,
IC ENGINE capacitive, and resistive parameters, as shown in Fig. 3.
Having proposed a formulation for the input process, let us I In an automatic transmission, viscous damping in the torque converter
now turn to an investigation of the rotational dynamics of the isolates the crankshaft from the driveline.
RIZZONI: MODEL FOR DYNAMICS OF IC ENGINE 171

This result is a logical consequence of the model and agrees

well with its physical interpretation: we are just reformulating
Newton’s second law.
Alternatively, in the crank angle domain,

a(8)= T e ( 8 ) * h(0) (29)

-
- where h(8) is the impulse response of the engine dynamics and
Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit representation of engine dynamics.
The physical interpretation of each of the circuit elements is
as follows:
re crankshaft journal bearing damping loss term,
Le equivalent moment of inertia of crankshaft, flywheel,
clutch assembly, and inertial effects of valve train,
C torsional elastance of clutch springs,
r, clutch damping loss term,
Z , dynamometer inertia.
the asterisk denotes convolution (note that the variable 8 is
directly related to time by a factor equal to engine speed).
Combining this result with the hypothesized relationship
between ac and dc components of Pj(8)-and hence of T,(8)-
we immediately have a very powerful statement: a measure-
ment of crankshaft acceleration contains information
regarding both average and time-varying crankshaft
torque. We have accessed one of the primary engine
performance variables.
Formally,

The 1:r transformer ratio represents an ideal (lossless) -- -7,(jh)

transmission with gear ratio r. The load consists of an electric H(jX)
dynamometer. + +
= 7 ; ( j X ) 7 , ( j h ) 7&X)
For the purpose of developing an analytical formulation it is
hypothesized here that each parameter may be treated as being or
constant about a given engine operating point (i.e., fixed load
and speed), under stready-state conditions. Experimental
results have shown that in fact this is a reasonable assumption.
A relationship had been postulated earlier between ac and dc Substituting (26) in (31), we have
components of the cylinder pressure signal (see (21) and (22)).
This separation between average and time-varying compo-
nents is now re-evaluated in light of the circuit model
describing the engine dynamics.
We know from (1) and from the results derived in [6] that a The experimental verification of this torque sensor concept,
purely deterministic relationship exists between T,(8) and based on a measurement of crankshaft acceleration, is de-
Pi(@.Write scribed in the following sections. The results will show that
during transient operation it is reasonable to interpret T; as a
T,(e) = g ( q -~~(8). (24) low-frequency or slowly varying component of indicated
Then it follows from (21) and (24) that with torque, such as would be useful for engine or transmission
control applications. This extension of the steady-state results
T;(8)= T,+ 7;(8) (25) to transient conditions makes this torque sensor concept a
potentially strong tool in the design of engine control
we have strategies.
T;=f ( ~ j ) . (26) IV . EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
The transformation f has not been identified yet, nor have F The experimental verification of the model was carried out
and F’ . An appropriate candidate for these functions will be in a dynamometer engine test cell. This section describes the
proposed later. facilities, the instrumentation and the experimental techniques
Let the notation x ( j X ) represent the Fourier transform of involved in the study.
the periodic function x(O), with x representing any of the A four-cylinder in-line SI fuel-injected 1.5-L FIAT engine
processes defined thus far. Then the ac circuit model predicts driven by an electric dynamometer was used in the experi-
that a relationship exists between the time-varying component ments. The dynamometer was controlled by a DIGALOG
of net engine torque 7, and the acceleration of the crankshaft a: 2022A solid-state dynamometer controller in conjunction with
a DIGALOG-TC throttle controller. The solid-state controller
a ( j X )= H ( j X ) 7 , ( j h ) (27)
is designed to provide speed regulation to within 1 r/min and
where H ( j X ) is the sinusoidal frequency response of the load control to k O . 1 percent of full scale by means of PID
engine dynamics: feedback loops. Time and frequency controller response
parameters were adjusted by selecting the appropriate PID
gains, to optimize the controller response for a given
experiment.
172 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 38. NO. 3, AUGUST 1989

f \
Engine
-
- Dynamometer
meter
optical K I \ J
position pressure 0 magnetic
sensor sensor position
sensor

