Computer Engineering Department, Shree Swami Atmanand Saraswati Institute of Technology Surat AI Techniques • Describe and match • Goal Reduction • Tree Searching • Constraint Satisfaction • Generate and Test • Rule based system
• Behaves intelligently and can handle all limitations of knowledge
Biological Inspired AI Techniques • Neural Networks • Genetic Algorithms • Reinforcement learning Describe and Match • Model • is a description of a system’s behavior. • Finite state model • consists of a set of states, a set of input events and the relations between them. Given a current state and an input event you can determine the next current state of the model. • Computation model • is a finite state machine. It includes of a set of states, a set of start states, an input alphabet, and a transition function which maps input symbols and current states to a next state. Describe and Match • Representation of computational system • include start and end state descriptions and a set of possible transition rules that might be applied. Problem is to find the appropriate transition rules. • Transition relation: • If a pair of states (S, S') is such that one move takes the system from S to S', then the transition relation is represented by S => S’ • State-transition system • is called deterministic if every state has at most one successor; it is called non-deterministic if at least one state has more than one successor. • Examples of some possible transitions between states are shown for the Towers of Hanoi puzzle. Puzzle : Towers of Hanoi with only 2 disks • Solve the puzzle Initial state Goal state
• Move the disks from the leftmost post to the rightmost post while never putting a larger disk on top of a smaller one; • move one disk at a time, from one peg to another; middle post can be used for intermediate storage. • Play the game in the smallest number of moves possible. • Possible state transitions in the Towers of Hanoi puzzle with 2 disks. Tree Searching • Goal Reduction, Constraint Network • Tree searched through many nodes to obtain goal node and it gives the path from source node to destination node • If each node of the entire tree is explored while search for the goal node, it is called as exhaustive search. • All Searching techniques broadly classified as • Uninformed Searching • Informed Searching AI Searching Techniques Classification
Uninformed Searching Informed Searching
• Depth First Search • Hill Climbing • Breadth First Search • Best First Search • Uniform Cost Search • A* Search • Depth Limited Search • Iterative Depending A* • Iterative Deeping Search • Beam Search • Bidirectional Search • AO* Search Puzzle : Towers of Hanoi with only 2 disks • Solve the puzzle
• Shortest solution is the sequence of transitions from the top state downward to the lower left. Goal Reduction • Goal-reduction procedures are a special case of the procedural representations of knowledge in AI; an alternative to declarative, logic- based representations. • The process involves the hierarchical sub-division of goals into sub- goals, until the sub-goals which have an immediate solution are reached and said “goal has been satisfied”. • Goal-reduction process is illustrated in the form of AND/OR tree drawn upside- down. • Goal levels : Higher-level goals are higher in the tree, and lower- level goals are lower in the tree. • Arcs are directed from a higher-to-lower level node represents the reduction of higher-level goal to lower-level sub- goal. • Nodes at the bottom of the tree represent irreducible action goals. • An AND-OR tree/graph structure can represent relations between goals and sub- goals, alternative sub-goals and conjoint sub-goals. Example Goal Reduction • AND-OR tree/graph structure to represent facts such as “enjoyment”, “earning/save money”, “old age” etc. • The above AND-OR tree/graph structure describes • Hierarchical relationships between goals and sub goals • Alternative ways of trying to solve a goal • Conjoint sub-goals Constraint Satisfaction Techniques is a logical relation among variables. e.g. “circle is inside • Constraint the square” – The constraints relate objects without precisely specifying their positions; moving any one, the relation is still maintained. is a process of finding a solution to a set of • Constraint satisfaction constraints – the constraints express allowed values for variables and finding solution is evaluation of these variables that satisfies all constraints. Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) and its solution
• A Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) consists of :
• Variables, a finite set X = {x1 , . . . , xn } , • Domain, a finite set Di of possible values which each variable xi can take, • Constraints, a set of values that the variables can simultaneously satisfy the constraint (e.g. D1 != D2) • A solution to a CSP is an assignment of a value from its domain to every variable satisfying every constraint; that could be : • one solution, with no preference as to which one, • all solutions, • an optimal, or a good solution - Constraint Optimization Problem (COP). Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) and its solution
• Constraint satisfaction has application in Artificial Intelligence,
