Personal Sense of Uniqueness Mediates The Relationship Between Compassion For Others and Subjective Well-Being - SpringerLink PDF

Personal Sense of
Uniqueness Mediates the

Relationship Between
Compassion for Others and
Subjective Well-Being
Journal of Happiness Studies
pp 1–23 | Cite as
Melikşah Demir (1) Email author

(Meliksah.Demir@nau.edu)
Andrew Haynes (1)
Marlyn Sanchez (2)
Jennifer C. Parada (1)
1. Department of Psychological Sciences, Northern

Arizona University, , Flagstaff, USA
2. Department of Psychology, University of Houston, ,
Houston, USA
Research Paper
First Online: 28 August 2018
120 Downloads
Abstract
Research has found that both compassion for others
(CfO) and personal sense of uniqueness (PSU) are
positively associated with subjective well-being (SWB).
We conducted two studies, one with an emerging adult
sample (N = 470), and the other with another emerging
adult sample (N = 300) and a middle-aged adult sample
(N = 169), investigating whether PSU mediated the
relationship between CfO and SWB. In addition to
utilizing different age groups for each study, the
Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Positive Affect
Negative Affect Schedule were used as a measure of SWB
for Study 1 and 2, respectively. The proposed mediation
model was supported within both studies: PSU was a
significant mediator of the relationship between CfO and
both components of SWB in emerging adults and the
affective component of SWB in middle-aged adults. The
implications of the findings and suggestions for future
research are highlighted.
Keywords
Compassion for others Subjective well-being
Personal sense of uniqueness Mediation
Emerging adults Middle-aged adults
1 Introduction
As part of the broader attempt to identify the most salient

and useful constructs within positive psychology,
researchers have put forth a considerable amount of
effort toward understanding compassion for others (CfO).
CfO is defined as “being touched by the suffering of
others, opening one’s awareness to others’ pain and not
avoiding or disconnecting from it, so that feelings of
kindness towards the others and the desire to alleviate
their suffering emerge” (Pommier 2010, p. 2). CfO has
been identified as a robust correlate of various
phenomena such as problem-solving skills (Feher 2016),
forgiveness (Arslan 2017), and body satisfaction
(Vimalakanthan 2016). Of particular interest to the
current investigation, CfO has also been associated with
various indices of psychological well-being, including
happiness and subjective well-being (Beaumont et al.
2016a, b; Bibeau et al. 2016; Demir 2017; İşgör 2017;
Sanchez et al. 2018). However, less is known about why
the CfO-subjective well-being (hereafter SWB)
relationship exists. What are the mechanisms by which
compassion relates to SWB? Answering this question is
essential to understanding the various benefits associated
with high levels of compassion, as well as to effective
implementation of strategies which capitalize upon the
CfO-SWB relationship. The aim of the current
investigation was to examine personal sense of
uniqueness (PSU; Şimşek and Yalınçetin 2010) as the
mediator of the association between CfO and SWB.
Rooted in humanistic theory, PSU is described as feelings
of having distinct features and a sense of worthiness
(Şimşek and Yalınçetin 2010). The proposed model was
tested in two studies, with a sample of emerging adults in
Study 1, and an emerging adult and middle-aged adult
sample in Study 2.
It is important to highlight some key characteristics of the

age groups studied in this investigation as they might
have implications for how CfO, uniqueness, and SWB are
experienced. Erikson (1950), in his influential
psychosocial theory of human development, proposed
that identity issues are prominent during adolescence
followed by a concern with establishing and maintaining
intimate relationship during young adulthood. However,
as eloquently summarized by Arnett (2000) and Schwartz
et al. (2013), identity exploration now extends into
emerging adulthood, a developmental stage
characterizing the experiences of those between the ages
of 18–25. A unique feature of this stage is the focus on the
self that involves “identity explorations in the areas of
love, work and worldviews” (Arnett 2000, p. 473). As
such, the consideration of and commitment to alternative
identities might be related to one’s compassionate acts
and influence the extent to which one feels he or she is a
unique person. Likewise, achieving a sense of generativity
and avoiding a sense of stagnation, the psychosocial stage
of middle adulthood (Erikson 1950), might have
implications for compassion. We address this issue in
detail in Study 2.
1.1 Compassion for Others
Compassion has proven to be a useful construct in

understanding not only mental health, but also
interpersonal relationships and the self. After all, the
ways in which we relate to others when they are facing
hardships certainly do have implications that reach both
inward and outward. Compassion for others (CfO) is a
construct developed by Elizabeth Pommier (2010) rooted
in the concept of self-compassion (SC) propounded by
Kristin Neff (2003a).
Neff (2003a) defines compassion as “…being open to and
moved by the suffering of others, so that one desires to
ease their suffering. It also involves offering others
patience, kindness and nonjudgmental understanding,
recognizing that all humans are imperfect and make
mistakes” (p. 224). Neff relied on this definition when
introducing the concept of self-compassion (SC), which is
composed of three distinct constructs with opposing
dimensions: kindness versus harsh self-criticism,
mindfulness versus over-identification with emotions,
and common humanity versus isolation. As such, being
self-compassionate entails being kind to one’s self rather
than being self-critical, being mindful of one’s emotions
while not over-identifying with them, and realizing that
hardship is common to all people rather than feeling
isolated because of one’s problems. These three
components collectively comprise SC, as well as
compassion in general (Neff 2003b).
CfO involves feeling kindness towards those suffering,

being open to their emotions, and understanding the
universality of human suffering. Pommier (2010),
developed CfO through Neff’s SC, and relies on the same
three primary components, but provides different
opposing dimensions which emphasize the other rather
than the self. Specifically, kindness is opposed to
indifference; mindfulness is opposed to disengagement;
and common humanity is opposed to separation.
Kindness in CfO, then, centers around being open to
feeling warmth towards the sufferer rather than simply
ignoring the sufferer. Furthermore, mindfulness entails
an ability and willingness to understand the other’s
emotions, while disengagement, similar to indifference,
entails an unwillingness to recognize the feelings of the
sufferer. Lastly, common humanity in CfO entails an
understanding of the universality of human suffering
instead of a sense of separation that implies the suffering
is only the other’s experience and problem. These three
components collectively comprise CfO. Furthermore,
these components and their opposing constructs of CfO
share a fair amount of commonality with their SC
counterparts, but they are distinct from them in that they
focus on the other. Consistent with these distinctions,
research has shown a small but positive correlation
between CfO and SC (e.g., Beaumont et al. 2016a;
Pommier 2010) Furthermore, as CfO is conceptually
distinct from SC in its focus on others rather than the self,
CfO is distinguished from other approaches to
compassion in important ways.
Although the focus of the current study is on CfO as

