Tutorial 3 (Boundary Layer Theory)

1. Design an experiment which will give a boundary layer thickness large enough
to be visible to the naked eye.

For laminar boundary layer,

 4.64

x Rx

u x
Rx  0

For water  = 1.004x106 m2 / s (at 20c)

Therefore, Rx = u0 x x 106

Then,

4.64 xx10 3
x10 3
x
= = 4.64
u0 x u0

Assuming  = 1 cm ( = 10-2 m )

x10 3
x
10-2= 4.64
u0

u0 u
= 0.464  0  0.215  u0 = 0.215x
x x

u0(m/s) 0.1 0.2 0.3 1.0

x(m) 0.465 0.93 1.395 4.65

Therefore, a smooth flat plate 0.465m long plated in a water flow of 0.1 m/s will give
a boundary layer thickness of 1 cm. (This is a laminar boundary layer; RL = 46500)

1
2. Calculate the drag and power required to tow a smooth flat plate 2m wide
20m long through still water ( = 0.001 Ns/m2) at 10 m/s. What would be the
drag and power required if the plate was half as long.


 10 6
0.001
(i) Kinematic viscosity  = 
 1000
u0 
Re    10x 20x10 6  2x108

Hence the flow is turbulent and outside the range for Blasius equation.

Therefore, we use Schlichting’s equation

0.455
CD =
(log Re  ) 2.58

= 0.455/235
= 0.00193

1
Drag on one side = C D u 02 A
2
1
= 0.00193x x1000x100x (2x 20)
2
= 3868 N
Total Drag = 2 x 3868 = 7736 N
Power required = Drag x velocity = 7736 x 10 = 77.36 kW

(ii) For half the length, Re = 108; CD = 0.00213

Drag = 2128 on one side; Total Drag = 4257 N
Power = 42.57kW

3. Find *, M, and E for the following velocity profiles:

u y
 
u0 
u y y
  2( )  ( ) 2
u0  

2
 u 3 y 1 y
  ( )  ( )3
u0 2  2 
 Boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from the surface of
the boundary where the velocity reaches the 99% of the velocity of the free
stream.

 Displacement thickness is the distance measured perpendicular to the

boundary, by which the boundary should be displaced in order to compensate
for the reduction in the mass flow rate of the fluid due to the growth of the
boundary layer.

 Momentum thickness is the distance measured perpendicular to the

boundary, by which the boundary should be displaced in order to compensate
for the reduction in the momentum of the fluid due to the growth of the
boundary layer.

3
 u y
(a)  (linear )
u0 
  
*  ; M  ; E 
2 6 4
2
u  y  y
(b)  2    
u0    
 
 y  y 
 
u0  u  
2

*   dy   dy   2     dy      
0
u0 0 0        3 3

u u  4  2
M   (1  )dy        
u
0 0
u0 3 3 5 15

u u 22
E  (1  ( ) 2 )dy  ........................  
u
0 0
u0 105
u 3 y 1 y
(c)  ( )  ( )3
u0 2  2 
3 39 69
*  ; M  ; E  
8 280 320

4. Prove that the boundary shear stress per unit width on a flat plate placed in a two dimensional
flow field can be expressed as

d ( u 02 M ) du 0
0   ( u 0 * )
dx dx
where u0 – free stream velocity;  is the density of fluid; M is the momentum thickness of the
boundary layer; and * is the displacement thickness of the boundary layer. The following
assumptions may be useful:

 Pressure variation normal to flow is negligible

 Steady state conditions
 Fluid is incompressible
 The flow is ideal outside the boundary layer
 Pressure within the boundary layer is the same as that outside

In 1921, von Karman proposed an approximate, but quite reasonable method of

analysing the boundary layer using the momentum integral equation. The accuracy of
the method depends upon the velocity profile chosen for the momentum equation. It
is used for determining the boundary shear stress for laminar flow.

Considering the flow over a flat plate as illustrated in the Figure, and a control volume
as marked, and assuming

 unit width normal to flow,

 pressure variations normal to flow (i.e. r to the plate) negligible,
 steady state flow,

4
 fluid is incompressible,

the forces acting in the horizontal direction are

p
Fx = p  ( p  dx)(  d )   0 dx (4)
x
where p – pressure
 - boundary layer thickness
0 – boundary shear stress

Neglecting second order terms ( is first order and d is 2nd order)

p
Fx =   dx   0 dx (5)
x
The momentum integral equation for steady state conditions is
 
Fx =  V (V .dA)    Vd  (6)
cs  t cv 

where  is the volume.

 over
In the control volume, mass flux takes place across 3 faces. The mass flux m
the top face is given by (the difference between incoming and outgoing in the x-
direction)

  
d
m   udy  [  udy  ( udy)dx]
0 0
dx 0

  
=    udy dx

x  0 

Therefore, the momentum flux across the top face in the horizontal direction (the
velocity of this mass flux in the horizontal direction is u0, the free stream velocity) is
given by

