cold regions

science
and technology
ELSEVIER Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322

Application of damage mechanics to ice failure in compression

J. Xiao, I.J. Jordaan
Facult3"of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial UniL,ersiD" of Newfoundland, St. John's, Canada
Received 16 June 1994; accepted 19 July 1995

Abstract

In this work some principles of viscoelastic theory as applicable to ice are reviewed. A muitiaxial ice model,
incorporating nonlinear damage, is presented based on the Burgers viscoelastic body with nonlinear dashpots in both the
Kelvin and the Maxwell units. This mechanical ice model is found to be very efficient and accurate, especially for short
loading periods. It includes the effects of microcracks and damage on the reduction in elastic modulus and the enhancement
in creep deformation. Damage evolution is based on Schapery's approach using the generalized J integral theory.
Volumetric deformation under compression is included which is mostly dilatation due to microcracking and other
microstructural changes. Triaxial tests on laboratory-produced granular ice have been conducted to investigate the
deformation of ice and the influence of cracks and damage. These tests have also been used to verify and calibrate the
constitutive modelling. The damage model has been developed in FORTRAN code and implemented as a user subroutine in
the ABAQUS finite element analysis program. The theoretical model provides good agreement with test results.

1. Introduction ter, respectively. The pressure gradient in these zones,

which are typically 2 0 - 5 0 cm wide, is extremely
Research of recent years has emphasized that ice
steep, resulting in high shear stresses. A distinct
failure during the interaction with structures and
layer of damaged and microstructurally modified
vessels is dominated, except at exceedingly small
material is observed between the structure interface
strain rates, by fracture o f the ice at both micro- and
and the relatively undamaged ice in the ice mass.
macro-scales. This results in spalls near the contact
The characterization of this damaged material is the
zone, reducing the area of " h a r d " contact, and in
objective of this paper. This is most important for
the scale effect, in which the contact pressure re-
obtaining the distribution of local pressures.
duces with the nominal contact area (which includes
the spalled area). In extreme cases, the ice feature
might split into two. There is a zone of actual contact
(this includes high and low pressure zones), and this
2. Viscoelastic theory
transmits the load to the structure.
This contact zone is characterized by extremely
high pressure, up to 70 MPa in field measurements Because of the central role of viscoelasticity in
(Frederking, 1990; Frederking et al., 1990), and 53 the present study, some basic theories will be re-
MPa in ship ramming trials with multiyear ice (Glen viewed briefly. In general, creep strain can be ex-
and Blount, 1984). These measurements were made pressed as a function of stress or, temperature T and
on small pressure gauges of 13 and 8 m m in diame- time t, • = F ( c r , T , t ) . Based on Boltzmann superpo-