proposed by Pommier (2010), it is important to highlight
that there are multiple conceptualizations and
assessments of compassion (see Gilbert 2005, 2009;
Gilbert et al. 2017; Goetz et al. 2010; Strauss et al. 2016).
While these approaches have considerable similarity to
Pommier’s CfO they also vary in important ways from
their counterparts. For instance, Gilbert (2009) considers
compassion to be an evolved ability and a motivational
system that enables individuals to display “a deep
awareness of the suffering of another coupled with the
wish to relieve it” (p. 13). Gilbert (2010, as cited in
Strauss et al. 2016) argues that there are six attributes of
compassion (sensitivity, sympathy, empathy,
motivation/caring, distress tolerance and non-
judgement). Of these attributes, distress tolerance is
similar to Pommier’s (2010) mindfulness component,
which addresses the idea of not overidentifying and being
overwhelmed with another person’s suffering. In his most
recent work, Gilbert et al. (2017) conceptualized
compassion as having two components: engagement and
action. Engagement is concerned with “attentional
sensitivity to distress signals” and action “involves
acquiring the wisdom and skills to act to alleviate and
prevent suffering in self and others” (p. 2). The scale
Gilbert and his colleagues created assesses these two
motivational components of compassion. This approach
to compassion as a motivational process overlaps with the
kindness and mindfulness components of CfO but does
not address common humanity.
Another approach to compassion is Compassionate Goals

(Crocker and Canevello 2008), which defines compassion
as being concerned about others’ well-being and
providing support. This definition reflects a more
surface-level conceptualization of compassion, which
addresses the kindness aspect of compassion, but not the
common humanity or mindfulness aspects. The
Compassion Scale (Martins et al. 2013) also assesses
compassion, by defining it as feelings of being moved by
others’ suffering and a motivation to alleviate that
suffering. Similar to Compassionate Goals, the
Compassion Scale only addresses the kindness aspect of
compassion, and focuses primarily on compassionate
behaviors rather than feelings. Lastly, Compassionate
Love (Sprecher and Fehr 2005) is another approach to
compassion, defined as love characterized by selfless
giving to others. Compassionate Love does not delineate
between love (a selfless want for the other’s well-being)
and compassion (which normally is specifically directed
towards a person suffering). Also, Compassionate Love
does not contain different domains, which, as Martins et
al. (2013) noted, makes it difficult to implement into
intervention strategies (see Jazaieri et al. 2013; Morrish
et al. 2017 for compassion cultivation programs and their
potential usefulness). Furthermore, while compassionate
love contains the kindness and common humanity
components of CfO, it does not address the mindfulness
component. Consistent with Pommier’s (2010)
distinction between CfO and compassionate love, she
found moderate correlations between CfO and
compassionate love which suggest that, while the
constructs have overlap, they are not the same (r = .30
and r = .54).
1.2 CfO and Psychosocial Well-Being
Research on CfO, as conceptualized by Pommier, has

been growing in recent years. Perhaps the most direct
evidence of this is the wide range of constructs to which
CfO is related. Research has shown that CfO is a positive
predictor of forgiveness of others (Roxas et al. 2014); it is
positively associated with compassion satisfaction
(Durkin et al. 2016; Rushing 2017), the ability to receive
gratification from caregiving, and negatively associated
with burnout. Salazar (2015, 2016) has found that CfO is
positively related to closeness, trust, and social support in
friendships, and negatively correlated with verbal
aggressiveness, narcissism, and interpersonal
communication apprehension. A couple of studies have
found that CfO is a mediator between various constructs
(Arslan 2017; Feher 2016). Feher (2016), for instance,
found that CfO played a mediating role in the relationship
between emotional intelligence and conflict resolution
strategies, with higher CfO predicting more prosocial
conflict resolution strategies. Collectively, the body of
research on CfO demonstrates its importance and
centrality as a construct with implications for many
different psychological domains.
Pommier (2010) articulates that the relationship between

compassion and happiness is “the paradox of
compassion,” highlighting the fact that while compassion
begins with recognition of suffering, a presumably
negative experience, it is still considered a positive
emotion which promotes happiness. She notes that there
are several potential explanations for this relationship.
For example, it could be that recognition of the suffering
of the other facilitates a positive desire to alleviate that
suffering and aid the other. From this it follows that
compassionate acts might help nourish not only the one
who is receiving aid, but also the person giving the aid,
simply by the unintentional generation of positive
emotions. This is one potential theoretical explanation
that might account for the relationship which results
from the paradox of compassion.
Several studies specifically focusing on CfO have linked it

to markers of well-being. Beaumont et al. (2016a), in
particular, have investigated CfO and its relationship with
well-being. Beaumont et al. (2016a) found a positive but
nonsignificant correlation between CfO and well-being
among student midwives. While the correlation was
nonsignificant (perhaps due to a small sample size) it was
positive, trending in a positive direction consistent with
other research. Beaumont et al. (2016b) also found a
significant positive correlation between CfO and well-
being among student counselors and psychotherapists.
Furthermore, Demir (2017) and Sanchez et al. (2018)
found a positive correlation between CfO and SWB
among emerging adults in a number of studies.
Specifically, CfO was positively associated with life
satisfaction, affect balance, and global happiness. Finally,
İşgör (2017) reported that CfO predicted subjective well-
being in a sample of Turkish college students.
Clearly, past research focusing on different

conceptualizations of compassion and recent studies
specifically focusing on CfO have documented that it
confers benefits, one of the most important of which
might be well-being. Yet, it is not known what might
account for the relationship between CfO and well-being.
Here, we propose that the CfO-SWB association could be
explained by sense of uniqueness, a construct that is
continuously receiving increasing empirical focus.
1.3 Personal Sense of Uniqueness
Humanistic psychology has, since its beginnings,

conceived of the uniqueness of the individual as a central,
and certainly positive construct. Uniqueness, so far from
serving to isolate an individual, actually serves as a
primary component in self-growth, wherein a person
realizes his/her individuality and inherent worth and
becomes more capable of living a happy life (Maslow
1987; Rogers 1961). This inherently positive
conceptualization of uniqueness found its empirical
instantiation with Şimşek and Yalınçetin’s (2010)
Personal Sense of Uniqueness (PSU) Scale. PSU, as
measured by this scale, assumes that a person’s
uniqueness is a positive attribute, which represents a
person’s feelings of having distinct features and a sense of
worthiness. As Demir et al. (2013) noted, PSU represents
a sort of “non-contingent self-worth,” in which a person
recognizes those attributes which individuate him/her,
and in pondering them feels a sense of value which is
intrinsic and inextricable from the self.
One important feature of this conceptualization of

uniqueness is that it is not based on the similarity-
differentiation continuum, which is the main
conceptualization of uniqueness in other approaches such
as uniqueness theory (Snyder and Fromkin 1977) and
distinctiveness principle (Vignoles et al. 2000). One main
argument of the uniqueness theory is that individuals
have a need for uniqueness that is adjusted depending on
how similar and different one feels when comparing
his/her distinctiveness from others. It also predicts that
well-being is experienced when one achieves and
maintains a moderate level of uniqueness. PSU, on the
other hand, is focusing on the individual’s internal
considerations of his/herself and bases uniqueness in a
personal consideration of individuality and worthiness.
Consequently, while earlier conceptualizations of
uniqueness were based on a person feeling similar
to/different from others and on finding the optimal level
of distinctiveness, PSU cannot be reduced simply to
similarity/differentiation because it includes a
component of self-worth tethered to that individuality.
The non-contingent self-worth represented by PSU is
nurtured by one’s very existence. That is, individuals feel
unique because of who they are rather than the extent to
which they are similar to or different from others.
1.4 PSU and Psychosocial Well-Being