Acceleration Hirmnelstein
Timing Charge
Signal Signal
Circuitry Amplifier Processing Processing

I
Vtrig V 'hiin
va

v
A/D converter 4 PDP-11 /MNC Disk Drive

The throttle controller, acting on a pulsewidth modulated

(PWM) solenoid throttle actuator, allows excellent regulation
of throttle position by means of closed-loop feedback, permit-
ting simultaneous load and speed control by acting as a slave to
the dynamometer controller.
It will be assumed from here on that the steady-state
performance of the dynamometer-controller pair is such that
the short-term average engine speed and load are constant
during all experiments. In addition to the controls just
mentioned, a spark timing measurement system was available
that permits manual adjustment of the spark advance to within
1 of the crank angle. This variable is important in guarantee-
O coupled to the starter ring gear on the flywheel. This sensor
ing the repeatability of experimental conditions. No other
direct adjustments were available on the engine, which was a
regular production model.
The engine was instrumented with a number of sensors
monitoring all the functions relevant to the study. Fig. 4 is a
block diagram of the essential instrumentation used in the
experiment. The instrumentation subsystems responsible for
the measurement of engine angular position, velocity, and
acceleration, and of cylinder pressure and driveline torque are
described in what follows.
Measurement of Engine Angular Position
Two means are provided for measuring crankshaft angular
position to provide both a precise reference and an inexpensive
alternative for practical applications. The first is an angular
position sensor system, consisting of an optical sensor coupled
to a perforated disk mounted on the crankshaft in the front of
the engine, and of signal-conditioning electronics. This system
provides, after suitable calibration, a TTL pulse synchronized
with the top-dead-center (TDC) position for cylinder number
v3ct1 VPl1't)
V,Itl v rms
(sensor i n p u t )
Fig. 5. Acceleration signal processing.
one, as well as a one per degree TTL pulse train. The two TTL
signals provide the basis of a flexible data acquisition scheme,
synchronous with engine position.
The second means for the measurement of engine angular
position is provided by a molded plastic magnetic sensor
provides the inexpensive measurement of crankshaft angular
speed, and hence acceleration, which together with the
cylinder pressure sensor forms the basis of the experimental
validation of the circuit model. A measurement of crankshaft
acceleration is obtained from this sensor by means of the
signal processing scheme depicted in Fig. 5.
The output voltage of the magnetic sensor is assumed to be
essentially sinusoidal, due to the shape of the ring gear teeth.
Thus
U,( t )= V, sin (me,+ E ) (33)
where V, is the voltage amplitude, m the number of teeth on
the ring gear, and where the instantaneous frequency of the
sensor output is proportional to the angular speed of the
engine.
The phase term E is a pseudorandom error term due to
aperiodicity in tooth spacing and flywheel eccentricity and
runout. The error phase E is assumed negligible for the
purpose of analysis.
RIZZONI: MODEL FOR DYNAMICS OF IC E N G I N E 173

Frictional Torque Losses

Legend
A WO1
x CL--
15 f I I I I I 1
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
RPM
Fig. 6 . Motoring torque versus engine speed.

The instantaneous sensor frequency is then given by Measurement of Driveline Torque

f,(t)=me(t).
The phase-locked loop (PLL) shown in Fig. 6 detects this
instantaneous frequency, given an output upLL(t), where
UPLL ( t ) = ~ P L L & ( t )+ C
=kpLLe(t)+C.
A varible Kron-Hite model 3700 filter with a four-pole
Butterworth transfer function is employed for this task. Thus
A Himmelstein 602T torquemeter, placed in line between
(34)
the transmission and the dynamometer, provides a measure-
ment of average and instantaneous driveline torque.
A Himmelstein system six-transducer amplifieridisplay unit
demodulates the sensor signal and provides adequate filtering
of the carrier by means of a four-pole Bessel filter with
selectable bandwidths of 0.1, 1, 100, and 500 Hz. Thus the
(35) output signal available is
u ~ ; M ( ~ ) = u H* I~ M
B E(S~( ~) )