0165-232X/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI OI65-232X(95)O0014-3
306 ,I. Xiao, I.J. Jordaan / Cold Regions Scie~u'e and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
sition principle, creep expressions of uniaxial stress
cr and strain • can be expressed in integral forms for
linear viscoelastic materials:
~(t): f'o(t-'~)d°(T)d'~
dv
de(v)
,~(t) : £'E(t - -~) dv
d~
where "r is a point in time in the interval [0,t]; D ( t )
and E ( t ) are the creep and relaxation functions, and
they are memory functions that describe the history
dependence of strain and stress respectively. This
integral form was suggested by Volterra (1909). A
simple example of the creep function D ( t ) expressed
in the memory form is given by:
D(t) = D,, + D,t + D2,"
where D o , D~, D 2 and b ( 0 < b < l ) are material
constants. This equation can be very useful in practi-
cal applications under certain conditions, i.e., for a
given set of constants, D o, D~, D 2 and b, the
expression may represent a certain period of time
history better than others.
Based on the thermodynamics of irreversible pro-
cesses (Biot, 1954), the creep compliance and relax-
ation modulus can also be expressed in the form of
equation of state (or hidden state variables) as:
D(t)= E--+--+ ~ l-exp
]J'l i=2
=E, + E;exp
i=2
where E,, ~i, E'; and ~', are material constants. In
this form the stress (or strain) of the material de-
pends on the present state of strain (or stress), and
often a set of internal state variables, explicitly. Eqs.
1, 2, 4 and 5 represent the classical formulation of
viscoelastic theory.
All viscoelastic models can be represented by a
series of springs and viscous dashpots. Fig. 1 shows
two types of combinations of springs and viscous
dashpots, named (a) Kelvin chain; (b) Maxwell chain.
It is found in practice that chains of Maxwell or
Kelvin units with a spectrum of values for those
E2 E3 EN
(1) "q2 'r]3 "qN
(a)
(2) Ei 7}'1
El, ,71~
L-~VVV~ I
(3) Co)
Fig. 1. Canonic forms of viscoelastic models.
springs and dashpots are needed for proper represen-
tation of material creep behaviour.
Nonlinearity can also be included in Eqs. 1 and 2
by substituting cr('r) and e('r) with F and G respec-
tively, where F and G are nonlinear functions of
stress or strain, time, and other state variables such
as temperature and damage. This method is called
---t the modified superposition principle (Schapery,
~i
(4) 1981).
For the state variable approach, a simple creep
expression with stress nonlinearity can be written as:
(5) e ( t ) = Acr"t m, assuming T = constant, and A, n and
m are constants. This is called the Bailey-Norton
law. This expression can produce a possible transient
component of permanent strain. Here, "transient"
refers to the fact that this creep strain develops for a
certain time only. For constant stress, it can also be
expressed as: e(t) = A~ynmt m- 1. This is the so-called
time hardening formulation.
In the present study creep equations are all ex-
pressed in the form of equation of state, since this
method is appropriate from a theoretical standpoint
and is also especially efficient for numerical analy-
sis. The approach taken is based on viscoelastic
theory. In addition to hidden state variables, damage
 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
will be represented explicitly by a state variable. The
main effect of damage is to enhance the elastic and,
particularly, the creep strains.
3. Ice mechanical model
3.1. Uniaxial ice behaviour
A constant stress creep test on polycrystalline ice
gives a conventional creep curve as shown in Fig. 2.
The idealized creep curve can be divided into three
phases: primary, secondary and tertiary creep. Sinha
(1978) developed a viscoelastic constitutive equation
for columnar ice under uniaxial compression. The
total strain e is considered as the sum of three
components as shown in Fig. 2, i.e.
e = ~ + ~d + ec
where ee is the instantaneous elastic component; ed
is the delayed elastic component, or recoverable
primary creep, and ~c is the permanent viscous
component, or secondary creep strain. The elastic
component in Sinha's equation was defined by e e =
{r/E, where E is the elastic modulus. An expression
IO
I ffe ........................
~Ee
'lime
Fig. 2. The stress-strain history and three phases of constant
stress creep test: (I) primary; (II) secondary; (III) tertiary.
307
for delayed elastic strain under constant stress was
given as
C1dl ,~
'd(t) = -"-~(E)[1-exp{-(art)h}] (7)
where c 1, s, b and a T are all constants, the latter
depending on the temperature; the grain size is d;
and where E = 9.5 GPa; c I = 9, is a constant corre-
sponding to the unit grain size d 1 ( d 1 = 0.001);
s = 1; b = 0.34; a t = 2 . 5 × 10 -4 s - l ( T = 263 K).
Eq. 7 above does not correspond to a viscoelastic
model. The power " b " in the exponent of the
natural logarithm ensures rapid development of this
strain component. The model requires storage of past
history in numerical (time-stepping) analyses. In the