M x  m u 0

  
=  u0   udy dx
x  0 


Taking the total momentum flux and substituting in the momentum integral equation,

we get

5
  2   2      2
               u dy
V (V .dA) u dy  u dy  dx
x  0
u 0  udy  dx
x  0
cs 0   0

= Fx

p
= -  0 dx   x
x

Therefore,

p      
 0 dx   dx  u0   udy dx    u 2 dy dx
x x  0  x  0 

 q p        u
Since ( pq )  p q and with p = u0 and  q   udy  , u  udydx   u  udy dx  0
x x x   0 x x  0 0  x
 0  0 

Substituting back

p     u   
 0 dx   dx   u0  udy   u 2 dy dx  0   udy dx
x x  0 0  x  0 

Since u0 does not vary with y,

u0  udy   uu0 dy

Then, simplifying by dividing by dx,

p    u 
0     u (u0  u )dy   0  udy (7)
x x  0  x 0

Since the boundary layer thickness is very small compared with x, we can neglect the
vertical variation of pressure. Therefore, outside the boundary layer, the flow being
assumed to be ideal (potential), Bernoulli equation can be applied.

p u02
  z = constant (8)
g 2 g
At the same level,
p u02
 = constant
 2
Assuming the pressure within the boundary layer to be the same as that outside, we
can differentiate the above equation and substitute in the momentum equation. Then,

6
 1 p u
 u0 0  0
 x x
which, when substituted, gives

u0    u0 
 0  u0    u (u0  u )dy    udy
x x  0  x 0

Since,  =  dy ,
0
the second term can be replaced by the integral. Then, upon simplification,

   u0 
0    u (u0  u )dy     (u0  u )dy (9)
x  0  x 0

Recalling the definitions of displacement thickness and momentum thickness, for

incompressible flows

 1  
 *   (u 0  u )dy 
u0 0
 
 1  
 M  2  u (u 0  u )d y 
 u0 0 

We can write,

0 
d
dx
 du

u02 M  0 u0 *
dx
  (10)

This is the momentum integral equation, and is applicable to laminar, turbulent and
transitional boundary layers. For flow past a flat plate with no pressure gradient
p
(  0 , and hence u0 is constant),
x

d
 0  u02 
dx M

5. Using the momentum integral equation, prove that

d
 0  0.139 u 02
dx

for the case of a flat plate placed in a 2D flow under steady state
incompressible flow with constant free stream velocity. Use the cubic velocity
profile given in Q3.

7
The momentum integral equation alone does not permit an evaluation of  without
further assumptions. For example, the velocity distribution [u = u(y)] must be known.
A profile of the form
u y
 f ( )  f ( ) (11)
u0 

is assumed. (This assumption has been experimentally verified). The choice of the
function f should satisfy certain boundary conditions. They are:
u
  0 when  = 0
u0
u
  1 when  = 1
u0
 f() should be monotonically increasing with , and,
 that the velocity distribution has the same form at every value of x (This is not a
boundary condition)

The functions are of the form

u = a + by + cy2 + dy3, and
the coefficients are obtained from the above boundary conditions.

The following functions have been found to satisfy the boundary conditions :

u
 u  0 when   0
u  0
   u
u0   1 when   1
 u
 0

 u
 u  0 when   0
 0
u  u
  2   2   1 when   1
u0  u0
 du
and  0 at   1
 dy

8
  u
 u  0 when   0
 0
 u
 u  1 when   1
u 3 1  0
    3 
u0 2 2 du
and  0 at   1
 dy
 d 2u
  0 at   0
 dy 2

(* for this is 0.375)

d 2u
The condition 0 at  = 0 is obtained from Prandtl’s simplification of the
dy 2
du
Navier- Stokes equation. This implies  constant at  = 0 (i.e. linear velocity
dy
variation at  = 0).

At a boundary,
 u  du
 0     = ( ) (for steady state) u = u(y)
 y  y 0 dy y0

But, since u = u0f(), and for the third type of function,

du du df df 1
  u0
dy df dy d 
Therefore,
 u df 
0   0 
  d 
 0

u0  33 2
    
  2 2  0

3 u 0
0 = (12)
2 

Substituting for u [in terms of f()] in the integral equation, we get,

9
   
0 =   u (u0  u )dy 
x  0 

= 
 1 2
 2  
  u0 f ( )  [u0 f ( )] d 
x 0 

= u 2
 1
 2  
0 x   f ( )  [ f ( )] d 
0 
 39
= u02
x 280

= 0.139 u02 (13)
x
Combining the expressions for 0, we get

3 u0 39 
 u02
2  280 x

Integrating, (after separation of variables) gives

140 
d = dx
13 u 0

(Since  is a function of x only)

2 140 
 x  constant
2 13 u0

Since  = 0 at x = 0, constant = 0.
2
  280 
  
x 13 u0 x

 4.64 4.64
 = (14)
x u0 x /  Rx

where Rx = Reynolds number with respect to x.

