Principles and Practices of Modern Coal Mining - R. D. Singh - Ch2

Principles and
Practices of Modern
COAL MINING
R.D. SINGH
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PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES
OF
MODERN COAL MINING
R.D. SINGH
NEW AGE
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
New Delhi • Bangalore • Chennai • Cochin • Guwahati • Hyderabad
Jalandhar • Kolkata • Lucknow • Mumbai • Ranchi
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Introduction
27
Lahiri, A., (1969). “Role of Coal in Energy Pattern of India”, Proceedings of the Symp. on Coal
Mining Industry, 1969-70, Min. Geol. & Met. Inst, of India & JWC of CPA.
Martin, H., (1987). “Longwalling and the Manufacturer in the U.S.A.”, The Mining Engineer,
Vol. 146, No. 309, pp. 701-706.
Pai B.P., Reddy, A. Keshava and Subbaiah, J.C., (1986). “Introduction of Advanced Technology
Longwall Mining in an Existing Mine-State of the Art Lecture”, Presented at the First
Combined National Convention of Mining* Metallurgy and Material Sciencc Engineers.
Institution of Engineers (India), 7-8 March, 1986, Hyderabad, 18 pages (Preprint).
Pearse, G.E.. (1985). “Surface Mining”, Mining Annual Review, Mining Journal London,
pp. 207-229.
Pringle, H.A., (1910). “Notes on the Economics of Coal Mining in Bengal”, Trans. Min. & Geol.
Inst, of India, Vol. V, pp. 41-58.
Rhodes, H.L., (1982). The Mining Operations of the National Coal Board” Paper Presented at the
Indo-British Seminar, Ranchi, 14 pages.
Samples, R.E., (1982). “United States : Aiming to be World’s Primary Supplier”, World Coal,
Vol. 8, No. 6. pp. 89-91.
Schilling, H.D. (1977). “Coal Resource Assessment for the World Energy Conference, 1977”,
Proceedings of the third ILASA Conference on Energy Resources, 1977; in IIASA
Proceedings, Vol. 6, Future Coal Supplies for the World Energy Balance (Ed.) Michel
Grenton, pp. 18-29.
Sharma, R.N., (1982). “Keynote Address” Proceedings of National Seminar on Minerals and
Ecology, Organised by Min. Geol. & Met. Inst, of India. Dhanbad, pp. XIII-XVIIL
Singh, R.D., (1982). Development of Mining Technology During the Nineteenth Century in
India”. Indian J. of History of Science, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 205-222.
Stocks J., (1983). “Coal”, Mining Annual Review, Mining Journal, London, pp. 77-82.
Swiss, M.. (1982-a). “Soviets Welcome Advanced Coal Mining Technology”, World Coal, Vol.
8. No. 6, pp. 98-99.
Swiss, M., (1982-b). “Polish Coal Industry the Way Ahead”, Ibid, p. 118.
Tregelles, P., (1985). “Longwall Mining Trends”, International Mining, Vol. 2, No. 8, pp. 51-56.
William, M. (1908). “Presidential Address on Coal Mining in India”, Trans. Min. & Geol. Inst,
of India, Vol. Ill, Part 1, pp. 10-23.
Occurrence and Characteristics of Coal Deposits 29
Coalificalion starts with the bio-chemical alteration of the vegetable matter to form peat. It is
generally considered that the bio-chemical process of coalification terminates at the formation of
peat. But some others suggest that the bacteria may play a significant role throughout
coalification and even determine the actual rank attained (Francis, 1961). In the later stages of
coalification physico-chemical processes play a mojor role. These changes require more intense
sources of energy, which are provided by both thermal and mechanical (shear) energies.
Geochemically described coalification comprises three processes: i) the microbiological
degradation of the cellulose of the initial plant material; ii) the conversion of the lignin into humic
substances, and iii) the condensation of these substances into large coal molecules. As the coal
molecules increase in size, they assume the properties of a thermoplastic resin. At this stage they
melt and decompose when heated, i.e., they assume coking properties. With further coalification,
the coal molecules become so large that they no longer melt before decomposition.
The coalification reactions broadly involve ‘carbonification\ i.e., enrichment of carbon in
the course of which “the gel consists of crystallites of aromatic character and aliphatic and
alicyclic side chains, the carbon/hydrogen ratio corresponding to CH rising to C2 H with increase
in the rank of coals.”1 The process is accompanied by concurrent removal of the major
heteroatom, i.e., oxygen. There is simultaneous loss of hydrogen from the system as a whole,
principally as methane and water and it is the status of hydrogen content which ultimately
determines the geochemical phase of metamorphism.
It is now accepted that irrespective of the nature of land plants from which coal was evolved,
microbial attack under given conditions brings about a predetermined evolution of certain
end-products. The waxes and the resins, which are extremely resistant to microbial attacks, are
almost “fossilified” with little change. The rest appears to end up as two major constituents—a
jelly like mass, generally called ‘humic substance" and inert carbonaceous matter, often
distinguishable from others macroscopically, under the microscope. Some plant remains, spores,
cuticles, etc., may or may not merge in the humic substance in which they are embedded and
preserved.
“Coalification, however, occurs in Nature under conditions which are not very favorable to
micro-organisms. With submergence and time, the supply of oxygen decreases and then, as long
as life exists, it is the oxygen-containing compounds which supply the necessary ferment.
Depending on the pH, availability of oxygen, microbial species, rate of subsidence, humidity and
temperature, the extent of microbial decomposition and end product composition may vary in
degrees and character*1. (Lahiri, 1969).
2.1.2 Theories of Origin of Coal
Two alternative theories of origin of coal from decaying plant matter to 'bituminous' range are
suggested.
They are, (I) evolution of bituminous coals through geochemical metamorphism from peal
and (ii) decarboxylation and dehydroxylation largely taking place in the diagenetic phase
resulting in an assemblage of components having varying functional groups, but resulting in a
similar nuclear structure of the ‘coal molecule , the progressive removal of functional groups
being a matter of depositional characteristic under which microbial decay and chemical
degradation and reconstitution of plant material take place in the diagenetic phase followed by
1 Rideal, Erick., (1959). The Eighth ‘Coal Science’ Lecture, 1959 quoted by Lahiri, 1969.
2
OCCURRENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL
DEPOSITS
2.1 ORIGIN OF COAL
Coal derives its name from the Anglo Saxon word ‘COL’ and is a combustible sedimentary rock
formed from accumulation of plant remains modified by chemical, biological and physical
processes during and after burial.
The nature and origin of coal is not clearly known. Different researchers have advanced
different theories. However, it is universally accepted that coal originated from vegetable matter
and its evolution followed a continuous change normally designated by the ‘peat-anthracite
series’. From the vegetable matter, peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracites were formed in
that order. Chemically, the members of the series are predominantly composed of carbon, oxygen
and hydrogen, together with lesser amounts of Sulphur, nitrogen and ash-forming constituents.
Table 2.1 gives the approximate composition of different types of coal.
2.1.1 Coalification
Coalification is the transformation of plant debris under reducing conditions into a continuous
series of products having increasing percentages of carbon and diminishing percentage of oxygen
and hydrogen, e.g., peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite. In the first stage of coalification
process, peat is formed and in the last stage anthracite.
Table 2.1: Average composition of wood, peat and coals
[Figures are expressed on ash-free basis of the dry material]
Substance Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Calorific value cals
% % % %
per gramme
Wood 50.0 6.0 43.5 0.5 5000