present work, a Kelvin unit is used, which includes a
dashpot with stress-dependent strain rate. This
achieves the same effect of development of delayed
(6) elastic strain. History effects can therefore be in-
cluded by considering the current stress in the dash-
pot (hidden variable). The secondary creep strain
describes the effect of the viscous flow and disloca-
tion movement within the grains, and appears to be
independent of the grain size (Cole, 1986). For poly-
crystalline ice under uniaxial compression or tension,
a power-law relation of strain rate and stress was
suggested by Glen (1955) of the form
4c = A c t " (8)
where n is a constant and A is a function of
temperature in the form
where R = 8.314 J mol -I K - l , is the universal gas
constant; T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin; Q
is the activation energy and B is a material constant,
both Q and B are dependent on the ice type. In
Sinha's expression for columnar ice, the creep strain
rate was given by a similar relationship:
4 c = 4; (9)
where n = 3 , and 4 ~ = 1 . 7 6 × 1 0 -7 s -~ ( T = 2 6 3
K), is the viscous strain rate for unit stress % ,
(or0 = 1 MPa). In the present work, the form embod-
308 J. Xiao, l.J. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
led in Eqs. 8 and 9 was adopted as a stress-depen-
dent dashpot element.
The tertiary creep was considered due to the
effect of microcracking (Gold, 1970), but it was
found that cracking is not essential for the occur-
rence of tertiary creep in polycrystalline ice, even
during the transition from primary to tertiary creep
(Mellor and Cole, 1982). The real process is not well
understood. In this study, secondary creep includes
enhancement associated with the current level of
damage. This damage-enhanced creep is used to
model the permanent creep strain.
3.2. Multiaxial ice model
As noted in the previous section, the delayed
elastic strain can be represented by a Kelvin unit
with nonlinear time-dependent properties. The objec-
tive of the present paper is to model ice stress-strain
behaviour in the short term, i.e. for times less than
100 s. Therefore a Burgers' model is adopted for
polycrystalline ice (see Fig. 3). The delayed elastic
strain corresponds to the deformation of the Kelvin
unit, and the secondary creep strain corresponds to
the deformation in the dashpot of the Maxwell unit.
An ice mechanical model for multiaxial stress
state was developed in Xiao (1991), Xiao et al.
(1991) based on Jordaan and McKenna (1989) and
Jordaan et al. (1990a, Jordaan et al. (1990b), in
which the deformation of ice is written in the form
of
e d + ~ (10)
Eli = ~-ij -F E~i ~-ti
as given in Eq. 6. If the elastic properties of ice are
assumed to be isotropic, the elastic strain compo-
nents e~i can be presented by
v l+v
(11)
'" - E (rkk~ii E (Yi i
~k
Fig. 3. Burgers Body: E and /,z are elastic modulus and viscosity
coefficient, respectively.
where E is elastic modulus; v is Poisson's ratio and
~,i is the Kronecker delta function.
Both delayed elastic strain and secondary creep
strain can be expressed in terms of a strain deviator
component egi and a volumetric component e,, (e,,
will be discussed later), i.e.
%d/ = e~i + e,,~i
d
(12)
and
A Kelvin unit with a power-law stress-dependent
creep compliance, as proposed by Jordaan and
McKenna (1988b, Jordaan and McKenna (1989) and
Jordaan et al. (1990a, Jordaan et al. (1990b), has
been shown to be appropriate for describing the
initial primary creep under rapid loading. This also
provides an expedient computational solution for the
primary creep strain. With this model, at the begin-
ning of each time increment, the program only needs
to read the stresses, strains and other model parame-
ters which are stored as state variables from the
previous state, instead of requiring access to the
whole storage of past history. All of the state vari-
ables will be updated at the end of each increment.
With some modification, the deviatoric strain rate of
delayed elastic component, assumed to be propor-
tional to the deviatoric stress, is defined in the form
of (Xiao, 1991)
3
el', = 2s, Jl~k (14)
where si# = ~ri;- ~rii is the overall stress deviator
and i~k is the viscosity coefficient of the Kelvin unit.
This definition assumes that ice creep behaviour is
isotropic. In studies of ice-structure interaction, it is
important to study zones of high pressure (Jordaan
and Xiao, 1992; Meaney et al., 1996 for example). In
these, there is a complex state of damage, varying
from microcracking near the edge of the zone, to
recrystallization of the ice in the central zone. The
latter effect appears to dominate, and appears to be
essentially isotropic in character. Therefore we make
the assumption of isotropic behaviour, but it should
be noted that a variety of damage states exist, partic-
ularly near the edges of the high-pressure zones.
Further work, taking into account the anisotropy, is
desirable. According to the previous discussion, the
 J. Xiao, l.J. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322 309

