M7 Aft Eng PDF

PRACTICAL EXERCISES MANUAL
Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 1 / 162
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................... 1
7 PRACTICAL EXERCISES MANUAL ..................................................................................... 2
7.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 2
7.2 DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................................................. 4
7.2.1 Specifications .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
7.2.2 Practical possibilities ............................................................................................................................................... 8
7.2.3 Dimensions and weight ......................................................................................................................................... 12
7.3 THEORY ...................................................................................................................................... 13

7.4 LABORATORY PRACTICAL EXERCISES ........................................................................... 25
7.4.1 Practical exercise 1: Pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 17mm .................... 25
7.4.2 Practical exercise 2: Pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 23mm .................... 29
7.4.3 Practical exercise 3: Pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 6.5mm ................ 33
7.4.4. Practical exercise 4: Pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 16.5mm............... 37
7.4.5. Practical exercise 5: Pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 26.5 mm.............. 41
7.4.6. Practical exercise 6: Influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due to friction in rough pipes ....................... 45
7.4.7. Practical exercise 7: Influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due to friction in smooth pipes .................... 47
7.4.8. Practical exercise 8: Influence of the roughness in the pressure drop ................................................................... 49
7.4.9. Practical exercise 9: Friction coefficient in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 17 mm ................................. 51
7.4.10. Practical exercise 10: Friction coefficient in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 23 mm ................................ 54
7.4.11. Practical exercise 11: Friction coefficient in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 6.5 mm ............................ 57
7.4.12. Practical exercise 12: Friction coefficient in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 16.5 mm .......................... 60
7.4.13. Practical exercise 13: Friction coefficient in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 26.5 mm .......................... 63
7.4.14. Practical exercise 14: Influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient in rough pipes .................................... 66
7.4.15. Practical exercise 15: Influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient in smooth pipes.................................. 68
7.4.16. Practical exercise 16: Friction coefficient in smooth and rough pipes .................................................................. 70
7.4.17. Practical exercise 17: Pressure drop in an angle-seat valve ................................................................................... 72
7.4.18. Practical exercise 18: Pressure drop in a gate valve .............................................................................................. 76
7.4.19. Practical exercise 19: Pressure drop in a diaphragm valve .................................................................................... 80
7.4.20. Practical exercise 20: Pressure drop in a ball valve ............................................................................................... 84
7.4.21. Practical exercise 21: Comparison of pressure drop in different types of valves .................................................. 88
7.4.22. Practical exercise 22: Pressure drop in the in-line strainer .................................................................................... 90
7.4.23. Practical exercise 23: Pressure drop in a 90º elbow .............................................................................................. 94
7.4.24. Practical exercise 24: Pressure drop in a double 90º elbow ................................................................................... 98
7.4.25. Practical exercise 25: Pressure drop in a 45º elbow ............................................................................................ 102
7.4.26. Practical exercise 26: Pressure drop in a 45º tee ................................................................................................. 106
7.4.27. Practical exercise 27: Pressure drop in an inclined tee ........................................................................................ 110
7.4.28. Practical exercise 28: Pressure drop in a symmetrical Y branch ......................................................................... 114
7.4.29. Practical exercise 29: Pressure drop in a narrowing ............................................................................................ 118
7.4.30. Practical exercise 30: Pressure drop in a gradual widening ................................................................................. 123
7.4.31. Practical exercise 31: Pressure drops in a diaphragm .......................................................................................... 128
7.4.32. Practical exercise 32: Comparison of pressure drop in the different fittings ....................................................... 132
7.4.33. Practical exercise 33: Flow measurement with the Venturi meter ....................................................................... 134
7.4.34. Practical exercise 34: Determination of the discharge factor Cd in the Venturi tube .......................................... 138
7.4.35. Practical exercise 35: Flow measurement with the Pitot tube ............................................................................. 140
7.4.36. Practical exercise 36: Determination of the discharge factor Cd in the Pitot tube ................................................ 144
7.4.37. Practical exercise 37: Comparison between the flow measured in the Venturi and Pitot tubes ........................... 146
7.5 ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................. 148

7.5.1 ANNEX A: Assembly and installation ................................................................................................................ 148
7.5.2 ANNEX B: Filling the manometers .................................................................................................................... 153
7.5.3 ANNEX C: Operation mode of the displacement sensors (AFTC) ..................................................................... 155
7.5.4 ANNEX D: Universal graph ............................................................................................................................... 156
7.5.5 ANNEX E: Tables............................................................................................................................................... 157
7 PRACTICAL EXERCISES MANUAL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit is designed to study the behaviour of closed flows. It makes it

possible to study pressure drops in pipes as well as in different hydraulic accessories.
The losses by friction in straight pipes of different sizes can be studied on a certain
range of the Reynolds’ number. This way, the different types of flows are classified
as:
 Flow in laminar regime.
 Flow in turbulent regime.
Osborne Reynolds made a difference between laminar and turbulent flows

in pipes in his publication in 1883. Ludwig Prandtl, Thomas Stanton and Paul Blasius
analysed the flow data in pipes later on in the beginning of last century, and they
created the graph that is well known as the “Stanton Diagram”. John Nikuradse
extended the work to cover the case of rough pipes, like the one supplied with this
equipment, which have different degrees of roughness in order to compare the
currents.
Friction in pipes is one of the classic laboratory experiments and it has

always had a place in the practical teaching of fluid mechanics. The results and the
underlying principles are very important for aeronautical, industrial and mechanical
engineers.
All the necessary instruments are included with the unit and it is supplied
as a complete unit.
7.2 DESCRIPTION
The test bench used to study pressure drops in pipes, which we can see in
the figure 1.0.1, supplied with either the Basic Hydraulic Feed System or the
Hydraulic Bench, and to which we will refer next, basically consists of:
 An aluminium panel placed vertically, where all the elements to be

studied are located.
 A pumping and flow regulation system, which will be the Hydraulic

Bench, FME00, or the Basic Hydraulic Feed System, FME00/B. They
include all the elements and accessories needed for the equipment to
work in an autonomous way. They can be used together with other
equipment of the Fluid Mechanics range of EDIBON.
There are 4 different models of the equipment:
AFT: the device includes the FME00 hydraulic bench and has a rotameter
incorporated (range: 600-6000 l/h).
AFT/B: the device includes the FME00/B basic hydraulic feed system. In
this case the device does not have a rotameter incorporated inside because it is
included in FME00/B.
AFT/P: only the device. It does not include FME00 or FME00/B.
And, finally, the most advanced one:
AFTC: the device structure is the same as that of the previous devices, but
in this case it is computerised. It includes the FME00 hydraulic bench. The device
consists of:
- Flow sensor: range 0-150 l/min.
- Pressure sensor: 2 units with a range of 0-2 bar.
- Displacement sensor: 2 units with a range of 0-1 meter (0.5 precision)
7.2.1 Specifications
The unit consists of:
Types of pipes:
1. Rough pipe (PVC covered in sand) with an external diameter of

25mm and an internal diameter of 17mm.
2. Rough pipe (PVC covered in sand) with an external diameter of

