HISTORY OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

• Traces of early roads have been found since the recorded history of the
man kind.
• The first and oldest mode of travel obviously was foot path.
• Before invention of wheel, people used to move on foot, thus creating
foot paths.
• Men and material must have been transported either on backs of men
or animals.
• The historical road development can be divided in to the following era :
• Early/ Basic roads
• Roman roads
• Modern roads
 EARLY/BASIC ROADS
• The needs of road started from the invention of wheel in Samaria in 3000 BC.
Among the early road inventions in many parts of the world were :
•China Dynasty – ‘China Silk Route’ was the first road built around 2600
BC. The road was used to transport silk and elephant tusks between China
and India
•Persian Empire – Big trade involving import and export such as silk,
porcelain and wood crafts between China and Europe.
•Britain – ‘Raft Road’ believed was built around 2500 BC
•India – Indus Valley where roads made of bricks with drainage system
equipped with pipe
•Mesopotamia and Egypt – Brick road and asphalt road was found in
Babylon and mountainous area of Mesopotamia. In Egypt, the road was
built to transport block of rock to construct pyramid
CORDUROY ROAD
PLANK ROAD
 ROMAN ROADS
•Roman’s developed very elaborate system of roads mainly for the purpose
of military movement.
•They constructed in all about 400, 000 kilometers of road, extending in
whole of their empire.
•An Important road constructed by Romans in 312 B.C called Appian way is
still in existence in Rome.
ROMAN ROADS
The main characteristics of
Roman roads were as follows:
–They are very thick. Total
thickness of the road varied from
about 0.7 m to as much as 1.2 m.
–They were straight, without any
regard for gradient. Probable
reason for straightness may be
their main use for army.
–Roads were not built on soft soil
formations but on hard stratum
reached after excavation.
 MODERN ROADS
•In eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads again began to develop.
Mr. Pierre Tresaguet developed an improved method of construction in 1764 in France.
•At the time when Mr. Pierre Tresaguet was busy in developing his road construction
method, Mr. John Metcalf was engaged in his development in England.
•Metcalf constructed about 290 Km road in northern region of England. Since Metcalf
was blind, his work was not recorded and thus got lost.
•Telford and Macadam were the pioneers in road development in England. Telford
believed in using heavy foundation stones over the soil sub-grade, while Macadam
advocated the use of compacted crushed aggregate layer at the bottom.
•Macadam’s method of road construction is still in used and is named after his name.
 ROAD DESIGNERS
• Among the famous road designers in 18th Century were :
•Robert Philips
•Pierre Tresaguet
•John Metcalf
•Thomas Telford
•John Macadam
ROBERT PHILIPS
The frontier of road design.
In 1736, he suggested that a layer of gravel placed on road base with
good drainage would be compacted by traffic and become hard
surface
 TRESAGUET’S ROAD
•Mr. Pierre Tresaquet was inspector general of roads in France from 1775 to
1785.
•He developed an improved method of road construction.
•The main feature of his work was that the thickness of the road was about
30 cm.
•He also made consideration of sub-grade moisture and drainage from the
surface.
•He also emphasized the need for continuous maintenance of road to keep
it in good shape.
•At the time of Napoleon, quite elaborate road system was developed in
France mainly for use of military adventures.
 JOHN METCALF

•He was working in England at the time when Tresaquet was busy in France.
•He experimented road construction with a graded mixture of earth and gravel.
•Since Mr. Metcalf was blind, his work could not be recorded.
•But it is believed that he was following the procedure outlined by Robert Philips
in 1737.
•Robert Philips method consisted of laying gravel layer upon a well drained and
dried sub-grade.
•Gravel layer was used to be compacted in due course of time, by the action of
the traffic using road.
•Metcalf constructed about 290 Km of road in northern parts of England
 Thomas Telford
•Thomas Telford was Scottish road engineer and founder of the institution of civil
engineers.
•He used big size stones in foundation wearing from 17 – 22 cm to develop a firm
base.
•He also provided cross drains under foundation layer to keep the sub-grade in dry
condition.
•He proposed provision of cross drains at intervals of about 90 m.
•Total thickness of road advocated by him was about 38 cm.
 John Macadam
•He, for the first time put forward entirely new concept of road construction in 1827.