The importance and centrality of PSU as a positive
construct is evident when discussing its correlates.
Şimşek and Yalınçetin (2010) found that PSU was
positively associated with hope, resilience, optimism, life
satisfaction, and basic psychological needs satisfaction.
Other studies have linked PSU to friendship quality
(Demir et al. 2013), needs satisfaction (Şimşek and Demir
2014), and plastic personality facets (Koydemir et al.
2014), demonstrating a positive relationship between
PSU and each respective construct.
These relationships help to identify the positive role that

PSU plays in mental health. Firstly, Demir et al. (2013)
found that PSU mediates the relationship between
friendship and SWB. Secondly, Şimşek and Demir (2014)
found that PSU also plays a mediating role between needs
satisfaction in parent–child relationships and adolescent
SWB. Thirdly, Koydemir et al. (2014) found that PSU
mediates the relationship of extraversion and openness
with SWB. Altogether, the literature suggests that PSU is
associated with mental health as well as with
interpersonal relationships; and it explains the
associations between relationships and well-being.
1.5 PSU as a Mediator Between CfO and

SWB
As we previously highlighted, the positive relationship

that exists between CfO and SWB is growing, but has yet
to be explained in any of the extant literature. We
propose PSU as the mediator of this relationship, such
that CfO has the potential to promote a person’s PSU,
which consequently predicts his/her SWB. There are a
number of possible explanations for this mediation.
There are potentially numerous reasons as to why one

might feel unique. It could be that one’s abilities and
skills in general nurture feelings of uniqueness. Of course,
these competencies need to be recognized by the
individual or affirmed by others. As reviewed earlier, CfO
entails the recognition of another person’s suffering and
having a determination to alleviate it. It is possible that
individuals who practice compassion in their everyday
lives might come to realize, or be told by others in their
immediate environment, that they are good at noticing
when people are upset and offering their help to ease
their suffering. Consequently, recognition of these
abilities might signal to the individual that he/she is a
unique person.
Related to the point above, introspection might be central

to PSU’s mediation of the relationship between CfO and
SWB. Perhaps individuals who engage in compassionate
acts frequently are consistently acknowledging those
people’s inherent self-worth, and come to see the
uniqueness of each person they help. Consequently, they
might reflect on this uniqueness they see as an inherent
self-worth in every other person, and come to realize that
they have that same self-worth and uniqueness.
Compassion is normally elicited in response to a person

who is perceived to be in need of help (Pommier 2010),
and perhaps the person who, by behaving
compassionately, ameliorates that need might feel as if
he/she has played a particularly useful role. Thus, it could
be that people who act compassionately towards others
feel that they are filling a role which no one else could
and that they perform the compassionate act better than
others. This could be explained by uniqueness bias, which
is defined as “the tendency for people to underestimate
the proportion of people who can or will perform socially
desirable actions” (Goethals et al. 1991, p. 149).
Specifically, individuals believe that they are more likely
to perform a moral act (Allison et al. 1989) and that their
altruistic behaviors are less likely to be displayed by
others (Goethals 1986). This might prompt people to
believe that their behaviors, such as alleviating the
suffering of another person, are “unusually good”
(Goethals et al. 1991, p. 149). Thus, in acting
compassionately towards others, individuals might feel
that the advice, comfort, etc., that they are providing to
the sufferer is something which only they can provide,
thus promoting their PSU.
Another potential explanation, albeit indirect, finds its

base in the beginnings of humanistic psychology. Rogers
(1961) explicitly stated that having supportive close
relationships help to foster an individual’s PSU, an
argument supported by empirical research (Demir et al.
2013). Note that past research showed a positive
association between CfO and having close and supportive
friendships (Salazar 2015). Accordingly, it could be that
compassionate individuals experience higher levels of
PSU due in part the positive social relationships they
maintain, which in turn has the potential to contribute to
their SWB.
1.6 Subjective Well-Being

The current investigation tested the proposed model by
focusing on different dimensions of SWB. Although the
importance of research on SWB is well-accepted in the
literature as reflected by numerous studies on the topic
(e.g., Demir et al. 2017b; Koydemir et al. 2013; Yu et al.
2017), research studies vary on the measures used to
assess SWB. We assessed the components of the tripartite
model of SWB (Busseri and Sadava 2011; Cummins
2013), which has generated a substantial body of
empirical research in the past three decades. According to
this model, SWB consists of cognitive and affective
evaluations of one’s life. The cognitive component
represents one’s overall level of life satisfaction. SWB in
Study 1 was measured with a well-established scale
assessing this cognitive dimension. The affective
component involves the balance of positive and negative
moods that one frequently experiences (Cummins 2013).
SWB in Study 2 was assessed with another commonly
utilized measure that enables the creation of an affect
balance score (predominance of positive over negative
affect). Assessing SWB with two different measures
across the two studies increased our confidence in the
generalizability of the proposed model.
1.7 Overview of the Current Studies
We conducted two studies to test the proposed model, in

which CfO predicts PSU, which then promotes SWB.
Study 1 was conducted with emerging adults, and Study 2
aimed to replicate the findings of Study 1 within a
different emerging adult sample and within another age
group (middle-aged adults). In light of the literature, we
developed three hypotheses (H) for Study 1: we predicted
that CfO would be positively associated with PSU (H1)
and that both variables would be related to SWB (H2); we
expected that PSU would mediate the CfO- SWB
association (H3).
2 Study 1
2.1 Method
2.1.1 Participants and Procedure
The sample consisted of 470 (92 men; Mage = 18.9, SD

1.41) college students attending a medium-sized
university in the southwestern United States. The
majority of the sample was first year college students
(66%), and 14, 11, and 9% were second, third, and fourth
year college students, respectively. The sample was
ethnically diverse: 67% European American, 21% Latino
American, 4% African American, 2% Native American,
and 6% East Asian, Middle Eastern, multiracial, or
“other”.
The data for the current study were gathered online. The
only eligibility requirement was for the participants to be
between the ages of 18–25. The title of study
(Psychological Well-being Among College Students) was
available to participants. Interested participants signed
up for the study online through the psychology
department’s online research participation system and
received access to the online survey administered via
surveymonkey.com. Participants had to provide informed
consent prior to completing the survey, and received a
debriefing statement once they completed the study. The
survey contained various questionnaires, but only the
constructs relevant for the purposes of the present
investigation are reported. Completion of the survey
lasted approximately 25 min. Participants received extra
credit for their psychology classes as compensation.
2.1.2 Measures
2.1.2.1 Compassion for Others
Compassion for others was measured using the 24-item

