Chapter 2

1D heat conduction problems

2.1 1D heat conduction equation

When we consider one-dimensional heat conduction problems of a homogeneous isotropic solid,

the Fourier equation simplifies to the form:

𝜕𝑇 𝜕)𝑇
𝑐𝜌 =  𝜆 ) + 𝑄 (2.1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
If there is no heat generation, as is usually the case, such equation reduces to:

𝜕𝑇 𝜕)𝑇
=𝑘 ) (2.2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
.
where 𝑘 =   . Furthermore, if the temperature distribution does not depend on time:
/0

𝜕)𝑇
=0 (2.3)
𝜕𝑥 )
The stationary case of heat conduction in a one-dimension domain, like the one represented in
figure 2.1, is particular simple to be solved.

Figure 2.1: the temperature within a solid media with prescribed Dirichelet boundary conditions

In fact, the general solution of the equation is in this case:

𝑇 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 (2.4)
with A and B coefficients to be determined by imposing the boundary conditions.
Prescribed temperatures at both left and right surfaces:

𝑇456 =   𝑇7
(2.5)
𝑇458 =   𝑇9
we have:

;< =;>
𝑇7 = 𝐵 and 𝑇9 = 𝐴𝑙 +   𝑇7   or = 𝐴   (2.6)
8

In conclusion:

𝑇9 − 𝑇7
𝑇 𝑥 =   𝑥 +   𝑇7 (2.7)
𝑙

Prescribed temperature at left surface ad assigned heat flux at the right surface.

Figure 2.2: the temperature within a solid media with prescribed temperature at left surface ad assigned
heat flux at the right surface

𝑞AB + 𝑞C − 𝑞DEF =  0   ⟵ steady  state  

𝑞AB = 𝑞458      ,      𝑞C = 𝑞9      ,      𝑞DEF =  0  

𝑞458 + 𝑞9 =  0  

𝑇456 =   𝑇7  

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞458 +   𝑞9 = 0           →             −𝜆 + 𝑞9 =  0           →            𝜆 =   𝑞9      
𝑑𝑥 458 𝑑𝑥 458

𝜆𝑑𝑇 =   𝑞9 𝑑𝑥  

𝜆[𝑇]64 =   𝑞9 [𝑥]64  

𝜆 𝑇 𝑥 −𝑇 0 =   𝑞9 𝑥 − 0  
𝜆 𝑇 𝑥 − 𝑇7 =   𝑞9 𝑥  

𝑞9
𝑇 𝑥 =   𝑥 +   𝑇7  
𝜆

Prescribed temperature at right side and assigned heat flux at left side

   

Figure 2.3: the temperature within a solid media with prescribed temperature at right side and assigned
heat flux at left side

𝑞AB + 𝑞C − 𝑞DEF =  0   ⟵ steady  state  

𝑞AB = 0      ,      𝑞C = 𝑞7      ,      𝑞DEF =   𝑞456  

𝑞7 − 𝑞456 =  0  

𝑇458 =   𝑇9  

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞456   =   𝑞7         →             −𝜆 =   𝑞7           →            𝜆 =   −𝑞7  
𝑑𝑥 456 𝑑𝑥 456

𝜆𝑑𝑇 =   −𝑞7 𝑑𝑥  

𝜆[𝑇]84 =   −𝑞7 [𝑥]84  

𝜆 𝑇 𝑙 −𝑇 𝑥 = −  𝑞7 𝑙 − 𝑥  

𝜆 𝑇9 − 𝑇 𝑥 = −  𝑞7 𝑙 − 𝑥  

𝑞7
𝑇 𝑥 =   𝑙 − 𝑥 +   𝑇9  
𝜆

 
Convective and prescribed heat flux at both surfaces

Figure 2.4: the temperature distribution with convective and prescribed heat fluxes

Governing equation:

𝑑) 𝑇
=0 (2.8)
𝑑𝑥 )
Boundary conditions:

T
𝑑𝑇
𝑞S4F + 𝑞7 − 𝑞456 = 0                   →                 ℎ7 𝑇V>   − 𝑇 +   𝑞7 + 𝜆 = 0                          𝑜𝑛      𝑥 = 0 (2.9)
𝑑𝑥

TT
𝑑𝑇
𝑞458 +   𝑞9 −   𝑞S4F = 0                       →               −𝜆 +   𝑞9 −   ℎ9 𝑇 − 𝑇V<                          𝑜𝑛      𝑥 = 𝑙 (2.10)
𝑑𝑥
where 𝑇V> and 𝑇V< are the temperatures of the surrounding media, 𝑞7 and 𝑞9 are surface heat
generations per unit area per unit time, ℎ7 and ℎ9 are the heat transfer coefficients and subscripts
a and b denote boundaries at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑙, respectively.
A general solution of eq. 2.8 is:

𝑇 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 (2.11)
By substitution of the solution in eq. 2.9 and 2.10 we obtain:

𝜆𝐴 +   𝑞7 =   ℎ7 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 − 𝑇∞𝑎                  
 
−𝜆𝐴 +   𝑞9 =   ℎ9 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 − 𝑇∞𝑏              

𝜆𝐴 + 𝑞7 =   ℎ7 𝐵 − 𝑇∞𝑎                          𝑝𝑒𝑟  𝑥 = 0  
 
−𝜆𝐴 +   𝑞9 =   ℎ9 𝐴𝑙 + 𝐵 −   𝑇∞𝑏                  𝑝𝑒𝑟  𝑥 = 𝑙

The coefficients A and B are:

𝑞9 𝑞
ℎ7 ℎ9 [ 𝑇∞𝑏 − 𝑇∞𝑎   + −   7 ]
ℎ9 ℎ7
𝐴=  
𝜆 ℎ7 + ℎ9 +   ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙
 𝑞9 𝑞7
𝑞7 𝜆ℎ9 𝑇∞𝑏 − 𝑇∞𝑎   + (ℎ9 −   ℎ7 )
𝐵 =   𝑇∞𝑎   + +  
ℎ7 𝜆 ℎ7 + ℎ9 +   ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙

If no surface heat generation        𝑞7 =   𝑞9 = 0    

ℎ9 (ℎ7 𝑥 +  𝜆)
𝑇 𝑥 =   𝑇V>   + (𝑇V< −   𝑇V>  ) (2.12)
𝜆 ℎ7 +   ℎ9 + ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙  
It is no possible to find a stationary solution by imposing an heat flux condition on both sides. In
fact if 𝑞𝑎 and 𝑞𝑏 are not equal, the temperature response is not stationary since in presence of a
variation of heat content, the temperature of the body should vary with time. If 𝑞𝑎 =   𝑞𝑏 the slope
of the line is determined and the difference of temperature only can be obtained by no assumption
on the temperature value. The case is analog to the mechanical response of an elastic spring free
in the space at the end of which two forces with opposite sign are applied → rigid body motion

 
2.2 1D heat conduction: transient

Let us now consider a transient problem in which the temperature at x=0 is equal to Ta , the
temperature at x=l is equal to zero and the initial condition is set as T=Ti(x). The governing
equations read as follows
𝜕𝑇 𝜆 𝜕)𝑇 𝜆
=   ,                   𝑘 = (2.13)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐𝜌 𝜕𝑥 ) 𝑐𝜌

𝑇456 = 𝑇7

𝑇458 = 0

𝑇F56 =   𝑇A 𝑥

The solution is found by separation of variables, as we assume that the temperature can be
expressed by the product of a function of position only f(x) and a function of time g(t)