modelling of ice damage in the present paper has where

been based on damage results for triaxially confined
specimens. ix m = ( S/Uo ) ( % / s ) m (24)
Assuming that the strain of the dashpot in the
and m is a constant.
Kelvin unit follows the power-law relation with
Reference can be made to Xiao (1991) for more
stress, the equivalent strain rate of delayed elastic
details on the definition of equivalent strain and its
can be expressed as (Xiao, 1991)
relationship with the von Mises stress.
e" = S"/ffo)" (is) Substituting Eq. 22, Eq. 16 into Eq. 14, and Eq.
24 into Eq. 23, it is found that
where ~ is a creep reference rate; % = 1 MPa, is a
constant with unit stress; and the internal stress s d
(the von Mises stress in the dashpot in the Kelvin
unit) is calculated by k~i= ~{ s 2% % T

s d = s- Eke d (16) and

where s is the overall von Mises stress, E~ is elastic
stiffness in the Kelvin unit and e d is the equivalent •c 3 .c[ s ]"si___Lj (26)
e i j = ~o~--~o ) s
(or effective) delayed strain which is calculated by
These two expressions are consistent with the case of
e d = fokddt=fo'ddo( s d/ o ' 0 ) d, (17)
uniaxial load condition.
The definition of von Mises stress is given as When rapid loading is applied, the dashpot in the
Kelvin unit carries most of the load at the beginning
1/2 (18) for a very short time, i.e. s d = s. Since s d cc kd and
S= 3 Slj Sij )
the stress in the spring is proportional to the strain
e d, the influence of the elastic effect on eij .d is
the definition of equivalent strain is given by
reduced, and the delayed elastic strain can then be
[2 ~1/2
modelled as a viscous element in the same way as
e = { 7e,je,,] (19) <j.
and the relationship between the deviatoric and
equivalent strain is defined by 3.3. D a m a g e mechanics
3 sij
eij = - e - - (20) Most of the early work in the area of damage
2 s
mechanics was based on the original idea that the
This elastic solution can be transformed to viscoelas-
damage of a structure can be measured by a scalar
tic solution rigorously by means of correspondence
factor (Kachanov, 1958), which is equal to the ratio
principles (Schapery, 1984) in the form of
of the area of voids to that of the whole cross
3 . sij section, or by the density of microcracks and voids
• = -e-- (21)
eij 2 s which would permanently affect either the elastic
Comparing Eq. 14, Eq. 21 and Eq. 15, the viscosity modulus, E or shear modulus, G. This was the
coefficient, txk, can be derived as guideline for the early work of the present group.
The importance of this kind of damage model is the
Ixk=(S/i:dO)(%/sd)" (22) establishment of a rational damage law which de-
The deviatoric strain rate of secondary creep com- fines the rate of damage accumulation in terms of the
ponent can also be defined in a similar way current values of state variables and internal vari-
ables.
3 Based on Kachanov's model (1986), a solid body
eiCj ~- 7Sijl[.Lm (23)
has an overall section area ofA 0 and a fractured
310 J. Xiao. I.,I..Iordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
(damaged) area of A. In the case of uniaxial loading
P without damage, the stress in the body is given as
P
cr = - -
A0
With isotropic damage, the damage variable D can
be defined as
A pressive state of stress.
D=--: 0_<D_< 1
Ao
and the effective stress % is introduced as
P P (r
% - - - -
A0 - A A0(1-D) 1 -D
It is assumed that the strain response of the body is
modified by damage only through the effective stress,
so the stress-strain relation of the damaged material
is
% (r ~r
e- E0 - E o ( l - O ) =E
where E 0 is the elastic modulus of virgin material
and E = E 0 ( l - D ) can be called the "effective"
modulus. The behaviour of damaged material can,
therefore, be considered to be equivalent to the
behaviour of undamaged material, provided that the
original elastic modulus E o is replaced by
E = Eo(1 -D)
The "effective" modulus will be reduced from the
original value due to the accumulation of damage.
Budiansky and O'Connell (1976) discussed the
reduction of elastic moduli due to the presence of
microcracks of a given shape for the three dimen-
sional case. Their solution gives change of elastic
properties from the strain energy loss during the
nucleation of individual cracks in an elastic brittle
body. Their results include interaction between cracks
but do not account for traction across crack surfaces;
all cracks remain open. Assuming an isotropic array
of similarly shaped flat circular cracks, the isotropic
damage parameter is simply related to the crack
density by D = a3N, where a is the radius of crack
surface and N is the crack density.
Under compression, the effect of traction across
cracks can not be ignored and the above approach
needs to be modified. It is clear that the influence of
cracks on the elastic properties will be reduced in
compression due to the crack closure and difficulty
in crack nucleation. Closed cracks can still transfer
(27) tractions and shear stress; therefore, in compression,
the existence of cracks will not reduce the strength
of the solid body as much as in tension. Horii and
Nemat-Nasser (1983) developed a general solution
for the case of two dimensional, plane strain, com-
(28)
The approach taken by Kachanov (1993) also
deals with some basic problems in analysis of solids
with multiple cracks or other structural defects. His
approach is applicable to both two and three dimen-
(29) sional configurations. Assuming an elastic solid with
N cracks (per unit volume and each crack has a
normal hi), and given applied stress a0 at the re-
mote boundary, this configuration can be represented
by the problem with crack surfaces loaded by trac-
tions of f0 = nkr0 and stresses vanishing at infinity.
A 3-D solution was proposed by Kachanov (1993) to
(30) approximate the effective elastic modulus of nonin-
teracting cracks with isotropic random distribution.
The effective moduli were given as:
E
-(I + C , N ) ' (32)
/;'!1
v E
- (1 +C~N) (33)
v~ E0
(31)
where
C~ = (34)
9( I - vo/2 )
8(1 -
c< (35)
45(1 - vo/2 )
These lbrms can provide accurate results at both low
and high crack densities.
Damage mechanics has been introduced to ice by
Jordaan and McKenna (1988a, Jordaan and McKenna
(1989), Karr and Choi (1989) and others. An isotropic
damage model with a single scalar damage measure
has been developed. These studies have focused on
the relation of the extent of damage and the growing
network of microcracks which is often assumed to be
uniformly (isotropically) distributed and randomly
oriented. A rate expression of crack formation was
 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322 311