•He was a Scottish engineer and was surveyor general of roads in England.
•Important characteristic of his concept are as follows:
–It was he who for the first time recognized the importance of sub-grade
compaction and drainage. To affect speedy surface drainage he recommended
suitable cross slope for the sub-grade.
–It was he who realized for the first time that heavy foundation stones are not at all
necessary. If sub-grade is prepared properly and kept well drained it can be very well
bear the traffic load transmitted to it through foundation layer, having smaller
compacted thickness of small size broken stones. He was of the opinion that a
broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can sustain must heavier load than a
thick layer of big size stones.
–Size of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was decided according to
requirements of stability under the effect of vehicles.
 Comparison between Telford and Macadam roads
• Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.
• In the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept horizontal due to which drainage of sub-grade was not
proper. In the case of Macadam construction sub-grade was given 1 in 36 cross slope. This aspect helped in
better sub-grade drainage.
• Large size stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. Size of stone varied from 17 cm near edges to 22 cm
at the centre of the road. In the case of Macadam roads 5 cm was the maximum size of the aggregate used for
foundation layer. In Telford roads, camber given was 1 in 45 while in Macadam it was 1 in 36.
• Cross slope in Telford using smaller size stones at the edges and large size stones at the centre of the width-
developed roads. Thicknesses of subsequent intermediate and surfacing layers, is kept constant for the full
width of the road. In Macadam roads, required camber was given to the sub-grade itself and all the
subsequent layers of aggregate including foundation layer of uniform thickness for the whole of the width of
the road.
• Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundation layer, two layers of intermediate coat and
4 cm thick wearing top layer. Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers each of 13 cm
compacted thickness as foundation layers and 5 cm thick surfacing layer.
• Telford’s foundation layer, being of larger sized stones, behaved like semi flexible road but Macadam’s base
was yielding type and hence Macadam roads behaved like fully flexible roads.
• Total thickness of road structure was about 40 cm in case of Telford but only about 25 cm in case of Macadam.
 HISTORY OF ROAD IN THE PHILIPPINES
• Department of Public Works and Highways or DPWH has been long withstanding as the
infrastructure arm of the Philippines. It started during the Spanish Colonial Era. t was in
1900s when the transportation depended on roads. At this period, the construction of
highways in the Philippines seemed to be impossible. It was during in the American Period
when the roadways were developed in the Philippines.
• Just like any other government agencies, its development depended on the administration
as result of changing of administration policies and organization structure.
• Rehabilitation and construction of roads occurred after the World War II since a lot of roads
were destroyed due to bombs thrown in different areas. It was paid by the Japanese
Government. Philippines was also able to receive grant from the US government.
• It was Maximo Paterno who was the first Minister of Ministry of Public Works and
Communications (1899). Since then, it has developed and replicated modern engineering
technologies that ensures safety standards in infrastructure buildings.
 EDSA in 1950s

Ayala Avenue in 1950s

DPWH is responsible for planning, designing, constructing, and maintaining infrastructures such
as road networks, bridges, and a lot more gearing towards sustainable growth and development
of the country.
DPWH has also set the classification of roads and highways. The table below explains it.
INTRODUCTION
Road Definition
Road Classifications
Road Components
DEFINITION

A road is a structure that link barangays and cities in the country,

and serve as medium in transporting goods and commodities
from one place to another, and as communication link which
brings economic development to a nation.
Classifications of Road
 According to usage
 According to national importance
 According to its surface course
 According to traffic volume
Types of Road According to Usage
1. National Road
a. Primary National Road
- the main highway trunk line system that is continuous in extent
that goes from province to province and region to region.
b. Secondary National Road
- connects a provincial or national road to a public wharf or
railway station.
Types of Road According to Usage
2. Provincial Road
- connects two municipalities or cities within a
province
3. City Road
-street within the urban area of the city.
Types of Road According to Usage
4. Municipal Road
-street within the poblacion area of a municipality.
5. Barangay Road
–street located outside the poblacion area of a
municipality or urban area of a city and those outside
industrial, commercial areas or residential subdivisions.
Types of Road According to National
Importance
1. Major roads
are those roads of national importance. They are
frequently used by traffic and leads to vital areas
such as major cities and installations. Example of
major roads are the those roads classified as
National Roads or those which are part of the
highway system.
Types of Road According to National
Importance
2 . Minor roads
are roads which is local in nature as it serves only
the interest of the locality such as a street. Minor
roads are less frequently used by traffic.
What is the difference between a street
and a highway?
 Highway - can accommodate greater traffic volume.
Streetor road - serves service area connecting to
highways.
Types of Road According to Surface
Course
 Earth Road
 Gravel Road
 Asphalt Road
 Concrete Road
Earth Road…..
Earth Road…..
• It is the simplest form of road constructed by shaping and smoothing
the natural soil traversed by the road line.
• A trail that has been developed with use over a number of years can be
purposely converted into a road that has a properly designed and
engineered alignment, cross section and drainage.
• One of the most important aspects of the design of a road is the
provision made for protecting the road from surface water or ground
water.
• The road surface must be constructed so that it drains rainwater away
quickly to drainage ditches.
• The formation of the road must be raised above the level of the local
water table to prevent it from being soaked by ground water.
Gravel Road…..
Gravel Road…..
• Are constructed from natural gravel together with a sufficient amount of
good quality soil to serve as binder.
• It is sometimes termed as an all weather road and are used to construct
Farm to Market Roads which serves to connect rural and agricultural areas
to market towns.
• These routes serve as a better quality road, usually a highway which allows
farmers to transport their products to market towns and/or distribution
centers.
Asphalt Road……
Asphalt Road……
• It is frequently described as flexible pavement implying its ability
to absorb the stresses imposed by traffic and weather without
cracking.
• The tensile strength of an asphalt pavement enables resistance
to displacement and the flexibility to conform to minor
irregularities of the base without failure.
• It is composed of hot-mix combination of asphalt cement,
crushed stone, sand fines and a small amount of air.
PCC Pavement Road……
PCC Pavement Road……
• It is sometimes termed rigid pavement because it is strong in
resisting compressive load but weak in resisting tensile
stresses.
• Concrete pavement resting on a weak subgrade and base
courses is considered also weak in carrying heavy load
associated with impact forces.
• Portland cement is the essential ingredient in rigid
pavements, and in most structural concrete.
• It is a fine dry powder which, when combined with water,
forms a paste that sets into a stone-like substance.
PCC Pavement Road……
• This is moderately strong in itself, and has the quality
of binding sand and stones into rigid masses with
great strength.
• Cement and water are mixed with clean sand to
produce mortar, which is used chiefly as a binder and
filler between bricks, stones, and blocks; and with
sand and graded sizes of crushed rock or similar
material to make concrete.
Types of Road According to Traffic
Volume
 For heavy traffic load
 For medium traffic load
 For light traffic load
Main Road Components
 Subgrade
 Aggregate sub-base course
 Aggregate base course
 Surface course
 Drainage structures
 Slope protection/retaining structures
 Miscellaneous Works
Main Road Components
Main Road Components
• Subgrade- is the upper layer of natural soil which may be the
undisturbed local materials, or soil excavated elsewhere placed as fill. In
either case, it is compacted during construction for road stability.
• Aggregate Subbase and Base Courses - are individual stabilizing layers
of selected material and designed thickness placed on top of the
subgrade to distribute the load transmitted from the surface course.
• Surface Course - is the uppermost structural component of the
roadway, which provides resistance to wear and shearing stress due to
traffic load. It also provides an even skid resistance surface with
comfortable durability and is appropriately crowned to prevent rain
water from penetrating into the subgrade.
Main Road Components
• Shoulders - are located beside the carriage way which is the total width
available for passing vehicles, and is used to receive lateral clearance to
protect major structures on the roadside, to secure safety and comfort of
both motorists and pedestrians and for emergency stopping purposes.
• Drainage Structures - are located beneath or alongside the roadway used
in collecting, transporting and disposing of surface water originating in or
near the road right-of-way.
• Types of Drainage - can be lateral drainage such as a U-shaped, V-shaped
lined canal (side ditch) or perforated drain canal. It can also be transverse
or cross drainage such as a box culvert or a pipe culvert.
Main Road Components
• Slope Protection Structures - are constructed along the side of
the roadway to stabilize the slopes.
• Retaining Walls - are constructed along the side of the
roadway
if there are space constrictions. Erosion and sediment controls
are constructed to prevent detrimental effects.
PLANNING DIFFICULTIES
• HIGHWAY PLANNERS ARE CONFRONTED WITH PROBLEMS CATEGORIZED AS
FOLLOWS:

• FINANCIAL
• POLITICAL
• TECHNICAL
Highway programming Approaches
1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged
implementation by the agencies functions like construction,
operations, and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and
constraints.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical
situations, present and future expected level of traffic, and
claims based on political subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with the
other transportation mode.
Highway programming Approaches
5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and
materials, including climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination
with the other agencies, acquiring right of way and
making final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and
natural disasters.
Direct effect of highway construction and
its use
A. Quantifiable market value
1. Cost of highways as to:
1. Planning cost
2. Right of way appropriation
3. Construction costs
4. Maintenance costs
5. Operating costs
Direct effect of highway construction and
its use
2. Cost benefits to highway users
1. Vehicles operating costs( including congestion cost) net income
or decrease in costs of vehicles operation per year
2. Traveler savings time (commercial). Net increase or decrease in
travel time multiplied by the peso value of commercial time.
3. Motorist safety ( economic cost accident) net change in expected
number off accidents times the average cost per accident per
year
Direct effect of highway construction and
its use
B. Non-Quantifiable non- market value
1. Motorist safety- accidents cos of pain suffering and
deprivation.
2. Comfort and coversion- discomfort, inconvenience and
strain of driving.
3. Aesthetics from driving viewpoint- benefits of pleasing views
and scenery from road.
Direct effect of highway construction and
its use
C. Quantifiable Non-Market value
1.Cost benefits to highway users- traveling savings time.
(non- commercial) minutes save per vehicle trip
Highway Plans and specifications
Presentation of a Road Plan
• The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the
horizontal alignment, right of way taking, drainage arrangement
and other features.
• The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original
elevation of the ground surface is plotted. The roadway
centreline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the road is
indicated.
Highway Plans and specifications
Presentation of a Road Plan
• The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged
from five to ten times for precise detail
• The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or
connecting roads including ramps are also presented.
• The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station
or other intervals are indicated along the bottom of each sheet
along with the estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer
and the contractor.
Highway Plans and specifications
Presentation of a Road Plan
• The roadway cross section for every situation in the whole
project stretch is indicated on another sheet of the plan
• Another sheet of drawing showing all structures and roadway
appurtenances is included
• The standard size of drawing sheet is 55 cm x90 cm.
Partial list of subjects covered by the standard
drawing:
Pipe culvert
Concrete box culverts
Guard rail and parapet
Curbs
Gutters
Curb structures
Sidewalk
Partial list of subjects covered by the standard
drawing:
Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types
Manholes
Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection
Fences and right of way
Other survey markers.
COMPONENTS OF HIGHWAY MODE OF
TRANSPORTATION
• THE DRIVER
• THE PEDESTRIAN
• THE VEHICLE
• THE ROAD
DRIVER CHARACTERISRICS
• HUMAN RESPONSE PROCESS
ACTION TAKEN BY DRIVERS ON A ROAD RESULT FROM THEIR
EVALUATION OF AND RAECTION TO INFORMATION THEY OBTAIN FROM A
CERTAIN STIMULI THAT THEY SEE OR HEAR
THEREFORE THAT HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC ENGINEERS HAVE SOME
FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE OF VISUAL PERCEPTION AS WELL AS HEARING
PERCEPTION.
VISUAL PERCEPTION
• THE PRINCIPAL CHARACTER OF THE EYE ARE VISUAL ACUITY, PERIPHERAL
VISION, COLOR VISION, GLARE VISION AND RECOVERY, AND DEPTH
PERCEPTION.
VISUAL ACUITY
• VISUAL ACUITY IS THE ABILITY TO SEE FINE DETAILS OF THE OBJECT
• FOR EXAMPLE, THE ABILITY TO RESOLVE A PATTERN A DETAIL WITH A VISUAL
ACUITY OF ARC(1/60 OF A DEGREE) IS CONSIDERED THE NORMAL VISION
ACUITY (20/20 VISION)
• STATIC AND DYNAMIC VISUAL ACUITY
• The drivers ability to identify an object when the object and the driver are stationary is
depends on his/her static acuity
• The drivers ability to clearly detect relatively moving objects, not necessarily in his or her
direct line of vision, depends on the drivers dynamic visual acuity.
PERIPHERAL VISION
• PERIPHERAL VISION IS THE ABILITY OF THE PEOPLE TO SEE OBJECTS BEYOND
THE CONE OF CLEAREST VISION. ALTHOUGH OBJECT CAN BE SEEN WITHIN
THIS ZONE, DETAILS AND COLOR ARE NOT CLEAR.AGE ALSO INFLUENCES
PERIPHERAL VISION.
COLOR VISION
• COLOR VISION IS THE ABILITY TO DIFFERENTIATE ONE COLOR FROM
ANOTHER, BUT DEFICIENCY IN THIS ABILITY, USUALLY REFERRED AS COLOR
BLINDNESS, IS NOT OF GREAT SIGNIFICANCE IN HIGHWAY DRIVING BECAUSE
OTHERS WAY OF RECOGNIZING TRAFFIC INFORMATION DEVICES (SHAPE) CAN
COMPENSATE AT IT. COMBINATION OF BLACK AND WHITE AND BLACK AND
YELLOW HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO BE THOSE TO WHICH THE EYE IS MOST
SENSITIVE.
GLARE VISION AND RECOVERY.
• THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF GLARE VISION; direct and spectacular
• DIRECT GLARE OCCURS WHEN RELATIVELY BRIGHT LIGHT APPEARS IN THE
INDIVIDUAL FIELD OF VISION
• SPECTACULAR GLARE OCCURS WHEN IMAGE REFLECTED BY RELATIVELY
BRIGHT LIGHT APPEARS IN THE FIELD OF VISION
DEPTH PERCEPTION
• DEPTH PERCEPTION AFFECTS THE ABILITY OF A PERSON TO ESTIMATE SPEED
AND DISTANCE. IT IS A PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT ON TWO LANE HIGHWAYS
DURING PASSING MANEUVERS, WHEN HEAD ON CRASHES MAY RESULT FROM
A LACK OF PROPER JUDGEMENT OF SPEED AND DISTANCE
HEARING PERCEPTION
• THE EAR RECIEVES SOUND STIMULI, WHICH IS IMPORTANT TO DRIVERS ONLY
WHEN WARNING SOUNDS, USUALLY GIVEN OUT BY EMERGENCY VEHICLES,
ARE TO BE DETECTED. LOSS OF SOME HEARING ABILITY IS NOT A SERIOUS
PROBLEM, SINCE IT NORMALLY CAN BE CORRECTED BY A HEARING AID
PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS
• THE PROCESS THROUGH WHICH A DRIVER, CYCLIST, OR
PEDESTRIAN EVALUTES AND REACTS TOA STIMULUS CAN BE
DIVIDED ONTO FOUR SUBPROCESSES:
1.PERCEPTION: the driver sees a control device, warning sign or
object on the road.
2.IDENTIFICATION: the driver identifies the object or control
device and thus understands the stimulus.
3. EMOTION: the driver decides what action to take in response to
the stimulus; for example, to step on the brake pedal, to pass, to
swerve , or to change lanes.
4.REACTION OR VOLUTION: the driver actually executes the
action decided on during the emotion sub-process.
• A Driver with a perception-reaction time of 2.5 seconds
is driving at 65 km/hr when she/he observes that an
accident has blocked the road ahead. Determine the
distance the vehicle would move before the driver could
activate the brakes. The vehicle will continue to move at
65km/hr during the-reaction time of 2.5 sec
OLDER DRIVER’S CHARACTERISTICS
As one grows older, his or her sensory, cognitive, and
physical functioning ability declines, which can result in
older drivers being less safe than their younger counter
parts, and with a higher probability of being injured when
involved in a crash.
PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS
Pedestrian characteristics may influence the design and location
of pedestrian control devices. Such control devices include special
pedestrian signals, safety zones and islands at intersections,
pedestrian under passes, elevated walkways, and crosswalks.
Apart from visual and hearing characteristics, walking
characteristics play a major part in the design of these controls,
BICYCLISTS AND BICYCLES
CHARACTERISTICS
Bicycles are now an important components of the
highway mode, especially for the highways located in
urban areas. It is therefore essential that highway and
traffic engineers have an understanding of the
characteristics if bicycles and bicyclist. The basic human
factors discussed for the automobile driver also apply to
the bicyclist, particularly with the respect to perception
and reaction.
BICYCLISTS AND BICYCLES
CHARACTERISTICS
Three classes of bicyclists( A, B and C) have been identified in
the Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities by
AASHTO.
Class A bicyclist typically consider the bicycle as a motor
vehicle and comfortably ride in traffic
Class B bicyclist prefer to ride on neighbourhood streets and
are more comfortable on designated bicycle facilities, such a
bicycle paths.
Class C bicyclist use mainly residential streets that provide
access to schools, recreational facilities, and stores.
VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
• CRITERIA FOR THE GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY ARE
PARTLY BASED ON THE STATIC, KINEMATIC, AND DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF VEHICLES. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
INCLUDE THE WEIGHT AND SIZE OF THE VEHICLE, WHILE
KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS INVOLVE THE MOTION OF THE
VEHICLE WITHOUT CONSIDERING THE FORCES THAT CAUSE
THE MOTION. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS INVOLVE THE
FORCES THAT CAUSE THE MOTION OF THE VEHICLE.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• THE SIZE OF THE DESIGN VEHICLE FOR A HIGHWAY IS VERY
IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE DETERMINATION OF DESIGN
STANDARDS FOR SEVERAL PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF THE
HIGHWAY. THESE INCLUDE LANE WIDTH, SHOULDER WIDTH,
LENGTH AND WIDTH OF PARKING BAYS AND LENGTH OF
VERTICAL CURVES. THE AXLE WEIGHTS OF VEHICLE
EXPECTED ON THE HIGHWAYS ARE IMPORTANT WHEN
PAVEMENT AND MAXIMUM GRADES ARE BEING
DETERMINED.
KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• THE PRIMARY ELEMENT AMONG KINEMATIC
CHARACTERISTICS IN THE ACCELERATION CAPABILITY OF
THE VEHICLE. ACCELERATION CAPABILITY IS IMPORTANT IN
SEVERAL TRAFFIC OPERATIONS, SUCH AS PASSING
MANEUVERS AND GAP ACCEPTANCE
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• SEVERAL FORCES ACT ON A VEHICLE WHILE IT IS IN MOTION: AIR
RESISTANCE, GRADE RESISTANCE, ROLLING RESISTANCE, AND CURVE
RESISTANCE.
• AIR RESISTANCE
A VEHICLE IN MOTION HAS TO OVERCOME THE RESISTANCE OF
THE AIR IN FRONT OF IT AS WELL AS THE FORCE DUE TO THE FRICTIONAL
ACTION OF THE AIR AROUND IT. THE FORCE REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
THESE IS KNOWN AS THE AIR RESISTANCE AND IS RELATED TO THE
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE VEHICLE IN A DIRECTION
PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION OF MOTION AND TO THE SQUARE
OF THE SPEED OF THE VEHICLE.
AIR RESISTANCE
Ra = .5 0.077p C dAu2
g
Ra= air resistance force(kg)
p= density of air (1.227 kg/m3) at sea level: less at
higher elevations
Cd= aerodynamics drag coefficient (current
average value for passengers cars is .4; for trucks,
this value ranges from .5 to .8, but a typical value is
0.5)
A= frontal cross sectional area
g= acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/sec2)
Grade resistance
• When a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the
weight of the vehicle acts downward, along the plane of
the highway. this creates a force acting on the direction
opposite that of the motion. This force is the grade
resistance
• Grade resistance= weight x grade, in decimal
ROLLING RESISTANCE
• These are force within the vehicle itself that offer
resistance to motion. These forces are due mainly to
frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle, but they
also include the frictional slip between the pavement
surface and tries. The sum effect of these forces in
motion is known as rolling resistance. The rolling forces
are relatively lower on smooth pavements than on rough
pavements
ROLLING RESISTANCE
• The rolling resistance force for the passenger cars on a
smooth pavement can be determined from the relation