T ( x, t ) = f ( x ) g (t ) , (2.14)
by substituting in the governing equation we obtain

dg (t ) d 2 f ( x)
f ( x) = kg (t ) , (2.15)
dt dx 2
that can also be written as

1 dg (t ) 1 d 2 f ( x)
= , (2.16)
kg (t ) dt f ( x) dx 2
since the first member does not depend upon x, the second one does not depend upon t and the
two members are equal, they can be set equal to a constant.
By setting the constant equal to -s2 we obtain two separate equations

dg (t )
+ ks 2 g (t ) = 0, (2.17)
dt
And

d 2 f ( x) 2
+ s f ( x) = 0. (2.18)
dx 2
The general solution of the first equation can be easily obtained by searching solution of the kind
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑒 bF and by finding the characteristic equation

α + ks 2 = 0, (2.19)
that leads to the general solution
 fF
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑐c for 𝑠 ) = 0, 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑐) 𝑒 =eC for 𝑠 ) ≠ 0 (2.20)
The general solution of the second equation can be sought in the same way or set directly as
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐i 𝑥 +   𝑐j   for 𝑠) = 0
(2.21)
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐k sin 𝑠𝑥 +   𝑐n cos 𝑠𝑥   for 𝑠) ≠ 0
In conclusion the general solution of the original equation, that should be valid for arbitrary
values of s can be written as
fF
𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 =eC 𝐴  sin 𝑠𝑥 +  𝐵 cos 𝑠𝑥   + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 (2.22)
with

A = c2c5 , B = c2c6 , C = c1c3 , D = c1c4 . (2.23)

We now impose the satisfaction of boundary conditions by substituting then in the latter
expression:
f
𝑇 0, 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑒 =eC F + 𝐷 =   𝑇7 ,
fF (2.24)
𝑇 𝑙, 𝑡 = 𝑒 =eC 𝐴  𝑠𝑖𝑛  𝑠𝑙   + 𝐵 cos 𝑠𝑙 + 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐷 = 0
f
In order to satisfy the first equation for every value of t since 𝑒 =eC F   is never equal to zero it is
necessary that

B = 0, D = Ta . (2.25)
For the second equation we have now
2
Ae− ks t sin sl + Cl + Ta = 0 (2.26)
that can only be satisfied for
;>
sin 𝑠𝑙 = 0 and 𝐶 = − (2.27)
8

The values of k for which sin 𝑠𝑙 = 0 are

nπ
sn = n = 1, 2,3... (2.28)
l
they are the eigenvalues of our problem.
The temperature can then be expanded in an infinite series of form

⎛ x⎞ ∞
T ( x, t ) = Ta ⎜1 − ⎟ + ∑ An e − ksn t sin sn x,
2

⎝ l ⎠ n =1 (2.29)

when An are unknown coefficients still to be determined. We now impose the initial condition
𝑇 𝑥, 0 = 𝑇A (𝑥) by substitution in the preceding equation we obtain
 V
𝑥
𝑇A 𝑥 − 𝑇7 1− =   𝐴B sin 𝑠B 𝑥 (2.30)
𝑙
B5c

In order to determine the coefficients An corresponding to initial condition we can profit of the
properties of the sinusoidal function. In fact by multiplying both sides of the equation by
sin 𝑠u 𝑥  and integrating it from 0 to l (that is by finding the value of the scalar product between
the terms at the first and the second member of the equation and the generic sinusoidal function
sin 𝑠u 𝑥  ) we obtain:
8
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠B 𝑥 sin 𝑠u 𝑥𝑑𝑥 =  0              for        𝑚 ≠ 𝑛  
6

8 (2.31)
)
𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠B 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =                for        𝑚 = 𝑛  
6 2

And, for the coefficients An

2 l⎡ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
An = ∫
l ⎣
0 ⎢Ti ( x) − Ta ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ sin sn xdx.
⎝ l ⎠⎦ (2.32)

In conclusion the expression of the temperature can be written as

⎛ x⎞ 2 ∞ l⎡ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
T ( x, t ) = Ta ⎜1 − ⎟ + ∑{∫ ⎢Ti ( x) − Ta ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ sin sn xdx}sin sn xe − ksn t .
2