proposed, based on rate theory by Jordaan and It has been noticed that the measurement of dam-
McKenna (1989) in the form of age only as a function of crack density may not be
appropriate for some practical situations, for exam-
ple, the crushed ice in the center of contact face. In
N= J this case, the crystal structure of intact ice has been
where N = 0, if tr < tr c, tr c is the threshold stress, broken down to fine grains, or particles. Fig. 4
% is a constant (units of stress) and g~0 is a refer- shows the appearance of the crushed layer obtained
ence rate. after a medium scale field indentation experiment.

Fig. 4. Contact face at end of the test, (a) general view of vertical face and horizontal cross section cut into the ice face, (b) thin section of
area indicated in (a) (after Frederking et al., 1990).
312 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
The boundary is very distinct for most of the layer
and the ice in the layer is fine-grained, contains
bubbles and is of lower density than the parent ice.
Under high confining pressure, the crushed ice may
be sintered into a solid that may nevertheless be a
microstructurally modified ice mass due to pressure
melting or recrystallization. It will not be appropriate
to use crack density as the measurement of damage
for this type of ice. The ice behind the layer main-
tains, to a large extent, its original structure, al-
though some microcracks can be observed in thin
sections made from the ice samples (Meaney et al.,
1996). This may suggest that two or more types of
damage measure are needed to characterize the be-
haviour of damaged ice. In fact, many micropro-
cesses, such as grain boundary sliding and elastic
anisotropy at triple junctions, can cause stress con-
centration at grain boundaries, and lead to microc-
racking (both intergranular and intragranular) there-
fore damaging the solid. Other processes, such as
pressure melting between grains and dynamic recrys-
tallization can also result in changes in the mi-
crostructure of the material. Each of these processes
could correspond to a damage measure Si,(i=
1,2,3 . . . . n). One individual process may play a more
significant role than the others, under certain loading
conditions at a given point in time. For instance, in
those critical zones with high confining pressure,
pressure melting and recrystallization may be more
significant and cracking will be suppressed, while at
the edges of interface with high shear and low
confinement cracking would be the main source of
damage.
A continuum damage theory has been developed
by Schapery (1981, Schapery (1984, Schapery (1988,
Schapery (1989) using the generalized J-integral.
His approach offers a rigorous solution to a class of
problems involving cracking and damaging of vis-
coelastic materials. It includes a proper treatment of
energy flux into the crack tip zone, and of the thin
layer of damaged material outside the crack tip zone
along the crack surface. The damage measure given
(o),
by Schapery is defined as
S=fjof~ - - d'r (36)
O" 0
where cr is overall stress, cro is a unit stress and q is
a constant. The parameter f~ reflects the properties
of the crack-tip material and is a function of stress.
Schapery's damage measure offers a possible method
for including several damage processes in one mea-
sure (Jordaan and Xiao. 1992).
It should also be mentioned that the confining
pressure will also affect the development of damage,
since the nucleation and growth of microcracks would
be suppressed under confinement. The pressure de-
pendence has been investigated by Singh (1993)
based on the data of triaxial tests in laboratory. A
expression for damage measure was proposed as
S = f~Fl(pX(r/~ro)qd'r, where Fl(p) =.fl/P; fl is
a constant and p is the hydrostatic pressure.
In the present study, two damage measures, one
for the Kelvin unit, Sa, and the other for the Maxwell
unit, Sc, are proposed as
So= f 0 / ~ ( p ) d'r (37)
Sd = fjoF~(p) d'r (38)
where Fro(p) =fm/P; Fk(P)=f~/P; f,,, Jk are con-
stant; Eq. 32 and Eq. 33 are adopted to measure the
effective modulus of the springs in both Maxwell
and Kelvin units by using the relation between crack
density N and Sc (Jordaan and Xiao, 1992). It should
be pointed out that the effect of damage on the
elastic modulus is much less significant under triax-
ial compression than that of uniaxial loading based
on experimental observations (Stone et al.. 1996:
Xiao, 1991; and Stone et al., 1989). The elastic
modulus has been reduced by less than 10% for a
triaxial damage to a total strain of 4% under constant
strain rate loading condition and 10 MPa confine-
ment, compared to a reduction of 25% under uniaxial
damage to a total strain of only 2%. Therefore the
evaluation of elastic modulus of damaged material
must take into account of the effect of confining
pressure and consequent sintering and healing of
damage in grains (Singh, 1993). Since the elastic
strain is less than 10% of the total strain for damaged
ice in compression (Xiao, 1991), the specification of
the elastic modulus is not critical to the overall
model output. In this work the effect of damage on
the elastic properties of ice is, therefore, ignored
under high triaxial confinement.
 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
3.4. Creep enhancement
The effect of cracks on the steady-state creep rate
for the two dimensional case was examined by
Weertman (1969) using dislocation theory. Approxi-
mate solutions were given for materials obeying the
power law creep equation. His result for low crack
density was used by Sinha (1988, Sinha (1989). The
enhancement of cracks on creep was given as
i: ~ = ?:~o(1 + 2 ~ r N a Z n t / Z ) ( ( r / ~ r o ) ' ;
where N is the number of cracks per unit area and a
is half of the crack length. The creep strain is
enhanced by a factor of 27rNa2n ~/2. For high crack
density (a2N>> 1), Weertman noted that the creep
rates must be on the order of
~.c ~ ao.n( a2 N ) n+ l
where a is half of the crack size and N is the crack
density, which means that the creep enhancement is
on the order of ( a 2 N ) "+ 1.
An exponential form was proposed by Jordaan
and McKenna (1989) to estimate the effect of cracks
on the creep rate by introducing
= ~0exp(lgU)
where [3 is a constant. Schapery (1981) gives a
theoretical basis of this form. The equation models
the creep enhancement on inelastic strain. Function
exp(13N) is actually equal to the series
z¢
bkN k
k=O
where bk are constants, so it will approximate the
linear solution for small N and covers all orders of n
for N "+t at large N. This expression was redefined
as ~ = ~0exp(13D) in McKenna et al. (1990). The
creep strain rates of damaged ice are defined here as
eij.d, = k/djexp ( 13d Sd )
and
ei~ = ~jexp([3¢ S~)
where the primes refer to the parameters for the
cracked ice; and ~dj and ~icj are given in Eq. 25 and
313
Eq. 26, respectively. The parameters [34, [3c are
creep enhancement factors.
3.5. Dilatation o f ice
Only in recent years has more attention been paid
to the dilatation of ice on loading, especially when
cracking and damage is induced. The density of ice
a2N<< 1 in the crushed layer adjacent to the indenter
(Frederking, 1990; Frederking et al., 1990) was less
(39)
than that of parent ice, indicating that dilatation due
to the cracking and pulverizing of the ice had oc-
curred during the interaction process. Dilatation was
also observed and measured in small scale compres-
sive experiments at constant strain rates by Wang
(1981) and Dorris (1989), and at constant stress by
Sinha (1989).
(40) Triaxial compressive tests on freshwater ice were
conducted at Memorial University. Singh (1993) pre-
sented an expression to estimate inelastic dilatation,
based on the method of complementary strain energy
and calibrated with the measurements of volumetric
strains for both intact and damaged ice under differ-
ent confinements. The proposed function was given
as
(41)
f2
Ev=----s(e--ee), O'u~O (44)
P
where f2 is a constant, and e and e e are the
equivalent total and elastic strain respectively.
Note that the volumetric strain here is not the
result of elastic deformation (elastic compaction or
expansion depending on the stress state). Assuming
the material to be incompressible for creep deforma-
tion, the dilatation is due to microcracking and void
formation. In Eq. 12 and Eq. 13, there are two
volumetric strain components %d and %, c which are
related to delayed elastic and secondary creep strain,
respectively. They are, again, not the results of elas-
(42)
tic bulk deformation, rather due to inelastic deforma-
tion. In this study the two volumetric strain compo-
nents are defined as
(43)
~d=_f2sOd ' try<0 (45)
P
314 J. Xiao, I.J. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322

and w h e r e e• iej is t h e t e n s o r o f e l a s t i c s t r a i n rate; eij