Compassion Scale (CS; Pommier 2010). CS, adapted from
Neff’s (2003a) Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), assesses the
same three main components as SCS (common humanity,
mindfulness, and kindness), but with different opposing
contracts (indifference, separation, and disengagement,
respectively). Participants rated how often they
felt/behaved towards others using a 5-point Likert scale
(1 = almost never, 5 = almost always). Sample items for
common humanity, mindfulness, and kindness are “It’s
important to recognize that all people have weaknesses
and no one’s perfect,” “I notice when people tell me about
their troubles,” and “I like to be there for others in times
of difficulty,” respectively. Sample items for indifference,
separation, and disengagement are as follows: “When
others are feeling troubled, I usually let someone else
attend to them,” “I feel detached from others when they
tell me their tales of woe,” and “I often tune out when
people tell me about their troubles.” Items for the
opposing constructs (e.g., indifference), which made up
half of the scale, were reverse coded. A compassion score
was computed by taking the mean of each subscale; with
high compassion scores indicating high compassion for
others. The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure in the
present studies was .92.
2.1.2.2 Uniqueness
The Personal Sense of Uniqueness Scale (PSU; Şimşek

and Yalınçetin 2010) was used to measure feelings of
uniqueness. PSU consists of five items (e.g., ‘‘I feel that
some of my characteristics are completely unique to
me.”). Due to a mistake in the creation of the response
options the items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1
= strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) instead of the
original 5-point Likert scale. In the current study, a
composite PSU score was created by averaging all items
(α = .77), with high scores indicating higher levels of
uniqueness.
2.1.2.3 SWB
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al.

1985) was used. SWLS is a commonly used measure that
taps into the cognitive component of the tripartite model
of SWB (Cummins 2013). The scale consists of five items
(e.g., “I am satisfied with my life”) and respondents are
asked to rate their agreement with the items on a 7-point
scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly
agree. The mean of the items were calculated to create a
composite SWB score, where higher scores indicate
higher levels of SWB. The internal consistency of the
scale in the present study was .90.
2.2 Results
The correlations amongst the study variables along with

descriptive information are provided in Table 1. The
findings supported our predictions (H1 and H2) such that
CfO was positively associated with PSU, and both
variables were related to SWB. Notably, gender was only
related to CfO. Our prediction that PSU would mediate
the association between CfO and SWB (H3) was tested
with bootstrap estimation by relying on regression
analyses (Hayes 2013; Preacher and Hayes 2008). This
procedure estimates confidence intervals for the indirect
effects while repeatedly sampling, with replacement, from
the dataset (Preacher and Hayes 2004). Support for the
proposed model would be inferred when the 95%
confidence intervals (CI) do not include zero, and no
indirect effect would be inferred if the CIs contain zero
(MacKinnon et al. 2002). Following the
recommendations, we estimated 10,000 bootstrap
samples and report the bias-corrected and accelerated
CIs (Efron 1987; Mallinckrodt et al. 2006). Since gender
was related to CfO, it was included as a covariate in the
analyses.
Table 1
Means, standard deviations, and correlations amongst

the variables (Study 1)
1 2 3 4 M (SD)
1. Gender –
4.13
2. Compassion for others .28* –
(.58)
3. Personal sense of 5.31

− .01 .27* –
uniqueness (1.05)
5.24
4. SWB .05 .21* .46* –
(1.34)
SWB subjective well-being
Values in parentheses are standard deviations
*p < .01
The results yielded support to the proposed meditational

model (R2 = .22, B = .31, 95% BCa CI = [0.21, 0.43]).
Specifically, the CIs did not include zero, and the
association of CfO with SWB was no longer significant
when PSU was taken into account (Fig. 1). In order to
establish confidence in the proposed model, we tested an
alternative model in which CfO was tested as a mediator.
This analysis revealed that CfO did not mediate the
association of PSU with SWB (B = .03, 95% BCa CI = [−
0.00, 0.06]).
Fig. 1
Personal sense of uniqueness as the

mediator of the relationship between
compassion for others and SWB (Study 1).
The numbers in the figures represent the
unstandardized regression coefficients. The
C’ represents the effect of the Compassion
for Others on SWB when taking the
mediator into account. SWB subjective well-
being. *p < .001
2.2.1 Gender Differences
Although investigation of gender differences was not a

goal of the current study, the positive association of
gender with CfO necessitated additional analyses. First,
we examined mean differences. While there were no
gender differences on PSU (t (468) = .19, p = .85) and
SWB (t (468) = 1.04, p = .30), women had higher scores
on CfO compared to men (Mwomen (SD) = 4.21 (.54) vs.
Mmen (SD) = 3.80 (.61); t (468) = 6.37, p < .001; d = .72).
Second, the correlations between the study variables were
examined. CfO was positively associated with PSU
(rwomen = .27, rmen = .36) and SWB (rwomen = .17, rmen
= .30), and PSU was positively correlated with SWB
(rwomen = .49, rmen = .35). All of the correlations were
significant at p < .01. The magnitude of the correlations,
as indicated by Fisher’s z-test, were not different between
men and women. Finally, we tested the proposed model.
Findings revealed that PSU mediated the CfO- SWB
association similarly for both men and women (Men: R2
= .15, B = .22, 95% BCa CI = [0.04, 0.48], Women: R2
= .24, B = .32, 95% BCa CI = [0.20, 0.46]). Consistent
with the pattern observed in the total sample, the
alternative model was not supported (Men: B = .09, 95%
BCa CI = [− 0.01, 0.21], Women: B = .02, 95% BCa CI =
[− 0.01, 0.05]).
2.3 Brief Discussion
The findings of Study 1 contributed to the growing

nomological network of CfO by establishing a positive
association with PSU. Earlier we postulated several
reasons as to why CfO should be related to PSU. For
instance, we reasoned that individuals who engage in
compassionate acts towards others might realize or be
informed about their special features such as noticing
others’ suffering and acting to alleviate it. The positive
correlation between CfO and PSU is consistent with this
reasoning. More importantly, consistent with our
prediction, PSU mediated the relationship between CfO
and SWB. While the mediational model supported in
Study 1 offers a unique understanding of how CfO might
relate to individual well-being, there are at least three
ways one could establish further confidence into this
model.
First, our SWB measure addressed the cognitive

component of the tripartite model and we wanted to
examine whether the model would be supported with a
measure of SWB tapping into the affective component.
Second, the current replication crisis (see Maxwell et al.
2015, for a review) suggests that there is a lack of
replication studies being published which are essential to
confirming findings. Thus, we wanted to replicate our
model among emerging adults in Study 2. Third, the
convenience sample relied on in Study 1 certainly limits
the generalizability of the results. Indeed, various
researchers have voiced concerns about the reliance on
college students for research (Cooper et al. 2011; Peterson
2001; Peterson and Merunka 2014; Sears 1986).
Although some researchers have found little to no
difference in the responses between college students and
nonstudents (Cooper et al. 2011; Weicko 2010), caution
should be taken when interpreting results obtained from
college samples and efforts should be made to utilize
other populations. Thus, we tested the generalizability of
the model in a middle-aged adult sample.
3 Study 2
There are different tasks related to different

