Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

Dynamic Modelling of
DC/DC Converters

1 Introduction

The characteristics described in the previous section for the DC/DC converters are under
the steady-state condition. That is, after the converter is run for a considerable time the converter
settles down to a stable condition. The steady-state solution is used to design the converter, as it is
the normal condition of operation. However practical converters seldom work in open-loop. It
usually operates under a changing environment and the associated characteristics are different. This
is, for example, when the converter is started from zero state, or there is a sudden load change. Also
the input and output may have a small or high frequency variation such as AC components, or the
closed-loop design also requires a dynamic model of converter. This chapter describes the small-
signal control to output transfer function of the converter. The equation of transfer function is
necessary for the design of the closed-loop response.

2. Closed-loop control of DC/DC converters

A converter may be used as a voltage regulator or current controller simply by closing a feedback
loop between the required output quality (output voltage, output current or input current) and
switching device's duty-ratio signal. The feedback is compared with a reference for the control. A
typical voltage mode regulator is shown below:

Fig. 1 Signal loop voltage control of a DC/DC converter

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The stable operation of the controller relies on the knowledge of the converter's dynamic
characteristics and also the suitable application of feedback and compensation. This will form
difficulty for a switched-mode converter because the converter is highly nonlinear and is controlled
by digital type of duty-ratio. An approximate representation of the converter model is shown here,
which is so called state-space averaging techniques, which shows that the small-signal
characteristics of linear systems such as the switched-mode converter can be obtained successfully
by this method.

3 State-space averaging technique

This section derives the generalized equation for the continuous mode of the basic power
converters. The continuous mode operation is simpler as there are only two states. The analysis
starts from the state-space equations during the transistor’s on and off states and uses an averaging
method to linearize them. When the switching device is turned on, it conducts for a ratio D of a
period. The state space equation can be written as:

X& = Aon X + Bon Y (1)

When the switching device is turned off, the diode conducts for a ratio of (1-D) of a period. The
state space equation can be written as:

X& = Aoff X + Boff Y

(2)

where X is the state space variable such as capacitor voltage and inductor current, i.e. [iL vc]T. Aon,
Bon and Aoff and Boff are the state-space matrices of the converter during the on- and off-states
respectively. Y is the input variable such as input voltage Vin .

Because on- and off-states are presented for D and 1-D duration, they can be averaged by the
conduction ratio:

[ ]
X& = DAon + (1 - D)Aoff X + [ DBon + (1 - D)Bon ]Y
(3)

Now, consider there is a small signal variation d to the duty ratio D that will cause a small variation
x of the state variable X. Therefore assume the variation of the small signal can be written as:

D = D+d (4)

X = X +x (5)

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Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

i.e. x is a small-signal variation in the DC or steady-state component X and d is a small signal

variation in the steady-state or DC component duty-ratio D . Equation (3) becomes:

.
[
X + x& = ( D + d)Aon + (1 - D - d)Aoff ] [ X + x]+ [ ( D + d)Bon + (1 - D - d)Boff ]Y (6)

which can be expanded to:

.
[
X + x& = D Aon + (1 - D )Aoff ] X + [ DBon + (1 - D )Boff ] Y
+ [ d Aon - d Aoff ] X + [ d Bon - d Boff ]Y
+ [ D Aon + (1 - D )Aoff ] x + [ d Bon - d Boff ] x
(7)

Equation (3) can be re-written as follows if the small signal is zero:

⋅
[ ] [
X = D Aon + (1 - D )Aoff X + DBon + (1 - D )Bon Y ] (8)

Eliminate equation (8) from (7) and neglect the high order small signal variation, and it follows that

x& = Ax + Fd (9)

where

A = D Aon + (1 - D )Aoff
(10)

and

[ ] [
F = Aon - Aoff X + Bon - Boff Y ] (11)

A is the average of Aon and Aoff and F is the difference of equations (1) and (2) which is the
difference between the on-state and off-state of X. Equation (9) is now a linearized equation and the
original digital feature is removed. The equation can be easily be solved by conventional Laplace
Transform.

= [ sI - A ] -1 F
x
(12)
d

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Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

where I the unit matrix. [sI-A]-1 is the inverse of [sI-A]. The next few sections apply the above
equations to obtain the small signal response of the three basic converters.

4 Small-signal transfer function of Buck converter

4.1 State-space equations

The Buck converter is shown below. The state-space variable for the converter is taken as the
inductor current iL and capacitor vc. vc is also the output voltage that can let users understand the
behaviour of the circuit under small signal variation of d. The equivalent circuit of the Buck
converter when T is on and off is shown in Fig. 3a and 3b. The output current Io is equal to vc/R.
Hence,

Fig. 2 Buck converter

(a) T is on (b) T is off

Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of Buck converter to derive the state space equation.

When T is on:

• ⎡0 1⎤
⎢ - ⎥
⎡iL ⎤ ⎢ L ⎡iL ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢⎢ L ⎥⎥Vin ≡ X& = Aon X + BonY (13)
⎣⎢vc ⎦⎥ ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ ⎣⎢vc ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
-
⎢⎣ C RC ⎥⎦

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Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

When T is off,

• ⎡0 1⎤
⎢ - ⎥
⎡iL ⎤ ⎢ L ⎡ i L ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥Vin ≡ X& = Aoff X + Boff Y (14)
⎢⎣vc ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣vc ⎥⎦ ⎣0 ⎦
-
⎢⎣ C RC ⎥⎦

Equation (8) is used to linearize the above state-space equations of the Buck converter:

•
⎡ ^⎤ ⎡0 1⎤ ^
⎢ - ⎥ ⎡i ⎤ ⎡
⎢i L ⎥ L ⎢ L ⎥ V in ⎤
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ L ⎥ d ≡ x& = Ax + Fd (15)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ^ ⎥ ⎢ 1 - 1 ⎥ ⎢ ^ ⎥ ⎣⎢ 0 ⎦⎥
⎣ vc ⎦ ⎣⎢ C RC ⎦⎥ ⎣ vc ⎦
^ ^
iL , vC and d are small-signal perturbations about the average DC or steady-state values of iL, vC
and D respectively. The above equation can be solved by Laplace Transform easily. It follows that:
⎡ ^⎤ ⎡ 1 1⎤
⎢ s + −
⎢ iL ⎥ RC L ⎥⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ L ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ V in
⎢ 1 s ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎢^⎥
x ⎣v C ⎦ adj[ sI − A]F ⎣ ⎢ C ⎥⎦
= = = (16)
d d det[ sI − A] 2+ s + 1
s
RC LC
Therefore:
^
vC V in 1
= .
d LC 2 s 1
s + +
RC LC (17)

^ 1
s+
i L V in RC
= .
d L 2 s 1
s + +
RC LC (18)

4.2 Characteristics of the small signal response

The above transfer functions are in frequency domain and are second order which has two left-half
plane conjugate poles. The voltage transfer function has no zero whereas the current transfer

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Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

function has one left-half-plane zero. A frequency response plot of the voltage function is shown in
Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Bode Plot of transfer function: duty ratio to small signal output voltage of Buck converter
The plot is using the parameters of: L=1mH, C=10µF, R=10Ω, Vin=10V. The plot shows after the
corner frequency, the gain of the transfer function is damped in a 40dB/decade manner. The total
phase shift of the transfer function is 180°. In a practical circuit, the frequency response will be
more heavily damped because of the circuit losses and the poles will move further into the left-
plane. The closed-loop control of voltage is simple with Buck converters as a proportional feedback
can nsure stability. However, if under light load, the loop phase-shift approaches 180° at high
frequencies, therefore in practice a lead-lag compensation will be used to improve the phase-shift
near the cross-over frequency.

5. Small-signal transfer function of Boost converters

5.1 State equations

A Boost converter is a popular circuit especially for power factor correction. The understanding of
its frequency response is therefore important. The parameters for the energy storage element, iL and
vC, again are used for the state-space variable. Similar methods based on transistor’s on- and off-
states are used. Fig. 5 shows the Boost converter.