⎝ l ⎠ l n =1 0 ⎣ ⎝ l ⎠⎦ (2.33)

From the form of the solution it is clear that the first term represents the stationary response that
will eventually reached after a transient. The second term is on the contrary a time-dependent
one, with the tendency of decaying to zero as time increases. In the case that different boundary
conditions are imposed, say on both sides x=0,l imposed heat flux by convection, as expressed
below

Figure 2.5: The temperature profile within a solid media which separates two semi-infinite fluid media.
𝑇V> and 𝑇V< correspond, respectively, to the temperature of the external media for x<0 and for x>l.
 T
𝑞S4F =   ℎ7 𝑇V>   − 𝑇
TT (2.34)
𝑞S4F =   ℎ9 𝑇 − 𝑇V<  

with

T
𝑑𝑇
𝑞S4F + 𝑞7 − 𝑞 = 0  , 𝑞7 = 0           →           ℎ7 𝑇V>   − 𝑇 + 𝜆 = 0                          on      𝑥 = 0 (2.35)
𝑑𝑥

TT
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 +   𝑞9 −   𝑞S4F = 0  , 𝑞9 = 0       →         −𝜆 −   ℎ9 𝑇 − 𝑇V<   = 0                    on      𝑥 = 𝑙 (2.36)
𝑑𝑥
It is possible to use the same expression of the solution obtained before:
fF
𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 =eC 𝐴  𝑠𝑖𝑛  𝑠𝑥   + 𝐵 cos 𝑠𝑥   + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 (2.37)
For obtaining the solution in this case similar steps can be followed to the ones used for the
previous set of boundary conditions. The solution in this case will result as follows

ℎ9 ℎ7 𝑥 + 𝜆
𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑇V> + 𝑇V< − 𝑇V> +
𝜆 ℎ7 + ℎ9 + ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙
V
𝜆) 𝑠B) + ℎ9) ℎ7 sin 𝑠B 𝑥 + 𝜆𝑠B cos 𝑠B 𝑥 f
+2 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
𝑒 =eC F ..
𝑙 𝜆 𝑠B + ℎ7 𝜆 𝑠B + ℎ9 + 𝑘 ℎ7 + ℎ9 𝜆 𝑠B + ℎ7 ℎ9 (2.38)
B5c

8
ℎ9 ℎ7 𝑥 + 𝜆
𝑇A 𝑥 − 𝑇V> + 𝑇V< − 𝑇V> ℎ7 sin 𝑠B 𝑥
6 𝜆 ℎ7 + ℎ9 + ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙
+ 𝜆𝑠B cos 𝑠B 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
with sn being any positive root of the transcendental equation

λ s ( ha + hb )
tan sl = . (2.39)
λ 2 s 2 − ha hb
The stationary part of solution

ℎ9 ℎ7 𝑥 + 𝜆
𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡 → ∞ = 𝑇V> + 𝑇V< − 𝑇V> (2.40)
𝜆 ℎ7 + ℎ9 + ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙
can be further examined. In fact, the boundary condition in x=0 reads

𝑑𝑇
𝑞7 = 𝜆 =   ℎ7 𝑇 − 𝑇V>   (2.41)
𝑑𝑥
if the conductivity of the material is low or the convention thermal coefficient is high, the
temperature on the wall reaches the temperature of the fluid 𝑇V> . In fact, with low λ and high ha
.
we have ≪ 1 and
{>
 𝜆 𝜕𝑇
= (𝑇 − 𝑇V> ) (2.42)
ℎ7 𝜕𝑥
with the first term of the equation equal to zero and 𝑇 = 𝑇V> . This results can also obtained from
the above expression of the stationary part of the solution in presence of convective conditions
on both sides, that can be written as