32mm and an internal diameter of 23mm.
3. Smooth pipe (methacrylate) with an external diameter of 10mm and

an internal diameter of 6.5mm.
4. Smooth pipe (PVC) with an external diameter of 20mm and an

internal diameter of 16.5mm.
5. Smooth pipe (PVC) with an external diameter of 32mm and an

internal diameter of 26.5mm.
Types of valves:
1. Angle-seat valve with inner diameter of 20mm.
2. Gate valve with inner diameter of 20mm.
3. Diaphragm valve with inner diameter of 20mm.
4. Ball valve with inner diameter of 20mm.
Types of couplings:
1. In-line strainer. Inner diameter of 20mm.
2. Elbow of 90º. Inner diameter of 20mm.
3. Double elbow of 90º. Inner diameter of 20mm.
4. Elbow of 45º. Inner diameter of 20mm.
5. T of 45º. Inner diameter of 20mm.
6. Inclined T. Inner diameter of 20mm.
7. Symmetrical Y branch. Inner diameter of each pipe 20mm.
8. Gradual narrowing. Its section changes from 40mm to 25mm.
9. Gradual widening. Its section changes from 25mm to 40mm.
Special couplings:
1. Pitot tube of 30mm long, external diameter of 4mm and internal

diameter of 2.5mm.
2. Venturi tube of 180mm long, larger section of 32mm and minor section
of 20mm.
3. Diaphragm with a measuring plate, larger diameter of 25mm and minor

diameter of 20mm.
The circuits have 7 ball valves (V1-V7), required to distribute the current
flow through the different elements tested.
The equipment has differential anti-obturant pressure sensors, located at

the beginning and at the end of every element studied. Each one of them connects
easily to Bourdon type (24) and water manometers (25).
The Bourdon manometer will be used to measure larger differences of

pressure, while the water manometer will be used to measure small differences of
pressure.
The columns of the water manometer are communicated between them by

a collector located at their top. In one of its sides it has the valve necessary to connect
a one-way valve with fast plugs. The manometers’ level can be adjusted by using a
manual air pump, connecting it to the one-way valve and pressurising the system. If
you wanted to take air out, you would have to disconnect the nylon pipe from the
collector’s fast plug.
If it is the first time the Bourdon manometer is used, it must be previously

prepared. In order to do so, cut the black plug located at the top of the dial off both of
them.
The transparent polyethylene tubes are also included, so any pair of

pressure tapping can be promptly connected to one of the two manometers.
The relation between the tube’s diameter and the distance between the
pressure intakes at the sides of each tube has been set in order to minimise the input
and output effects.
The flow can be controlled with the regulation valves, both the AFT’s
output valve as well as the output one of the pumping system.
This last one also makes it possible to adjust the static pressure of the
system conveniently depending on the kind of experiment that is going to be
performed.
The electrical power is supplied to the fluid with a centrifugal pump

located inside the Hydraulic Bench or next to the Basic Hydraulic Feed System. This
pump is activated and stopped with the on/off switch located in the front panel of
both the Hydraulic Bench and the Basic Hydraulic Feed System.
7.2.2 Practical possibilities
This unit enables to carry out the following experiments:
Obtaining pressure drops in different types of pipes:
 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an

inner diameter of 17mm.
 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an

inner diameter of 23mm.
 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with an

inner diameter of 6.5mm.

inner diameter of 16.5mm.

inner diameter of 26.5 mm.
Comparison of the different parameters that affect pressure drops:
 Influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due to friction in

rough pipes.
 Influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due to friction in

smooth pipes.
 Influence of the roughness in the pressure drop.
 Obtaining the friction coefficient in a rough pipe with an inner

diameter of 17 mm.
Calculation of the friction coefficient in different types of pipes:
 Calculation of the friction coefficient in a rough pipe with an inner

diameter of 17 mm.
 Calculation of the friction coefficient in a rough pipe with an inner

diameter of 23 mm.
 Calculation of the friction coefficient in a smooth pipe with an inner

diameter of 6.5 mm.

diameter of 16.5 mm.

diameter of 26.5 mm.
Influence of different parameters in the friction coefficient:
 Influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient in rough pipes.
 Influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient in smooth pipes.
 Calculation of the friction coefficient in smooth and rough pipes.
Obtaining the pressure drop in different types of valves:
- Obtaining the pressure drop in an angle-seat valve.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a gate valve.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a diaphragm valve.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a ball valve.
Comparison between different types of valves:
- Comparison of pressure drops in different types of valves.

Obtaining the pressure drop in different types of fittings:
- Obtaining the pressure drop in an in-line strainer.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a 90º elbow.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a 90º double elbow.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a 45º elbow.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a 45º T.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in an inclined T.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a symmetrical Y branch.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a narrowing.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a gradual narrowing.
- Obtaining the pressure drop in a diaphragm.
Comparison between different types of fittings:
- Comparison of pressure drops in the fittings.
Flow measurement through different systems:
- Flow measurement with a Venturi meter.
- Determination of the discharge coefficient Cd in a Venturi tube.

- Flow measurement with a Pitot tube.
- Determination of the discharge coefficient Cd in a Pitot tube.
Comparison between different systems:
- Comparison between the flows measured in the Venturi and Pitot

tubes.
7.2.3 Dimensions and weight
The maximum dimensions of the AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTB unit are:
APPROXIMATE HEIGHT: 1000 mm.
APPROXIMATE LENGTH: 2300 mm.

7.3 THEORY
Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of currents could be

established inside a pipe.
 Laminar flow regime. There is a proportion relation between the

pressure drop and the current velocity.
 Turbulent flow regime. Pressure drop is proportional to the

square of the velocity.
He also observed that there was an area between one and the other
behaviour where it did not exist a clear relation between the pressure loss and the
flow velocity.
He achieved to classify the kind of current regardless of the size and type
of pipe through a dimensionless parameter, the Reynolds number.
 u d
Re 

(1)
being:
: The fluid density [kg/m3]
U: its velocity [m/s]
: The dynamic viscosity [kg/m·s]
d: The pipe diameter [m]

The kinematic viscosity  and dynamic viscosity  can be related by means

of the following expression:
 (2)


(3)
ud
Re 

being the Reynolds number in function of the velocity and the inner diameter of the
pipe and inversely proportional to the kinematic viscosity.
The following table indicates the values of the water kinematic viscosity
depending on the temperature:
Temperature (ºC) Kinematic viscosity (m2/seg).10-6

5 1.52
10 1.308
15 1.142
20 1.007
25 0.897
30 0.804
35 0.727
40 0.661
50 0.556
Table 3.1.1
The flows inside two geometrically identical pipes obey the same laws if
Reynolds numbers are equal. The similarity must extend to the internal rugosities of
the pipe, which play an important role. This means that the pressure drop coefficients
will be the same for two identical pipes.
One of the most accurate formules for hydraulic calculations is the Darcy-
Weisbach law. This law is used to calculate the friction coefficient. It is determined
by:
L  v 
2
hf  f       (4)
 D   2 g 
hf  h2  h1 (5)
Working out the value of the friction coefficient, the following formule is
obtained:
 D   2 g 
f  hf      2  (6)
L  v 
Where:
h1: Height of the water column at the beginning of the pipe [m]
h2: Height of the water column at the end of the pipe [m]
hf: Pressure drop [m]
f: Friction coefficient [dimensionless]
L: Length of the pipe [m]
D: Inner diameter of the pipe [m]

V: Average velocity of the fluid [m/s]
g: Gravity acceleration [m/s^2]
Flow and fluid’s velocity are related by means of this formule:
  D2
Q  Av  v (7)
4
Where:
A: Area of the section [m2]
v: Average velocity of the fluid [m/s]
D: Diameter of the section [m]
Moody chart is used to obtain the rugosity coefficient. It represents the friction
factor f in function of the Reynols number and the relative roughness.
Relative roughness = Absolute roughness/Diameter of the pipe.
Other equation which is commonly used to make estimates of the rugosity is

Manning equation. Manning equations are normally used in channels. In case of
pipes, they are valid when the channel is circular and it is filled up partially, or when
the diameter of the pipe is very large. One of the formule’s disadvantages is that they
only take into account the empirically obtained roughness coefficient (n), but not the
viscosity variations related to temperature. The expression is the following one:
 Q^2 
h  10.3  n ^ 2   5.33   L (8)
D 
n: Epirical coefficient (dimensionless)
Q: Flow (m3/s)
L: Length of the pipe (m)
Apart from pressure drops due to friction, there are other kind of losses which
are originated at singular points (valves, elbows, tees, abrupt widenings...) and are
due to turbulence phenomena. The sum of these accidental or localized pressure
drops plus the friction losses give as a result the total pressure drops.
Except in exceptional cases, localized pressure drops can only be determined

in an experimental way. Due to the fact that they are generated by an energy
dissipation because of turbulences, they can be expressed in function of the kinetic
height corrected by means of an empirical coefficient (k):
 v2 
h f  K    (9)
 2 g 
K: Empirical coefficient (dimensionless)
g: Gravity acceleration (m/s2)
v: Velocity of the flow (m/s)