Peat 57.0 5.7 35.3 2.0 5500
Lignite 67.0 5.0 26.5 1.5 6500
Bituminous coal 83.0 5.0 10.0 1.0 8500
Anthracite 93.0 3.0 3.0 07 8500
Source : “Indian Coal: Their Nature and Classification”, F.R.I., C.S.I.R., 1949, p. 7.
The vegetable matter is converted into coal in a two-step process:
1. A biological step converts the plants into peat, and
2. A physico-chemical step converts the peat into other forms of coal.
30 Principles and Practices of Modem Coat Mining
mild geometamorphic conditions as in regional metamorphism involving only static and dynamic
pressures but little rise in temperature.
The first theory suffers from the defect as there is no rational explanation for the observed
removal of oxygen and along with it the elimination of the highly reactive and abundant COOH
and OH functional groups, especially the latter, without any corresponding structural change in
the nuclear composition of the coal as indicated by the constant H/C atomic ratio level of coals
between 65 and 85 per cent C.
The second theory of parallel evolution, instead of serial evolution of bituminous coals, also
provides a compromise between the other two extreme theories, viz., concept of entirely /
biochemical origin of coals of various ranks and the concept of evolution of peat to anthracite
series through geometamorphic influence. Karavaev (1966) has put the theory that, although the
evolution of peat, brown coals and hard coals are generically related, they were not products of
transformation in an evolutionary series. Karavaev’s findings tend to support the second
alternative concept, i.e., ‘parallel tracks’ of evolution of low rank coals.
2.1.3 Factors Affecting Coalification
The factors which affect coalification are:
(1) Climatic conditions
(2) Time
(3) Depth of burial
(4) Orogenic effects
(5) Contact mctamorphism.
1. Climatic conditions : Presently peat is being formed in a variety of conditions ranging
from Tundral to Tropical regions. The essential climatic condition for the formation of peat is
high humidity. Coal deposits have been formed in climatic condition without seasonal variation
or in climates with seasonal variation as is exhibited by Gondwana flora. It would appear that
there are no botanical restrictions on the formation of coal. Any kind of plant residue that can be
geologically conserved may form coal. This suggests that two climatic conditions control the
formation of coal: i) the climate must produce plant residues (or algae in case of algal coals) and
ii) the climate must conserve the plant (or algae) residue. Based on the above, coals could have
been formed in any geographical area of the earth that could have produced plant (or algae).
2. Time : Generally, the older coals are of higher rank than the younger ones. But instances
exist of younger coals having attained higher rank under intense orogenic activity.
3. Effect of depth of burial: It has been observed that there is general decrease in the oxygen
content of coal seam with the increase in the depth of burial and also the ratio of fixed carbon to
volatile matter increases with depth. These observations are the basis of Hilt’s rule which is stated
as below:
“In a vertical sequence at any one locality in a coalfield the rank of the coal seam rises with
increasing depth.”
Increase in the depth of burial results in the increase of carbon content of coal and calorific
value of coal and decrease in moisture content and volatile matter of coal. But the rate of increase
of carbon or decrease of moisture with depth is not linear, it slows down at lower depths.
The increase in the overburden pressure with the increase in depth of burial may not be the
causative factor for the increase in rank. It is suggested that the depth-rank relationship is most probably
related to the geothermal gradient.
4. Effect of orogenic activity : Rank of coal increases under the influence of orogenic forces
causing folding and faulting. Anthracites are found to be associated with reverse faulting and over
thrusting. The effect of orogenic activity over coalification may be described by Roberts-White
Law which states:
“The rank of coal is determined by. and increases with the intensity of the orogenic or
tectonic forces, and the matural heat treatment, to which the coal has been subjected.”
5. Contact metamorphism : In some cases there has been increase in the rank of coals
adjacent to dykes and sills but such effects are localised.
It would appear that coalification beyond the stage of peat is a result of metamorphism due
to heat or pressure, but the exact nature of the processes involved is not clearly understood.
In summary, it is seen that the coalification processes have resulted in the increase of rank of
coal, the effect of which may be summarised as below:
1. Increase in the content of carbon
2. Decrease in the content of hydrogen
3. Decrease in the proportion of volatile matter evolved by distillation
4. Increase in the calorific value
5. Increase in the depth of colour, lusture and reflectivity of the coal constituents
Rank of Coal
The rank of coal is defined by its position in the coalification series, i.e., peat-anthracite-series;
the peat being of the lowest rank followed by lignites, bituminous coals and anthracites in
increasing order of the rank. Each coal type has distinct physical and chemical characteristics.
Peat : Peat was formed in Pleistocene age and even these days its formation continues in
some regions. It occurs as a soft unconsolidated deposit near the surface, in beds which are
seldom more than 9.14 m thick. It has a very high moisture content which in undrained deposits
is 90-95% which is reduced to about 35% in air-dried peats. The colour of the peat varies from
brown to black, the darker varieties occur in the lower part of the deposit. The upper layers are
fibrous and plant leaves, stem and roots are easily recognisable in them. But the lower parts are
more compact and homogeneous. The calorific value of peat is about 5278 k cal/kg on dry basis
but for air-dried peat it is about 3,333 k cal/kg. Its bulk density is low in comparison to
bituminous coal.
Lignite : Most lignites are of Cretaceous or Tertiary age excepting those of Moscow basin
which belong to Lower Carboniferous era. Lignites occur at shallow depths from the surface in
relatively unconsolidated sands and clays. The thickness of the seam may be several meters. The
world’s thickest seam 230.73 m thick occurs at Loy Yang in Victoria, Australia at a depth of 21.3
m from the surface. Lignites may be brown or black and in some countries brown coal and lignite
mean one and the same type of coal.
Brown lignites are yellowish to dark brown in colour and have dull or earthy lustre. Many
brown lignites are banded. Some varieties arc very soft and can be powdered in the palm, those
of higher rank are harder and more consolidated. Light colour lignites are of fibrous structures. In
the darker varieties more uniform texture is developed.
Black lignites arc dark brown or black coloured; have silky lustre and are laminated with dull
and bright bands. On weathering, they separate along the beddings into thin friable slabs. Jet is a
hard variety of lignite and is found in lenticular masses. Lignites are highly susceptible to
spontaneous heating.
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Bituminous coal
Bituminous coals form the major percentage of world’s coal resources. They are mostly of
Palaeozoic age. They are harder than lignites and are coherent and banded.
The banded constituents of bituminous coals are: vitrain, clarain, fusain and durain. The vast
majority of Gondwana coals are rich in durain which often forms 60 to 90% of the coal; fusain
3 to 4% and the bright coals (vitrain and clarain) 10 to 30%. <
Vitrain appears to be an exudation or solid diffusion product and is rich in vitrinite. It occurs
as a rule in layers less than 13 mm in thickness and is developed along bedding planes, vertical
planes and also at various intermediate angles. It is brilliant black, clean to touch and has
conchoidal fracture. ^
Clarain is also a bright coal. It possesses a silky but less brilliant lusture than vitrain and is
composed of alternating bright and dull laminae commonly less than 1 mm in thickness. Bright
layers contain vitrinite and in the duller layers exinite and inertinite predominate.
Fusain is a common constituent of bright coal. It is the dull soft charcoal like podwery layer,
a few millimetre thick and dirty to touch. It is often silky in apperance. Occasionally it forms
lenses which are up to about 20 cm thick. A hard variety of fusain occurs in the proximity of
igneous intrusions. f
Coal often breaks along fusain layers. It has dull lustre. Its physical and chemical properties
are similar to wood charcoal.
Durain is dull-looking hard, splintery part of coal. It is essentially coal impregnated with clay
or similar fine-grained material. It occurs as grey or black hard bands, sometimes up to 30 cm
thick. It has granular fracture, the surfaces of which have dull or earthy lustre. It contains more
non-carbonaceous mineral matter and in it cleats are fully developed.
Bituminous coals have wide range of properties and are, therefore., suitable for almost all
technological purposes. They are used for steam raising, for electric generation, for coke making,
for domestic fuel, for conversion into gas and oil and for deriving a number of chemical
products, and for fertilizers, etc.
Anthracite : Anthracites occupy the highest rank in the coalification series. They are black
and possess a brilliant or sub-metallic lustre. They have conchoidal fracture. They are hard and
brittle and break into knife sharp fragments and are absolutely clean to the touch. In the highest
rank anthracites laminae are rarely apparent; but on weathering slight traces of layering may be
developed and also on abraded specimens by selective erosion. They have high carbon, low ash,
low moisture and volatiles and their calorific value is high.
2.1.4 Modes of Accumulation of Coal
As stated earlier, all varieties of coal owe their origin to vegetal matter or plant debris, but there
is wide divergence of opinion regarding the mode of accumulation of these plant remains in the
water basins to give rise to coal seams (Sharma and Ram, 1966; Williamson, 1967). Two theories,
i. e. In situ or autochthonous theory and Drift or allochthomous theory have been forwarded to
explain the origin of coal seams. According to the in situ theory, the vegetable matter grew at the
site of coal seam whereas the drift theory postulates that the vegetable matter was transported to
the present site of coal seam from their original place of growth. Evidences exist to support both
the theories.
In situ theory
The evidences which support the in situ or autochthonous theory are:
1. It is seen that a large amount of vegetable matter has been accumulating in the swamps
of the present day and peat is forming in some localities even today.
2. Numerous fossilised tree trunks are found in the vertical position in the coal seams with
their roots firmly fixed in the underclay or seat earths that lie beneath the coal seams.
These underclay’s are supposed to represent the original soils on which the vegetable
grew. The underclay’s are found deficient in alkalies, lime and oxides. It is, therefore,
inferred that the plants grew over them and it were these plants which extracted the
above material.
3. The coal seams are relatively pure which would suggest that the plant materials had
grown at the site of coal seams; they accumulated there without mixing with the foreign
material and had not been transported along with the sediments.
4. The consistency in composition and quality of coal seams over wide regions seems to
suggest the deposits of the vegetal matter in still waters and from nearly the same source
material under similar condition. This is not possible if the material deposited after
transportation or drift.
5. Lenses of cannel coal are found in bituminous coal seams. This indicates that conditions
were favorable for the collection of large amount of spores. This would require large
patches of open water which are easily obtainable in swampy region.
6. It is hard to believe that the vast amount of plant material that has given rise to the large
coal deposits could be transported to open seas and estuaries without being mixed with
considerable amount of inorganic sediments.
Drift theory
The evidences, which support the accumulation of coal deposits by ‘drift* or allochthomous theory, arc
summarised below:
1. It is observed that large quantities of timber and tree trunks are transported downstream
by present day rivers especially in the regions of forests,
2. Beds of peat and brown coal have been found in the process of formation at the deltas of
some rivers even present day, e.g., the deltas of Mississippi and Ganga.
3. Some coal measures are associated with marine fossils which are found in the beds
immediately above or below the coal seams, suggesting their transport and subsequent
deposition.
4. The rocks associated with the coal seams arc sedimentary and the coal seams themselves
are sedimentary beds. Many of the seams are stratified and are made up of layers of coal
with partings of shale, clay or sandstone of varying thicknesses. Carbonaceous shale beds
often pass laterally into beds of pure coal.
5. Seat earths or underclay’s are very often absent and coal seams lie directly on sandstones,
shales or conglomerates.
6. Fireclays or seat earths have been found in marine and non-coal bearing formations, and
are not necessarily the sites of former forests.
7. Large proportion of tree trunks are found in inclined or prostate position and a small
proportion in vertical position. The inclined or prostate position of tree trunks suggests that they were
carried over from other areas.
8. It is estimated that at least 3.04 m of peat is necessary for the formation of 30.48 cm of
coal, so that enormous thickness of vegetal matter is required to give rise to thick coal
seams of the present day. It is difficult to believe how the large trees could get rooted in
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such enormous depths of vegetal matter. According to the drift theory, it is believed that
the vegetal matter was transported more O P less in transformed state, so that it was
possible to have thick coal seams.
9. In the case of numerous closely spaced contiguous thick seams as in the case of Jharia
coalfield, separated by sediments, the growth-m-j/rw-theory, would demand rapid and
frequent oscillatory earth movements — first a land surface with formation of peat, then
its depression and burial, these being repeated many times. This is supposed to be rather
an abnormal phenomenon.
A study of the mode of occurrence of coal seams of different parts of the world indicates that
some of these owe their origin to drift theory and some to in-situ theory. Coal scams of Europe
support the in-situ theory of formation of coal seams whereas coal seams of India distinctly give
support to drift theory. The repetition of a regular sequence of sandstones, shales, carbonaceous
shales and coal seams in the coal-bearing strata suggesting continuous deposition in a
sedimentary basin, the great thickness of coal scams, the general absence of seat earths or
underclays, the high proportion of impregnated mineral matter in coals, the absence of any tree
trunk found in the beds beneath the coal seams and the presence of terrestrial fossils suggest a
“drift’ origin of Indian coal seams.
2.1.5 Distribution Pattern of Coal Deposits
Coal occurs interbedded with ordinary sedimentary rocks. The common rocks associated with
coal seams are sandstones and shales or their variants, e.g., sandy shale, shaly sandstones, coaly
shales, etc. In many places, these strata are arranged into cyclic forms called cyclotherms. In
other places, the coal overlies a speical clay known as underclay or seat earth. Some of these
clays constitute fire-clay as they are very much depleted in iron and alkalies. Although widely
distributed, coal is relatively rare compared to other rocks. Coal is rarely, if ever found among
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Coal deposits occur in all systems above the Devonian, though some anthracitic coal
(roughly 80% fixed carbon and high in ash) are found in the pre-Devonian era. Some coal like
substances have been discovered in the pre-Cambrian and lower Palaeozoic system but they are
of extremely localised occurrence.
The earliest known extensive deposits of coal are of carboniferous age but important deposits
of coal occur in all systems above the Devonian. For example, peat deposits in most areas are less
than l million years old whereas coals in the Bear Island, Canada (Arctic Isles) are more than 350
million years old. Some coals in Canada (Arctic Isles), Great Britain (Northumberland),
Spitzbergen, USA (Pennsylvania), the former U.S.S.R. (Moscow and Ural Basins) were formed
330-350 million years ago. The age of lignite deposits in different countries of the world ranges
from about 1 million years to about 70 million years (Williamson, 1967).
Coal deposits occur within lagoonal, marshy, small channel and other low lying vestiges of
scismotectono magmatic activity. Ancient and modem rivers have formed on structural laws such
as deep seated rifts, anlacogens, geofracture systems and other vestiges of seismotectono
magmatic belt activity. This association is of interest in connection with the origin, evolution and
present characteristic of different coal deposits. Major coal deposits are commonly associated
with both large and small rivers. Indian major coalfields are associated with river valleys.
Deposits of coal occur in all geographical latitudes. As for the climate, a relatively high rain-
fall is conductive to the formation of coal but what should be the exact temperature is not known.
Coal comprises climate sensitive sedimentary rocks but no one exactly knows the nature and
extent of this sensitivity.
Figure 1.3 shows the georgraphical distribution of world’s coal deposits. It will be seen that
most of the coal deposits occur in the Northern Hamisphere. Table 1.2 gives the coal resources of
the different countries of the world. The USA, the former USSR, and China account for nearly
80.7% of the worlds coal resources.
Figure 2.1 : An example of faulting Saunda Colliery, Kampura Coalfield.
Figure 2.2 : An example of faulting Amlabad Colliery, Jharia Coalfield.
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36 Principles and Practices of Modem Coal Mining
2.2 COAL SEAM STRUCTURES AND ABNORMALITIES