= ~ H I M T H *I M
~ B (E~S )( ~ ) (39)
* hBut(f)
uk~(t)=UpLL(f) (36)
with
where h ~ , ~ (ist ) the impulse response of the filter and the
asterisk denotes convolution. vHIM(t) desired sensor output,
An operational amplifier active low-pass differentiator THIM(t)driveline torque,
provides the analog of crankshaft acceleration u,(t): kHIM torque sensor calibration constant in V/N-m.
Measurements of Cylinder Pressure
A measurement of cylinder pressure is obtained by means of
= * hBut(t) (37) a Kistler-type 6123A piezoelectric sensor. To ensure mini-
mum distortion in the measurement, the transducer is mounted
where G is the gain of the differentiator and 7 its time constant flush with the combustion chamber in an orifice especially
in seconds. Thus machined on the head, next to the spark plug in cylinder 2.
The output of the transducer is amplified by a Kistler 5026
ua(t)=Kae(t)* hBut(t) dual-mode differential amplifier. The combined transducer/
with amplifier pair is calibrated on a Ruska model 2400 HL dead-
weight tester. The output drift is less than 1 mV/min and the
m
k, = G7kpLL radis (38) calibration procedure ensures accuracy to better than one-
percent of full scale. The output of the charge amplifier is
and
voltage analog of pressure,
6=a.
The PLL capture range and the gain G are selectable to allow
adequate signal amplitude for later digitization. where Kp is in N/m2/V
174 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 38, NO. 3, AUGUST 1989

Timing Signal Processing results are displayed for the wide-open throttle (WOT) and
closed throttle (CT) cases, which correspond to the lowest and
The timing signals generated by the optical angular position
highest frictional loss, respectively.
sensor are processed through a special-purpose signal-condi-
The two curves are fit by a regression line,
tioning package to obtain some flexibility in the sampled data
collection scheme. This timing instrument provides triggering
pulses to the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter for a duration
corresponding exactly to the compression and power strokes
with
of any one of the four cylinders. The sampling rate is
selectableexternally, ranging from a maximum of one sample/
m=0.232 b= 16.3 (CT)
degree of crankshaft revolution to a minimum of one sample/
8”.
m=0.224 b= 11.9 (WOT)
The data thus generated are digitized by a 12-bit 16-channel
A/D converter with a 25-ps conversion time. The A/D
and a correlation coefficient of 0.994 for the WOT case and
converter is part of a Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-11/
0.983 for the CT case. Since the correlation coefficient is very
MNC computer. The sampled data are stored under DMA for
high, a straight line approximation is used to model the total dc
maximum speed, up to buffer capacity.
engine losses as
V. EXPERIMENTS
The hypotheses set forth in formulating the model in the
TD= T@(MAP) r,Q. + (42)
previous sections were tested by means of the instrumentation
Note that (42) indicates a separation between load (or MAP)
described as outlined in the following paragraphs.
and speed-dependent effects. This feature of the engine model
1) The validity of the circuit model of Fig. 3 is tested by
is very important in that it allows for the modeling of r/min-
measuring a(0) and ~ ~ ( simultaneously
0) and comparing a ( @ dependent effects as constant lumped resistances.
to T e ( Q * h(0), where h(0) is the impulse response of the
engine dynamics as described by the electrical circuit model
and the asterisk denotes convolution. Experiments are per- Measurement of AC Losses
formed over an engine “map” consisting of 25 discrete points As mentioned earlier, the measurement of ac losses consti-
(five load points at 5 engine speeds). tutes a very difficult problem. The isolation provided by the
2) A functional relationshipf holding at all engine speeds is clutch between engine and load at all engine speeds within the
sought between the ac and dc components of the indicated operating range of the engine is such that motoring measure-
torque (and thus of cylinder pressure, by virtue of a one-to-one ments of driveline torque have a very poor signal-to-noise
mapping). The same data is used as in 1). ratio.
3) An estimate of average (dc) engine torque is obtained One of the goals of this study was to verify the accuracy of
from a(0) based on the findings of 2 ) . This presumed to be the model under the assumption that the effects of ac losses are
invariant with engine speed, except for a correction term negligible, compared to the indicated and reciprocating torque
accounting for speed-dependent time-varying frictional engine ac components. This statement is equivalent to replacing the
losses. 7fp generator in the ac circuit model of Fig. 4 with a short
VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS circuit.
Measurement of Model Parameters We can, however, estimate the influence of the speed
dependent loss terms re by interpreting it as an incremental
The value of L was determined by measuring the period of
resistance,
oscillation of the rotating assembly on a three string pendu-
lum. The value of C was found by statically deflecting the
clutch torsional springs under a known torque. (43)
The loss parameter rc, representing the damping effects of
the clutch plate, was measured by constructing a torsional
Thus re is defined as the slope of the curves of Fig. 6.
pendulum including the clutch plate and a known inertia. Then
Physically, these losses represent the hydrodynamic* friction
a step change in angular position was applied and the angular
between the rotating crankshaft and the journal bearings
displacement of the plate measured to obtain an estimate of the
supporting it.
damping factor for this second order system. Measurements of
the frictional losses were performed on the engine, as
explained below. Units
The fundamental units of the parameters are N * m , for
Measurement of DC Losses torque, and rad/s for angular speed. Thus the units of
The experimental results for dc motoring tests are shown in mechanical impedance are defined by the symbol [fi] as
Fig. 6 as a family of torque versus engine speed curves. The
Hydrodynamic friction occurs when two surfaces sliding against each
labeled ‘D, represents the torque required Of the other are separated bv’ a lubricant film substantiallv thicker than the surface
dynamometer to turn the engine at the given speed Cl. The roughness [kq.
RIZZONI: MODEL FOR DYNAMICS OF IC ENGINE 175