Rf = (Crs + 0.077 Crv u2 ) W

Rf = rolling resistance force (kg)
Crs = Constant (typically 0.012 for passengers car)
Crv = Constant (typically 7 x 10^-6) s2 / m2 for passenger cars)
u =Vehicle speed ( km/h)
W = gross vehicle weight (kg)
ROLLING RESISTANCE
• For trucks, the rolling resistance can be obtained from

Rf = (Ca + 0.278Cb u ) W
Rf = rolling resistance force (kg)
Ca = Constant (typically .02445 for trucks)
Cb = Constant (typically 0.00147) s / m for trucks)
u =Vehicle speed ( km/h)
W = gross vehicle weight (kg)
Curve Resistance
• When a passenger car is maneuvered to take a curve, external
forces act on the front wheels of the vehicle. These forces have
components that have a retarding effect on the forward motion
of the vehicle. The sum effect of these components constitutes
the curve resistance. This resistance depends on the radius of the
curve, the gross weight of the vehicle, and the velocity at which
the vehicle is moving.
Curve Resistance
Rc = .5 0.077 u 2 W
gR

Rc= curve resistance (kg)

U= vehicle speed ( km/h)
W =gross vehicle weight (kg)
R= radius of curvature (m)
g= acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/sec2)
POWER REQUIREMENTS
Power is the rate at which work is done. It is usually expressed in
horsepower, where 1 horsepower is 746 W. the performance
capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of the horsepower the
engine can produce to overcome air,grade, curve , and friction
forces and put the vehicle in motion.
Power requirement
2.91 R u
P= 746

P = horsepower delivered (hp)

R = sum of resistance to motion (N)
u= speed of vehicle (Km/h)
• Determine the horsepower produced by a passenger car
traveling at a speed of 105 km/h on the straight road of
5% grade with a smooth pavement. Assume the weight
of the car is 1800 kg and the cross sectional area of the
car is 3.8 m^2
BREAKING DISTANCE
The action of the forces on the moving vehicle and the
effect of perception-reaction time used to determine
important parameters related to the dynamic
characteristics of the vehicles. These include the braking
distance of a vehicle and the minimum radius of circular
curve required for a vehicle travelling around a curve
woth a speed U where U> 16 km/h
Breaking
Where:
W= weight of the vehicle
F=coefficient of friction
g= Acceleration of gravity
u= speed when brakes applied
Db = braking distance
Ø= angle of incline
G= tan Ø ( % grade/100)
X= distance travelled by the vehicle along the road during break.
• a student trying to test the breaking ability of her car
determined that she needed 5.64 m more to stop her car when
driving downhill on road segment of 5% grade than when driving
downhill at the same speed along another segment of 3% grade.
Determine the speed at which the student conducted her test
and the breaking distance on the 5% grade if the student is
traveling at the test speed in the uphill direction.
• Use a= 3.41 m/sec^2 and g=9.81 m/sec^2
• a motorist traveling at 105 km/h on an expressway intended to
leave the expressway using an exit ramp with a maximum speed
of 56 km/h. at what point on the express way should the
motorist step on her breakes in order to reduce her speed to the
maximum allowable on the ramp just before entering the ramp,
if this section of the expressway has a downgrade of 3%?
• Use a= 3.41 m/sec^2 and g=9.81 m/sec^2
Stopping site distance
• The distance travelled by a vehicle between the time the
driver observes an object in the vehicles path and the
time the vehicle actually comes at rest is longer than the
braking distance
• Since it includes the distance travelled during the
perception reaction time.
• A motorist traveling at 89 km/h down a grade of 5% on a
highway observes a crash ahead of him, involving an overturned
truck that is completely blocking the road. If the motorist was
able to stop his vehicle 9 m from the overturned truck, what was
his distance from the truck when he first observed the crash ??
Assume perception-reaction time =2.5 sec.
Estimate velocities
• It is sometimes necessary to estimate the speed of vehicle just
before it is involved in a crash. this may be done if skid marks can
be seen on the pavement.
• In an attempt to estimate the speed of a vehicle just before It hit
a traffic signal pole. A traffic engineer measured the length of
skid marks made by the vehicle and performed trial runs at the
site to obtain an estimate of the coefficient of friction.
Determine the estimated unknown velocity if the following date
were obtained:
• Length of skid marks =178 m,180 m, 177 m, 181 m
• Speed of trial run= 48 km/h
• Distance travelled during the trial run = 90 m
• Examination of the vehicle just after the crash indicated that the
speed of impact was 56 km/h
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve
• When a Vehicle is moving around a circular curve, there is an
inward radial force acting on a vehicle( centrifugal force). There
is also an outward radial force acting towards the center of
curvature as a result of the centripetal acceleration.
• The centripetal acceleration depends on the component of the
vehicle’s weight along the inclined surface of the road and the
side friction between the tires and the roadway.
Minimum radius R
• An existing horizontal curve on a highway has
radius of 142 m, which restricts the posted speed
limit on this section of the road to only 61.5% of
the design speed of the highway, determine the
minimum radius of the new curve. Assume that
the rate of super elevation is 0.08 for both existing
curve and the new curve to be designed. Assume
fs = 0.16
ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
• Sight Distance
- is the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any
particular time. The sight distance available at each point of the
highway must be such that, when a driver is travelling the
highway’s design speed, adequate time is given after an object is
observed in the vehicles path to make necessary evasive
maneuvers without colliding with the object
Stopping sight Distance
• Usually taken as the minimum sight distance required for a
driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an object in the vehicle’s
path without hitting the object
Passing Sight Distance
• The minimum sight distance required on a two-
lane, two way highway that will permit a driver a
driver to complete a passing maneuver without
colliding with an opposing vehicle and without
cutting off the passed vehicle.
The Minimum passing sight distance is the total of four components:
d1= distance traversed during the perception reaction time and during
initial acceleration to the point where the passing vehicle just
enters the left lane
d2= distance travelled during the time the passing vehicle is traveling in
the left lane
d3=distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at he
end of the passing maneuver.
d4=distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two thirds of the time
the passing vehicle is in the left lane (usually taken to be 2/3 D2)
• The distance d1 obtain from the expression:

t1
d1 = 0.278 t1 (u – m + )
T1 =time for initial maneuver (sec)
= average acceleration rate(Km/h/sec)
U = average speed of passing vehicle (km/h)
m= difference in speed of passing and impeder vehicles
• The distance d2 obtain from :

d1 = 0.278 u t2
t2 =time passing vehicle is travelling in the left lane (sec)
U = average speed of passing vehicle (km/h)
• The clearance distance d3 between the passing vehicle and the
opposing vehicle at the completion of the passing maneuver has
been found to vary between 30 m and 90 m