Coal seams when initially deposited were flat sedimentary deposits but subsequently got tilted,
faulted and folded. Many abnormalities also occurred in coal seams which were due to
predepositional, contemporaneous or post-depositional causes, e.g., splitting, thinning and
thickening of coal seams, washouts, rolls, swilleys, etc. They have also been disturbed by igneous
intrusions, dykes and sills. Coal seam abnormalities and structures are major factors influencing
the choice of mining methods.
2.2.1 Faults
Almost all the coal seams have suffered break into continuity and displacements due to faulting.
Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show some interesting examples of faulting at Saunda Colliery, Karanpura
coalfield and at Amlabad Colliery, Jharia coalfield respectively. Faults weaken the coal seam
roofs, induce stresses and may be the locales of heavy water inrushes or gas flows. Faults may
throw the coal seams vartically up/down or displace it horizontally. The former category of faults
are of two types: (i) normal faults, and (ii) reverse faults.
Normal faults : They are the most common types of faults. They are defined as dislocations
in which the hanging wall is displaced downwards relative to the footwall [Figure 2.3.(a)]. These
faults usually hade at an angle of 30 to 50°, and in majority of cases the hades are 30°.
Commonly breccia or gouge is developed and a clear-cut fracture is rare. In most cases the
occurrence of barren ground is a characteristic feature, though repetition of strata can occur when
the beds are steeply inclined towards the fault. Throw of the faults may vary from a few
centimeters to several hundred meters. Some faults of relatively small throw cannot be traced
throughout a vertical sequence. Small faults with a throw of only a few centimeters may “run
out” along the stratification surface of roof strata and within the underlying seat earth. Such
structure may account for the intensely slickensided zones of gouge which are noticeable in some
inter seam sequence. Even some faults of larger throws are not noticeable in seams above if the
partings are considerable. Large faults are sometimes crossed by secondary faults which diminish
the effect of the earlier large fault. In certain localities a series of small parallel faults called
“step faults’* occur [Figure 2.3 (b)]. They make machine mining problematical. Normal faults are
formed by the effects of gravity and tension in the earth’s crust. The effects of large faults are
Figure 2.3 : Different types of faults (a) Normal fault (b) Step fault
(c) Reverse fault (d) Fault trough (e) Horst
Occurrence and Characteristics of Coat Deposits 37
Noticeable over a large area on either side of the fault plane. Within the actual faults zone drag
effects, strata dips become irregular, sometimes overturning is also noticed. On the downthrow
side considerable flexuring occurs. Bedding surface in shales are polished and in the close
proximity of the fault there may be marked increase in cleat and joint frequencies which make the
working conditions difficult.
Reverse fault: A reverse fault is the opposite of normal fault. In it the hanging wall is
displaced upwards relative to the footwall [Figure 2.3 (c)]. They hade at 40-60°. Where the hade
is greater than 45°. the fracture is termed thrust and it is possible that many reverse faults flatten
out at depth into such faults. Along some larger reverse faults and thrusts, metamorphism may
take place due to the intense crushing of the country rock and the heat generated in the process.
Reverse faults are formed by compression and may be extreme results of folding originating
through the failure of steeper limb of an asymmetrical fold. They, therefore, commonly occur in
heavily-folded areas. Reverse faults cause repetition of strata but in steeply dipping beds
non-repetition of beds may occur and a horizontal road may completely miss the coal seam; and
. also a vertical borehole may miss the coal seems.
Fault troughs, rift valleys and horsts : A fault trough is flanked by normal faults hading
towards one another and enclosing a wedge-shaped block [Figure 2.3 (d)]. A rift valley is of large
dimensions and is bordered by much higher ground. A horst is opposite of trough faults [Figure
2.3 (e)J.
Wrench fault: They are essentially compressional features and possibility of their occurrence
should always be considered in highly folded or reverse faulted areas. Major displacement along
wrench or transcurrent faults is horizontal. When viewed in plan, the direction of movement may
be clockwise or anti-clockwise, the former are called dextral wrench fault, and the latter are
sinistral fault. Their occurrence is rare. During the formation of wrench faults, the principal and
least stresses lie in the horizontal plane, and the movements along wrench faults may cause
parallel compression or drag folds forming a small angle with the fault.
2.2.2 Joints
Most of the sedimentary rocks exhibit joints which are rock fractures along which there has been
little or no displacement. They occur as systems, formed by two or more sets of joints, each set
having constant strike or dip. The major joint types are classified into four types according to
their origin : (i) dehydration joints, (ii) expansion joints, (iii) igneous joints, and (iv) tectonic
joints. The major joints in sedimentary strata are chiefly formed by the compression and tension
i during earth movements particularly during folding. Such joints form systems of constant
orientation and are classified as shear or tension joints depending on their origin.
2.2.3 Cleats, Slips and Riders
Coal seams usually exhibit fractures like cleats, slips or riders which are of great importance in
mining operations, in the production of round coal or in the stability of roof.
Cleat fractures or slynes are mostly formed in bituminous coals and to a lesser degree in
lignites and anthracites. They occur normal to the bedding planes, although in rare cases they are
inclined at a small angle to the seam. The cleat may be lined with the films of ‘spar* (mainly
calcite or ankerite) or with pyrite. There are usually two sets of cleats approximately at right
angles to each other; though there may be a third set of cleats parallel to the bedding plane. Coal
parts easily along cleats which are taken advantage of in coal getting. The frequency of cleats
varies according to the type of coal, being more in clean bright coals. The Indian coal seams are
generally poorly cleated.
It is believed that the cleats are caused by shearing but their exact origin is yet unknown.
Generally, the direction of cleats is common in a coalfield but exceptions to the rule occur even
in the same colliery between upper and lower seams.
Slips are surfaces of parting diagonal to the seam and hade between 25° and 60°. They are
clearcut fractures, sometimes slickensided, and may be covered with thin layers of carbonate
minerals, and are commonly spread at some 60 cm intervals and have usually uniform strike over
an area.
Figure 2.4 : An example of folding in Cinera-Matallana Coalfield, Spain, (After Wagner, R.H.,
The Stratigraphy and Structure of the Cinera-Matallana Coalfield**, Trabajo de Geologia, 4, Fac,
Ci, Univ. Oviedo “The Carboniferous of Northwest Spain” Part II, Oviedo, 1971, p. 425).
Riders or backs are commonly found in anthracites. They are crush fractures frequently
inclined at about 45° to the bedding of the scam. They occur in two sets at right angles forming
an acute angle with the slips. They are most marked in thicker seams where they mask the slip
almost completely. Backs are accompanied by a layer of powdery coal sometimes containing
shale intrusions.
2.2.4 Folds
Folding is another common phenomenon to which coal seams have been subjected. Figure 2.4
shows an example of folding in the leon coalfield, Spain, and Figure 2.5 shows the folding of the
Pastora seam. It will be seen that the Pastora seam is folded in such a way that a horizontal
roadway driven to access the seam may have at some places in its back the roof of the seam and
at some other places the floor of the seam.
There are numerous forms of fold structures. They may vary from broad open folds with
gentle strata dips to narrow closed structures characterised by steeply dipping beds which may
Figure 2.5 : An example of folding of Pastora Seam, Santa Lucia Coal mine, Leon, Spain
sometimes be overturned. Some folds may have amplitudes of kilometers and some may be
developed on very small scales.
The folds exhibit two features: (1) an anticline, and (2) a syncline. An anticline is an
upwardly convex flexure and a syncline is a downwardly convex flexure in which a given bed
intersects a horizontal plane in both limbs (Figure 2.6). Many coalfields have a general synclinal
nature, the structure being responsible for the preservation of the coals and associated strata
which have been removed by erosion from the flanking anticlines.
Figure 2.7 : Diagrammatic sketch illustrating the
Figure 2.6 : Anticline and Syncline outcrop pattern around a dome
A fold may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. In symmetrical folds the opposite limbs dip at
the same angle and, therefore, the axis is vertical. In asymmetrical folds the dips of both limbs are
different and, therefore, the axis is inclined. If the axial inclination is considerable the fold may
be overturned; in which case the strata forming part of one limb are inverted; and when the axial
plane is horizontal or nearly horizontal, the fold is termed recumbent. Sometimes the overturned
beds are greatly compressed so that opposite limbs may be parallel. Such structures are called
isoclinal folds.
2.2.1 Basins and Domes
A basin is a structure in which the dip is inclined towards a central point and a horizontal
section across a basin in any direction will indicate a synclinal arrangement of the beds. A dome
is an opposite type of structure to a basin, which is characterised by a radial arrangement of
directions away from a central area or point. The outcrop pattern around a dome may be circular
or avoid (Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.8 : A section showing the general