Programming Languages, Symbolic Computing, Computational Logic. Applied Areas of AI • Early work focused on • Formal tasks like game playing, proving theorems • Heuristic Search • Computer Vision • Adversarial Search (Games) • Fuzzy Logic • Natural Language Processing • Knowledge Representation • Planning • Learning Examples • Playing chess • Recognizing speech • Driving on the highway • Diagnosing diseases • Mowing the lawn • Translating languages • Answering questions • Data mining Areas of AI and Some Dependencies Knowledge Search Logic Representation
Machine Planning Learning
Expert NLP Vision Robotics Systems Classic AI Search Problems • 3*3*3 Rubik’s Cube Problem Classic AI Search Problems • 8 Puzzle N-Queens problem Definition • Place N queens on an N*N board so that no queen is attacking another queen. • A queen can move horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. • The problem can be solved with genetic algorithm for a n queens problem. (n is between 8 and 30)
Here N=8 Classic AI Search Problems • River Problem • On one bank of a river are three missionaries and three cannibals. There is one boat available that can hold up to two people and that they would like to use to cross the river. If the cannibals ever outnumber the missionaries on either of the river’s banks, the missionaries will get eaten. How can the boat be used to safely carry all the missionaries and cannibals across the river? • The initial state is shown to the right here, where black triangles represent missionaries and red circles represent cannibals. Classic AI Search Problems • River Problem Classic AI Search Problems • Research showed that intelligence requires knowledge and knowledge holds some less desirable properties like • It is enormous • It is tough to characterize precisely • It is dynamic • It is structured in a way that matches to the ways it will be used Heuristic Search • Very large search space • Large databases • Image sequences • Game playing • Algorithms • Guaranteed best answer • Can be slow – literally years • Heuristics • “Rules of thumb” • Very fast • Good answer likely, but not guaranteed! • Searching foreign intelligence for terrorist activity. Computer Vision • Computationally taxing • Millions of bytes of data per frame • Thirty frames per second • Computers are scalar / Images are multidimensional • Image Enhancement vs. Image Understanding • Can you find the terrorist in this picture? Adversarial Search • Game theory... • Two player, zero sum – checkers, chess, etc. • Minimax • My side is MAX • Opponent is MIN • Alpha-Beta • Evaluation function...”how good is board” • Not reliable...play game (look ahead) as deep as possible and use minimax. • Select “best” backed up value. • Where will Al-Qaeda strike next? Adversarial Search 1
X X O
MIN O
... 2 6
X X O X X O
MAX O O O O X X
3 4 5 7 8 9
X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O
O O X O O O O X O O O O O O
X X X X X X X X X X
1-0=1 1-2=-1 1-1=0 *91* 0 10
Example: Tic Tac Toe #1 • Precompiled move table. move • For each input board, a table
specific move (output board) encode look
up
• Perfect play, but is it AI?
Example: Tic Tac Toe #2 • Represent board as a magic square, one integer per square
• If 3 of my pieces sum to 15, I win
• Predefined strategy: • 1. Win • 2. Block • 3. Take center • 4. Take corner • 5. Take any open square Example: Tic Tac Toe #3 • Given a board, consider all possible moves (future boards) and pick the best one
• Look ahead (opponent’s best move, your best move…) until end of game
• Functions needed: • Next move generator • Board evaluation function
• Change these 2 functions (only) to play a different game!
Fuzzy Logic • Basic logic is binary • 0 or 1, true or false, black or white, on or off, etc... • But in the real world there are of “shades” • Light red or dark red • 0.64756 • Membership functions Fuzzy Logic Linguistic Appetite Variable
Linguistic Light Moderate Heavy Values
Membership Grade
1000 2000 3000
Calories Eaten Per Day
Natural Language Processing • Speech recognition vs. natural language processing • NLP is after the words are recognized • Ninety/Ten Rule • Can do 90% of the translation with 10% time, but 10% work takes 90% time • Easy for restricted domains • Dilation • Automatic translation • Control your computer • Say “Enter” or “one” or “open” • Associative calculus • Understand by doing Natural Language Processing Net for Basic Noun Group adjective
determiner noun “The big grey dog” S1 S2 S3
Net for Prepositional Group
preposition NOUNG “by the table in the corner” S1 S2 S3
Net for Basic Noun Group
PREPG adjective
determiner noun “The big grey dog by the S1 S2 S3 table in the corner” Knowledge Representation • Predicate Logic • On(table, lamp) • In(corner, table) • Near(table, dog) • Prolog • Graph Based • Semantic Networks • Frames • Rule Based • Expert Systems Planning • Robotics • If a robot enters a room and sits down, what is the “route”.
Table • Closed world • Rule based systems Chair • Blocks world Planning Robot Hand • Pickup(x) • Ontable(x), clear(x), handempty(), C • Holding(x) • Putdown(x) A B • Holding(x) Clear(B) On(C, A) OnTable(A) • Ontable(x), clear(x), handempty() Clear(C) Handempty OnTable(B)
• Stack(x, y) • Holding(x), clear(y) • Handempty(), on(x, y), clear(x) A • Unstack(x, y) B • Handempty(), clear(x), on(x, y) • Holding(x), clear(x) C Goal: [On(B, C) ^ On(A, B)] Learning • Neural Networks • Evolutionary Computing • Knowledge in Learning • Reinforcement Learning