mechanical ohms: This particular choice for f( is supported by early studies

a )

[8], demonstrating that a relationship exists between engine

torque and our rms estimate of crankshaft acceleration. In
practice, any transformation mapping the amplitude of the ac
oscillations onto a constant (at steady-state) is a potential
[L]=kg. m2=N m - s2 candidate for the task. One advantage of the rms-to-dc
1 conversion scheme is its relative ease of implementation in
[Cl=- terms of either analog or digital techniques.
N - m It is worth noting at this stage that, due to the quasi-
harmonic motion of the reciprocating assembly, much of the
essential information in the pressure, torque, and acceleration
processes is at the firing frequency A,. Fourier analysis of
indicated torque and acceleration data has shown that more
Relationship Between A C Net Engine Torque and than 70 percent of the energy in the indicated torque waveform
Acceleration is concentrated between the dc and the fundamental compo-
In light of the discussion on the relative magnitude of the nents, at hp
parameters in the circuit model, the predicted relationship Thus, in all the experimental results presented in what
between ac net engine torque and crankshaft acceleration is follows the notation 2,indicating the rms value of x (except for
approximately that given by a factor equal to the square root of 2), will be intended for a
waveform x bandlimited to the first harmonic. Formally, if
7Ajh) A L d h ) a(jh) M
yneine
= T,(jh) (44) n= -M

where and
1
L,,(jh) = L e- - (45)
X2C
and where the resistive losses re and rc have been assumed then
negligible.
Since the measurement of cylinder pressure directly yields
all the information necessary to compute indicated torque (ac
and
and dc) and the reciprocating inertia torque component can be
computed analytically [6], we may compute the approximate d=Ia-l+alI.
net engine torque using (46) below: This interpretation of the operator f(-) is very useful in
(e) = Tj(e)+ T,(e) practice, in that it is implemented in L multiplications by a
discrete Fourier transform (DFT) algorithm without any other
z Te(e). (46) manipulations, such as squaring, adding, and computing
square roots. The same result could be obtained by a
Equation (46) assumes that the load dependent ac loss term Tfp
quadrature synchronous detection scheme, with arbitrary
is negligible.
phase reference. The DFT approach was selected for this
Fig. 7 shows plots of T: (e) and T o ( @ as families of curves
study and implemented off-line on the PDP 11/MNC follow-
for a given engine speed, with the load varying. The results
ing data collection. Note that, in general, a fast algorithm such
are in good agreement with the model and support the
as the fast Fourier transform (FFT) is not feasible due to the
hypothesis that ac frictional losses are indeed negligible with
nature of the sampling signal, which must be synchronous with
respect to the other torque components in the engine.
the rotation of the engine, and is based on a period of 360" or
Relationship Between A C and DC Components of m teeth, depending on the angular position sensor employed.
Engine Processes The circuit model predicts that the sets of relationships ?;
(Ti,r/min) and a' ( Tj,r/min) are uniquely related by the engine
The experimental data are also utilized to test the hypothesis
speed (or frequency) dependent parameter L,,(X). To verify
relating ac and dc components of indicated torque (or this prediction, the data sets of Fig. 7 were processed to obtain
pressure), stated in (26). Recall how (25)-(27) postulated a
values for Ti, Fe, d, and Tj at each (load, r/min) point. Fig. 8
relationship between Ti, the average indicated torque, and a
displays f j versus Tj for all 25 r/min and load points. The
transformation of T ~f (, ~ i ) The
. particular form off( selected
a )