structure of Jharia Coalfield Figure 2.9 : A wastout, (After Rai, 1967)
Basins are formed by a 180° rotation of plunge direction of a plunging syncline and the
domes are formed from a reversal of plunge direction in a plunging anticline. Dome structure is
found at Amlabad Colliery, Jharia Coalfield, and the whole Jharia coalfield forms a basin (Figure
2.8).
A monocline presents a local increase of dip in an otherwise horizontal or gently dipping
strata. A good example of monocline is seen at Digwadih Colliery, Jharia Coalfield where at one
end the XIV seam is highly inclined ( > 45°) and towards the other end the seam gradually
flattens to 1 in 7.
2.2.2 Washouts
Washouts (Figure 2.9) are those areas where the coal has been partly or totally replaced by
non-carboniferous and often fairly coarse-grained clastic sediments. They were formed during or
soon after the formation of the concerned coal seams.
In washouts, the coal may be totally absent. They are narrow as compared to their length. In
plan, they resemble a lowland river system possessing a sinous course and tributary offshoots,
and generally taper towards their source. Usually the junctions between a washout and coal are
highly irregular. Consequently, some indication as to the approach of coal face towards a washout
may be given by the occurrence of discontinuous wedge-like and often are nacreous dirt partings.
They become progressively persistent until they replace the whole or most of the seam at the
washout proper.
several metres in thickness. Splits may be classified as local splits or regional splits. Local splits
are of limited extent both horizontally and vertically. In the sandstone deposits between the split,
coal lenticles and wisps of cannel type of coal often occur. These local splits have little effect on
the general level or gradient of the main seam. The splits often exhibit flow features, split and
splayed coal layers, and the whole structure may be further complicated by distortion, creasing
and lurching of the masses. The sandstone intrusion often contains wisps and veins of coal,
branching out in a sinuous pattern (Figure 2.12) (Nelson, 1958).
Figure 2.12: An example illustrating branching Figure 2.13 : An example illustrating multiple
out of a seam in a sinuous pattern. (After Nelson, splitting of Ghorawari seam, Kanhan Valley
1958). Coalfield (After Rai, 1967)*
The regional splits cover a large area, and the leaves retain their identity, sometimes, the
upper and the lower layers may have different characteristics of the coal seams.
Sometimes a seam may exhibit multiple splitting. For example, in Kolhia area, Kanhan
Valley Coalfield, M.P., Ghorawari seam has been splitted into several seams (Figure 2.13) (Rai,
1967). The thick seam in Manuguru area, Godavari Valley coalfield, A.R exhibits multiple
splitting, thickening, etc., (Figure 2.14). In Singrauli coalfield, Purewa seam shows another good
example of splitting and merging (Figure 2.15)2
Figure 2.14 : An example illustrating multiple splitting, thickening, etc. Thick seam, Manguru,
Godavari Valley Coalfield
2 Exploration in some Major Coalfields of India, G.S.I., 1977, Miscellaneous Publication No. 35.
The rocks associated with washouts are predominantly sandstones, conglomerates and
siltstones. The conglomerates comprise quartz, ironstones and shale pebble as common
phenoclasts, and also sometimes large rafts of coal. Occasionally, fossil branches and trunks of
large coal forming trees are encountered.
Multi-seam washouts occur where the seams are in close proximity of each other.
Some of the washouts are attributed to glaciation and are termed as glacial washouts. The
glacial washouts are unconsolidated, and the infillings are composed of till and fluvio-glacial
sands and gravels although some alluvium may occur in the basal parts. All these materials are
potentially mobile sediments which on penetration may form rapid influxes and further more may
release large quantities of water.
Roof roll Pnmhle roll
Geology, Oxford University Press, London. 1967) Figure 2.11 : Floor Rolls, (After Rai, 1967)
2.2.7 Roof Rolls
Roof Rolls are common where a seam is overlain by sandstone or conglomerate roof. They
consist of projections formed by the under surface of the roof strata replacing the upper layers of
the coal (Figure 2.10). Normally the basal surfaces of the rolls are irregular so that the coal cannot
be broken cleanly from them. Sometimes the contacts are slickensided and associated with minor
compaction faults and in such cases the coal separates easily from the roof. In ramble rolls, thin
intercalations of other inter seam strata occur and this makes the roof conditions difficult. Similar
to roof rolls, irregularities occur in the floor of the seam which are called floor rolls, saddles or
horse backs (Figure 2.11).
2.2.8 Swilleys or Swalleys
Swilleys or Swalleys are elongated hollows in the topography of the base of a coal seam. Many
are in effect coal filled river channels which were abandoned during the depositional phase of the
seam affected.
As a result of seismic activity some seams have been affected on regional scale. Clastic or
sandstone dykes, stone intrusions are the result of seismic activity. They consist of irregular and
frequently thin sandstone masses which in most cases penetrate the whole seam and are joined
with an overlying sandstone. They may also get connected with the lower bed. Other seismic
discontinuities attributed to the seismic disturbances are formation of small scale reverse faults
confined to one coal seam only, known as lurching, with a consequence of slight duplication of
strata. These stone dykes are sometimes accompanied by weak and fragmetary roof strata.
2.2.9 Seam Splits
There are numerous cases of a seam being split into two or more layers separated by wedge-like
or circular masses of interseam strata. The parting in the same colliery may range from zero to
Figure 2.15 : An example illustrating splitting of a seam and merging of splits, Singrauli Coalfield.
(Source: G.S.I., Miscellaneous Publication No. 35, 1977)
A good example of multiple splitting is provided by the so-called “Ten Yards Coal” in
Staffordshire, (UK.). This well known seam has a thickness of 9.14 m of clean coal in South
Staffordshire with only thin partings. Within a distance of only about 8.04 km, it splits into more
than a dozen thin seams, the partings between which having thickened to 152.40 m of shale and
sandstone. This extensive multiple splitting is attributable to a folding movement that continued
intermittently over a long period. Another good example of widespread splitting is afforded by
the Barnsley seam of Yorkshire. In South Yorkshire, the seam is fairly stable and averages about
1.8 m in thickness with three well-defined subdivisions, namely the Top Softs, the Hard and the
Bottom Softs. To the north of Barnsley, the seam undergoes a fairly rapid change and separates
into two beds by the thickening of the dirt bands. The presence of faults in this splitting region is
again significant and suggests that these fracturcs were active during the formation and
compaction of the main Barnsley seam (Nelson, 1958).
Linear splits : This penomenon affects relatively narrow, elongated and frequently sinuous
areas of seams which occur over most of their development as a single bed. The natures of the
intervening measures between the split seams are similar to those encountered in more normal
washouts and prior warning of their occurrence may be indicated by gradual development of
stone intrusions and dirt bands. The upper members of a linear split frequently rises into the roof
at the channel margin and occur some distance above the level of the normal seam. The lower
member may continue at the normal gradient or be inclined from both margins towards the axial
area of the split (Williamson, 1967).
2.2.3 Dirt Bands or Partings
Dirt bands are common features of thick coal seams (Figure 2.16). Their thickness may range
from a few centimetres to a metre or so. When the thickness is less, they are mined along with
the seam but with thicker dirt bands mining technique has to be suitably adjusted to exclude
F L O O R S T 0H E
them. The dirt bands generally contain mudstones or shales or fireclay. Dirt bands make very
poor roof and present the danger of roof falls if left in the roof.
f/r ir/rr
All fig. Jn m
Figure 2.16 : An example of occurrence of Dirt bands in coal seams, XVI seam, Bhugoria
Colliery, Jharia Coalfield.
2J2.11 Igneous Intrusions
Most of the coal seams have been affected by igneous intrusions. These intrusions are of two
types: (i) dykes, and (ii) sills.
Dykes
Dykes are wall like intrusions which break the contunuity of strata without displacement (Figure
2.17). These are generally composed of dolerites and/or mica peridotites and are most common in
coalfields. They are of a discordent nature and in an otherwise sedimentary sequence normally
transgress the stratification at considerable angles. On the geological map, they possess a
noticeably straight trace.
Figure 2.17 : Diagrammatic sketch of a Dyke
Many dykes average 0.91-6.09 m in thickness. In some coal seams a series of dykes
occur, for example, in Poniati seam at Bhanora colliery, Raniganj coalifield. Mechanised
mining of coal in such conditions is rendered difficult. Dykes also cause strata control
problems. In deep seams prone to bumps, working in the vicinity of dykes may trigger
bumps.
As a dyke is approachcd the following changes are noticed (Williamson, 1967).
1. Coal becomes brighter and its lusture becomes anthracitic. Also the coal becomes more
friable.
2. As the road comes closer to the dyke, traces of cindering may be seen and the lusture of
coal is reduced. The coal converts into ‘Jhama* in the vicinity of the dyke. The zone, in
which total cindering has resulted, may range from a few metres to over 30 m or so. As
a result of cindering coal, the laminae of coal are destroyed, the coal becomes vesicular
towards the intrusion and the vesicles are filled by secondary minerals. Coal is rendered
plastic as can be seen by its slight intrusion in the dyke itself Finally, the cinder coal
develops a columnar structure; the column axes are generally at right angles to the dyke
surface.
3. At the contact of the dyke surface, the coal is rendered very tough and highly mieralised.
4. Within the intrusion xenoliths of coal are incorporated and altered to graphite.
5. In some cases the thickness of the seam gets reduced on cindering due to the distillation
of volatiles present in the coa!. But nearer the dyke there may be slight increase in
thickness of the seam due to the extensive deposition of the secondary minerals. Roof
deteriorates due to the changes in the seam thickness.
The width of the area of contact alteration may be up to the thickness of the intrusion,
but no exact relationship has been established.
6. As a result of alteration due to the dyke, the volatile matter of coal (d.m.m.f.) is
decreased and percentage of ash is increased. The specific gravity of the altered coal also
undergoes change. With the decrease in volatile matter and the increase of ash
percentage, the specific gravity is increased.
Sills
Sills are tabular intrusions which intrude in the coal seam, or along the bedding planes of the
interseam strata (Figure 2.18). The sills need not be horizontal, they can be inclined and also they
cut across the strata (transgress) to follow the bedding plane at upper horizons. The vertical range
may be large especially if it is through the fault plane which existed before the intrusion. Sills
comprise mostly dolerites. They have widely varying thickness and may cover large areas. In
Indian coalfields many coal seams have been completely rendered worthless at some localities,
e.g., Koithee seam at West Jamuria Colliery. At some locations, only the lower or upper part of
the seam has been converted into 'Jhama*. At Victoria West Colliery, Raniganj coalfield, the
bottom portion of Laikdih seam has been coverted into Jhama. When the sill invades the seam
itself, the whole scam gets burnt. When in the roof the dolerite sills form very strong roof,
difficult-to-cave and which could lend to sudden collapse when mining has been done over a
large area and cause disasters as occurred at North Brook Colliery, South Africa (Bryan, Bryan
and Fouchc, 1964).
Copyrighted mater
Figure 2.18 : Diagrammatic sketch of a sill
2.3 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF INDIAN COALFIELDS

India’s major workable coal deposits occur in two distinct stratigraphic horizons — the
palaeozoic commonly callcd as ‘Gondwana coals* and the Tertiary. The Gondwana coals which
comprise nearly 99% of coal resources were formed in the latter part of Palaeozoic era or later.
Talchirs, the oldest coal bearing series of India belong to upper carboniferous system and are
some 270 million years old. Tertiary coals constitute balance nearly 1% of India’s total coal
resources and were formed in Eocene to Pleistocene age. The distribution of coal and lignite
deposits of India in the various stratigraphic horizons is given in Table 2.2 (Chandra and
Mukherjee, 1984).
Table 2.2 Distribution of Coal and lignite deposits in India
(After Chandra and Mukherjee, 1984)
Geological Age Geological Formation Localities
1 2 3
TERTIARY
Pleistoncene Karewas Kashmir lignite
Upper Miocene to Cuddalore bed South Arcot lignite of Neyveli, Tamilnadi
Pliocene Oligocene Tikak Parbat Formation Coal deposits of Upper Assam.
of Barail Group Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland
Eocene Laki & Jaintia Group Lignites of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Coals of Jammu, Lower Assam and
Meghalaya
GONDWANA
Mesozoic
Lower Cretaceous Umia stage. Jabalpur Thin coal seams of Gujarat.
Lower Jurassic Kota and Chikiala Formation Thin coal seams of Satpura and
Godavari
Raniganj Formation
and the equivalents
(Upper CoaJ Measures )
Iron stone stales
(Barren Measures)
Palaeozoic
Upper Permian
Middle Permian
Lower Permian
Basal Permian
(non-coal bearing)
Barakar Formation
(Lower Coal Measures)

Karharbari Formation
(Basal Coal Measures)
Lower Gondwana coalfields of
peninsular India and foothill
regions of the Eastern Himalayas
A SRINAGAR
BHUBANESWAR
10 6AR0 NIL I S
11 K M A S 1 J A I H l l A H I l l S
12 MIKI R MILLS
1) JAMMU
COAL
FIELOS
EOCENE
11 RA MS 1 HAN PAL AH A WH HE
IS GUJARA 1 (KVI1CN) JFIELOS0
'F
UPPER ASSAM ^
NEYVEll LI6NHE
O L I 6O C E H E
MlOCEUE
PLIOCENE
PLEIS10CENE
KASHMIR LIGNITE %
Figure 2.19 : Major Coalfields of India
There are over 70 coalfields in India ranging in areal extent from a few square kilometres to
several hundred square kilometres. Figure 2.19 shows the major coalfields of India. It will be
seen that India’s major coal resources are located in the suoth-eastern quadrant bounded by 78°E
longitude and 24°N latitude leaving three-fourths of the country practically devoid of any
important coal deposits. The major coalfields occur along prominent present-day river valleys,
viz> Damodar, Koel, Sone-Mahanadi, Pench-Kanhan and Pranhita-Godavari.
Tertiary coalfields are located in the outer Himalayas, viz., in the Naga, Mikir, Khasi-Jaintia
and Garo Hills in the states of Meghalaya, Assam ancf Arunachal Pradesh in the north east and
Jammu region of Jammu & Kashmir State in the north-west.
Lignite deposits occur in the Tertiary rocks of Tamil Nadu (Miocene period), Gujarat and
Rajasthan (Eocene period) and Kashmir (Karewas of Pleistocene period). Of these the Ney-eli
lignite belt of Tamil Nadu is the most important one.
The main coalfields of India belong to the lower Gondwana period which is subdivided in
ascending order into three series, i.e., Talchir, Damodar and Panchet (Table 2.3). The Talchirs lie
uncomformably on Archaean rocks of Precmbrian age. Barakara are the main storehouse of
Indian coals including that of prime coking coal.
Table 2.3 Subdivisions of lower Gondwana
Series and Stage Maximum thickness Age according to
of strata, standard scale
(m)
Panchet Panchet 610 Lower Triassic