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Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

Fig. 5. Boost Converter

(a) T is on (b) T is off

Fig. 6 Equivalent circuit of Boost converter to derive the state space equation.
When T is on:

• ⎡0 0⎤
⎡iL ⎤ ⎢ ⎡1⎤
⎥ ⎡iL ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ &
⎢ ⎥= ⎢
0 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ L ⎥Vin ≡ X = Aon X + BonY
⎣⎢vc ⎦⎥ ⎢ - ⎥ ⎣⎢vc ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ RC ⎦ (18)

When T is off:

• ⎡0 1⎤
⎢ - ⎥
⎡iL ⎤ ⎢ L ⎡iL ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢⎢ L ⎥⎥Vin ≡ X& = Aoff X + Boff Y
⎢⎣vc ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣vc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
-
⎢⎣ C RC ⎥⎦ (19)

Substituting into the general expression for the linearised small-signal state-space averaged model
of the converter, equation (8), gives

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Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

•
⎡ ^⎤ ⎡ 0 1 − D ⎤ ⎡ ^ ⎤ ⎡ vC ⎤
-
⎢ L⎥
i ⎢ L ⎥ ⎢i L ⎥ ⎢ L ⎥
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥ d ≡ x& = Ax + Fd
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ^ ⎥ ⎢1 − D -
1 ⎥ ⎢ ^ ⎥ ⎢ iL ⎥
−
⎣ vc ⎦ ⎢⎣ C RC ⎥⎦ ⎣ vc ⎦ ⎢⎣ C ⎥⎦ (20)

^ ^
iL , vC and d are small-signal perturbations about the average DC or steady-state values of iL, vC
and D respectively. The above equation can be solved by Laplace Transform easily. It follows that:

⎡ vC ⎤
⎡ ^⎤ 1 − D ⎤⎢ L ⎥
⎢ iL ⎥ ⎡ 1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ s + RC − L ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢^⎥ ⎣⎢ 1 − D s ⎦⎥ ⎢− i L ⎥
x ⎣v C ⎦ adj[ sI − A]F ⎢⎣ C ⎥⎦
= = =
d d det[ sI − A] s (1 − D) 2
s2+ +
RC LC (21)

The output voltage and input current frequency responses are:

^ 1− D i
vC − L s
vC L C
=
d s (1 − D) 2
s2 + +
RC LC (22)

^ vC 1 vC
s+ ( + iL (1 − D))
iL L LC R
=
2
2 + s + (1 − D )
d
s
RC LC (23)

The above two equations can be simplified by replacing iL and vC using the relationship:

Io vC Vin
iL= = and vC =
1 − D (1 − D) R 1− D (24)

Hence, the control to output transfer function is:

^ R(1 - D )2
-s
vC V in L
= .
d RC (1 - D)2 2 s (1 - D )2
s + +
RC LC (25)
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Power Electronics Dynamic Modelling of DC/DC converters PolyU

The control to inductor current transfer function is:

^ 2
s+
iL V in CR
= .
d L(1 - D) 2 s (1 - D )2
s + +
RC LC (26)

5.2 Characteristics of the small signal response

The system is also second order with two left-half plane conjugate poles. The voltage transfer
function has a right-half plane zero. The general form of the frequency response plots is shown in
Fig. 7 using the following typical values: L=1mH, C=10µF, R=10Ω, Vin=10V, D=0.5. Because of
the right-half plane zero, the simple voltage feedback control is very difficult. As the phase shift of
the transfer function is large -- around 180º to 270º Conventional compensation will cause the
system to be unstable. Therefore for Boost converters, an inner current loop is necessary that will
improve the stability (margin) of the system.

Fig. 7 Bode Plot of transfer function: duty ratio to small signal output voltage of Boost converter
Reference:
1. Mohan: Power Electronics, Wiley, Chapter 10.5
2. K.K.Sum: Switch mode power conversion”, Marcel Dekker, Inc., pp. 134-188.
3. K.W.E.Cheng, “Classical switched mode and resonant power converters”, Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
ISBN 962-367-364-7.

Note for symbols: Upper cases are usually for DC or steady state values and lower cases are for small signal
perturbation.