regression line for this curve is

to test the hypothesis is
f j= mi Ti+ bj
(47) mi= 0.89
that is, a short-term estimate of the rms value of 7,(0). bj= 1.82 (49)
176 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 38, NO. 3 , AUGUST 1989

150 100 7

100
50

F 50
z
Z
d f 0
e I-0
F
B C
-50
-5c

-lo( I
20
1
40 60
I I
80
I
100
-100 1 20
I I
40
I
60
I
80
I
100
0
Crank angle, 2 degrees per point Crank angle, 2 degrees per point
(a) (b)

100 1
loo 1
50

Z
7
Z
6 0
e
B

-50 -50 1
I
-100 I I I I 1
-40 -20 20 40 60 80 100
cm ( angle, 2 degrees per point
(d)

150

loo/ .c?

I"" , I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 100
Crank angle, 2 degrees per point
(e)
Fig. 7 . Measured (7:) and estimated (7,)engine torque versus crank angle. __ Measured. --- Estimated. (a) 1500 r/rnin. (b)
2000 r/min. (c) 2500 drnin. (d) 3000 rlmin. (e) 3500 r/rnin.
RIZZONI: MODEL FOR DYNAMICS OF IC ENGINE 177

with a correlation coefficient of 0.998. This powerful result

states that the shape of the ~ ~ ( curve
0 ) is invariant with r/min
for a given load, at least in the first harmonic.
An independent test to confirm the accuracy of the model is
I oo- obtained by comparing the 7; versus Ti to the a' versus Ti
curves. Fig. 9 displays these results for the data of Fig. 7. The
peculiar shape of the curves as the engine speed increases is
due to the quadratic dependence on the engine speed of the
reciprocating inertia torque term. Note that the results of Fig.
9 are obtained by two independent sets of data collected
simultaneously: the 7; data points are obtained from a
measurement of cylinder pressure, plus a correction term for
reciprocating inertia torque; the d are computed from a
measurement of a (e).
Having chosen a form for f(.), which corresponds to
30 40 50 MI m MI 90 (00 t10 tzo computing the amplitude of the first harmonic of firing
Av.mg.-)orqm,N-m frequency, we can rewrite (26) as follows:
Fig. 8 . ac versus dc component of indicated torque-?, versus T,.

10-

MI-
where the approximately equal sign indicates that we have
f taken the frictional losses 7fp. r,, re to be negligible. This

s
?!
a-
presumption is supported by the results presented earlier in
this paper. Hence the model predicts that a measurement of
crankshaft acceleration, deconvolved through the dynamics of
the engine and corrected for reciprocating inertia torque, is a
Y measure of average indicated torque. Define
20 -

Then

Fig. 10 shows the 7, versus T, curves. The results are highly

linear, with a correlation coefficient of 0.98, and are summa-
P rized by (53):
f a = ma T,+ b,

I I] ma= 0.83

bo= - 1.82 (53)

I --
2 =
Model Behavior Under Transient Conditions
To extend the sensor concept to transient engine operation,
an experiment was designed to compare the time-varying
response of a to that of the short-term averaged driveline
(load) torque, as measured by the Himmelstein torquemeter
THlM(t).
01 I I 1
The throttle controller allows operator control of the pulses
do 6b 9O 110 width modulated throttle actuator, by means either of an
Avrmg.hdicclhdkrqrc.,N-m analog waveform generator, or a computer generated signal. A
(b)
Fig. 9. (a) ac acceleration versus dc indicated torque--ci versus T I .(b) ac net 'quare wave was to the actuator at a frequency Of 0'5
torque dc indicated torque-?; versus T,. Hz, such that the load would see a step change in torque from 5
I78 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 38, NO. 3 , AUGUST 1989

100-
R?M
A m
x a’?

20
~ ~ s b A
I
~
I
m
I
w
I
s
I
o m
I
n
-20
o0
I u ~t
I I
2
I
3
I
4 s
I

AvmP-tOrqryN-m Thwucondr
Fig. 10 ac torque estimated from acceleration versus dc indicated torque- (a)
?, versus T,.

to 80 percent of full scale. The dynamometer controller

response is adequate to maintain the engine speed constant to
within five percent of its mean value. Note that this is as large
a transient as the engine is likely to see during actual road
operation. The dynamic response of the throttle actuator is
much faster than that of the engine, so that in practice we are
testing the step response of the engine to changes in throttle
position.
The rms acceleration signal was obtained from the analog
measurement of crankshaft angular position, processed by the
PLL and differentiator circuits, and by an rms-to-dc converter.
The bandwidth of the analog a(@signal was limited to the first
harmonic of firing frequency by means of a four-pole
Butterworth low-pass filter, prior to the rms-to-dc conversion. 1
O l I I I
The bandwidth of the rms-to-dc converter was 10 Hz. The 0 t 2 3I 4 b
voltage analog of driveline torque T H I M (was f ) also band- TkYnS-
limited to 10 Hz by means of a four-pole Butterworth low-pass (3)
Fig. 11. Step response. (a) Driveline torque. (b) Crankshaft acceleration.
filter. These two signals were sampled at a rate of 50 Hz for a
period of 5 s, at an average engine speed of 1500 r/min. Thus 4) The sensor concept is extended to a transient operation
the data collected correspond to 125 engine revolutions. Fig. and is shown to track engine torque under most sever transient
11 displays plots of THIM(f) in N.m and a ( t ) in rad/s2 for the conditions.
5-s transient. Note that there is virtually no delay between the The direct application of the torque sensor concept demon-
two signals. strated in this paper to engine control strategies is immediate.
A primary engine performance variable, torque applied at the
VII. SUMMARY
AND CONCLUSION
crankshaft, is made accessible for the optimization of engine
The results presented in this paper have provided conclusive performance-subject to emission and fuel consumption con-
evidence that the deterministic model for the dynamics of the straints-and for transmission control. The robustness of the
SI engine proposed here is a valid representation. The model with respect to engine operating conditions and the
following points summarize the major accomplishments of the demonstrated transient response of the crankshaft acceleration
experiments described. based torque sensor provide an effective and compact solution
1) The electrical circuit model of the engine is a valid to the problem of modeling the dynamics of the SI engine.
description of the engine dynamics over a wide range of
engine operating conditions. NOMENCLATURE
2) Time-varying friction and pumping losses have been a Acceleration of the crankshaft.
shown to be negligible relative to gas pressure and reciprocat- C Capacitance, elastance.
ing forces for the purpose of estimating net engine torque. g Function of crank angle.
3) As predicted by the model, a measurement of crankshaft h Impulse response of engine system.
acceleration provides accurate information regarding both ~BES Impulse response of Bessel filter.
time average and instantaneous indicated torque. ABUT Impulse response of Butterworth filter.
RIZZONI: MODEL FOR DYNAMICS OF IC ENGINE 179