developmental periods throughout the lifespan (e.g.,
Erikson 1950). As emerging adulthood is covered earlier,
we focus on middle adulthood. While a complete
discussion of this developmental period is beyond the
scope of this article, Erikson’s (1950) stages for this age
group, Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST;
Carstensen 1992), and research findings concerning age-
related differences in SWB and uniqueness will be
presented.
Erikson’s (1950) stage for middle adulthood (generativity
vs. stagnation) entails being a productive member of
society and contributing to the development of others.
Since this developmental stage is characterized by a
desire for the betterment of society and a devotion to the
well-being of others (Jenkins et al. 2005) it could be that
individuals in middle adulthood are more willing to
behave compassionately as to accomplish the larger task
of generativity.
3.1 Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
SST (Carstensen 1992) posits that as people get older they

focus more on emotionally meaningful goals rather than
expansive goals (i.e., expanding knowledge). This shift
occurs because of the amount of time the person
perceives he/she has left to live, such that as people age,
they begin to perceive they have less time left to live, and
begin focusing on their relationships and emotional
regulation. Consequently, while emerging adults,
according to SST, have a greater tendency to focus on
self-improvement and expansion, adults in middle
adulthood put much more emphasis on others and
emotion regulation. These predictions of SST have found
substantial empirical support (see Luong et al. 2011, for a
review) and suggest that changes in compassion might
occur with age, such that the more a person ages, the
more compassionate they might become.
There are several reasons to believe that compassion

increases with age. First, research supporting SST has
found that as adults age they begin to cull their social
networks, such that they begin to rid themselves of
peripheral or unimportant, as well as potentially harmful
relationships—a practice which has been associated with
positive emotional outcomes (e.g., English and
Carstensen 2014). As such, middle-aged adults have
fewer social relationships, but they tend to be of higher
quality because they can devote more resources to each
relationship (Lansford et al. 1998). Furthermore, middle-
aged adults might be more willing and able to be
compassionate towards those around them because of the
increased resources available, as well as the increased
importance of those relationships to the individual in
middle adulthood when compared to emerging adults.
Second, SST predicts a change in emotion regulation with
age, such that as adults age, they utilize more response-
focused emotion regulation. This increased focus on
emotion regulation as opposed to focusing on the
problem, which has empirical support (Blanchard-Fields
et al. 1997), provides more reason to believe that as adults
age they might begin behaving more compassionately. If
a person is more focused on the emotional aspect of the
situation of the sufferer, he/she might be more likely to
be empathic and compassionate towards the sufferer. As
Carstensen et al. (2003) noted, overall, as adults age they
make alterations in their social environment that allow
for the optimization of emotional and relational
experiences. This product of goal changes in adulthood
suggests that as adults become older they might have an
increased capacity or willingness to behave
compassionately towards those close to them.
3.2 Age Differences in Uniqueness and

SWB
As presented earlier, PSU is conceived of as a sort of non-
contingent self-worth, which rests on a person valuing
his/herself simply because of who he/she is. Neither
Maslow (1987) nor Rogers (1961) mention any age-
related factors that may influence a person’s PSU. Thus,
although the sources for a person’s feeling of uniqueness
might change over the lifespan, the extent to which
he/she feels unique might be stable.
Recent research has demonstrated a common trend in

SWB across the lifespan, such that a decrease in negative
affect and an increase in positive affect occur with
increased age (e.g., Charles et al. 2016; Mather 2012;
Windsor and Anstey 2010). This effect is, however, most
pronounced among older adults, and studies among
middle-aged adults have found that while a decrease in
negative affect is still present, there is little change in
positive affect when compared to emerging adults (e.g.,
Charles et al. 2001; Kessler and Staudinger 2009;
Mroczek and Kolarz 1998).
3.3 Study Overview
We predicted that the findings of Study 1 would be

replicated among emerging adults (H1). Since previous
research does not provide any guidance concerning the
potential associations between the study variables among
middle-aged adults, we formulated the following research
questions (RQ): Would there be positive associations
between the study variables among middle-aged adults
(RQ1)? Would PSU mediate the association of CfO with
SWB (RQ2)? As for differences between the two age
groups on the study variables, we developed two
hypotheses. In light of theory (Carstensen 1992; Erikson
1950) and past research (e.g., Charles et al. 2001;
Mroczek and Kolarz 1998), we predicted that middle-
aged adults would report higher levels of SWB and
compassion compared to emerging adults (H2), and that
the two groups would not differ on PSU (H3).
3.4 Method
3.4.1 Participants
The sample for emerging adults consisted of 300 (99

men; Mage = 18.84, SD 1.04) college students attending a
medium-sized university in the southwestern United
States. Participants were mostly first year college
students (73%), and 15, 8, and 4% were second, third, and
fourth year college students. The majority of the
participants identified themselves as European American
(64%), while the rest were Hispanic (22%), African-
American (5%), Native American (2%), and 7% Asian
American, Middle Eastern, multiracial, or “other”.
The sample for middle-aged adults included 169 (45 men,

Mage = 43.64, SD 11.80) non-student employees working
at a public university in the southwestern United States.
The average duration of employment at the current
institution was 67 months (SD 74). The majority of the
sample was European American (82%), followed by 6%
Hispanic, 3% Asian, 6% Native American, and 3%
“other”. In the sample, 61% were married, 19% were
engaged or dating, while 20% were single. The mean
duration for romantic relationships was 163 months (SD
141). Relationship duration was not related to any of the
variables.
3.4.2 Procedure
The sample for emerging adults consisted of volunteers

who signed up for the study via the department’s online
research participation system. The study was completed a
semester after Study 1 in 2013, and participants from
Study 1 were ineligible to participate in Study 2. The
participants completed the study online, after providing
informed consent before, and they received a debriefing
statement at the end of the study. The order of the
questionnaires was counterbalanced after every 75
participants. The completion of the survey lasted about
20 min. Participants earned extra credit for their
psychology courses as compensation.
The sample of middle-aged adults consisted of volunteers

who were employed by a university in the summer of
2013. Following the IRB approval of the study, four
research assistants visited various departments and
centers and invited non-faculty and non-student
employees to participate in the study. Those interested in
the study were given an envelope, which contained an
informed consent and the survey. Participants completed
the surveys either during the initial visit or turned them
into the research assistants the next day. All of the
surveys were returned in a sealed envelope. Following the
receipt of the surveys, they received a debriefing form. At
the conclusion of the study, 30 individuals were
randomly selected to receive the $5 gift cards.
Participants in both studies completed other scales (e.g.,
relationship closeness, self-compassion) but we report
only the variables of interest in the current study.
3.4.3 Measures
3.4.3.1 Compassion
As in the first study, Pommier’s (2010) Compassion Scale

was used to measure compassion for others (αEmerging
Adults = .86, αMiddle-aged Adults = .87).
3.4.3.2 Uniqueness
The measure used in the first study was again relied on to

assess PSU (Personal Sense of Uniqueness Scale; Şimşek
and Yalınçetin 2010). The internal consistencies of the
scale among emerging and middle-aged adults were .73
and, .67, respectively.
3.4.3.3 SWB
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS;