-dr and
b~i are the t e n s o r s o f d e v i a t o r i c d e l a y e d e l a s t i c a n d
• c= -
% si, c , or._<0 (46) s e c o n d a r y c r e e p s t r a i n rate, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
P
F o r p r a c t i c a l i t y , in t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t h e s e c o m p o -
n e n t s h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d as ~ = ~ + ~ , .
4. Multiaxial compressive tests
F i n a l l y , the t e n s o r o f total s t r a i n rate is e x p r e s s e d
by
T r i a x i a l tests, u t i l i z i n g a v a r i e t y o f c o n f i n i n g p r e s -
6ij
. .= . ~'-ij ~- ella,+ O;I + ~ i i ( ~ , )
. (47) sures, h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d at M e m o r i a l U n i v e r s i t y

1ol Jl,oMP.
/ ~7MPa i1~
5 ........ i ......................... 5MP~ ................................. i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

r l MPRn I1 ,MPall 'MP II 'MP.II , MPR

0/.. fl II i II n ill fl II fl II ~, I1
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time (see)

0.6 ...................... ,.................................. i....................... ~................................... ~...................................

.=_ o.4 ............... ...................... .......................... ........................ ! ................................

o.2 ............... ..................... ................ .........................................................

0 " o. i ~
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time (see)

f/3
ii ...........................

1MPaF1
~.........................

:: U 1MPal[
s M P a . . . .

1 MPatl
tJ .................................................

IMPa
Oo n ,56o11 n 10~1, r] ]1
1500 fl 2ooo 2500
Time (see)

i.g
0408
I
0.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :................................. i. . . . . . . . . . . ~........................... : ........................

o.2 .......................................... ~ ..................................

500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Time (sec)
Fig. 5. Applied stress history and strain responses of: intact ice (top diagrams), and damaged ice (bottom diagrams), for creep tests.
Confining pressure of 10 MPa in both cases. Detailed examination of strain development with time shows that creep strains are significantly
increased by damage, as compared to elastic strains', see, for example, Figs. 7 and 8.
 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322 315

Fig. 6. Thin section photos of intact and damaged ice samples: (a) intact ice; (b) damaged ice (after Stone et al., 1996).
316 .1. Xiao. I.d. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322

0.2~ 1 !

Intact Ice i
o.21-.................... ...................
i ..................... ............
i ....................

] : i I
: : : !"'ii
0.15 ..................... : ...................... : .....................~ .....................~ .....................t ........................................................

! • i i if
0.1
R

: i/ i iA ~.. : I
i., ,I i 7/I " ........ . /
0.05 i: 1 :~ it .............~:1
: It.. i ........
..,..~ i ~
'-' .... ~"" "..... t
..................

!
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
(~-)
Fig. 7. Strain responses of intact and d a m a g e d ice for creep tests under stress differences from I to 3 M P a and c o n f i n e m e n t of 10 MPa.

(Stone et al.. 1996). These tests were designed to appropriate in considering the short duration of load
investigate the deformation of ice, the influence of cycles in field experiments (Frederking et al., 1990).
cracks and level of damage on the creep response, In some cases, this initial sequence was followed by
and to obtain the relevant material constants for higher pulse loads, up to l0 MPa, for a longer
constitutive modelling. The test results were also duration, 100 seconds, and a longer relaxation pe-
used to verify the theoretical model. riod, 800 seconds.
All tests were conducted using laboratory pre- Some typical test results are now presented. The
pared granular ice following the procedure detailed upper two boxes of Fig. 5 show the applied stress
by Stone et al. (1989). The ice produced is transpar- history and strain response of a constant stress creep
ent with minimal bubble content. Density measure- test, conducted on an intact ice sample and with a
ments of 0 . 9 1 7 + 0 . 0 0 0 5 g c m - 3 at - 4 ° C were
obtained. An adequate quantitative indication of the
low bubble content achieved (Stone et al., 1989) is
difficult to obtain. Test specimens used measured
70 + 0 . 0 5 mm diameter by 1 7 5 _ 1.0 mm length O2 .7i
with a mean grain diameter of 3.5 mm. Compression 4"b

tests were conducted on both intact and damaged • o.ls i/ i

specimens. A variety of levels of damage were cre-
ated by compressing otherwise intact samples at a I
strain rate of 10 4 s - I to a total strain of 2 or 4 ~ 0.1
percent under either uniaxial or triaxial confinement
of 5, l0 or 20 MPa. This resulted in a variety of
0.05
damage states. Both intact and damaged ice samples
were then subjected to a sequence of 1, 2 and 3 MPa
load " p u l s e s " (~rj - ~r3, instant load and unload) for
a period of 20 seconds followed by either a 200 or 6oo .1o 62o 63o
400 second relaxation period. The reason for loading Time (~c.)
only 20 seconds is that these tests were designed to Fig. 8. Strain responses o f intact and d a m a g e d ice for creep tests
investigate the short-term response of ice, such as, under same stress difference o f 3 M P a and confinement of 10
elastic and delayed elastic strain components. This is MPa.
 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322 317

0.2 ................a0Mea..+i.................i................................................................................................................

0.15

0.1

0.05

R
00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (lec.)