Sinusoidal frequency response of engine system. G. Rizzoni, “A dynamic model for the internal combustion engine,”
Inductance, moment of inertia. Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Elec. Eng. Comput. Sci., Univ. Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Jan. 1986.
Effective moment of inertia of rotating parts. W. B. Ribbens, “An equivalent circuit for the internal combustion
Conversion constant for PLL output. engine,” submined to ZEEE Trans. Veh. Technol.
Conversion constant for acceleration signal. -, “A noncontacting torque sensor for the internal combustion
engine,” SAE paper 810155, 1981.
Conversion constant for driveline torque signal. W. J. Fleming, “Automotive torque measurement: A summary of
Conversion constant for pressure signal. seven different methods,” ZEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. VT-31,
Manifold absolute pressure. pp. 117-124, August 1982.
J. H. Rillings, “Application of modem control theory to engine
Number of cylinders. control,” presented at the 20th IEEE Conf. Decision and Control, Dec.
Cylinder pressure. 1981, paper FP7-3:30.
AC component of indicated pressure. M. Athans, “The role of modem control theory for automotive engine
control,” SAE paper 780852, 1978.
DC component of indicated pressure. I. Glaser and J. D. Powell, “Optimal closed-loop spark control of
Proportional-integral-derivative. automotive engine,” SAE paper 810058, 1981.
Clutch plate damping losses. C. K. h u n g and J. J. Schira, “Digital analyzer for internal combustion
engines,” SAE paper 820207, 1982.
Journal bearing damping losses. J. E. Moms and T. C. Chen, “PLL sensing for engine diagnostics and
Dissipative losses. control,” SAE paper 850494, 1985.
Dynamometer load torque. E. F. Obert, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution.
Intext Educational Publishers, 1973.
DC engine torque. W. B. Ribbens, “Experimental road test of a noncontacting method of
DC friction and pumping torque losses. measuring IC engine torque nonuniformity,” SAE paper 850454, 1985.
DC driveline torque. -, “A new metric for torque nonuniformity,” SAE paper 830425,
1983.
DC indicated torque. W. Mortara and C. Canta, “Engine stability sensor,” SAE paper
Voltage analog of driveline torque. 830428, 1983.
Voltage analog of cylinder pressure. W. W. Yuen and H. Servati, “A mathematical engine model including
the effect of engine emissions,” SAE paper 840036, 1984.
PLL output voltage. J. F. Cassidy, “A state variable model for engine control studies,”
Dynamometer mechanical impedance. GMR Rep. ET-180, Dec. 7, 1978.
Crank angle. D. J. Dobner, “A mathematical engine model for the development of
dynamic engine control,” GMR Rep. EG-159, Apr. 30, 1979.
Radian frequency. C. F. Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and
Radian firing frequency. Practice, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT. Press.
Radian frequency of engine rotation. H. M. Uras and D. J. Patterson, “Measurement of piston and ring
assembly friction instantaneous IMEP method,” SAE paper 830416,
AC engine torque estimate from acceleration. 1983.
AC engine torque.
AC driveline torque.
AC indicated torque.
AC friction and pumping torque losses. Giorgio Rizzoni (S’83-M’85) received the B.S.,
M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
Reciprocating inertia torque. from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in
Angular velocity. 1980, 1982, and 1985, respectively.
Angular velocity. He has been a Research Scientist with the
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
(EECS) Department and Assistant Director of the
REFERENCES Vehicular Electronics Laboratory at The University
D. J Patterson. “Cvlinder Dressure variations-A fundamental com- of Michigan since January 1986. He also holds an
bustion problem,” S A E T r i m . , vol. 75, 1967. adjunct faculty position with the EECS Department
F. A. Matekunas, “Modes and measures of cyclic combustion and has been responsible for undergraduate course
variability,” SAE paper 8930337, 1983. development in electronic instrumentation. His most recent research interests
M. B. Young, “Cyclic dispersion in the homogeneous-charge spark are in the area of failure detection and isolation in dynamic systems with
ignition engine-A literature survey,” SAE paper 810020, 1981. special consideration of electronically controlled vehicle subsystems, and in
R. K. Barton, D. K. Kenemuth, S. S. Lestz, and W. E. Meyer, “Cycle- the study of intelligent vehicle-highway systems. He is also actively involved
by-cycle variations of a spark ignition engine-A statistical analysis,” in research in the application of signal processing and control theory to vehicle
SAE paper 700488, 1970. systems He has published over 20 technical papers.
J. Janula, “The effect of cyclic dispersion of combustion pressure on Dr. Rizzoni is currently Associate Editor for Vehicular Electronics of the
workings parameters of a spark ignition engine,” Znt. J . Veh. Design, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY. He is a member of
vol. 4, no. 6, 1983. Eta Kappa Nu, Tau Beta Pi, and the Society of Automotive Engineers.