Substituting back,
 4.64 x 
= u0 /  
3
0 
2  u x / 
 0 

10
 3 1 u 0 u 0 x
=
2 4.64 x 

u03
= 0.323 or 0.323u02 / R x (15)
x

6. A smooth flat plate 2.4 m long and 900 mm wide moves lengthways at 6 m/s
through still atmospheric air of density 1.21 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity
14.9 mm2/s. Assuming the boundary layer to be entirely laminar, calculate
the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate, the shear stress
half-way along and the power required to move the plate.

u 0  6 m / s;   1.21 kg / m 3 ;   14.9 mm 2 / s; x  2.4 m.; W  0.9 m.

Therefore,     1.21x14.9 x10 6  18.029 x10 6 k / m.s

  14.9 x10 6
 4.64  4.64  4.72 x10 3    0.0113 m.
x u0 x 6 x 2.4
Drag force on one side (D) per unit width,
0.664 u 02 L 0.646 x1.21x36 x 2.4 69.42
D    0.0706
Re L 6 x 2.4 0.966 x10 6
14.9 x10 6
Power required = Total drag force x Velocity = 2x0.0706x0.9x6 = 0.763 W.

7. A streamlined train is 110 m long, 2.75 m wide and with sides 2.75 m high.
Assuming that the skin friction drag on sides and top equals that on one side
of a flat plate 110 m long and 8.25 m wide, calculate the power required to
overcome the skin friction when the train moves at 160 km/hr through air of
density 1.22 kg/m3 and viscosity 1.79x10-5 Pa.s. How far is the laminar
boundary layer likely to extend? What is the boundary layer thickness at the
rare of the train?

Equivalent flat plate is 110 m x 8.25 m.

160 x10 3
u 0  160 km / hr  m / s  44.4 m / s
3600
  1.22 kg / m 3 ;   1.79 x10 5 kg / m.s (or N .s / m 2 ; or , Pa.s)
 1.79 x10 5
   1.467 x10 5
 1.22
u0 L 44.4 x110
Re L    333x10 6
 1.467 x10 5

Hence the boundary layer is turbulent. Laminar boundary layer exists for Re
upto about 500,000. Therefore,
u x 44.4 x
500,000  0   x  0.165 m.
 1.467 x10 5

11
 0.381x110 0.381x110
Boundary layer thickness at the rear =   0.827 m.
(Re L )1 / 5 50.65
(See Eq. 28 of lecture notes)

0.037 u 02 L
Drag force on one side per unit width =  193.6 N (See Eq. 30)
(Re L )1 / 5
Total drag force = 193.6x8.25 = 1595 N
Power required = 1595x44.4 =70.82 kW

9. Air of kinematic viscosity 15 mm2/s flows at 10.5 m/s past a smooth

rectangular flat plate 300 mm x 3 m in size. Assuming that the turbulence
level in the oncoming stream is low and that the transition occurs at Re =
5x105, calculate the ratio of the total drag force when the flow is parallel to
the length of the plate to the value when the flow is parallel to the width.

  15 x10 6 m 2 / s; u 0  10.5 m / s

10.5 x3 10.5 x0.3

Re 3m  6
 2.1x10 6 (Turbulent ); Re 0.3m  6
 0.21x10 6 ( La min ar )
15 x10 15 x10

For the turbulent case, the drag force per unit width is given by
0.037 u 02 x3 0.037 u 02 x3
 x(2 x0.3)
(Re 3m )1 / 5 (2.1x10 6 )1 / 5
For the laminar case, it is

0.664 u 02 x0.3 0.664 u 02 x0.3

 x(2 x3)
(Re 0.3m )1 / 2 (0.21x10 6 )1 / 2
Ratio of the total drag force
0.037 u 02 x3 (0.21x10 6 )1 / 2 0.037 (0.21x10 6 )1 / 2
x(2 x0.3) x 
(2.1x10 6 )1 / 5 0.664 u 02 x0.3x 2 x3 0.664 (2.1x10 6 )1 / 5
458
 0.0557 x  1.388 .
18.38

10. Measurements are made of the steady-flow velocity distribution in the

boundary layer along a hydrofoil surface. In a certain region along the
surface the pressure gradient is zero, and the boundary layer thickness and
momentum thickness increase as

x
A ;  M  B
u0
where A and B are constants. Prove the following relationships:

12
 3
AB u 0 2 AB
0   ; Cf 
2 x1 / 2 u0 x

dp x
 0;   A ;  M  B
dx u0
d d x AB u 03 / 2
0  ( u 02 M )  u 02 ( AB )
dx dx u0 2 x1 / 2

Local drag coefficient Cf is given by

0 AB u 03 / 2 1 AB
Cf   1/ 2

1 2 2 x 1 2 u0 x
u 0 u 0
2 2

13