Fig. 9. Strain response of damaged ice under same stress difference of 3 MPa but with differentconfinementof 10 and 20 MPa.

confinement of 10 MPa. This test sequence is, in tO a total strain of 4%, and to a number of 20 :and
fact, a series of creep tests, in which each creep test 100 second load pulses. It can be seen that the grain
consists of a 20 second load pulse. The lower two structure of intact ice has been broken down due to
boxes of Fig. 5 show a creep test conducted on a damage. The average grain size of damaged ice is
damaged sample with the same confinement of 10 smaller than that of its original dimension.
MPa. The sample was damaged by subjecting it to a These creep tests provide information on the vis-
constant strain rate loading of 10 -+ s -1 to a total cosity of the ice. Fig. 7 shows the strain responses of
strain of 2% under uniaxial loading prior to the test intact and damaged ice at stress differences of 1, 2
sequence of Fig. 5. Fig. 6 shows thin sections of and 3 MPa, where the damaged sample had been
intact and damaged ice samples, the latter having prepared at a constant strain rate of I0 -+ s - t to a
been damaged under triaxial confinement of 20 MPa total strain of 4% under 10 MPa confinement. Com-

O.5 .............................................. ~............... ~ .................................... ~.................. "......................................................

i. i ! ~ Teat R.~ult i
o.4 ....I .M~L ........ if' ................ ! .................. ! .................. + ................. + .................. 1.................

i ~ .... ~ m°deliReault i

............... 4 .................. i .................. ÷ ................. ~ .................. i .................

t i
.} | z : : :

0.2 " "~-................:~................":i.................

5 MP. i i i i i

" 2 + M P , , ................... +:................. +.................. +.................

0 I I .....
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(lee.)

Fig. 10. Comparisonof creep test results with model results on intact ice under stress differencesfrom 1 to 10 MPa and confinementof 1O
MPa+
318 J. X i a o , l.J. J o r d a a n / C o l d R e g i o n s S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y 2 4 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 3 0 5 - 3 2 2

paring the creep response (delayed elastic strain plus elastic components in intact ice dominate for short
secondary creep strain, ed + ~c) of the tests of intact loading period. The strain response of damaged ice
and damaged ice in Fig. 8, it is seen that the has a significant percentage of secondary creep, and
presence of damage significantly influences the creep the creep strain rate, ~d + ~ (which is the slope of
strain. The creep strain of damaged ice is more than the strain versus time curve in Figs. 7 and 8) is much
3 times that of intact ice. It should be emphasized higher than that of intact ice. This implies that
that detailed examination of the development with cracking and damage significantly enhances the creep
time of the strain components shows that the elastic response of ice (see also Stone et al., 1989; Jordaan
strains are relatively unaffected by damage in all et al., 1990a, Jordaan et al., 1990b). Fig. 9 shows the
cases, as compared to the creep strains. In Fig. 7, it strain responses of damaged ice under the same
is seen that the strain of the intact ice is largely stress difference (~1 - or3) of 3 MPa, but with differ-
recovered, especially under lower stresses. This sup- ent confinement, 10 MPa and 20 MPa. It shows
ports the conclusion that the elastic and delayed clearly that the high confinement will suppress the

i i [ i !~, i i ....+- Modeti~sult !

i ! '~ i i i - i ::

........ p .................. !. . . . . . . ,,;..! .................. ! .................. ,~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! .................. ! .................

0.05 ....... " ................... . . ~ . . i . ,~_. ._" . ..................

. . i..................
~ . ". .................
. i ' .................. i.....~2;.-..;.2

0 i I ": I '~--- . . . .
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
T',~. (see.)

" ! ....
0.9 ............................................................................. ~................................. i.................................................................
i ]

07 i.. i ZSI]I... !

~ 0.5 ........ i ....................... ,,:......i ................................. i .................................. ! .................................. i ................................

0.4
i
....................
/" i
7 " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! .................................
i i
'.....................................................................
~:
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

...... i ....... " ..................... i .............................. i ............................... L.............................

0.3 ! / x. i i

0.2 ........ i +,....... . .---~ ': "" •

0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Time (~)

Fig. 11. C o m p a r i s o n o f c r e e p test results w i t h m o d e l results on d a m a g e d ice, u n d e r stress d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m 1 to 5 M P a a n d c o n f i n e m e n t o f

10 M P a , f o r a l o a d i n g p e r i o d of: 2 0 s e c o n d s (top d i a g r a m ) , a n d 100 s e c o n d s ( b o t t o m d i a g r a m ) .
 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322 319

,$, 16
2o?A
24 Table 1
Parameters used in the damage model
Description
Elastic modulus
Parameter Value
E 9500 MPa
o_ Elastic stiffness in Kelvin unit E~ 3800 MPa
" /// I~/rEsr Poisson's ratio u 0.3
Primary creep reference rate ~d0 1.0 × 10"-5 s - i
at - 10°C
~m 8 EL Creep exponent for Kelvin unit n 1.5
TEST ~ ~ ~ . Secondary creep ref. rate •c
% 1.76X10-Ts-i
4 at - 10°C
Creep exponent for Maxwell unit m 2.7
°o ,b z'o 3~ ,'o 5o Damage constant fm 30
Damage constant fk 5000
TIME (see)
Volumetric constant f2 0.11
Fig. 12. Comparison of test and model results on the strain Reference stress tr0 1 MPa
response of damaged ice under same stress difference of 3 MPa Damage exponent qm 6
but with different confinement of 10 and 20 MPa. Damage exponent qk 3
Creep enhancement parameter 13d 2
Creep enhancement parameter 13c 4
c r a c k s a n d c l o s e t h e m so that t h e ice w o u l d b e c o m e
stiffer a n d less c r e e p strain w o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d .

s p e c i f i c a t i o n in the A B A Q U S finite e l e m e n t struc-

5. Model implementation and verification tural a n a l y s i s p r o g r a m f o r n u m e r i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n .
T h e p a r a m e t e r s o f the d a m a g e m o d e l are all cali-
T h e m u l t i a x i a l m o d e l h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d in b r a t e d f r o m the triaxial test results. B y fitting the
F O R T R A N c o d e a n d i m p l e m e n t e d as a u s e r m a t e r i a l t i m e strain r e c o r d o f c r e e p test o n i n t a c t ice (see Fig,

0.1

-0.1

-0.2

_¢ -0.'

~ -0.,
o

~i --0.5

--0.6

--0.7

-0.8 ................................................................................................

-0.I
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
T'.~e (~c.)
Fig. 13. Comparison of test and model results on the volumetric strain response of constant strain rate test under 5 MPa confinement.
320 J. Xiao, 1.J. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
10
9 .... i •
8
~ 5
~ 4
0~ 50 100
Fig. 14. Comparison of constant strain rate test results with model results (under 5 MPa triaxial confinement).
10), the primary and secondary creep reference rates,
e~ and ~ can be estimated. Then, by fitting creep
test on damaged ice (see Fig. l la, b for example),
the damage constants, f,~, fk, and the creep enhance-
ment parameters, [~d and [3c can be obtained. Fig. 12
shows the predictions of strain response of damaged
ice under 3 MPa load pulse and 10 MPa confine-
ment. The test results for volumetric strain are com-
pared with the model prediction in Fig. 13. The
stress-strain relation predicted by the model is then
compared with the result of constant strain rate test
under 5 MPa confinement, as shown in Fig. 14. All
parameters used in the model are listed in Table 1.
6. Discussion and conclusions
The present study represents an examination of
the role of the damage process in ice. The develop-
ment and implementation of an ice damage model
have been documented in the above sections. Triax-
ial compression tests on both intact and damaged ice
have been described. Investigations on the test re-
sults have shown clear evidence of the enhancement
of the creep strain due to cracks and damage, as also
influenced by the triaxial confinement.
The influence of damage on mechanical proper-
ties of ice has been included by modelling the creep
tests on both intact and damaged ice. The model
predictions of the strain-stress relations for both
!
li0 200 250 300 350 4{")
Time (sec.)
constant stress and constant strain rate tests show
good agreement with the measured results.
The present study is an initial one, aimed at
representing the main features of the experimental
results. The correlation between theory and experi-
ment is reasonable, but could be improved by con-
sidering (for example) more state variables for dam-
age, and more units in the viscoelastic representa-
tion. The emphasis has been on strain developed in
the first 100 s after application of load to intact and
damaged specimens. This is in response to the need
to analyze load cycles observed in ice-structure
interaction (e.g. Frederking et al., 1990).
Based on the analysis of the experimental results
and the model simulations detailed in this work,
some general conclusions can be made as follows:
1, Damage consists of microcracking, recrystalliza-
tion and possible pressure melting. The presence
of cracks and damage significantly enhances the
creep responses (delayed elastic strain plus sec-
ondary strain). The creep strain of damaged ice
can be several times larger than that of intact ice.
The nonlinearity of creep strain with stress re-
sulted in a response that is often dominated by
viscous strains, for the higher stresses.
2. The idealized ice damage model, consisting of a
combination of Maxwell and Kelvin units with a
nonlinear dashpot in each, has been shown to be
appropriate for describing the ice behaviour under
compressive stress and short durations.
 J. Xiao, LJ. Jordaan / Cold Regions Science and Technology 24 (1996) 305-322
3. Creep strains d o m i n a t e the analysis for high de-
grees o f damage. The elastic strain is relatively
small, and the specifications o f elastic moduli in
the m o d e l are, therefore, not critical, while the
determination o f viscosities b e c o m e s significant.
These values are influenced by the existence o f
d a m a g e , c o n f i n i n g pressure and loading rate.
4. The ice d a m a g e m o d e l can p r o v i d e realistic re-
sults on time-strain, strain-stress histories, d a m -
age progression, under different loading condi-
tions, such as loading rates, confinement, stress
and d a m a g e levels.
Further research is r e c o m m e n d e d to investigate
the effect o f each individual microprocess, such as
pressure melting and recrystallization on the m e c h a n -
ical properties o f ice. The effects o f loading under
triaxial conditions, for example, with elastic strain
s h o w i n g small change due to stress history, could
require m o r e than one d a m a g e measure. The present
a p p r o a c h has been pragmatic, concentrating on the
d o m i n a n t effects. In the s a m e vein, the creep re-
sponse for longer durations could require m o r e elab-
orate models, for e x a m p l e m o r e K e l v i n units, or the
use o f the expression o f e ( t ) = A t r n t m for transient
c o m p o n e n t o f p e r m a n e n t creep strain should be in-
vestigated.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this research f r o m the Natu-
ral Sciences and E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Council o f
Canada, as well as M o b i l Oil Canada Properties is
gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e d .
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