ℎ9 ℎ7 𝑥 + 𝜆
𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑇V> + 𝑇V< − 𝑇V>
𝜆 ℎ7 + ℎ9 + ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙
𝜆
ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑥 +
ℎ7
= 𝑇V> + 𝑇V< − 𝑇V>
𝜆 ℎ7 + ℎ9 + ℎ7 ℎ9 𝑙 (2.43)
𝜆
𝑥+
ℎ7
= 𝑇V> + 𝑇V< − 𝑇V>
1 1
𝜆 + +𝑙
ℎ9 ℎ7
. .
and, considering the same assumption ≪ 1 and ≪ 1 we finally have
{> {<

4
𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑇V> + 𝑇V< − 𝑇V> . (2.44)
8

That is the temperature of the media at both sides of the solid can be directly assumed as the wall
temperature. It is also interesting to note that, also with entering fluxes at both sides qa and qb,
the temperature of the body T in the stationary response cannot have temperatures higher than
the highest of the media by which the body is surrounded in perfect agreement with the physics
of heat transfer. It is also obvious that, also in the presence of an entering flux, the body cannot
increase indefinitely its temperature that cannot increase higher than the one from which the flux
is generated.

Figure 2.6: The temperature within a wall with prescribed Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions

The 1D thermal behaviour just described can be applied to the case of an indefinite plate of
thickness l with the side at isothermal condition where either the temperature, also variable with
the time t, or the heat flux can be applied. The same results are also valid for a one-dimensional
solid (like a bar or a cable) with uniform section, provided that the lateral surface of the bar is
isolated, that is no heat flux is present through it.
2.3 Honeycomb panel

Figure 2.7: Structure of a honeycomb sandwich panel: assembled view (A), and exploded view (with
the two face sheets B, and the honeycomb core C). Ribbons run along the x direction, and are glued side
by side in counter-phase along the y direction as detailed.

Honeycomb panels (Figure 2.7) are structural elements with great stiffness-to-mass ratio, widely
used in aerospace vehicles. Heat transfer through honeycomb panels is non-isotropic and difficult
to predict. If the effect of the cover faces is taken aside, and convection and radiation within the
honeycomb cells can be neglected in comparison with conduction along the ribbons (what is the
actual case in aluminium honeycombs), heat transfer across each of the dimensions is:
∆𝑇4 3𝛿
𝑄4 = 𝜆𝐹4 𝐴4          with        𝐹4 =
𝑙4 2𝑠
∆𝑇ƒ 𝛿
𝑄ƒ = 𝜆𝐹ƒ 𝐴ƒ          with        𝐹ƒ = (2.45)
𝑙ƒ 𝑠
∆𝑇„ 8𝛿
𝑄„ = 𝜆𝐹„ 𝐴„          with        𝐹„ =
𝑙„ 3𝑠
where F is the factor modifying solid body conduction (the effective conductive area divided by
the plate cross-section area), which is proportional to ribbon thickness, δ, divided by cell size, s
(distance between opposite sides in the hexagonal cell, not hexagon side, a, in Figure 2.7; s = 3a),
and depends on the direction considered: x is along the ribbons (which are glued side by side), y
is perpendicular to the sides, and z is perpendicular to the panel. For instance, for the rectangular
unit cell pointed out in Figure 2.7, of cross-section area 3as, the solid area is 8aδ, and the quotient
is Fz=(8/3)δ/s.
Example
Evaluate the mean core-panel values of density and thermal conductivity through-the-
thickness for a core made of aluminium foil with ρ=2700 kg/m3, λ=150 W/(m·K), thickness
δ=30 μm and s=3 mm cell pattern.

Solution.
Fz = (8/3)(δ/s) = (8/3)(0.03/3) = 0.027

ρhoneycomb  = ρ· Fz = 2700·0.027=73 kg/ m3

λz honeycomb = λ· Fz = 150·0.027 = 4 W/(m·K).