The K coefficient depends on the kind of singularity and the average velocity
inside the pipe. Approximate values of K are summarised in the following table.
VALUES OF K COEFFICIENT IN SINGULAR LOSSES
ACCIDENT K L/D
Ball valve (completely open) 10 350
Straight-angle valve (completely open) 5 175
Safety valve (completely open) 2,5 -
Gate valve (completely open) 2 135
Gate valve (¾ open) 1.15 35
Gate valve (½ open) 5.6 160
Gate valve (¼ open) 24 900
Buttelfly valve (completely open) - 40
Short radius elbow at 90º 0.9 32
Regular radius elbow at 90º 0.75 27
Long radius elbow at 90º 0.6 20
Short radius elbow at 45º 0.45 -
Regular radius elbow at 45º 0.40 -
Long radius elbow at 45º 0.35 -
Lateral outlet T 1.80 67

Apart from friction, as in any section of pipe, pressure drops due to gradual
widenings (diffusors) are generated by other singularities due to vortices formed
because of the pressure differencies. When increasing the section, velocity decreases,
and therefore the kinetic term, for that reason pressure must increase.
The smaller the conicity angle () is, the lower the localized pressure drops
are. However, a greater longitude of the diffuser is needed, therefore the continuous
pressure drops increase. The objective is to calculate the value of “” at which the
generated total pressure drop is minimum.
Gibson demonstrated experimentally that the optimum conicity angle is about

6º. He provided the following empirical formule to calculate the total pressure drops:
 D12  V12
h    1  2   (10)
 D2  2  g
h: Pressure drop [m]

: Empirical coefficient [dimensionless]
g: Gravity acceleration [m/s^2]
D1: Inlet section [m]
D2: Outlet section [m]
v1: Velocity of the fluid at the inlet section [m/s]
v2: Velocity of the fluid at the outlet section [m/s]
According to Gibson, the values of  are the following ones:
 6º 10º 15º 20º 30º 40º 50º 60º
 0.14 0.20 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.9 1 1.1
The velocity increases in the narrowings, so its pressure decreases as well.

Therefore, such conditions do not favour the vortices forming, thus almost all
pressure drops generated are due to friction. The values of K usually range from 0.02
to 0.04. In practice, these values are ignored.
When there is a widening or a narrowing, the velocity of the fluid will change,
therefore there will be a change in the pressure.
If pressure drops are not taken into account, the pressure difference will only
depend on the section variation:

P 
2
V1
2
 V22  (10.b)
Where:
V1: The velocity at the inlet [m/s]
V2: The velocity at the outlet [m/s]
: Density fluid [kg/m3]
P: pressure increase [mmHg]

Venturi tube
Venturi tube was created by the Italian inventor Giovani Battista Venturi. It is
a device which generates a pressure loss when a fluid flows through it. In essence, it
is a straight tube, or narrowing, between two conical sections. Pressure changes in the
proximity of the narrow section. Thus, pressure drop and flow can be calculated with
a manometer.
h1
h2
h3
convergent divergent
In the Venturi tube the flow from the main pipe in section 1 is accelerated
through the narrow section, where the fluid’s pressure decreases. Then, the fluid
expands itself through the divergent section to the same diameter of the main section.
Velocity in section 2 (narrow) is determined by the equation:
2  g (h1  h2 )
v2  C  2
(11)
D 
1   2 
 D1 
h1: Manometric height at the inlet [m]
h2: Manometric height at the outlet [m]
C: Discharge coefficient [dimensionless]
D1: Inlet section [m]
D2: Outlet section [m]
v2: Velocity of the fluid at the outlet section [m/s]
As the Venturi tube, the Pitot tube is also used to calculate the fluid’s flow
which runs through a pipe. The Pitot tube gives the measurement of the total
pressure. So, if it is compared to the static pressure, the dynamic pressure will be
obtained. The value of the fluid’s velocity can be calculated then with the dynamic
pressure.
The velocity of the fluid inside the pipe is determined by the expression:
 2P  Ps 
1
2
 2  (h2  h1 )
1
V  Cd   0 
2 (12)
  
Being:
V: Velocity of water [m/s]
C: Discharge coefficient [dimensionless]
P0: Total pressure at that point [Bar]
Ps: Static pressure at that point [Bar]

h1: Manometric height at the inlet [m]
h2: Manometric height at the outlet [m]

7.4 LABORATORY PRACTICAL EXERCISES
7.4.1 Practical exercise 1: Pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an
inner diameter of 17mm
7.4.1.1 Objective
 Determine the relation between the pressure drop due to friction and the
velocity of the fluid in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 17mm.
7.4.1.2. Required elements
- AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP unit.
- Hydraulic bench.
7.4.1.3. Experimental procedure
Step 1: Connect the hydraulic bench to the AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP.
Step 2: Activate the “mushroom button” of the hydraulic bench with the
V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, V7 and the regulation valve number 23 closed.
Step 3: Connect the unit and switch on the pump.
Step 4: Open the V1 valve and wait until all the air from the pipe is
expelled.
Step 5: Connect the pressure taps of the corresponding manometer to the

inlet and outlet of pipe number 2. The manometric tubes will be chosen
when there are water column differences lower than 800 mm.
Step 6: Regulate with the regulation valve number 23 the flow which runs
through the pipe.
CAUTION: When using the Hydraulic Bench (FME00) once the flow
measurement has been done, the driver of the emptying valve must be lowered to
avoid that the drain tank is left without water and the pump seizes up. When another
time-measuring process is performed, put up the driver to fill the volumetric tank
and, once the measurements are finished, put it down again.
7.4.1.4. Data taking
Flow Height Flow Height

Q hf Q hf
l/min mm H2O l/min mm H2O
Table 3.1.1
7.4.1.5. Questions:
Calculate the Reynolds number with the equations (2) and (3).
Calculate the average velocity of the fluid with the equation (7).
Fill in the following table.

Flow Flow Velocity Height
Q Q u hf
Log(hf) Log(u) Re
l/min m3/s m/s mm H2O
Table 3.1.2.
7.4.1.6. Questions
Q1. Plot the pressure drop-velocity and identify the type of regime. In order to
appreciate these areas better, represent log (h) versus log (u).
7.4.2 Practical exercise 2: Pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an
inner diameter of 23mm
7.4.2.1. Objective
 Determine the relation between the pressure drop due to friction, and the
velocity of the fluid in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 23mm.
- Hydraulic bench.
expelled.

inlet and outlet of the pipe number 3. The manometric tubes will be chosen
when there are water column differences lower to 800 mm.
through the pipe.
7.4.2.4. Data taking:

Q hf Q hf
Table 3.2.1
7.4.2.5. Results:

Q Q u hf
Log(hf) Log(u) Re
Table 3.2.2
7.4.2.6. Questions
Q.1. Plot the pressure drop-velocity and identify the type of regime. In order
to appreciate these areas better, represent log (h) versus log (u).
7.4.3 Practical exercise 3: Pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with
an inner diameter of 6.5mm
7.4.3.1. Objective
velocity of the fluid in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 6.5mm.
- Hydraulic bench.
expelled.

through the pipe.

Q hf Q hf
Table 3.3.1
7.4.3.5. Results:

Q Q u hf
Log(hf) Log(u) Re
Table 3.3.2
7.4.3.6. Questions:
7.4.4. Practical exercise 4: Pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with
an inner diameter of 16.5mm
7.4.4.1. Objective
- Determine the relation between the pressure drop due to friction, and
the velocity of the fluid in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 16.5mm.
- Hydraulic bench.
Step 4: Open the valve V4 and the angle seat valve number 7 and wait until
all the air from the pipe is expelled.

through the pipe.

