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voltage ratings are possible depending on the turns per demagnetization. Combining such a drive with a PMM, the
phase. This can be accounted for by multiplying base torque produced by the motor is nearly proportional to the
impedance, calculated from the voltage and current ratings of current. For production of wells with appreciable gas a torque
the motor, by the per-unit values to obtain the parameters in control automatically speeds-up the pump to compress the
Fig. 1. gas and avoid a gas-lock condition.
Today the ESP industry has no specified temperature-rise The central issue in this paper is comparison of the
rating standard for motors. The temperature of produced efficiencies and operating costs of small diameter ESP
fluids varies widely from field to field and well to well. Higher induction and permanent magnet motors. Motor equivalent
horsepower and current ratings are possible in cold wells, and circuits are used to explain various loss factors in the motors.
this has led the industry to adopt temperature dependent Laboratory tests were run to confirm performance curves with
ratings. This complicates calculation of a base impedance. 60- or 120-Hz power provide by ASDs and step-up
A shaft capable of supplying the needed pump torque had to transformers, cf. Figs. 4, 10 and 11. These data were used to
be small enough to fit inside the rotor laminations. Obviously explain variations in efficiency, power factor and current for
that shaft had to be long enough to extend through all the the three ESP motors and a common NEMA design motor.
motor rotors. Practical shaft design pushed the torque rating Additional tests were run at various speeds with 5000-ft of
limits and incurred significant flexibility and wind-up. Coupling cable and a dynamometer load on the motors. The
this with the rotary inertias of the rotors and pump stages, dynamometer was adjusted to simulate centrifugal pump
torsional vibrations could be produced under certain performance in a low drawdown well. Finally, field-testing
circumstances. procedures and measurements are presented, and field data
Initially all ESP operation was direct-on-line (DOL), i.e. a are used to compare ESP IM and ESP PMM system
suitably rated, three-phase contactor started and stopped the performance in an actual low-drawdown well.
ESP. Because of the small rotor diameter and resulting low
inertia, typical ESP starting times were less than half a II. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
second. However, for high horsepower ESPs DOL starting
produced significant inrush current and voltage sag on the Although an ESP motor has multiple rotors and stator
power system. Frequently the power utility would impose windings that extend the length of the motor, the impedance
inrush current restrictions, and solid-state soft-starters of winding segments opposite rotor bearings can be included
(variable voltage constant frequency) were often installed to in the stator resistance and leakage reactance [2]. Thus the
meet those restrictions. Over zealous operators, thinking familiar induction motor equivalent circuit, Fig. 1, is still
longer starts were better, caused the breakage of motor shafts applicable.
between tandem motor sections, not at the maximum torque For most of the past century one motor design (IM5) has
location between motor and pump. Speed hunting and dominated the industry, and components for it have now been
torsional vibrations were attributed to the negative damping manufactured oversea for 25 years. Since components are
characteristic of an induction motor at slips greater than readily available, barriers to entry into this industry are very
breakdown-torque slip [4,5]. low.
The major problems with DOL starting were changing well Before the advent of temperature-dependent motor ratings,
productivity and operation of the pump outside its best winding temperature-rise (TR) ratings were firmly established
efficiency range. With fixed frequency operation the pump and per-unit equivalent circuits had been determined. Each
was incapable of compensating for this change. motor had specified ratings for horsepower, voltage and
Adjustable speed drive (ASD) operation of ESPs was current, and base-impedance could be easily calculated.
introduced in the late 1970’s, and this allowed pumping at Values for all parameters are presented in Table I.
speeds that better produced the well and kept the pump within A 456 series, 240-hp motor of this design rated 5-hp per
its best efficiency range. Outside that range electric costs rotor was used for the field tests. In the 60-Hz performance
changed little, but the reduction in fluid produced was curves that follow, values were calculated using this
unacceptable. Further, the ASD solved the problem of equivalent circuit and labeled as ESP IM5.
reducing inrush current during starting while still maintaining By present motor design standards this design had several
the induction motor in the low-slip, positive-damping speed deficiencies. Stator lamination teeth did not have parallel
range. Today ASD operation is commonplace. sides, probably to make needle winding easier. The rotor had
With the advent of permanent magnets capable of 16 round bars. For an 18 slot stator 16 is a poor choice for
withstanding the temperatures inside an oil well, the the rotor. Modern design would use an 18 to 23 or similar odd
synchronous permanent-magnet motor (PMM) has become a stator slot to rotor bar combination. Although round bar stock
viable power source for ESPs. Four magnets are embedded is readily available, contemporary design would use either
and constrained inside each rotor. An IM rotor has copper coffin or teardrop shaped bars. Such a new design rated at
bars and end rings. Except for this and the PMM being 4-pole 10-hp per rotor and labeled ESP IM10 is presented in the
there is no physical difference between the motors. following performance curves.
Equipment operating in oil-well environments must be able Losses are commonly catalogued as follows:
2 2
to handle temperature, pressure and corrosives. Because of Copper loss = 3(I1 R1+I2 R2)
2
these constraints, it has not been feasible to design control Iron loss = 3Vm /Rfe
and power electronics inside an ESP motor. With all Friction and windage, FW
electronics on the surface the only alternative for powering the Stray load.
PMM has been a sensorless drive control. Additionally, a By definition stray load is the difference between total loss
current source drive is preferred to protect against and the sum of copper, iron and FW losses. FW losses are
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TABLE I
PER-UNIT EQUIVALENTS FOR FOUR MOTOR SERIES
o
Series TR F R1 X1 R2 X2 Rfe Xm FW/hpr
375 40 0.046 0.080 0.053 0.095 84.71 1.414 88.7
456 50 0.036 0.069 0.049 0.104 122.82 1.842 69.6
540 60 0.029 0.067 0.047 0.113 154.15 1.980 46.1
738 70 0.022 0.073 0.042 0.094 174.23 2.064 122.1
unique to ESP motors because the motor is oil filled. It has an winding temperature should stay below the rating of the
o
“oil gap” instead of an air gap, and FW losses are a significant insulation, normally class H, 180 C.
o
consideration. NEMA motors typically have a 40 C winding temperature-
rise. As mentioned above, there is no standard temperature
I1 R1 jX1 Vm jX2 R2 I2 rise for ESP motors. Possibly a standard is not feasible
because different types of oil are used; however, because no
Im standard exists customers are unable to compare products.
Vph/n Nonetheless, FW losses for either an ESP IM or ESP PMM
R2(1-s) should be the same for equal pressures, temperatures, rotor
Rfe jXm
s diameters and speeds.
A brushless PM motor can be operated on 3-phase sine
wave power like a synchronous AC motor or be fed
Fig. 1 – Per Phase Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit rectangular voltages where two phases are conducting and
the third is open during sequential 60 electrical degree
The nature of oil flow in the gap has an effect on FW losses, intervals, one-sixth of a cycle. An IEEE-IAS design procedure
Fig. 2. At low temperature that flow is laminar and the losses stated, “It is convenient to use the rated controller link current
are quite high. At high temperatures the flow is turbulent and Is as the base current. The current Is - - is switched
the losses are considerably less. The IEEE recommended sequentially to two phases in series. During the time two
practice for induction motors having liquid in the magnetic gap phases are conducting, the voltage induced in them is
[6] does not adequately address this issue. essentially constant. - - Es is the induced voltage in the two
phases in series, Is is the approximately constant current and
35 Vs is the average voltage applied to the terminals [7].” Rs, Ll
and Lm are the winding resistance, leakage inductance and
magnetizing inductance of two phases in series. The
30 equivalent circuit for such a rectangular–fed PM Motor is
illustrated in Fig. 3.
25 Is Rs Ll Lm
Watts per inch
20
Vs Es
15
10
Fig. 3 – Equivalent Circuit for Rectangular-Fed PM Motor
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Is or FW becomes a larger percentage of the mechanical power
output.
Vs
FWD
ESP cable 100
and PM 95
% Efficiency
Control motor
90
Fig. 4 – Current Source Rectangular Feed Drrive, 6-Step
85
Output
80
to current ratio is nearly constant, i.e. the imppedance is linear. 75
However, ESP IMs have closed stator slots, and at low 70
voltage the impedance is very high. The imp pedance does not 65
become linear until the bridges between stator lamination
60
teeth saturate. The ESP PMM also ha as closed stator
lamination slots, but in operation the flux provided by the 25 50 75 100 125 150
magnets saturates the bridges. % Rated
d Load
No-load tests measure magnetizing inducctance and core- IM10 PMM NEMA IM5
loss resistance. To minimize the influence of FW the rated
voltage test can be performed with no oil in tthe motor and ball omparison
Fig. 5 – Efficiency Co
bearings.
With regular bearings and oil filled, FW b becomes a major The IM10 compared had impro oved lamination designs.
loss factor in the motor. Power measureme ents are taken as Obviously its peak efficiency is at ap
pproximately 65% of rated
the applied voltage is reduced from rated d down to motor load. This motor was rerated to 10 hp/rotor for competitive
stalling. Power in the stator windings is subtracted from these reasons and because at 100% loa ad its efficiency was still
measurements, and the result is extrapolate ed to zero voltage greater than the IM5.
for determination of FW [8]. Unfortuna ately attempts to Variations of input currents versus load are displayed in Fig.
simulate actual oil-well temperatures and d pressures and 6. As a percentage of full-load currrent, the NEMA and ESP
measure FW are problematic and extremely d dangerous. PMM motors behave almost identica ally. At 150% of rated load
Additional tests required the use of a dynamometer to apply the ESP PMM draws more current than the ESP IM. This is
various loads to the motor. A saturation tesst measures input attributed to FW, because the PMM is running at synchronous
current at rated load and frequency as voltag ge is varied about speed, 3600 r/min, but the IM is runnning at only 3350 r/min.
the rated value. At fixed frequency and constant voltage, On the other end of the curve the ESP IM has much higher
performance tests measure efficiency, kW W, current, power current due to relatively smaller mag gnetizing reactance. This
factor and speed as the load is varied. Moto or output power is is not a problem with the ESP PM MM because the magnets
measured with the dynamometer. An average motor provide the flux. In the much larger diameter NEMA motor
temperature is determined from measurem ment of the stator magnetizing reactance is much grea ater relative to the winding
winding resistance at short intervals imme ediately after the resistance and leakage reactance than it is in the ESP IM.
motor is stopped. These data are extrapolated back to the
stopping instant. Because copper wire chan nges resistance in 175
proportion to temperature and knowing th he initial ambient
temperature and resistance, an average vvalue of running 150
% Rated Current
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high no-load current was attributed to magn netic saturation in where N = speed in r/min and s = slip.
s This is important for
both stator and rotor teeth and in the rotor yoke. Rotor flux comparison with the field tests, bec
cause pump speeds must
must also pass through the shaft. C
Consequently the be identical.
magnetizing inductance is relatively lower. B Because current is In the laboratory it was possible to measure input 460 V
often used for detection of gas-lock and pum mp-off conditions, power to the ASD, input power to the motor and motor shaft
the greater range of input currents with an E ESP PMM makes power. Equipment efficiency, labe eled Equip in Fig. 8, was
accurate detection easier for these two underr-load conditions. determined from the first two po ower measurements and
At 150% rated it was noted that current in nto the PMM was included the combined efficiencies of
o the drive, filter, step-up
higher than currents into IM10 and IM5. Thiss was attributed to transformer and cable. This equipm ment is illustrated in Figs.
speed cubed change in FW. The PMM wass running at 3600 10 and 11. Motor efficiency was ca alculated from the last two
r/min while the IM10 and IM5 were running ne ear 3300. measurements.
The major effect of low magnetizing inducttance for the ESP 95
IM is a dramatic decrease in power factor a at reduced loads,
Fig. 7. This decrease in power factor in ndicates that, by
definition, motor current has become much m more reactive. As 90
% Efficiency
a result for the same light loads, the current into the two IMs is
much greater than for the PMM, i.e. much higher kVAr is 85
required. This is a problem if the electric utility charges a
penalty for low power factor.
Reduced power factor at higher loads for the PMM is 80
surmised to result from the increased voltage e drop across the
leakage and magnetizing inductances.
75
100
2300 2700 3100 0 3500 3900
90 Speed (rr/min)
Power Factor (%)
40
85
25 50 75 100 125 150
% Rated Load 80
% Efficiency
Data presented to this point have only beeen for the motors 60
themselves running on 60-Hz power (120-Hzz for 4-pole PMM) 2300 2700 310
00 3500 3900
with variable load. An IM5 was not availab ble for these tests Speed (rr/min)
preventing a direct comparison with equipment in the field
test. However, a more efficient IM10 was substituted in an PMM System IM10 System
effort to identify system losses.
For centrifugal pumps head varies as spe eed squared and m Efficiency
Fig. 9 – Total System
flow directly with speed, thus the motor load
d varies as speed
cubed, cf. equation (1). A pump running att half rated speed Finally, it is noted in passing thhat required pump torque
would only require one eighth rated power and one quarter increases as the square of the spe eed and a motor sized for
rated torque. Given these pump affinity law ws and having an rated output around 3600 r/min will be overloaded at higher
ASD to set the speed, dynamometer torque e was adjusted to speeds. To avoid severe overloading common ESP industry
change with speed squared. The reference e point was rated practice is to restrict the speed too +10% and -20% about
torque at 3600 r/min. 3600. This provides more than adequate flow range to
Drives for ESP IM applications are nearrly always in the produce nearly any well due to the variable speed
constant torque (constant V/f) mode that kkeeps breakdown characteristics of centrifugal pumps.
torque nearly constant over the frequency rannge. For the two-
pole ESP IM frequency for a given speed N iss: IV. FIELD TE
ESTS
Table II lists the identical equipme
ent that was used for both
f = N/[60(1-s)] (3)
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TABLE II
COMMON EQUIVPMENT USED FOR ESP IM5 AND ESP PMM FIELD TEST COMPARISON
ESP cable 6000’ #4 AWG Lead Flat
Lower Motor Seal 400 Series
Upper Motor Seal 400 Series
Intake section 400 Series Bolt-on intake
Pump 285 stage 400-3000
Flow measurement Liquid turbine flow meter
Pressure measurement Wellhead pressure gauge
Input power measurement Industrial grade power analyzer
Output power measurement Industrial grade power analyzer
Output (step-up) transformer 520 kVA, VFD, connected delta-wye
Input (step-down) transformers 3-100kVA,12470/480, connected wye-delta
Input disconnect 400 A, 600 V
Output junction box Medium-voltage rated
Test well High productivity minimal draw-down
Pump intake pressure measurement
IM5 and PMM field testing. It was felt necessary to have as 21.6-kV
much common equipment as possible to conduct an unbiased Cutout Meter ASD Filter Cable
field test. Box and
Voltage ESP
If the same pump was used for both tests, it should be run Source IM5
at the same speed for both tests. Because IM speed is 480-V
slightly less than synchronous speed due to the slip factor,
eqn. 3, the ESP IM5 system should be run at a slightly higher Fig. 10 – ESP IM Equipment Configuration and
frequency to compensate. Instrumentation
The most reasonable approach appeared to be adjusting
the frequency to have identical flow rates at the wellhead with 21.6-kV
Cable
Cutout Meter ASD
constant wellhead pressure. However, from experience Box
Filter and
turbine flow meters can be erratic due to entrained gas in the Current
ESP
produced fluid. Pump intake pressure was more easily PMM
480-V Source
regulated, because the fluid at the intake is under
considerable pressure eliminating any gas breakout. Fig. 11 – ESP PMM Equipment Configuration and
Maintaining constant pressure across the pump ensures Instrumentation
constant flow. Still flow meters are needed to measure the
cumulative quantity of fluid produced, and this averages out Test system differences were as follows:
between the two systems. • IM5 - 456 series, 240 hp, 2x1295 V, 59 A motor
When pulse-width modulated (PWM) drives were first used
• Filter between drive and step-up transformer
with ESP systems serious current oscillations were
• PWM - 117mm, 266 hp, 2466 V, 62 A motor. This
encountered that quickly destroyed the drives. This was
rating is for 3600 r/min operation.
particularly true for systems with cable longer than 5000 feet
[9,10]. Analysis indicated that step-up transformer leakage • 250 kVA input harmonic filter
inductance resonated with cable input capacitance, and this • Current Source Drive
series resonant circuit was easily excited by the harmonic-rich Data collection involved the use of telemetry to continuously
output of a PWM drive. Since then low-pass filters have been monitor parameters and display them via a website. Data
designed and installed between the drive output and the included flow, intake pressure, power quality, kW, volts and
transformer to convert voltage source PWM waveforms into amps. The well was produced at similar stabilized production
sine waves before being stepped up. This is one feature the rates to ensure test accuracy. With each system, tests were
ESP IM5 system had that was different. The ESP IM5 system run at various identical speeds for several days. From the
electrical configuration and instrumentation are shown in the instantaneous data collected, average and cumulative data
Fig. 10 diagram. were calculated. Between system change-outs, the pump
Input power harmonics were felt to be a problem with was laboratory tested per API standard [11] to check for any
operation of the ESP PMM system in current mode. An input performance deterioration. The net result is shown in Fig. 13.
filter was installed between the input 460-V, 3-phase power Table III and Fig. 13 represent a significant decrease in
and the drive input. This is a feature the ESP PMM system power usage with ESP PMM production. At 3000 B/D the
has that is different. A slightly different equipment difference in power was 42.4-kW. Assuming energy costs are
configuration was required, Fig. 11. This placed the filter $0.1/kWh, a 24-hour day and a 30-day month, this results in
ahead of the ASD. Otherwise instrumentation was identical to savings of 30,540 kWh per month. The monthly dollar saving
that used in Fig. 10. would be $3,053. Further, these savings continue month after
The actual surface equipment used for the ESP PMM test is month.
shown in Fig. 12.
er.
housing making heat transfer easie In all the PMM runs
much cooler.
TABLE IV
ROTOR DIMENSIONAL COMPA
ARISON IN INCHES
hp per Total
Type hp rotor # dia
ameter length length
NEMA 200 200 1 10.67 7.0 7
IM5 240 5 48 2.27 13.0 624
IM10 240 10 24 2.21 13.9 332
PMM 266 22 12 2.64 13.5 162
160
140
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
120 The authors wish to thank David Self
S of Borets Weatherford
100 for invaluable assistance with the field-testing.
2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400
REFERENC
CES
Flow B/D
ESP IM5 ESP PM
MM [1] T. R. Brinner, “Voltage e and Cable Impedance
Unbalance in Submergible Oil Well Pumps,” IEEE
parison
Fig. 13 – Cost of Production Comp Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. IA A-20, no. 1, pp. 97-104,
Jan./Feb. 1984.
TABLE III [2] T. R. Brinner, “Just Ano other Motor?” SPE ESP
kW COMPARISON AT THREE FLOW RATES Workshop Short Course, Ho ouston, TX. April 2001.
kW % [3] IEEE Recommended Prac ctice: Definitions of Basic
B/D IM5 PMM Differencce Change Per-Unit Quantities for AC Rotating Machines, IEEE
2400 167.3 132.9 34.4 20.6 Std 86-1987, Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, February 16, 19 987.
3000 203.4 161.0 42.4 20.8
[4] R. L. Hyde and T. R. Brinner, “Starting
3400 224.8 204.3 20.5 9.1 Characteristics of Electric c Submergible Oil Well
Pumps,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
A vol. IA-22, no. 1, pp.
Lastly, Table IV depicts a comparison of th he physical size of 133-144, Jan./Feb. 1986.
all the motors used. Motor diameters are 4..56 inches for the [5] C. Concordia, “Induction mootor damping and
IMs and 177 mm or 4.61 inches for the PMM M. Concentrating synchronizing torques,” AIIEE Trans., pp. 364-366,
on just the active part of the motors, the rotorrs, the differences Jan. 1952.
in length are striking. For the induction moto ors the old design [6] IEEE Standard Test Prrocedure for Polyphase
rated for 5 hp/rotor (IM5) is essentially twicce as long as the Induction Motors Having Liquid in the Magnetic Gap,
rerated new design at 10 hp/rotor (IM10)). IM5 has two IEEE Std 252-1995, Ins stitute of Electrical and
tandem sections each rated for 1295 V fo or a total voltage Electronic Engineers, Re eaffirmed 26 September
rating of 2590. The rating for the PMM is p possible because 2007.
there is virtually no heat generated in the rotors. Further, [7] P. Pillay, Ed. “Performance and Design of
being a 4-pole design the stator windings can be closer to the Permanent Magnet AC Mottor Drives,” IEEE IAS
Conference, San Diego, CA A. October 1989.
[8] IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase the bottom of the spool. Frequently the ESP is pulled
Induction Motors and Generators, IEEE 112- 1984, because an electrical short occurred in the cable or motor.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Thus it is possible that spooling equipment and possibly the
Jan. 20, 1984. rig itself could see hazardous voltages. During work-over
[9] T. R. Brinner, D. Divine and J. Semon, “6 Step and operations all equipment must be grounded to the wellhead.
PWM Drives for ESP’s A Laboratory Further, the phase wires at the bottom of the spool should be
Comparison,” SPE ESP Workshop, Houston, TX, shorted together and grounded.
April 1997.
[10] T. R. Brinner and K. Packard, “Methods to Reduce
Electrical Stress in Variable Speed Drive
Applications,” SPE ESP Workshop, Society of
Petroleum Engineers,” Houston, TX, April 1998.
[11] API Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible
Pump Testing, RP-11S2, American Petroleum
Institute, Washington, D.C., October 1, 1997.
APPENDIX – SAFETY
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VITA
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