Watson et al. 1988) was used to assess the affective
component of SWB (Cummins 2013). PANAS is a 20-item
scale assessing positive affect (PA) and negative affect
(NA)—with 10-items addressing PA (e.g., enthusiastic)
and another 10-items addressing NA (e.g., ashamed).
Respondents answered items addressing the extent they
felt PA and NA in general on a Likert scale ranging from 1
(very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). Composite
scores were derived from the mean of each subscale.
PANAS is a reliable measure with high internal
consistency for both emerging adults (αs = .89 and .85)
and middle-aged adults (αs = .87 and .86). An affect
balance score was created by subtracting PA from NA
(e.g., Cummins 2013).
3.5 Results
Descriptive information for the study variables as well as

the correlations for emerging adults (EA) and middle-
aged adults (MA) is presented in Table 2. It is important
to note that only PA was related to CfO (rEA = .30, p
< .001; rMA = .24, p < .001). CfO was not related to NA in
either sample (rs = − .04 and -.09). On the other hand,
both PA and NA were related to PSU (rsEA = .39/− .25;
rsMA = .40/-.23; all significant at p < .001). Finally, PA
and NA were negatively related in both age groups (rEA
= .13, p < .05, rMA = .37, p < .001). Note that the findings
concerning the mediational model reported below were
supported for PA. Accordingly, we reasoned that a
composite score reflecting the predominance of PA over
NA would be appropriate when reporting the findings.
Thus, the analyses below focus on affect balance as the
outcome.
Table 2

the variables (Study 2)
Middle-
Emerging
aged
adults
1 2 3 4 adults
M (SD) M (SD)
1. Gender – .21* .01 − .07
2.
4.00
Compassion .28* – .29* .24* 3.92 (.60)
(.45)
for others
3.81
3. PSU − .04 .22* – .43* 3.80 (.70)
(.60)
1.98
4. SWB .03 .20* .38* – 1.41 (1.05)
(.93)
PSU personal sense of uniqueness, SWB subjective well-

being
Correlations for emerging adults (n = 300) are above the

diagonal, middle-aged adults (n = 169) below the
diagonal. Values in parentheses are standard deviations
*p < .01
Gender was related to CfO in both age groups. Thus, it

was included as a covariate in addressing H1 and RQ2.
Consistent with the findings of the first study, CfO, PSU,
and SWB were all positively related among emerging
adults. Furthermore, the results of the bootstrapping
analyses revealed that PSU partially mediated the
association of CfO with SWB (R2 = .22, B = .21, 95% BCa
CI = [0.13, 0.32]). As can be seen in Fig. 2, the CfO- SWB
association was still significant when taking PSU into
account. Importantly, the alternative model testing CfO
as the mediator was not supported (B = .05, 95% BCa CI
= [0.00, 0.11]). Collectively, the results mostly supported
H1 such that it replicated the findings obtained in Study 1
and extended it by assessing SWB with a different
measure.
Fig. 2
Personal sense of uniqueness as the

mediator of the relationship between
compassion for others and SWB. The
numbers in the figures represent the
unstandardized regression coefficients. The
C’ represents the effect of the Compassion
for others on SWB when taking the
mediator into account. Values before and
after the dash sign are for emerging and
middle-aged adults respectively. SWB
subjective well-being. *p < .01; **p < .001
Our first research question was concerned with the

associations amongst CfO, PSU, and SWB among middle-
aged adults. The study variables were positively related to
each other. The magnitude of the correlations was not
different from those obtained among emerging adults.
RQ2 was addressed by relying on bootstrapping analyses.
Findings revealed that PSU fully mediated the association
of CfO with SWB (R2 = .16, B = .19, 95% BCa CI = [0.07,
0.38]). Notably, the alternative model was not supported
(B = .03, 95% BCa CI = [− 0.02, 0.11]).
3.5.1 Age Differences
Our prediction (H2) regarding age differences in CfO and

SWB were partially supported. Even though MA had
higher scores on CfO compared to EA this differences was
not significant (t (467) = 1.70, p = .09). Our expectation
that middle-aged adults would report higher levels of
SWB compared to emerging adults was supported (t
(467) = 5.82, p < .001; d = .58). Since this difference was
observed on the composite affect balance score, we
performed additional analyses to further investigate this
difference. Result revealed that the difference between
the two groups was driven by negative affect. Specifically,
while the two groups did not differ on positive affect (M
= 3.64, SD .58, M = 3.54, SD .74; t (467) = 1.62, p = .11),
emerging adults reported significantly higher levels of
negative affect compared to middle-aged adults (M =
1.67, SD .55, M = 2.13, SD .71; t (467) = − 7.30, p < .001; d
= .72). Finally, analyses addressing H3 was supported
such that the two groups did not differ on PSU (t (467)
= .23, p = .82).
3.5.2 Gender Differences
Although we did not have any specific predictions or

research questions regarding gender differences within
the age groups, we conducted additional analyses since
CfO was positively related gender in both groups. As
reported in Table 3, women in both age groups, compared
to men, reported higher levels of CfO (Emerging
adulthood (EA): t (298) = 3.67, p < .001, d = .46; Middle-
aged (MA): t (166) = 3.70, p < .001, d = .63). Women and
men did not differ from each other on PSU across the age
groups (EA: t (298) = − .16, p = .87; MA: t (166) = .55, p
= .59) and SWB (EA: t (298) = 1.25, p = .21; MA: t (166) =
− .58, p = .56).
Table 3

the variables for men and women (Study 2)
Emerging Middle-aged
adults adults
1 2 3 Men Women Men Women
M M
M (SD) M (SD)
(SD) (SD)
1. 3.74 4.00 3.80 4.08