Q hf Q hf
l/min mm H2O l/min mm Hg
Table 3.4.1
7.4.4.5. Results:

Q Q u hf
Log(hf) Log(u) Re
Table 3.4.2
7.4.4.6. Questions:
7.4.5. Practical exercise 5: Pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with
an inner diameter of 26.5 mm
7.4.5.1. Objective
velocity of the fluid in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 26.5
mm.
- Hydraulic bench.
V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, V7 and the regulation valve 23 closed.
Step 4: Open the valve V5 and the gate valve number 8 and wait until all
the air from the pipe is expelled.

through the pipe.

Q hf Q hf
Table 3.5.1
7.4.5.5. Results:

Q Q u hf
Log(hf) Log(u) Re
Table 3.5.2.
7.4.5.6. Questions
7.4.6. Practical exercise 6: Influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due
to friction in rough pipes
7.4.6.1. Objective
 Analyze the influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due to friction
in rough pipes.
- Data collected in practical exercises number 1 and 2.
7.4.6.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercises 1 and 2 in their

corresponding data tables, compare the influence of the rough pipes’ diameter in the
pressure drop by friction.
For that purpose, represent in the same grapgh the log (h) versus the log (u)
of the two diameters to be studied.
7.4.6.4. Questions
Q.1. Considering the previous graph, which pipe has a bigger load loss, the
one with a smaller diameter or the one with a bigger one?
7.4.7. Practical exercise 7: Influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due
to friction in smooth pipes
7.4.7.1. Objective
 Analyze the influence of the diameter in the pressure drop due to friction
in smooth pipes.
- Data collected in practical exercises number 3, 4 and 5.
7.4.7.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercises 3, 4 and 5 in their

corresponding data tables, compare the influence of the smooth pipes’ diameter in the
pressure drop by friction.
For that purpose, represent in the same grapgh the log (h) versus the log (u)
of the three diameters to be studied.
7.4.7.4. Questions
Q.1. Considering the previous graph, which pipe has a greater pressure drop,
that with a smaller diameter or that with a larger one?
7.4.8. Practical exercise 8: Influence of the roughness in the pressure drop
7.4.8.1. Objective
 Analyze the influence of the roughness in the pressure drop in pipes.
- Data collected in practical exercises number 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
7.4.8.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercises 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in their

corresponding data tables, compare the influence of roughness in the pressure drop
by friction.
For that purpose, represent in the same graph the log (h) versus the log (u)
of the five diameters to be studied.
7.4.8.4. Questions
Q.1. Considering the obtained results, which conclusions would you

remark?
7.4.9. Practical exercise 9: Friction coefficient in a rough pipe with an inner

diameter of 17 mm
7.4.9.1. Objective
 Study the relation between the friction coefficient and the Reynolds
number (Re) in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 17mm.
- Results from the practical exercise 1.

7.4.9.3. Results
Calculate the value of the friction coefficient (f) for each flow with the
equation (6).
Interpolating the Reynols number and the friction coefficient in the Moody
chart (attached in Annex C), calculate the value of the roughness coefficient of the
pipe (). Calculate the value of Manning coefficient (n) with the equation (8).
Flow Velocity
Q u Re f  n
m3/s m/s
Table 3.9.1.
7.4.9.4. Questions
Q.1. Plot the friction coefficient f versus the Reynolds number.
Q.2. How does the friction coefficient versus the Reynolds number vary?
Q.3. Obtain the value of the roughness coefficient.

7.4.10. Practical exercise 10: Friction coefficient in a rough pipe with an inner
diameter of 23 mm
7.4.10.1. Objective
number (Re) in a rough pipe with an inner diameter of 23 mm.

7.4.10.3. Results
equation (6).

Flow Velocity
Q u Re f  n
m3/s m/s
Table 3.10.1
7.4.10.4. Questions

7.4.11. Practical exercise 11: Friction coefficient in a smooth pipe with an inner
diameter of 6.5 mm
7.4.11.1. Objective
number (Re) in a smooth pipe with an inner diameter of 6.5 mm.

7.4.11.3. Results
equation (6).
Flow Velocity
Q u Re f  n
m3/s m/s
Table 3.11.1
7.4.11.4. Questions
Q.4. Compare the obtained result with the theoretical result for
methacrylate.
diameter of 16.5 mm
7.4.12.1. Objective
- Results from the practical exercise number 4.

7.4.12.3. Results
equation (6).
Flow Velocity
Q u Re f  n
m3/s m/s
Table 3.12.1
7.4.12.4. Questions
Q.4. Compare the obtained result with the theoretical result for PVC.
diameter of 26.5 mm
7.4.13.1. Objective

7.4.13.3. Results
equation (6).

Flow Velocity
Q u Re f  n
m3/s m/s
Table 3.13.1
7.4.13.4. Questions
Q.4. Compare the obtained result with the theoretical result for PVC.
7.4.14. Practical exercise 14: Influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient
in rough pipes
7.4.14.1. Objective
 Analyze the influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient in rough

pipes.
- Results from the practical exercises 9 and 10.
7.4.14.3. Results

corresponding data tables, compare the influence of the diameter in the friction
coefficient in rough pipes.
For that purpose, represent in the same graph the Re versus the friction
coefficient of the two diameters to be studied.
7.4.14.4. Questions
Q.1. Considering the previous graph, which pipe has a higher friction
coefficient, the one with a smaller diameter or the one with a larger one?
7.4.15. Practical exercise 15: Influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient
in smooth pipes
7.4.15.1. Objective
 Analyze the influence of the diameter in the friction coefficient in

smooth pipes.
- Results from the practical exercises 11, 12 and 13.
7.4.15.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercises 11, 12 and 13 in their
corresponding data tables, compare the influence of the diameter in the friction
coefficient in smooth pipes.
coefficient of the three diameters to be studied.
7.4.15.4. Questions
Q.1. Considering the previous graph, which pipe has a higher friction
coefficient, the one with a smaller diameter or the one with a larger
diameter?
7.4.16. Practical exercise 16: Friction coefficient in smooth and rough pipes
7.4.16.1. Objective
 Analyze the influence of the roughness in the friction coefficient.
- Results from practical exercises 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13.
7.4.16.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercises 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 in
their corresponding data tables, compare the influence of roughness in the friction
coefficient in pipes.
coefficient of the five diameters to be studied.
7.4.16.4. Questions
Q.1. From the obtained results, which are the most remarkable
conclusions?
7.4.17. Practical exercise 17: Pressure drop in an angle-seat valve
7.4.17.1. Objective
 Determine the pressure drop of the fluid when it circulates through an

angle-seat valve.
- Hydraulic bench.
Step 4: Open the valve V4 and the angle seat valve number 7 and wait until
all the air from the pipe is expelled.

inlet and outlet of the valve number 7 (angle-seat valve). The manometric
tubes will be chosen when there are water column differences lower to 800
mm.
through the pipe. It is recommended to start with a flow of 10 l/min and
increase 5 l/min for each data taking.
Flow Flow Height Flow Flow Height

Q Q hf Q Q hf
l/min m3/s mm H2O l/min m3/s mm H2O
Table 7.17.1
7.4.17.5. Results
The value of K will be obtained from the equation (9). To calculate the
velocity, use the equation (7), taking into account the diameter of the pipe.
d. = 16.5 mm.
Flow Velocity Height Flow Velocity Height

Q V hf K Q V hf K
m3/s m/s mm H2O m3/s m/s mm H2O
Table 7.17.2
7.4.17.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the angle-seat valve in
all the operation range.
Q.2. Plot the relation K-Q for each opening degree.

7.4.18. Practical exercise 18: Pressure drop in a gate valve
7.4.18.1. Objective
 Determine the pressure drop of the fluid when it flows through a gate
valve.
- Hydraulic bench.
Step 4: Open the valve V5 and the gate valve number 8 and wait until all

inlet and outlet of the valve number 8 (gate valve). The manometric tubes
will be chosen when there are water column differences lower to 800 mm.

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.18.1
7.4.18.5. Results
d. = 26.5mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
m3/s m/s mm H2O m3/s m/s mm H2O
Table 7.18.2
7.4.18.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the gate valve in the
whole operation range.

7.4.19. Practical exercise 19: Pressure drop in a diaphragm valve
7.4.19.1. Objective
 Determine the pressure drop of the fluid when it flows through a

diaphragm valve.
- Hydraulic bench.
Step 4: Open the valve V6 and the diaphragm valve number 10 and wait
until all the air from the pipe is expelled.

inlet and outlet of the valve number 10 (diaphragm valve). The manometric
tubes will be chosen when there are water column differences lower to 800
mm.

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.19.1
7.4.19.5. Results
The value of K will be obtained from the equation (9). To calculate the velocity, use
the equation (7), taking into account the diameter of the pipe.
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
m /s m/s mm H2O m /s m/s mm H2O
Table 7.19.2
7.4.19.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the diaphragm valve in
the whole operation range.

7.4.20. Practical exercise 20: Pressure drop in a ball valve
7.4.20.1. Objective
 Determine the pressure drop of the fluid when it flows through a ball
valve.
- Hydraulic bench.
V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, V7 and the regulation valve number23 closed.
Step 4: Open the valve V7 and the ball valve number 19 valves and wait

inlet and outlet of the valve number 19 (ball valve). The manometric tubes

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.20.1
7.4.20.5. Results
The value of K will be obtained from the equation (9). To calculate the velocity, use
the equation (7), taking into account the diameter of the pipe.
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3
m /s m/s mm H2O m^3/s m/s mm H2O
Table 7.20.2
7.4.20.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the ball valve in the
Q.2. Plot the K-Q relation for each opening degree.

7.4.21. Practical exercise 21: Comparison of pressure drop in different types of

valves
7.4.21.1. Objetive
- Comparision of the pressure drop of the fluid when it flows through

different valves.
- Data collected in the practical exercises number 17, 18, 19 and 20.
7.4.21.3. Results
From the data collected in the corresponding data tables from the practical
exercises 17, 18, 19 and 20, compare the influence of the different valves in the
pressure drop. For that purpose, represent in the same graph K- Q.
7.4.21.4. Questions
Q.1. From the previouus graph, determine which valve has a higher pressure
drop.
Q.2. From the results obtained, which are the most remarkable conclusions?
7.4.22. Practical exercise 22: Pressure drop in the in-line strainer
7.4.22.1. Objetive
- To determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through a in-line
strainer.
- Hydraulic bench.
Step 4: Open the valve V6 and the diaphragm valve number 9 and wait

inlet and outlet of the in-line strainer (9). The manometric tubes will be
chosen when there are water column differences lower to 800 mm.

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.22.1
7.4.22.5. Results
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.22.2
7.4.22.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the filter in the whole
operation range.

7.4.23. Practical exercise 23: Pressure drop in a 90º elbow
7.4.23.1. Objective
 To determine the pressure drop of a fluid that flows through an elbow of

90º.
- Hydraulic bench.
Step 4: Keep closed all the valves of the unit.
Step 5: Open the V7 valve and the ball valve number 19 and wait until all

inlet and outlet of the 90º elbow (22). The manometric tubes will be chosen


Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.23.1
7.4.23.5. Results
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.23.2
7.4.23.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the 90º elbow in the
Q.2. Plot the K-Q relation for each opening degre.

7.4.24. Practical exercise 24: Pressure drop in a double 90º elbow
7.4.24.1. Objective
 Determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through the double
90º elbow.
- Hydraulic bench.

inlet and outlet of the double 90º elbow (17). The manometric tubes will be

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.24.1
7.4.24.5. Results
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.23.2
7.4.24.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the 90º double elbow in
the whole operation range.

7.4.25. Practical exercise 25: Pressure drop in a 45º elbow
7.4.25.1. Objective
 Determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through an elbow of 45º.
- Hydraulic bench.

inlet and outlet of the 45º elbow (20). The manometric tubes will be chosen

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.25.1
7.4.25.5. Results
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.25.2
7.4.25.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the load loss coefficient is constant for the 45º elbow
in the whole operation range.

7.4.26. Practical exercise 26: Pressure drop in a 45º tee
7.4.26.1. Objetive
- Determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through a 45º tee.
- Hydraulic bench.

lower inlet and outlet of the 45º tee (18). The manometric tubes will be

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.26.1
7.4.26.5. Results
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.26.2
7.4.26.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the 45º tee in the whole
operation range.

7.4.27. Practical exercise 27: Pressure drop in an inclined tee
7.4.27.1. Objetive
- Determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through the inclined
tee.
- Hydraulic bench.

lower inlet and to the outlet of the inclined tee (21). The manometric tubes

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.27.1
7.4.27.5. Results
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.27.2
7.4.27.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the inclined T in the

7.4.28. Practical exercise 28: Pressure drop in a symmetrical Y branch
7.4.28.1. Objetive
- To determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through a

symmetrical Y branch.
- Hydraulic bench.

inlet of the symmetrical Y branch. The manometric tubes will be chosen

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.28.1
7.4.28.5. Results
d. = 20mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.28.2
7.4.28.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant for the symmetrical Y
branch in the whole operation range.

7.4.29. Practical exercise 29: Pressure drop in a narrowing
7.4.29.1. Objetive
- To determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through a

narrowing.
- Hydraulic bench.
Step 5: Open the V6 valve and the diaphragm valve number 10 and wait

inlet and outlet of the narrowing (15). The manometric tubes will be

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.29.1
7.4.29.5. Results
Taking into account the inner diameter at the inlet (40mm) and the outlet
(25mm), the value of the velocity of the fluid for each flow at the inlet and outlet of
the narrowing can be obtained with the equation (7).
Calculate with the equation (10.b) the pressure decrement that should take
place in the pipe.
Take away the theoretical pressure decrement that should take place
(previously calculated) from the real pressure decrement measured (difference among
the water column, inlet and outlet). Thus, the value of the pressure drop introduced
by the narrowing will be obtained.
Using the equation (10) and the difference between the real and theoretical
values without pressure drop, calculate the value of .

Flow Height
V1 V2
Q Pr =hf Pt Pt-Pr 
[m/s] [m/s]
[l/min] [mm]
7.4.29.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant in the narrowing.

7.4.30. Practical exercise 30: Pressure drop in a gradual widening
7.4.30.1. Objetive
- To determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through a gradual
widening.
- Hydraulic bench.

inlet and outlet of the gradual widening (11). The manometric tubes will be

Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.30.1
7.4.30.5. Results
Taking into account the inner diameter at the inlet (25mm) and the outlet
(40mm), the value of the velocity of the fluid for each flow at the inlet and outlet of
the widening can be obtained with the equation (7).
Calculate with the equation (10.b) the pressure decrement that should take
place in the pipe.
Take away the theoretical pressure decrement that should take place
(previously calculated) from the real pressure decrement measured (difference among
the water column, inlet and outlet). Thus, the value of the pressure drop introduced
by the widening will be obtained.
Using the equation (10) and the difference between the real and theoretical
values without pressure drop, calculate the value of .

Flow Height
V1 V2
Q Pr =hf Pt Pt-Pr 
[m/s] [m/s]
[l/min] [mm]
First, with the equation (7) we will obtain the velocity at the inlet and
outlet of the gradual widening, taking into account the diameters at the inlet and
outlet.
7.4.30.6. Questions
Q.1. Plot the -Q relation for each opening degree.
Q.2. Compare the obtained value with the value given by Gibson.
7.4.31. Practical exercise 31: Pressure drops in a diaphragm
7.4.31.1. Objective
 Determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through a

diaphragm.
- Hydraulic bench.

inlet and outlet of the diaphragm (14). The manometric tubes will be


Q Q hf Q Q hf
Table 7.31.1
7.4.31.5. Results
d. = 40mm.

Q V hf K Q V hf K
3 3
Table 7.31.2
7.4.31.6. Questions
Q.1. Confirm that the loss coefficient K is constant in the narrowing.

7.4.32. Practical exercise 32: Comparison of pressure drop in the different

fittings
7.4.32.1. Objective
- To determine the pressure drop of the fluid that flows through different
hydraulic accesories.
- Data collected in the practical exercises number 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24,
25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31.
7.4.32.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercises number 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29 in their corresponding data tables, compare the
influence of the different accesories in the pressure drop. For that purpose, plot the
K- Q relation in the same graph.
7.4.32.4. Questions
Q.1. From the previous graph, which accesory has a higher pressure drop?
Q.2. Which are the most remarkable conclusions from the obtained results?
7.4.33. Practical exercise 33: Flow measurement with the Venturi meter
7.4.33.1. Objetive
- To determine the flow that circulates through a pipe, relating it with the
pressure drop in such pipe by means of the Venturi tube.
- Hydraulic bench.

inlet and the middle point of the Venturi meter (13). The manometric tubes


Q hf Q hf
Table 3.34.1
7.4.33.5. Results:
With the equation (11) and ignoring the value of C, calulate the velocity of
the fluid taking into account the size of the inlet and middle sections.
D1= 32 mm
D2= 20 mm
With the equation (7) calculate the flow of the fluid.
Fill in the following table:
Flow Flow Velocity

Qv
Q Q V2
Venturí.
l/min m3/s m/s
Table 3.34.2.
7.4.33.6. Questions
Q.1. Plot the measured flow and the flow obtained in the Venturi.
Q.2. From the obtained results, which are the most remarkable conclusions?
7.4.34. Practical exercise 34: Determination of the discharge factor Cd in the

Venturi tube
7.4.34.1. Objetive
- To determine the discharge factor Cd in the Venturi tube.
- Data collected in the practical exercise 33.
7.4.34.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercise 33 in their corresponding

data table, equaling the value of Q (directly measured) with the value of Qv, the
value of C from the formule (10) will be obtained (coefficient neglected in the
velocity calculation).
Flow Flow Velocity Qv

Q Q V2 Venturí. C
l/min m3/s m/s
7.4.34.4. Questions
Q.1. From the obtained results, which is the value of C?

7.4.35. Practical exercise 35: Flow measurement with the Pitot tube
7.4.35.1. Objetive
- To determine the flow that circulates through a pipe relating it with the
static and dynamic pressure by means of the Pitot tube.
- Hydraulic bench
Step 4: Open the V6 valve and the diaphragm valve number 10 valves and
wait until all the air from the pipe is expelled.

Pitot tube (12). The manometric tubes will be chosen when there are water
column differences lower to 800 mm.
through the pipe. It is recommended to start with a flow of 0.2 l/min and
increase 0.2 l/min for each data taking in the laminar flow and 5 l/min in
the turbulent flow.

Q hf Q hf
Table 3.35.1
7.4.35.5. Results:
With the equation (12) and ignoring the value of Cd, calculate the velocity
of the fluid.
With the equation (7) calculate the flow of the fluid.
Fill in the following table:
Flow Flow Velocity

Qp
Q Q V
Pitot.
l/min m3/s m/s
Table 3.35.2.
7.4.35.6. Questions
Q.1. Plot the measured flow and the flow obtained with the Pitot tube.
C.2. From the obtained results, which are the most remarkable conclusions?
7.4.36. Practical exercise 36: Determination of the discharge factor Cd in the

Pitot tube
7.4.36.1. Objective
- To determine of the discharge factor Cd in the Pitot tube.
7.4.36.2. Required material
- Data collected in the practical exercise 35.
7.4.36.3. Results
From the data collected in the practical exercise 35 in their corresponding

data table, equaling the value of Q (directly measured) with the value of Qp, the
value of C from the formule (11) will be obtained (ignored coefficient in the velocity
calculation).
Flow Flow Velocity Qp

Q Q V pitot. C
l/min m3/s m/s
7.4.36.4. Questions
Q.1. From the obtained data, which is the value of C?

7.4.37. Practical exercise 37: Comparison between the flow measured in the
Venturi and Pitot tubes
7.4.37.1. Objetive
- To compare the flows obtained with the Pitot and Venturi tubes.
- Data collected in the practical exercises 34 and 36.
7.4.37.3. Results

corresponding data tables, compare the value of the flows.
Flow Flow Flow Flow

Q Q Qv Qp
l/min m3/s m3/s m3/s
7.4.37.4. Questions
Q.1. From the obtained results, which are the most remarkable conclusions?
7.5 ANNEXES
7.5.1 ANNEX A: Assembly and installation
Figure 2.0.1: AFT panel

The AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP unit may be placed on the floor or on a solid

table.
The water intake is located on the left-hand side

of the panel. It must come from a water supply with a
pressure of 2.5 bars and an approximate flow of 80 l/min.
Seven valves on the panel allow selecting the

pipe under study
Figure 2.0.2
This unit can be used with the Basic Hydraulic Feed System as well as with
the Hydraulics Bench. If the unit is going to be used with the Basic Hydraulic Feed
System from the start, note that the AFT has a flowmeter to measure the flows.
If the device is not going to be used for a long period of time, water from
all the pipes must be emptied. This can be done easily by opening all the valves,
including those controlling the flow outlet and intlet.
It is also recommended to perform a general cleanup of the Basic

Hydraulic Feed System from time to time.
The device offers strategically placed pressure inlets (quick connectors)

that make it possible to determine the pressure drop in the different elements.
Assemble the manometers if they are not already mounted. The

manometer’s panel is attached to the unit’s main frame bu means of two profile
joints. In order to assemble them, loosen the joints with the aid of an Allen key
(number 5). Put the manometers in their correct place and then tighten the joints with
the Allen key (number 5).
Once they are assembled, connect the flexible pipes to the manometers’
intakes.
7.5.1.1. Starting the unit
After having assembled the unit following the previously described steps,
these operations may be performed in order to prepare it for its working:
- Fill the tank of the Basic Hydraulic Feed System (FME00/B) or

Hydraulic Bench (FME00) with clean cold water up to 200 mm above
the pump’s input pipe.
- Open the inlet flow control valve and open the outlet regulating valve
completely.
- Connect the quick intake of the AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP unit (flexible

pipe that comes out of the pipe) to the Basic Hydraulic Feed System or
to the Hydraulic Bench.
- Open all the ball valves from V1 to V7 so the water initially circulates
through all the pipes of the AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP unit.
- Start the pump. Then, open the water input control valve gradually and
observe how the water starts being introduced into the volumetric tank
through the flexible hose that comes out of the valve.
- Close the flow regulating valve (number 23) completely and check that
there is no water leaking from any of the pipes.
- The device is now ready to be used.
Procedure to fill up the manometric pipes:
- Connect the blue polyurethane pipes with the quick connector to the
inlets of the methacrylate pipe.
- Open the ball valves that allow the water flow through the
methacrylate pipe and close the flow regulation valve gradually. The
manometric pipes are now full of water; introduce air with the
manual pump so that the water level in the manometric pipes is set
approximately at the middle of the measuring scale.
Bourdon-type manometers are used for measuring larger differences of

pressure. The device has two manometers (the upper and the lower one) and the
differences between both make it possible to determine the pressure drop generated
along the unit’s different elements. The upper manometer will be used downstream
and the lower one upstream.
Before using Bourdon manometers, the black lid must be cut off. Once the
unit is installed, cut the black lid in order to improve its performancand safety.
7.5.2 ANNEX B: Filling the manometers
7.5.2.1. Water manometer
1. Connect the equipment to the pumping system.
2. Open the through valve of the pumping system and every valve of the
AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP (V1 to V7).
3. Let the water flow through the whole circuit to eliminate the air bubbles.
4. Connect the two pressure inlets in to any points of the equipment.
5. Disconnect the one-way valve and put the blue pipe into the pumping
system tank to avoid spillage.
6. Let the two branches of the manometric panel fill up completely, so the
water bubbles cannot go through them.
7. Lower the inlet flow so the water level in the manometric tubes is
approximately half.
8. Slowly tap the tubes to eliminate the bubbles. If the bubbles are not
eliminated, proceed as follows:
- Disconnect the two pressure inlets of the pipes panel and connect the
one-way valve to the hand-pump.
- Give air with the pump and hit slowly the tubes. Sometimes, it is
necessary to disconnect the one-way valve again.
9. Once the manometers are purged, connect the one-way valve (if it had been
necessary to remove it).
10.Connect the pressure inlets in the desired positions of the pipes panel.
7.5.3 ANNEX C: Operation mode of the displacement sensors (AFTC)
1- Fill the manometric tubes by following the previous procedure.
2- Start the software of the equipment.
3- Put the displacement sensors at the same height and check that it is zero. In
this way, the sensors are ready to work. If the reading is not zero when they
are at the same height, press the tare button to eliminate this error.
4- Work normally with the equipment. To obtain the pressure loss reading in
the software, move the displacement sensors to the water height in the
manometers.
Displacement
sensors
7.5.4 ANNEX D: Universal graph

7.5.5 ANNEX E: Tables
Rough pipe d=17 T=30ºC kinematic viscosity =0.00000894 Absolute R. (teórica)=0.3-3 Manning (theoretical) =0.012-0.017
R. R. Mann
d(m) Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) log(h) log(u) Reynols f
Relative Absolute ing
9,85
0,017 10 1,7E-04 0,00023 0,73 75 1,88 -0,134 13963 0,046 0,013 0,21
E-03
1,03
0,017 15 2,5E-04 0,00023 1,10 183 2,26 0,042 20944 0,050 0,018 0,31
E-02
8,68
0,017 20 3,3E-04 0,00023 1,47 233 2,37 0,167 27926 0,036 0,006 0,10
E-03
9,71
0,017 25 4,2E-04 0,00023 1,84 456 2,66 0,264 34907 0,045 0,013 0,21
E-03
9,81
0,017 30 5,0E-04 0,00023 2,20 670 2,83 0,343 41888 0,046 0,013 0,22
E-03
9,31
0,017 35 5,8E-04 0,00023 2,57 820 2,91 0,410 48870 0,041 0,012 0,21
E-03
Rough pipe d=23 T=30ºC kinematic viscosity =0.00000894 Absolute R. (teórica)=0.3-3 Manning (theoretical) =0.012-0.017
R. R. Mann
1,05
0,023 10 1,67E-04 0,00042 0,40 17 1,23 -0,397 10320 0,048 0,017 0,39
E-02
1,03
0,023 15 2,50E-04 0,00042 0,60 37 1,57 -0,221 15480 0,046 0,018 0,41
E-02
1,06
0,023 20 3,33E-04 0,00042 0,80 70 1,85 -0,096 20641 0,049 0,020 0,46
E-02
9,98
0,023 25 4,17E-04 0,00042 1,00 96 1,98 0,001 25801 0,043 0,017 0,39
E-03
1,01
0,023 30 5,00E-04 0,00042 1,20 143 2,16 0,080 30961 0,045 0,018 0,41
E-02
1,13
0,023 35 5,83E-04 0,00042 1,40 240 2,38 0,147 36121 0,055 0,028 0,64
E-02
Smooth pipe =16.5 T=30ºC kinematic viscosity =0.00000894 Absolute R. (theoretical) =0.0015 Manning (theoretical) =0.006-0.01
R. R. Mann
8,47
0,0165 10 1,67E-04 0,00021 0,78 65 1,81 -0,108 14386 0,035 0,0006 0,0099
E-03
7,61
0,0165 15 2,50E-04 0,00021 1,17 118 2,07 0,068 21579 0,028 0,0004 0,0066
E-03
7,37
0,0165 20 3,33E-04 0,00021 1,56 197 2,29 0,193 28772 0,026 0,00005 0,000825
E-03
7,02
0,0165 25 4,17E-04 0,00021 1,95 279 2,45 0,290 35965 0,024 0,0002 0,0033
E-03
7,05
0,0165 30 5,00E-04 0,00021 2,34 405 2,61 0,369 43158 0,024 0,0001 0,00165
E-03
7,04
0,0165 35 5,83E-04 0,00021 2,73 550 2,74 0,436 50351 0,024 0,0001 0,00165
E-03
R. R. Mann
3,49
0,0065 6 1,00E-04 3,32E-05 3,01 570 2,76 0,479 21911 0,0080 0
E-03
0,000006 3,65
0,0065 10,3 1,72E-04 3,32E-05 5,17 1840 3,26 0,714 37614 0,0088 0,000001
5 E-03
0,000006 3,86
0,0065 12 2,00E-04 3,32E-05 6,03 2790 3,45 0,780 43822 0,0098 0,000001
5 E-03
0,000006 4,02
0,0065 14 2,33E-04 3,32E-05 7,03 4110 3,61 0,847 51125 0,0106 0,000001
5 E-03
0,000006 4,25
0,0065 16 2,67E-04 3,32E-05 8,04 6010 3,78 0,905 58429 0,0119 0,000001
5 E-03
0,000006 4,40
0,0065 17 2,83E-04 3,32E-05 8,54 7280 3,86 0,931 62081 0,0127 0,000001
5 E-03
R. R. Mann
9,20
0,026 10 1,67E-04 0,000531 0,31 6,8 0,83 -0,503 9130 0,035 0,0006 0,0156
E-03
8,42
0,026 15 2,50E-04 0,000531 0,47 12,8 1,11 -0,327 13694 0,029 0,0004 0,0104
E-03
7,65
0,026 20 3,33E-04 0,000531 0,63 18,8 1,27 -0,202 18259 0,024 0,0004 0,0104
E-03
7,42
0,026 25 4,17E-04 0,000531 0,78 27,6 1,44 -0,105 22824 0,023 0,0002 0,0052
E-03
7,17
0,026 30 5,00E-04 0,000531 0,94 37,2 1,57 -0,026 27389 0,021 0,0001 0,0026
E-03
7,19
0,026 35 5,83E-04 0,000531 1,10 50,8 1,71 0,041 31953 0,021 0,0001 0,0026
E-03
Angle seat valve

d(m) Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
0,0265 10 1,667E-04 0,00055155 0,302 70 15,0251865
0,0265 15 2,500E-04 0,00055155 0,453 160 15,2636815
0,0265 20 3,333E-04 0,00055155 0,604 230 12,3421175
0,0265 25 4,167E-04 0,00055155 0,755 350 12,0201492
0,0265 30 5,000E-04 0,00055155 0,907 430 10,255286
Gate valve
0,0265 10 1,667E-04 0,00055155 0,302 40 8,58582084
0,0265 15 2,500E-04 0,00055155 0,453 100,4 9,57796014
0,0265 20 3,333E-04 0,00055155 0,604 141,7 7,60381758
0,0265 25 4,167E-04 0,00055155 0,755 189,6 6,51148653
0,0265 30 5,000E-04 0,00055155 0,907 261,6 6,23902981
Membrane valve K
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 70 1,21869875
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 145 1,61564634
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 240 1,85706476
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 350 1,98971225
0,02 40 6,667E-04 0,00031416 2,122 430 1,87157308
Ball valve

0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 38,8 2,70202923
0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 54 1,67135829
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 64,6 1,12468485
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 87,6 0,97607324
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 110 0,85115468
Filter
0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 200 13,9279857
0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 500 15,4755397
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 1000 17,4099822
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 1200 13,3708663
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 1500 11,6066548
90º elbow Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 6 0,41783957

0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 17 0,52616835
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 34 0,59193939
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 57 0,63511615
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 84 0,64997267
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 112 0,63670792
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 152 0,8641036
90º double
Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
elbow
0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 28 1,949918

0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 60 1,85706476
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 98 1,70617825
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 144 1,60450396
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 213 1,64814498
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 288 1,63724893
0,02 40 6,667E-04 0,00031416 2,122 371 1,61477585
45º elbow Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K

0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 7 0,4874795
0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 15 0,46426619
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 25 0,43524955
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 38 0,42341077
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 54 0,41783957
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 69 0,39225756
0,02 40 6,667E-04 0,00031416 2,122 82 0,35690463
Tee Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 38 2,64631729

0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 70 2,16657556
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 122 2,12401782
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 160 1,78278217
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 260 2,01182016
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 380 2,16025901
0,02 40 6,667E-04 0,00031416 2,122 460 2,00214795
Inclined tee Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 30 2,08919786

0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 60 1,85706476
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 100 1,74099822
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 160 1,78278217

0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 220 1,70230937
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 300 1,70546764
0,02 40 6,667E-04 0,00031416 2,122 350 1,52337344
Y branch Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
0,02 10,3 1,717E-04 0,00031416 0,546 26,4 0,1732957
0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 58,8 0,18199235
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 104,4 0,18176021
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 157,2 0,17515835
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 230 0,17796871
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 311 0,17680015
0,02 40 6,667E-04 0,00031416 2,122 421,3 0,18337064
Gradual widening
D1 D2 Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V1(m/s) h coef

0,025 0,04 1,0E+01 1,667E-04 0,000491 0,34 2,80 0,78121715
0,025 0,04 1,5E+01 2,500E-04 0,000491 0,51 8,40 1,04162286
0,025 0,04 2,0E+01 3,333E-04 0,000491 0,68 14,80 1,03232266
0,025 0,04 2,5E+01 4,167E-04 0,000491 0,85 25,60 1,14280909
0,025 0,04 3,0E+01 5,000E-04 0,000491 1,02 40,00 1,24002722
0,025 0,04 3,5E+01 5,833E-04 0,000491 1,19 56,4 1,28456697
0,025 0,04 3,7E+01 6,167E-04 0,000491 1,26 65,6 1,33694681
Gradual narrowing
d Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 13,6 0,0947103
0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 32 0,09904345
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 52,8 0,09192471
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 81,6 0,09092189
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 123,2 0,09532932
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 166,8 0,094824
0,02 37,2 6,200E-04 0,00031416 1,974 194 0,09762795
Diaphragm losses
d Q(l/min) Q(m^3/s) A(m^2) V(m/s) dif h(mm) K
0,02 10 1,667E-04 0,00031416 0,531 33,6 0,23399016
0,02 15 2,500E-04 0,00031416 0,796 63,2 0,19561082
0,02 20 3,333E-04 0,00031416 1,061 104,4 0,18176021
0,02 25 4,167E-04 0,00031416 1,326 168,8 0,18808352
0,02 30 5,000E-04 0,00031416 1,592 232,4 0,17982577
0,02 35 5,833E-04 0,00031416 1,857 268,4 0,1525825
0,02 37,2 6,200E-04 0,00031416 1,974 307,2 0,15459436
Venturi flow
d1 d2 Q(l/min) A2 dif h v1 Qv Cd
0,032 0,02 10 3,142E-04 0,018 0,47555635 8,964E+00 1,116E+00
0,032 0,02 15 3,142E-04 0,035 0,66313165 1,250E+01 1,200E+00
0,032 0,02 20 3,142E-04 0,0584 0,85658834 1,615E+01 1,239E+00
0,032 0,02 25 3,142E-04 0,0968 1,10281691 2,079E+01 1,203E+00
0,032 0,02 30 3,142E-04 0,1324 1,28976245 2,431E+01 1,234E+00
0,032 0,02 35 3,142E-04 0,1552 1,39640564 2,632E+01 1,330E+00
Pitot flow
Q(i/min) dif (h) V d1 A Q cd

10 3,2 0,25043961 0,03 0,00070686 10,6215199 0,94148485
15 5,2 0,31924912 0,03 0,00070686 13,5398343 1,10784222
20 10,4 0,45148643 0,03 0,00070686 19,1482173 1,04448366
25 12,8 0,50087923 0,03 0,00070686 21,2430397 1,17685606
30 18,8 0,60702553 0,03 0,00070686 25,744864 1,16528097

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PRACTICAL EXERCISES MANUAL

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 1 / 162

7.3 THEORY ...................................................................................................................................... 13

7.5 ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................. 148

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 2 / 162

7 PRACTICAL EXERCISES MANUAL

This unit is designed to study the behaviour of closed flows. It makes it

 Flow in laminar regime.

 Flow in turbulent regime.

Osborne Reynolds made a difference between laminar and turbulent flows

Friction in pipes is one of the classic laboratory experiments and it has

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 3 / 162

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 4 / 162

 An aluminium panel placed vertically, where all the elements to be

 A pumping and flow regulation system, which will be the Hydraulic

There are 4 different models of the equipment:

AFT/P: only the device. It does not include FME00 or FME00/B.

And, finally, the most advanced one:

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 5 / 162

- Flow sensor: range 0-150 l/min.

- Pressure sensor: 2 units with a range of 0-2 bar.

- Displacement sensor: 2 units with a range of 0-1 meter (0.5 precision)

The unit consists of:

1. Rough pipe (PVC covered in sand) with an external diameter of

2. Rough pipe (PVC covered in sand) with an external diameter of

3. Smooth pipe (methacrylate) with an external diameter of 10mm and

4. Smooth pipe (PVC) with an external diameter of 20mm and an

5. Smooth pipe (PVC) with an external diameter of 32mm and an

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 6 / 162

1. Angle-seat valve with inner diameter of 20mm.

2. Gate valve with inner diameter of 20mm.

3. Diaphragm valve with inner diameter of 20mm.

4. Ball valve with inner diameter of 20mm.

1. In-line strainer. Inner diameter of 20mm.

2. Elbow of 90º. Inner diameter of 20mm.

3. Double elbow of 90º. Inner diameter of 20mm.

4. Elbow of 45º. Inner diameter of 20mm.

5. T of 45º. Inner diameter of 20mm.

6. Inclined T. Inner diameter of 20mm.

7. Symmetrical Y branch. Inner diameter of each pipe 20mm.

8. Gradual narrowing. Its section changes from 40mm to 25mm.

9. Gradual widening. Its section changes from 25mm to 40mm.

1. Pitot tube of 30mm long, external diameter of 4mm and internal

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 7 / 162

3. Diaphragm with a measuring plate, larger diameter of 25mm and minor

The equipment has differential anti-obturant pressure sensors, located at

The Bourdon manometer will be used to measure larger differences of

The columns of the water manometer are communicated between them by

If it is the first time the Bourdon manometer is used, it must be previously

The transparent polyethylene tubes are also included, so any pair of

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 8 / 162

pressure tapping can be promptly connected to one of the two manometers.

The electrical power is supplied to the fluid with a centrifugal pump

7.2.2 Practical possibilities

This unit enables to carry out the following experiments:

Obtaining pressure drops in different types of pipes:

 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an

 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a rough pipe with an

 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with an

Ref.: AFT/AFTB/AFTC/AFTP Date: September 2013 Pg: 9 / 162

inner diameter of 6.5mm.

 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with an

 Obtaining the pressure drop due to friction in a smooth pipe with an