Raniganj 915 (914-1219)* Upper Permian
Barren measures 610 (305-610)* Middle Permian
Damuda Barakar 860 (610)* Lower Permian
Karharbari 120
Rikba plant bed
Talchir 275 (305)* Upper
Boulder bed 60 Carboniferous
Unconformity — — — —
Basement of Archaean rocks
Source: N.L. Sharma and K.S.V. Ram, Introduction to the Geology of Coal and Indian
Coalfields, Second Edition (1966), Oriental, Jaipur, p. 42.
•Indian Coals : Their Nature and Classification, F.R.I., C.S.I.R., 1949, p. 1.
Thick seams abound Indian coalfields; some seams attain thickness of up to 44 m; an -
exceptionally thick seam 162 m thick is found in Singrauli coalfield. The aggregate thickness of
coal seams in various coalfields is generally high. Table 2-4 gives the reserves of coal per km2 in
some important coalfields.
The seams often occur in quick succession, the parting at places being very thin; all are
generally banded, the bands being from a few millimetres to several centimetres in thickness. The
thicker seams, as a rule, have more bands. Balls or nodules and rounded fragments of coal are not
uncommon. Most Gondwana coals from any field are unusually rich in durain, often up to
Occurrence and Characteristics of Coaf Deposits
49
60-70% of the coal. Fusain may be 3-4% of the seams. Bright coal constituents are usually
10-30% but occasionally they form the bulk of the seam—especially in the Raniganj measures.
All the coal seams give a comparatively high percentage of ash. There is, however, seldom any
appreciable portion of a seam which yields an ash content of less than 10%, normal values lying
between 15-30%. Pyrite intrusions are also very common and all these seams are prone to
spontaneous heating—especially the coals of the Raniganj measures.
Table 2.4 Reserves of coal per square kilometre for some Indian coalfields
Coalfield Area, km2 Total Reserves to Reserves,
609-m depth, million
million tonnes tonnes/km2
Raniganj 1087.8 18,550 17.05

Jharia 453.2 12,610 27.8
Ramgarti 103.6 1,100 10.61
North Karanpura and
South Karanpura 1424.4 9,200 6.5
East Bokaro and
West Bokaro 725.2 7,300 10.07
The Tertiary coals are, however, better in quality compared to Gondwana coals. These coals
are characterised, in general, by high moisture, low ash and high sulphur content. These coals
have ash content in the range of 8-10% on air-dried basis. The bulk of the sulphur content in the
coals is in the form of organic sulphur. The total sulphur content generally varies from 2-7 % of
which 40-90% is organic sulphur. On account of high sulphur content the coals from some of the
areas (Makum coalfield) exhibit dual properties of high and low rank coals and have strongly
coking properties. Such coals are a hybrid between coal and oil and are eminently suited for
liquefaction to oil by hydrogenation (Chandra and Mukerjee, 1984).
Indian coalfields present a variety of structures—synclines, anticlines, domes, horst, etc., and
have many types of both large and small faults-dip and strike faults, crossed faults, step faults,
reversed faults, etc. The coalfields, particularly that of Jharia, have been widely affected by
igneous intrusions, delerites, usually occurring as dykes, and periodotites, frequently occurring as
sills and often as dykes.
Gradients of coal seams vary from a few degrees to almost vertical. Cleats are not well
defined in Indian coal seams; they occur from 5-7 cm. apart to 38-50 cm apart. They are
generally hard coal seams : the impact strength index may be over 60 and as high as 84, the
Protodyakonov index is about 1-4 and their uniaxial compressive strength of 2 in. (5.08 cm)
cubes lies between 139 and 333 kg/cm2 (at right angles to the bedding planes) and between 97
and 238 kg/cm2 (parallel to the bedding planes) (Singh, 1965). Their friability ties between 10
and 27.5% on + 2 in. (5.03 cm) and -3 in. (7.62 cm) specimens and the overall friability lies
between 15 and 40% (Roy and Mitra, 1960).
The roof and floor of the seams are sandstone and hard shale. Fireclay as a rule, is absent; if
present, it is overclay. The strata consist mainly of sandstones and shales, there being various
types of gradation into one another, e.g., sandy shale, shaly sandstone, etc. The percentage of
sandstone in the strata is usually high and may reach 88% in certain localities. Sandstones form
massive deposits and are at times difficult-to-cave. They have a comprehensive strength of
212-933 kg/cm2 (at right angles to the bedding planes) and 159-501 kg/cm2 (parallel to the
bedding planes). The modal compositions of some sandstones are given in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 : Modal composition of some Gondwana sandstones
Formation Quartz Feldspar Mica Matrix/ Heavy
(%) (%) (%) Cement
(%) minerals
including
opaques
(%)
Raniganj 45.92-81.63 28.03-42.96 — 10.68-16.50
Barakar 60.8-64.8 7.6-12.9 2.2-3.1 21.2-23.6 1.5-2.9

Talchir 58.2-61.8 19.8-21.6 2.6-3.6 14.2-15.7 1.5-2.3
In their general features and in the Glassopteris flora found, the Indian coals and associated
strata resemble the contemporary strata of South Africa and Australia.
India’s total coal resources (proved, indicated and inferred) in seams 0.5 m thick and more
and up to a depth of 1200 m are estimated at 120 billion tonnes. Of these about 30% are in the
proved category and the rest in the indicated and/or inferred categories. The coals occuring
between 600 m and 1200 m depths are grouped as resource and the rest as reserves. Of this
potential about 84% are in the reserve category comprising 28% amenable for surface mining,
and the balance 72% to underground mining. Seam thicknesswise the reserves are as below : 0.5
to 1.5m — 15%; 1.5 to 3.5m — 15%, 3.5 to 5 m — 12%; 5 to 10 m—20%, 10 to 20m— 19%;
and the rest above 20 m.
Jharia, Raniganj, Singrauli, and Godavari Valley coalfields are the most important coalfields
of India and produce more than 50% of India’s total coal production. A brief description of these
coalfields is given below :
2.3.1 Jharia Coalfield
The Jharia coalfield (Figure 2.20) (Mehta and Murthy, 1957) occupies an area of 453.24 km 2. In
this coalfield Gondwanas occur as an outlier amidst the granitoid rock and gneisses of the
Pre-Cambrian. The oldest Gondwanas strata crop out along the northern margin and the younger
strata in the southern part. The oldest Talchir series 243.84 m thick comprises boulder bed
15.24m thick at the base and fine khaki-coloured sandstone and needle shaped green shale
approximately 258.6 m thick. Next follows Damuda series comprising Barakar series, 609.6 m
thick, Barren measures 609.6 m and Raniganj series 560.8 m thick. The Barakar series contain
over twentyfive workable coal seams of more than 1.2 m thickness with a total thickness of 76.2
m and comprises the major coal producing horizons of the coalfield. Based on lithological
features and heavy mineral contents of the sandstones, four stages are recognised in the Barakar
stage. They are Muraidih (Golkdih) 152.4-182.8 m thick; Gareria (Nadkarki) 91.4-106.68 m
thick; Jealgora (Barari) 76.2-91.4 m thick; and Bhagaband (Phularitand) 213.36-274.32 m thick.
The coal seams in the Barakar stage of the Jharia coalfield range in thickness from 0.91 to 22.44
m (Sharma and Ram 1966).
In the Raniganj stage which occupies an oval area in the South Western part of the coalfield,
eight workable seams are found.
Figure 2.20 : Geological map of Jharia Coalfield, (After Mehta and Murthy, Memoirs G.S.I.,
LXXXIV, 1957)
The strata comprise mainly sandstones and shales or their gradations into one another, e.g.,
Sandy shale or shaly sandstones. Sandstones are white or buff-coloured and medium to coarse
grained. The Raniganj stage sandstones are fine-grained. The modal composition of Barakar
sandstone is given in Table 2.5.
The Jharia coalfield present a variety of structure. The general dip of the strata is 15° in a
southerly direction but there are considerable local variations. In the vicinity of Bhulanbarari
thrust the dip of the coal seams has steepened to 1 in 1 to 1 in 0.5. The coalfield is much affected
by faulting. At the southern boundary there is a 1524 m throw fault which has brought
Pre-Cambrian basement rocks against the Raniganj stage and Barren measures. At Amlabad coal
seams have a dome structure.
This coalfied has numerous igneous intrusions in the form of dykes and sills. The dykes
comprise dolerites or mica peridotites and the sills comprise ultra basic peridotites.
Jharia coalfield is the only prime coking coal producer. The coals have low moisture and
volatiles are not high. The quality of coal in the upper seams is better than in the lower seams.
2.3.2 Raniganj Coalfield

The Raniganj coalfield (Figure 2.21) (Mehta, 1957) is another important coalfield of India. It is
in this coalfield that coal mining started first in India. This coalfield occupies an area of 1553.99
km2. On the three sides, north, west and south this coalfield is surrounded by gneisses and
granitic rocks of precambrian age : On the eastern side the coal bearing horizons extend below a
cover of Iaierite and alluvium and the eastern boundary of the coalfield remains unexplored.
Figure 2.21 : Geological map of Raniganj Coalfield. (After Mehta, Memoris G.S.I., LXXXIV, 1956)
i
Raniganj coalfield comprises Talchir series about 274.3m thick, followed by Damuda series
consisting of Barakar stage 609.6 m thick, Ironstone shales 365.76 m thick and the Raniganj stage
1036.3 m thick. In the central part the Damuda series is concealed by Panchet series 609.6 m
thick and capped by Supra Panchet series. The Damuda series forms the actual coalfield. The
Barakar stage is composed of coarse-sratified felspathic sandstones and conglomerates together
with occassional shales and some workable coal. Many of,the coal seams are 6.09 m thick, and
the thickest Kalimati seam attains a thickness of 30.48m in some parts. In some horizons fireclay
also occurs.
In the Raniganj stage, nine horizons of workable seams are recognised. The interscam strata
comprise fine grained greyish standstone with some shales. Fireclay as a rule is absent; where it
occurs it occurs as overclay.
Ironstone shales are devoid of coal and consist carbonaceous shale with clay ironstone
nodules. The Panchet series consist of cross-stratified micaceous sandstone and red and greenish
shales and the Supra Panchet has sandstones and conglomerates. The lowest Talchir series
consists of fluvio-glacial boulder bed overlain by sandstone and shales which break up into
prismatic fragments.
The general dip of this coalfield is in a southerly direction, on an average 10° except in the
vicinity of faults. At the southern boundary fault, a series of sharp inclined folds occur. This
coalfield is faulted at the southern and western boundaries. The northern boundary which appears
to be an unconformity is crossed by a series of faults and the coal horizons are locally folded.
53
There are extensive intrusions in the coalfield as dolerite, dykes and mica peridotite sills or
dykes. These affect the coal seams adversely and make machine mining a very difficult operation.
Raniganj coals are high volatile and high moisture bituminous coals and form excellent
steam coals. Some coal seams are highly gassy, prone to bumps and liable to spontaneous
heating.
2.3.3 Singrauli Coalfield
The Singrauli coalfield (Figure 2.22) occurs between the latitudes 24° 12° and 23° 47° and is
spread over a large area, nearly 2200 km2, largely in the districts of Sidhi and Sahdol of Madhya
Pradesh and partly in the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh. But, only a small part of the
coalfield, some 220 km2, has been found to be promising by the Geological Survey of India.
Figure 2.22 : Geological map of Singrauli Coalfield (Source : G.S.I. Miscellaneous Publication
No. 35, 1977)
The north-eastern part of the Singrauli coalfield stands out as a plateau with an altitude of
500 m above mean sea level from the lower plains of 280 m altitude. It mosdy lies over Talchirs
with Barakar projecting towards south, east and west. Coarse-grained sandstones form the major
lithology.
The geological succession met with in this coalfield is as follows (Sharma and Ram, 1966):
Mahadeva series
Unconformity ...........................................................
Raniganj series 61 m
Barakar coal measures 305-366 m
Talchir series 30 m
Unconformity ...........................................................
Bijawar Shales and Quartzites
Unconfirmity ...........................................................
Dharwar Gneisses and Schists
The boundary between the Barakars and Raniganj series is not clear but based on fossil
evidence the upper part of the coal bearing strata is inferred to be of Raniganj age. The dips of
the strata arc low varying from 2°-5° and faulting is rare even along the boundary. Dykes and
sills of dolctrite are common in the south and west of the basin. The reserve in this coalfield as
estimated by Coulson is of the order of 5.87 million tonnes per km2.
The coal reserves in the north-eastern part of the Singrauli coalfield, 220 km2 in areal extent,
is of the order of 9121 million tonnes comprising 2,724 million tonnes proved, 2,710 million
tonnes indicated and 4227 million tonnes inferred. Of these, 2,786 million tonnes is the mineable
reserve by opcncast mining method with a stripping ratio of 4 m3of overburden to 1 tonne of coal
(Singh and Diddee, 1982). The improtant coal seams are as given below:
(1) Jhingurda top seam (130 to 135 m thick). This scam at one place attains a thickness of
162 m and is the second thickest seam in the world.
Jhingurda Bottom seam 10-15 m thick.
These seams occur in the Raniganj measures.
(2) Purewa Top seam 8-12 m thick; Purewa Bottom seam 10-14 m thick. In the western
part, this seam has attained a thickness of 20-25 m.
(3) Turra seam, 12-22 m thick is the most attractive seam in this coalfield.
There are some other seams, 1 -3 m thick, which are locally known as Panipahari, Khadia, etc.
The coals of these seams are generally high moisture (6-9%) and high ash (17-40%) coals
and the volatile matter ranges from 25-30%. The calorific value of the coal varies from
4,200-5,900 Kcal/kg. The coal from this coalfield is primarily used for power generation. A small
quantity is used for brick burning and for other small consumers.
2.3.4 Godavari Valley Coalfield
The Godavari Valley coalfield 16000 km2 in areal extent extends over a length of 320 km with an
average width of 55 km and covers parts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, Khammam,
Krishna, and West & East Godavari districts in Andhra Pradesh. This is the only bituminous coal
bearing coalfield in the Indian peninsula.
Table 2.6 shows the geological succession of Godavari Valley coalfield. The entire
Table 2.6 : Geological succession of the Godavari Valley coalfield (After Venkatappaiah, 1982)
Age Pranhita-Godavari Revised classification in some parts
Cretaceous Lower
Jurassic Upper Gangapur/ Chikiala

Middle Formation Formatin
Lower Kota Formation
Triassic Upper Dharmaram Formation Maler Formation Upper Member

Middle
Lower Maleri Formation Middle Member
Bheemaram Formation Lower Member
Yerrapalli Formation Upper member
Mangali beds
Permian Upper Kampthi Formation Kartipthi Formation Middle Member

Lower Barren measures Lower member
Motur like Formation
Barakar Formation Barakar Formation
Talchir Formation Talchir Formation
succession of Gondwana rocks are present in this coalfield from Talchirs of Upper Carboniferous
age to Gangapur/Chikiala formation of upper Jurrasic age. Figure 2.23 shows the extent and
distribution of different formations.
Figure 2.23 : Geological map of Godavari Valley Coalfield (Source: Introduction to the Geology of
Coal and Indian Coalfields, Oriental, Jaipur, 1966)
The Gondwana sediments attain a thickness of more than 3000 m with 200 m of Talchir
formation at the base succeeded by coal bearing Barakars of 300 to 350 m which arc overlain by
400 m of Barren measures and 1,600 m of Kamptees and 600 m of Maleri formations. The
thickness of the younger formations is 200-250 m. The coal-bearing Barakars arc exposed over
an area of 500 km2 in the western part of the Godavari basin in detached, linear patches in the
form of outliers.
The Gondwana basin in general, is aligned along the prominent tectonic troughs of the
Pre-Cambrian rocks delineated by boundary faults on either side or on one side along the linear
zones. The south eastern side of Godavari Valley coalfield has normal deposition of sediments
though faulted at places while the north eastern side shows faulted contact throughout. The
coalfield has a number of faults, strike, oblique or dip faults, which have affected the coal seams.
The general trend of the coal measures in the Godavari Valley basin is nroth-west-south-east with
dips varying from 10 to 25° towards north-east, except at Manuguru where the strike is
north-east-south-west with a dip towards north-west.
In the Gondwana succession of the Godavari Valley coalfield the Barakars are coal bearing.
In recent years a thick coal seam was discovered in the Kamptee formation also. The middle
150 m of Barakar strata normally contain 3 to 10 seams of which 2 to 4 seams are persistent in
thickness. The thickness of the coal seams varies from a few centimetres to as much as 30 m. All
the coals of this coalfields arc non-cooking, high moisture, high ash and high volatile type. The
basal seams are generally of superior quality, the ash content in them being 19 to 25% whereas
the ash content in the upper seams varies from 28 to 40% with the exception in parts of
Manuguru and Gautam Khani area where in selected blocks the ash contcnt may be only 10 to
15%. The tot^l reserves of all categories (proved, indicated and inferred) in this coalfield arc
estimated at 8,504 million tonnes in seams 0.5m and above up to a depth of 1,200 m. Of this the
proved reserve is 2,129 million tonnes, indicated 2,433 million tonnes and iferrcd 3,942 million
tonnes.
2.3 INDIAN COAL CLASSIFICATION
Inidian Standards Institution has classified Anthracites, Bituminous coals and Lignites into
groups (Table 2.7). The grouping is based on volatilcs and calorific value, both assessed on unit
coal basis, that is. on dry, mineral matter-free basis together with the moisture contcnt and coking
nature of the coal. Thus Aanthracites are divided into group ‘Aj and 4A2’ and the Bituminous
coals into groups BrB6 and Lignites into group Lj and L2. Group B6 is closer to lignite coal and
is rare. For commerical purpose Indian coals are classified into different grades based on ash
content in respect of coking coals and on useful heat value (UHV) in respect of non-coking coals
(Table 2.8); where UHV=8900-138 (ash-moisture %) kcal/kg.
2.4 SOME SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF COAL SEAMS
Coal seams exhibit some characteristics peculiar to themselves which affect mining operations
and end use of coal when mined. Some such important properties are: (i) proneness to
spontaneous heating; (ii) proneness to bumps; (iii) gas bearing capacity of coaJ seams; (iv)
strength of coal; (v) flammability or cxplosibility index of coal, and (vi) caking properties, etc.
Besides some coals have coking properties and some are caking but not coking. Some other
properties of importance are friability, stability, grindability, washability, etc., a knowledge of
which is necessary to design coal handling and coal preparation techniques. Properties like
strength indices, abrasivity, drillability and cuttability influence the choice of mining systems and
mechanisation of coal getting operations.
2.5.1 Proneness to Spontaneous Heating
Coals of lower rank are more susceptible to self heating. In the rank of bituminous coal, generally
the inferior coals with high percentage of moisture and a sulphur content are more susceptible to
self heating. Anthracites are not prone to self heating.
A simple test has been designed to determine the crossing point temperature, that is the
temperature at which the temperature of a specially prepared mass of coal kept in a vessel in a
bath exceeds the temperature of the bath, and it has been found to be useful indication of the
proneness of coal to autogenous heating. In this method, 20 grammes of coal (-72 B.S. mesh) is
taken in a double walled glass U-tube and is heated in a glycerine bath at the rate of 0.5° C/min.
A steady flow of saturated air through the coal bed is maintained. Continual record of bath
temperature and corresponding coal bed temperature is made, and their time-temperature graphs
are plotted. The point of intersection of the two curves gives the crossing point temperature of the
coal sample. It has been suggested that coals with a crossing point temperature of 120 to I40°C
may be considered to be highly susceptible to self-heating, whereas samples having a crossing
point temperature between 140 and 155°C arc moderately susceptible and the poorly susceptible
Table 2.7- I S I Genera! Classification of Indian coals (IS ; 770-1964)
Sub-division or group Range of volat-iles Range of group Range of moisture percentage (mineral Chief uses
'
Type percentage at calorific value, free coal basis)
Name Group 900°+ 15o (unit kcal/kg (unit coal Near saturation at Airdried at 60% A
symbol coal basis) basis) 96% RH at 40°C RH at 40°C
Anthracites Anthracite A1 3 to 10 0330 to 8670 2 to 4 1 to3 - Gasification
producers
domestic s
and where
Semi-Anthracite A* 10 to 15 0440 to 0700 1.5 to 3 1 to2 - intense loc
I and no smoke
required
Bituminus coals Low volatile B1 15 to 20 0670 to 0090 1.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 1.5“ Carbonizat
(caking )strength (caking) metallurgic
increasing from *• Typical cok
B 5 to B 2 coals.
Medium volatile B2 20 to 32 0440 to 0700 1.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 2 -
(caking)
High volatile B3 Over 32 0200 to 0610 2 to 5 1 to 3 Coking coa
(caking) coals, gasi
i High volatile (semi B 4 Over 32 8060 to 8440 5 to 10 3 to 7 Gas coals.
caking) gasification
i flame heati
i
High volatile (non- Bs Over 32 7500 to 0060 10 to 20 7 to 14 Steam rais
caking) gasification
flame heath
Sub-bituminus Norh-caking; slak Be Over 32 6940 to 7500 20 to 30 10 to 20 Steam rais
coals ingin on gasification
Lignite or Normal Lignite Li 45 to 55 6110 to 6940 30 to 70 10 to 25 ^ Steam rais
briquetting.
brown coals Canneloid Lignite L2 55 to 65 6940 to 7500 30 to 70 10 to 25 J gasification
distillation
Occurrence and Characteristics of Coal Deposits

Cop
yrig
hted
mat
erial
01
vi
coals are likely to show rather high values (160 tol90°C or more).
Indexing of coals using crossing point temperature determination method has been found
suitable for almost all coals having low moisture content.
The other methods of classifying coals with regard to their susceptibility to spontaneous
heating are:
(i) Differential thermal analysis;
(ii) Rate studies of coal oxidation reactions, and
(iii) The peroxy—complex analysis.
All the four methods should he used for coals with very high moisture content particularly
for coals having 10% moisture or more, in order to ascertain their proneness to spontaneous
heating (Banerjee, Nandi, Baneijee and Chakraborty, 1972).
2.5.2 Proneness to Bumps
A bump or rockburst is the sudden release of energy from the coal seam which is manifested by
the bursting of pillars expelling large quantities of dust and gas and is accompanied by loud noise.
If the energy released is small, the miners call it a ‘thud’, which doesn’t cause devastations. The
propensity of a coal seam to bumps can be assessed in many ways. Some indices developed in
Poland and described by Kindybinski (1981) are: (i) Strain energy storage index, W fl; (ii)
Schmidt rebound number; (iii) Bursting efficiency ratio; and (iv) Rheologic ratio (energy release
rate).
Table 2.8 : Grading of Indian coals
I Nomenclature of grade Quality
Type of coal
Ash ranges, % Useful heat value Kcal/kg
Coking Steel grade I Not exceeding 15 —
Steel grade II " 18 -

Washery grade I " 21 -
II " 24 -
III
s
s
C\J
O
C
IV " 35 -
Non-coking Grade A - Exceeding 6200
H B - 5600
"C .- 4940
M D - 4200
"E - 3360
"F - 2400
"G - 1300
Source: Deb, T.K., (1984) “Coal Grading and Pricing" in Coal Mining in India, CMPDI, Ranchi,
p. 190.
Strain energy storage index, Wet : In this method 50 cm x 50 cmx 50 cm cubes are
compressed with a force acting normally to the bedding plane at a stress rate of 0.04 M Pa/sec. (a
force rate of 100 N/sec) until the stress reaches 80-90% of the ultimate strength when it is
released at the same stress rate to zero. Longitudinal strain of the specimen is measured
continuously with deformation gauges and the stress-strain relationship is presented in graphical
form and the ratios of elastic strain energy to dissipated strain energy is determined. If the ratio is
equal to or more than 5, the seam is highly liable to bumps; if the ratio is equal to or more than
2 and less than 5, the seam is weakly prone lo bumps and if the ratio is less than 2, the seam is
not liable to bumps.
If the coal seam being investigated is not uniform in structure, a geological log is made, and
for each layer of significance a sample is taken and values determined in the laboratory. An
average ‘WV value for the whole seam’s vertical section is determined by the following formula:
u/ , x W« mi + wet (ov). m2 + . . . Wet 0 av) n. mn
Wet (av) = - - - - - - - -
mi + m2 ................................................................ mn
(i) Where, Wet (av) 1, Weg (av) 2 are average Wet values for particular coal layers and
mu rrn, etc, are thicknesses of respective layers.
(ii) A much quiker in situ test using light type (L type) Schmidt’s rebound hammer is
done to find out the average rebound number of the seam which has been correlated
with the Energy Storage Index and thus the proneness of the scam to bumps can be
quickly ascertained. The relationship of rebound number rL to the energy storage
index Wet is as given in the following formula:
Wet = exp (0.0606 rL- 1.75 75)
The other indices which are used for assessing the propensity of coal to bumps are bursting
efficiency ratio, rheological ratio (energy release rate).
(iii) The bursting efficiency has been defined as the ratio between the throw energy of
chips (when the specimen fails under uniaxial compressive tests) and the maximum
strain energy at about the failure of the specimen. A cylindrical specimen is used for
these tests and the rate of loading is 0.97 M Pa per sec. If the bursting efficiency is
less than 3.5, there will be no bursting liability, if the ratio is 3.5 to 4.2, there is low
bursting liability; for ratios of 4.2-4.7, the bursting liability is medium and for ratios
greater than 4.7 the liability of the seam to bumps is high.
(iv) In the rheological method, average fragmentation rate, Vf, the stress relaxation rate,
VV, the critical relaxation rate, Vn and the critical fragmentation rate, V/c are
measured. The liability of a scam to burst is categoried as below:
(1) High bursting liability Vf £ V/c and Vr £ Vrc
(2) Medium bursting liability V/ 'Z. V/c and Vr > Vn
(3) Low bursting liability Vf < Vf c and Vr £ Vrc
(4) No bursting liability Vf < Vfc and Vr > Vrc
2.5.3 Gas Bearing Capacity of Coal Seams
Coalification was accompanied by evolution of fire-damp and although 250-300 million years
have elapsed since the formation of coal, coal seams still contain gas. Some coal seams have
retained more gas and some very little; but all coal seams can contain some gas. In India, the coal
scams are categorised in three categories with regard to their gassiness (Table 2.9). At Amlabad
Colliery, the XIV seam is found to contain maximum gas; some other highly gassy seams are:
Dishergarh seam at Chinakuri 1 & 2 pits. Dhadka seam at New Ghusic Colliery; and Ghusic seam
at Damra Colliery. The gas content of some of the coal seams has been found to be more than 50
m-Vtonne of coal mined and in the case of XIV seam at Amlabad colliery (Jharia coalfield) it was
340 m*V tonne of coal mined.
Total make of the gas comes from three sources (i) working seam; (ii) contiguous or splinter
seam, and (iii) from the enclosing rock. The gas comes out by slow exudation; through blowers
and by sudden outbursts of gas.
The sudden outburst of gas is the most dangerous mode of evolution of gas. It is accom-
panied by the ejection of a few to hundred and even thousands of tonnes of coal with sounds of
varying intensities forming a cavity of peculiar shape in the coal seam (Shevyakov, 1958).
Table 2.9 : Classification of coal seams according to their gassiness
Category Definitions
Percentage of inflammable Rate of emission

gas in the general body of inflammable gas
of air per tonne of coal produced
Degree 1 Not more than 0.1% Not more than 1 m3
Degree II More than 0.1% 1-10 m3
Degree III —
More than 10 m3
The sudden outbrust generally occurs at great depths (depths > 200-300 m), in coal seams
with soft coal where gas in retained under high pressure. In India, gas outbrust was reported to
have occurred at Chinakuri 1 & 2 pits. The origin of the outbrust was stated to be a splinter scam
which occurred some 60-70 cm below the Dishergarh seam. The depth of the working was about
600 m. Generally, sudden outbrusts occur in geologically disturbed areas, where coal was
presumably subjected to high tectonic processes and subsequently to crushing and fracturing.
Special mining techniques must be adopted in seams prone to outbrust of gas and coal.
2.5.4 Strengh of Coal
Uniaxial compressive strength of coal shows wide variations even if the sample has been cut
from the same block. It is normally higher when load is applied at right angles to the bedding
plane than that when load is applied parallel to the bedding plane.
The uniaxial compresive strength of coal is a function of the rank of coal : anthracites are the
strongest coals and the lignite the weakest. In addition, the strength of coal varies with the
volatile matter (d.m.m.f i.e., dry, mineral matter-free) of coal and the relationship can be
approximately presented by a U-curve. At one end of the U-curve the anthracites are placed and
at the other end low rank coals. The coals with volatile matter (d.m.m.f.) of about 20% have the
lowest uniaxial compressive strength (Evans and Pomeroy, 1966). Similar relationship has been
reported for Indian coals (Singh, I960). Table 2.1 gives the uniaxial compressive strength of
some Indian Coals.
Strengh indices
Many strength indices of coal have been evolved which give a measure of the strengh of coal, its
workability (cuttability), and drillability, etc. Of these (i) Protodayaknov index and (ii) Impact
strength index (ISI) are of wide use.
6
1
Table 2.10 : Uniaxial compressive strength of Indian coals (After Singh, 1965; Mazumdar, Barat
and Singh, 1974)
Seam Colliery Compressive strenoth ka/cm2 Remarks
At right angles to the Parallel to the j
beddinq planes bedding planes
XVIA Bhutgeria 228 98 5. 08 cm x 5.08
cm x 5.08 cm i
specimens*
XVI Bhutgoria 141 109 do —do
IX Sendra Bansjora 167 184 do—do
Koithcs A & B Pits Jamuria 267 241 do—do
Poniata A & B Pit Jamuria 271 194 do—do
Taltore West Jamuria 260 125 do—do
Jamuria West Jamuria 202 161 do—do
Dishergarti Methani 227 149 do—do
King No. 5 incline 338 159 do—do
Kothagudem i
Vt VI & VII Victory 265 ■ 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm

CONBINED x 2.5 cm
specimen**
IX Tickmani Gararia 239 - do—do
X Ena 312 — do—do
XI/XII Khas Benedih 212 — do—do
XII Bagdigi 257 — do—do
XIII Pootkee 206 — do—do
I XIV Jeetpur Noonidih 187 — do—do
XVA South Baiihary 240 - do—do
VIII Bhagaband 260 — do—do
Shampur-5 Khas Nirsa 402 — do—do
seam
Gopinathpur do—do 348 — do—do
Sanctoria Jamuria 302 — do—do
Rana Rana 380 — do—do
Nrainkuri Nimcha 490 — do—do
Dasut-chin- Krishna Nagar 358 — do—do
churia i
Borachuck Methani 295 — do—do
Ghusick Kuardi 384 — do—do
Jambad Sitalpur 362 - do—do
Salanpur D Ramnagar 354 — do—do
seam I
Lower Lachhipur 439 — do—do
kajora I
i
Laikdih Victory 211 - i
do—do
Samla Victory 414 - do—do
Lower work- Pathakhera 556 - do—do
able seam
Ghordewa Korba 379 — do—do
Hi Seam
Passang Bishrampur 350 —
do—do
SJrka Gidi 368 .—
do—do
Kargali Chalkari 276 —
do—do
Talcher Dulbera 554 —
do—do
Mam seam
Source: * Singh. R.D. (1965). “Compressive strength of some Indian Coals”, Trans., Min.,
Geol., Met. Inst, of India, Vol. 62 No. 1, pp. 43-66.
•• Mazumdar S., Barat, D. and Singh, B., (1974). “Studies on strength of some Indian
coals”, Trans. Min Geol. Met Inst, of India, Vol 71, No.1, pp. 49-76.
(i) Protodyakonov index
It is a simple empirical test for determining the strength of coal. The test consists basically of the
crushing of a sample of 25-75 gms. of fragments of coal larger than 10 mm. contained in a
hollow cylinder, by five successive drop-hammer blows. The percentage of coal that is broken
down to pass a 0.5 mm sieve is used to calculate the Protodyakonov index* which gives an
indication of the strength of coal within practical limits. This index is used for assessing
cuttability, drillability, amenability to hydraulic mining of coal seams or even for the design of
pillars. The Protodyakonov index of Indian coals varies from 1 to about 4.
(ii) Impact strength index
100 grammes of coal in the 3-10 mm. size range containing both larger and smaller fragments is
carefully poured into a vertical steel cylinder of 44 mm internal diametre and the upper surface
of the coal is roughly levelled. The assembly is stood vertically on a solid floor. A 1.81 kg. weight
of 4.3 mm. diameter is dropped freely twenty times on to the coal, the initial distance between the
base of the weight and the lower surface of coal being 305 mm. The percentage of coal remaining
in the initial sieve range 3-10 mm. is called the impact strength index. At least five specimens
should be tested for each coal and mean taken.
ISI values are shown to have linear relationship with the compressive strength of coal at right
angles to the bedding planes (Pomeroy, 1957). It has its utility in assessing the cuttability of coal
seams.
Other useful indices of coal strength are : NCB cone Indentation Number, Shatter Index,
Friability and Stability of coal, etc. which find application in the selection of coal getting
machines, designing blasting round and coal preparation, etc.
2.5.5 Flammability or Explosibility Index of Coal
A unit weight of coal is dispersed in an environment of air or oxygen and ignited to cause
explosion of the dust. The amount of inert dust which when mixed with the above coal dust,
renders it non-flammable gives the measure of the explosibility of the coal seam. It can also be
calculated by the formula 5 = 100 - \250/V, where S = least proportion of incombustible matter
required to be mixed with coal dust to suppress inflammation, and V = Volatile content of the coal
on ash free dry basis. Table 2.11 (Sen, Dasgupta and Lahiri, 1957) gives the relative inflamm-
ability of some Indian coal seams. It has been found that higher the rank of the coal, the lower is
its inflammability. Thus the inflammability increases with the volatile matter, oxygen and
hydrogen contents in coal and decreases with the increases in the calorific value of the volatile
matter and the carbon content of the coal. Both the quantity and the quality of the volatile matter
and the nature of the coal surface are factors which materially affect the inflammability of coal.
Table 2.11 : Relative Inflammability of some Indian coals(After Sen, Das Gupta and Lahiri, 1957)
Seam T --- u ---------------- Relative- nflammability
j Colliery
i In Oxygen Practical i.e., Calculated values
equivalent in air from the formula
S=100-12v50
Jambad-Bowlah Jambad BowJah 92.7 72.1 71.7

Dishergarh Parhelia 90.2 70.1 71.5
Dishergarh Methani 91.1 70.8 69.5
Poniati Girmint 89.1 69.3 68.4
Sanctoria Deoli 89.3 69.4 68.2
Mohuda Muralidih 07.9 68.4 67.8
Ramnagar West Victoria 86.7 67.4 62.9
Laikdih Laikdih 84.3 65.6 60.4
XIV A Bararee 85.0 66.1 60.2
XVI BhuJanbararee 87.6 68.1 63.3
XI Bhaigora 82.8 64.4 56.3
Karridge X Gonsadih 85.1 66.2 51.9
i XI & XII Madhuban 82.7 64.4 50.6
" xn Ashakhuti 77.3 60.2 47.3
X Madhuban 79.1 61.6 47.5
XI Sendra Bans/ora 79.4 61.7 43.9
VII Khas Kusunda 77.4 60.2 35.2
Kargali Kargali 87.2 67.9 59.5
Kargali Bottom Kargali 83.5 65.0 57.0
Gaimara Jhilimili 87.3 67.9 65.4
Lower Karhar Karharbaree 90.4 70.3 56.7

baree
Lower Karhar Seerampur 89.0 69.3 57.2
baree
b -------------- - - Talcher 91.3 71.0 68.9
Talcher
Numdung Margherita (Assam) 91.9 71.4 71.0
2.5.6 Caking Properties
The caking property of a coal is determined by its power in a powdered from to swell and
agglutinate on heating. All caking coals are not 'coking coals*; a coal may be caking but not
coking. Several tests have been proposed to determine the caking index of coal.
A coking coal belongs to the caking variety or class, that is. on healing in the absence of air
it shall between 300°C and 400°C become plastic oi* pasty or even fluid, and if the heating is
continued, shall leave a porous, rigid residue of coke, the porosity being caused by the escape of
volatile gases and vapours. There is no such property as ‘good coking power’ but the term is
serviceable in indicating a coking coal which leaves behind a sound, strong, metallurgical coke.
This properly is measured to some extent by means of the caking index, which indicates what
weight of sand may be added to unit weight of coal (before coking) before destroying entirely the
coherence of the coke button or residue. A caking index of 15 of over (using a modifed test
developed by TISCO) is found to be satisfactry to put the coal in coking category. The Tata
Coking Index is equal to 1.5 BSS caking index.
The swelling of coal is determined by the crucible swelling or alternatively by Arnu
Audiberts dilatometer test, and the agglutinating power by the Roga or Gray-King assays.
Crucible swelling number
For measuring the swelling properties of a coal on heating, the crucible swelling number, also
called the swelling index, is determined (British Standard 1016, Part 12, 1959, Coking and
Swelling Properties of Coal). The coal sample is first ground to pass a 72 mesh B.S. test sieve. It
is then heated rapidly in a silica crucible of specific size for one-and-a-half minutes to 800°C. In
the next minute the temperature is raised to 820°C and maintained at this level until the volatile
matter is burnt off or for 2j minutes, whichever is the greater period of time. The crucible is
cooled and if the residue is coherent, the coke button is removed and compared with a standard
series of number profiles to determine the curcible swelling number. If the residue is
non-coherent, the swelling number is zero.
Gray-King coke type
The gray-king coke type is used as a parameter in the NCB classification of British coals.
After grinding the sample to pass a 72 mesh BS test sieve. 20 grammes of coal are heated under
standard conditions in a hard glass or transparent silica lube, at a uniform rate of increase in
tempreture from 300 to 600°C for a period of 1 hour. The carbonised residue is compared with a
series of illustrations and descriptions and designated A to G and G, to Gq. With coke type G,.
Gj, G3, etc., the subscript figures denote the number of grammes of electrode carbon in a 20 gm.
mixture of electrode carbon and coal to form a hard strong coke of type G. The general
relationship between the Gray King coke type and the rank of coal (i.e., Carbon%—d.m.m.f.)
shows that wide variations in coking power exist in coals of the same rank below about 88 per
cent carbon (d.m.m.f.) due to the variations in the chemical compositions. In high rank coals the
variations in cakig power arc less as the macerals are less differentiated. The Gray-King coke
types arc also approximately related to crucible swelling number. Good prime coking coals give
Gray-King coke types of G5-G7 and roughly 6± -8 crucible swelling number.
REFERENCES
Bancrjce. S.C. Nandy D.K., Banerjee, D.D. and Chakraborty, R.N. (1972). “Classfication of
Coals with respect to their susceptibility to Spontaneous Heating”, Trans. Min. Geol & Met.
Inst, of India, Vol. 69, No. 2, pp. 15-28.
Byran. A., Byran, J.C., and Fouche, J., (1964). “Some Problems of Strata Control and Support in
Pillar Workings”, The Mining Engineers, Vol. 123, No. 41, pp. 238-253.
Chandra T.K.. and Mukerjee T.K. (1984) “Geology and Coal Exploration1’, in Coal Mining in
India (Editors S.N. Prasad and A. Mookeijee), CEMPDIL, pp. 15-38.
Evans. I and Pomeroy, C.D. (1966). “The Strength, Fracture and Workability of Coal", Pergamon
Press. London, 217 pages.
Francis. W. (1961)—‘Coal’ 2nd Ed., London. Arnold.
Karavaev. N.M.. (1966), “Coke and Chemistry**, 1,2,3 Alleston Press, Indane, N.Y. in “Origin
and Evolution of Coal** by A. Lahiri, Trans; Min. Geol & Met. Inst, of India, Vol. 69, No. 2,
pp. 2-53, 1969.
Kidybinski, A., (1981). Bursting Liability Indices of Coal*, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 295-304.
Lahiri, A. (1969). “Origin and Evolution of Coal**, *Trans. Min. Geol. Met. Inst, of India, Vol. 69,
No. 2, pp. 2-53.
Mazumdar, S., Barat, D. and Singh, B. (1974). “Studies On Strength of Some Indian Coals**,
Trans.. Min. Geol. <& Met Inst, of India, Vol. 72, No. 1 pp. 49-76.
Mehta, D.R.S and B.R.N. Murthy, (1957). “A Revision of the Geology and Coal Resources of the
Jharia Coalfield**, Mem. Geol. Sur. India, 84, pt. 2
Mehta, D.R.S. (1956) A Revision of the Geology and Coal Resources of the Raniganj Coalfield*’.
Mem. Geol. Sur. India, 84, pt. 1
Nelson, A. (1958) - “The Splitting and Attenuation of Coal Seams**, Colliery Engineering, Vol
XXV, No. 411, pp. 210-213.
Nelson, A. (1953), “Contemporary Coal Seam Irregularities**, Iron and Coal Trades Review.
August 21. pp. 417-421.
Pomeroy, C.D. (1957). “A Simple Method for the Assessment of Coal Strength”, J. of the Inst, of
Fuel, Vol. 34, February, p. 50.
Rai K.L., (1967).“Geological Problems in the Development of Some Coal Mines in Kanhan
Valley Coalfield, Madhya Pradesh’* Indian Journal of Mining, Geology, Metallurgy & Fuel,
Vol. 2, No. 17, pp. 59-63.
Roy L.C. and Moitra, A.K., (I960). “On the Friability of Some Indian Coals*’, J. of Mines,
Metals and Fuels, Vol. VIII, No. 4, pp. 1-8.
S harm a, N.L. and Ram K.S.V., (1966), “Introduction to the Geology of Coal and Indian
Coalfields”, 2nd Ed. Jaipur, Oriental, 148 pages.
Sen, M., Das Gupta, S.K., and Lahiri, A., (1957), “Studies on the Inflammability of India Coal’’,
Trans, Min. Geol. & Met. Inst, of India, Vol. 54, No. I, pp. 43-62.
Shevyakov, L.. (1958). “Mining of Mineral Deposits’*, Foreign Languages Publishing House,
Moscow. 686 pages.
Singh, N. and Diddee, S.M. (1982). “Singrauli Coalfield—Prospects and Perspective**, J. of
Mines. Metals and Fuels, Vol. XXXI, No. 5. pp. 181-188, 195.
Singh* R.D. (1965). “Compressive Strength of Some Indian Coals*', Trans. Min Geol and Met.
Inst, of India„ Vol. 62, No.l. pp. 43-66.
Venkatappaiah, A, (1982). “Geology of the Godavari Vallcry Coalfied and Perspective Planning
for Coal Exploration up to 2000 A.D.", Proc. National Seminar on Appropriate Technology
for Indian Coal Mining by 2000 A.D., 6-7 Feb. 1982, S.C.C. Ltd, & K.S.M. Kothagudem,
Vol. II. pp. I. 1-1/19.
Williamson, Iain, A. (1967).4Coal Mining Geology", Oxford University Press, London, 262
pages.
3
EXPLORATION
3.1 GENERAL
Mining is a venture, which carries with it comparatively higher risks, because of the uncertainties
of the reserve and the mining ground. It is not rare to find, after a mine has been opened out, that
the earlier assumptions about the characteristics of a mineral deposit are very much in the error.
Coal seams otherwise considered to be of normal occurrence have been found later after mining
has started to have been badly faulted or affected by igneous intrusions, or suffered other geologic
abnormalities, e.g., splitting, thinning, washouts, etc. It is, therefore, necessary to do intensive
exploration before the opening out of a mine is authorised so as to be sure that adequate mineable
reserve exists and the coal seams arc amenable to mining by the present day technology. In the
UK, for opening out deep mines which may need a capital investment of 25-35 million pounds
for pits producing 1 ^ - 2 million tonnes of coal per annum, generally, about 50 million tonnes of
extractable coal is required to justify sinkings (Rees, 1975). In the case of surface drifts, however,
with their much lower investments, a lower proving, say 10 million tonnes could be adequate to
justify opening out of the mine. In Indian coal mining practice, the reserve should last at least
about 30 years to give the planned production which may be up to one million tonnes per year for
underground mines. For larger mines, proportionately larger reserves are necessary.
In order to fully discover the area so that planning could be done on surer grounds in the
United Kingdom the cost of exploration for planning a 2-million tonnes per annum deep mine
may work out to be about 2% of the capital investment (Rees, 1977). The expenditure on
exploration in Indian coal projects averages below 1 % of the capital expenditure.
3.1.1 Information Sought Through Geological Exploration
The information which should be obtained before a large capital sum is expended on major
development can be divided into two main categories: (a) proof of workable coal reserves
adequate in quantity to provide a daily output and colliery life compatible with the capital cost,
and of suitable quality to warrant the development, and (b) information to permit the mine to be
planned with a reasonable degree of assurance that development to full output will proceed
quackly, and that the cost of coal production will be economic. Accordingly, the following
information are sought through geological exploration (Fenton, Adams and Rumsvy, 1962):
L Reserve, structure and thickness of coal seams.
2. Extent of coal seams as a workable deposit.
3. Identification and correlation of the seams and the leaves of the complex seams.
4. Nature of the pure coal and various parameters of the rank, e.g%
(i) calorific value
*f\ DAMODAR V At LEY
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Wood 50.0 6.0 43.5 0.5 5000

Figure 2.1 : An example of faulting Saunda Colliery, Kampura Coalfield.

Figure 2.2 : An example of faulting Amlabad Colliery, Jharia Coalfield.

2.2 COAL SEAM STRUCTURES AND ABNORMALITIES

Figure 2.8 : A section showing the general

Figure 2.17 : Diagrammatic sketch of a Dyke

Figure 2.18 : Diagrammatic sketch of a sill

2.3 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF INDIAN COALFIELDS

(Lower Coal Measures)

Panchet Panchet 610 Lower Triassic

Raniganj 1087.8 18,550 17.05

Raniganj 45.92-81.63 28.03-42.96 — 10.68-16.50

Barakar 60.8-64.8 7.6-12.9 2.2-3.1 21.2-23.6 1.5-2.9

2.3.2 Raniganj Coalfield

Jurassic Upper Gangapur/ Chikiala

Triassic Upper Dharmaram Formation Maler Formation Upper Member

Permian Upper Kampthi Formation Kartipthi Formation Middle Member

Occurrence and Characteristics of Coal Deposits

Coking Steel grade I Not exceeding 15 —

Steel grade II " 18 -

Percentage of inflammable Rate of emission

Vt VI & VII Victory 265 ■ 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm

Jambad-Bowlah Jambad BowJah 92.7 72.1 71.7

Lower Karhar Karharbaree 90.4 70.3 56.7

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