– .37**/.27** .28**/.25**
CfO (.53) (.61) (.48) (.41)
2. 3.79 3.81 3.86 3.80

.21/.26** – .48**/.41**
PSU (.72) (.69) (.65) (.59)
3. 1.52 1.36 1.92 1.99

.28/.18* .19/.41** –
SWB (1.08) (1.04) (.74) (.99)
CfO compassion for others, PSU personal sense of

uniqueness, SWB subjective well-being
Correlations for emerging adult men/women are above

the diagonal, middle-aged adult men/women below the
diagonal. Values in parentheses are standard deviations
*p < .05; **p < .01
The study variables were positively interrelated in every

group but middle-aged men. Thus, we did not run
additional analyses for men in this age group. Among
emerging adults, PSU fully mediated the CfO- SWB
association in men (R2 = .24, B = .33, 95% BCa CI = [0.15,
0.58]) and partially in women (R2 = .19, B = .17, 95% BCa
CI = [0.08, 0.29]). The alternative model testing CfO as a
mediator was not supported (Men: B = .07, 95% BCa CI =
[− 0.03, 0.18]; Women: B = .01, 95% BCa CI = [− 0.03,
0.07]). There was also full mediation among middle-aged
women (R2 = .21, B = .27, 95% BCa CI = [0.11, 0.54])
while the alternative model was not supported (B = .03,
95% BCa CI = [− 0.03, 0.12]).
3.6 Brief Discussion
Study 2 was designed to replicate and address the

limitations of the findings of Study 1. First, the role of
PSU in mediating the CfO- SWB association was
replicated in another emerging adult sample while
focusing on the affective component of SWB. Second, the
findings revealed that the mediational model with the
affective component is generalizable to another age
group. Even though MAs had higher scores on SWB
compared to EAs, the proposed model was supported in
both age groups. The hypothesis concerning age
differences was partially supported: as for differences on
SWB, the findings are consistent with previous research
(Mroczek and Kolarz 1998) showing that MAs have lower
scores of negative affect compared to EAs. On the other
hand, there were no differences between the age groups
on CfO and PSU. We address these important findings in
detail in the following section.
4 General Discussion
The findings from both studies provided support for the
proposed mediational model, such that PSU mediated the
relationship between CfO and SWB. The two aspects of
the current investigation that enhance our confidence in
the generalizability of the findings are that the proposed
model was supported (1) regardless of the way SWB was
measured among emerging adults and (2) in two age
groups when the focus was on the affective component of
SWB. Earlier we noted that there are different
approaches to measuring SWB. In Study 1 the model was
supported while using SWLS to assess SWB, tapping into
the cognitive aspect therein. In Study 2 the model was
supported while employing PANAS, tapping into the
affective component of SWB. While these two modes of
assessing SWB are closely related and together comprise
the tripartite model of SWB, finding support for the
model across measures provides a greater sense of
confidence in the model, such that we can infer that CfO
and PSU relate to SWB holistically, not solely the
cognitive or affective component.
Furthermore, as previously discussed, there are

important differences between emerging adults and
middle-aged adults (e.g., emotion regulation strategies,
developmental tasks, etc.) that we believed might be
pertinent to the primary model. However, the results
seem to indicate that the process is similar across age
groups, such that being compassionate towards others is
related to one’s feelings of uniqueness, which then
predicts SWB. However, it remains to be seen whether
there are varying motivations between age groups that
contribute to this process.
Theory certainly suggests that there could be different
motivations underlying the proposed mediational model.
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, for
instance, detail very different key motivations between
emerging adults and middle-aged adults. Erikson (1950)
suggests that young adults’ primary task is to achieve
intimacy within relationships and avoid isolation. With
middle-aged adults working to achieve a sense of
generativity, which involves aiding in the development of
others, we expected them to display higher levels of CfO
than emerging adults who tend to focus on the self. SST
also suggests that the older a person is, the more
compassionate they will be, because of an increased focus
on maintaining close relationships and more response-
focused emotion regulation that comes with aging.
Emerging adults, in contrast, typically have more
expansive goals than emotion-focused goals, such that
they tend to prioritize learning about the world and
developing themselves more than coping with emotion
and cultivating close relationships. While the results
showed no significant differences between emerging
adults and middle-aged adults in CfO, theory certainly
suggests that the underlying motivations for
compassionate behavior might change throughout the
lifespan.
Notably, while the difference in CfO between age groups

was not significant, there was a trend in the direction we
expected, with middle-aged adults having higher scores
on CfO compared to emerging adults. As mentioned, SST
predicts an increase in the willingness/ability to be
compassionate towards others as one becomes older and
adopts more emotionally meaningful goals. One potential
explanation for the lack of significant difference between
age groups is that middle-aged adults might not be old
enough to fully demonstrate the change in goals and foci
characteristic of a change in time-perspective. To
elucidate, SST posits that a shift away from expansive
goals and towards emotionally meaningful goals occurs
when the individual begins to worry about how much
time he/she has left to live. As Carstensen (1992) noted,
this shift can occur as early as young adulthood but is
most consistently and robustly associated with
chronological age. From this it follows that, perhaps,
individuals in middle adulthood haven’t begun to
extensively ponder the amount of time they have left, and
as such they might not display the shift towards
emotionally meaningful goals which follows
consequently. We would expect this effect to be more
pronounced among individuals in late adulthood.
One last point worth discussing is the finding that PSU

was similar across age groups. With no previous research
assessing this construct among middle-aged adults, this
finding is particularly unique in demonstrating that PSU
might be stable over time—at least until middle
adulthood. As previously mentioned, we expected this
result because there was no theoretical or empirical basis
to believe that PSU changes during the lifespan—in fact,
humanistic theory seems to suggest that a person’s PSU
should be stable (e.g., Maslow 1987; Rogers 1961). These
theorists conceive of uniqueness as a sort of self-worth,
which is a result of simply being and appreciating one’s
self. As such, theoretically, the humanistic
conceptualization of uniqueness is not age-dependent.
Overall, our finding that PSU is similar across age groups
is consistent with theory and provides the first instance of
empirical validation that PSU is stable across the lifespan.
4.1 Limitations and Future Directions
While the current investigation contributes to the

growing literature on CfO, there were a few limitations.
First, while the proposed mediational model suggests
directionality, such that CfO promotes PSU, which then
promotes SWB, the correlational nature of the data limits
any conclusions about directionality. While it is possible
that a person’s PSU promotes CfO, which then promotes
SWB, we believe it is much more likely that it is the other
way around, with previous research also supporting this
observation. Longitudinal data has the potential to fully
address this issue. Second, the fact that the majority of
the participants across the studies were Caucasian limits
the generalizability of our findings to other ethnic/racial
groups. While early humanistic psychologists’ work
suggests that the process of developing a sense of
uniqueness might be universal to all people, there is still a
need to replicate these findings among other ethnic
groups. CfO, however, has received some support as a
cross-culturally valid construct, with scholars utilizing the
construct in the Philippines (Roxas et al. 2014), Turkey
(Akdeniz and Deniz 2016), and the U.K. (e.g., Durkin et
al. 2016). It is the task of future research to examine the
generalizability of the model to other cultural groups.
Third, the phenomenon of volunteer bias (see Demir et al.

2017a), which is rarely mentioned in the literature as a
methodological confound, deserves recognition.
Volunteer bias refers to the tendency of individuals to
self-select into certain studies consistent with their
characteristics, especially when the title of the studies are
available to them (see Rosenthal and Rosnow 2009, for a
review). Since the titles of the studies were available to
the participants, it could be that those with higher levels
of CfO signed for the current studies. It remains to be
seen whether the proposed model would be supported in
samples recruited via neutral study titles (Demir et al.
2017a, b). Fourth, a potential limitation to the study
concerns the fact that our data came from self-report
measures. This inevitably raises the issue of common
method variance (Lindell and Whitney 2001), which
might inflate the associations between the study
variables. One way to circumvent this issue would be, for
instance, to gather data about one’s CfO from the
respondents’ close others.
Another limitation concerns the methods relied on to

gather data in Study 2. Specifically, emerging adults were
recruited and completed the survey online while middle-
aged adults were recruited in-person and completed
survey on paper. Also, the sample size for the middle-
aged sample was smaller than the lowest recommended
sample size for the analyses reported (see Velicer and
Fava 1998, for recommendations). Future research
should strive to rely on the same methods when gathering
data from both groups and it remains to be seen whether
the findings for middle-aged adults would be replicated
with an appropriate sample size.
Study 2 relied on PANAS as a measure of the affective

component of tripartite model of SWB. Although the
PANAS is one of the most commonly used measures for
positive and negative affect (Busseri and Sadava 2011), it
has received several criticisms (Miao et al. 2013). These
criticisms include focusing on high arousal affect items
and its exclusion of core emotional feelings (e.g., “joy”;
Diener et al. 2010; Li et al. 2013). The shortcomings of
PANAS are addressed in different measures such as the
Affective Valuation Index (AVI; Tsai et al. 2006) and the
Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE;
Diener et al. 2010). It remains to be seen whether the
proposed model would be supported with these different
measures of affect. As noted earlier, PA, but not NA, was
associated with CfO in study 2. It would be important to
examine whether this would hold when NA is assessed by
measures that overcome the limitations of PANAS.
Finally, although we studied the components of SWB in
two separate studies, it would be ideal to assess all
components in the same study. This would allow for the
study of SWB as a hierarchical construct, which was
argued to be “a viable approach to conceptualizing the
tripartite structure of SWB” (Busseri 2015, p. 423).
The current study contributed to our understanding of

how CfO might be related to subjective well-being.
However, our focus was on the framework proposed by
Pommier (2010). As reviewed earlier there are other
conceptualizations and assessments of compassion and it
remains to be seen whether the assessments of
compassion representing these different orientations
such as compassionate goals (Crocker and Canevello
2008) or compassionate love (Sprecher and Fehr 2005)
would yield similar findings. Note that these approaches
treat compassion for others as a unitary construct. Gilbert
et al. (2017) recently proposed that compassion has two
dimensions (engagement and action) and created a scale
to assess them. Although these two components are
substantially related, it would be interesting to examine
whether one aspect of compassion is more useful than the
other in understanding their potential associations with
PSU and SWB.
Lastly, there is reason to believe that CfO might be
transmitted across generations. Intergenerational
transmission refers to the act of passing down values
from one generation to the next. Soenens et al. (2007)
found evidence suggesting that intergenerational
transmission of empathy-related responding, a construct
which is closely tied to CfO and suggests that CfO might
also be transmitted between generations. Furthermore,
Staats et al. (2017) found evidence in a longitudinal study
for intergenerational transmission of conflict
management styles, such that adolescents’ conflict
resolution strategies with their parents predicted their
conflict resolution strategies with friends and romantic
partners. As conflict resolution strategies have been
shown to be closely related to CfO (Feher 2016), it is
plausible that CfO is also developed via intergenerational
transmission and that it could have significant effects on
close relationships in an individual’s life. Future
researchers might benefit from exploring the role of this
process in the development of CfO, and the implications
of this for the proposed model. Consequently, it might be
that parents who are highly compassionate provide both a
warm, caring environment for the child in which the child
can develop his/her PSU, while also transmitting that
compassion to the child. Thus, it could be that parental
CFO contributes to adult level CfO which in turn predicts
PSU and SWB.
5 Conclusion
The present study examined whether PSU mediated the
relationship between CfO and SWB. The proposed
mediation model was supported among emerging adults
while employing different measures of SWB in both
samples and among middle-aged adults with the affective
component of SWB. Future research is ripe with many
opportunities to enhance our understanding of CfO by
investigating how and why it confers psychosocial
benefits.
Notes
Funding
The writing of this article was supported by the National

Science Foundation (No. 1659888).
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Cite this article as:
Demir, M., Haynes, A., Sanchez, M. et al. J Happiness Stud (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0020-1
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Uniqueness Mediates the

Melikşah Demir (1) Email author

1. Department of Psychological Sciences, Northern

As part of the broader attempt to identify the most salient

It is important to highlight some key characteristics of the

1.1 Compassion for Others

Compassion has proven to be a useful construct in

CfO involves feeling kindness towards those suffering,

Although the focus of the current study is on CfO as

Another approach to compassion is Compassionate Goals

1.2 CfO and Psychosocial Well-Being

Research on CfO, as conceptualized by Pommier, has

Pommier (2010) articulates that the relationship between

Several studies specifically focusing on CfO have linked it

Clearly, past research focusing on different

1.3 Personal Sense of Uniqueness

Humanistic psychology has, since its beginnings,

One important feature of this conceptualization of

1.4 PSU and Psychosocial Well-Being

These relationships help to identify the positive role that

1.5 PSU as a Mediator Between CfO and

As we previously highlighted, the positive relationship

There are potentially numerous reasons as to why one

Related to the point above, introspection might be central

Compassion is normally elicited in response to a person

Another potential explanation, albeit indirect, finds its

1.6 Subjective Well-Being

1.7 Overview of the Current Studies

We conducted two studies to test the proposed model, in

2.1.1 Participants and Procedure

The sample consisted of 470 (92 men; Mage = 18.9, SD

2.1.2.1 Compassion for Others

Compassion for others was measured using the 24-item

The Personal Sense of Uniqueness Scale (PSU; Şimşek

The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al.

The correlations amongst the study variables along with

Means, standard deviations, and correlations amongst

3. Personal sense of 5.31

SWB subjective well-being

Values in parentheses are standard deviations

The results yielded support to the proposed meditational

Personal sense of uniqueness as the

2.2.1 Gender Differences

Although investigation of gender differences was not a

2.3 Brief Discussion

The findings of Study 1 contributed to the growing

First, our SWB measure addressed the cognitive

There are different tasks related to different

3.1 Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

SST (Carstensen 1992) posits that as people get older they

There are several reasons to believe that compassion

3.2 Age Differences in Uniqueness and

Recent research has demonstrated a common trend in

3.3 Study Overview

We predicted that the findings of Study 1 would be

The sample for emerging adults consisted of 300 (99

The sample for middle-aged adults included 169 (45 men,

The sample for emerging adults consisted of volunteers

The sample of middle-aged adults consisted of volunteers

As in the first study, Pommier’s (2010) Compassion Scale

The measure used in the first study was again relied on to

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS;