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Introduction
REMINDER:
It is essential that you must make a smooth transition into the
next section which is a theoretical framework.
Example:
Theoretical Framework
According to Jersild and others (1975) the child’s view of himself never exactly
reflects other people’s picture of him, but it is certainly greatly influenced by others.
If these important people and groups in the child’s world perceive and conceive of
him as worthwhile, it is almost impossible for him to value himself highly. The evidence
indicates that these self- images are pretty well formed before children enter school.
This is one of the various reasons why numerous people believe that these early years
are crucial in personality development.
It is the theory that these study therefore tries to advocate, that is, the child’s self-
concept is considered to be an indispensable determinant of his social interactions
and personality adjustment. That the self-concept of the child is very important to
his achievement because it affects the level of aspiration and self-expectation is
the forearm of research. If the child has a poor view of himself, it will aggravate
inherent intellectual or cognitive problems and difficulties or such other physical
disabilities. Conversely, if the child views himself as worthwhile, it is possible that he
will value himself highly.
I. Definition of Terms:
a. Paradigm or models or patterns- well- developed descriptive analogies
used to help visualize phenomena that can be directly observed.
- Is a projection of a possible system of relationships among
phenomena in verbal, material, graphic or symbolic terms
b. Replica Models- are usually material or pictorial representations made
with a change in temporal or spatial scale.
c. Symbolic Models- tend to be intangible, using abstract, verbal graphic
or symbolic representation to stand for conceptual systems (Kerlinger,
p.210).
Features of a Symbolic Model:
It contains a set of representations (or symbols) of something.
It processes and manipulates those representations based on
a set of rules programmed into the model.
The rules operate on the representations according to their
'shape' or syntax, not according to what they represent (their semantics).
Example:
The symbol '1' is character. In normal text, it represents the number
one. When you read this text, you probably read it as a one. But this is a
matter of interpretation, not a property of the symbol itself. For example,
we could use the same symbol to represent the state of being 'on'. In fact,
we do use it in this way on certain appliances — switches often have '0' and
'1' marked on them to represent that the appliance is 'off' and 'on'
respectively. The interpretation of the symbol (its semantics) is independent
of the shape of the symbol (its syntax).
b. Literature review:
– Prior ‘related’ theory – concepts and relationships that are
used to represent the world, what is happening and why.
– Prior ‘related’ research – how people have tackled ‘similar’
problems and what they have learned.
– Other theory and research - approaches, lines of investigation
and theory that are not obviously relevant/previously used.
III. How might a conceptual framework be developed?
The pieces of the conceptual framework are borrowed but the
researcher provides the structure. To develop the structure you could:
– Identify the key words used in the subject area of your study.
– Draw out the key things within something you have already
written about the subject area – literature review.
– Take one key concept, idea or term at a time and brainstorm
all the other things that might be related and then go back
and select those that seem most relevant.
Whichever is used it will take time and a number of iterations
and the focus is both on the content and the inter-relationships.
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b. Content frameworks
– Set out the variables, and possibly the relationship (with relative
strengths) between them, that together answer the ‘why?’ question.
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References
Brion Juan C., DPA,Thesis and Dissertation Writing Without Anguish.
Vaughan Roger, Conceptual Framework, 2008
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After you have identified your problem which may have come from
the following sources – your specialization, observations, institutions, or both
from undergraduate programs. Your job or occupation, events in related,
theories, practices/ need or may be off-shoot or extension of previous
studies, replication of studies, from funding agencies or research sponsors,
habits, and interest, authorities, friendly conversations advisers/professors,
other teachers, in lectures or seminars, from technological changes, class,
discussion, interactions, professional, journals or personal curiosity, you can
now state your research problem.
You have to settle first the problem of selecting which problem to
research on. You may use any of the following criteria as the basis for
selecting your problem: Technical and personal.
TECHNICAL CRITERIA PERSONAL CRITERIA
Significant to chosen field/ interest
advancement of science or training
specialization expertise
Pioneering or novel financial capacity
Originality time factor involved
Arouse intellectual curiosity in the project
Relevance to degree
Availability or manageability of
data
Availability or instruments
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these are only based on interest, skills or workability. It is the basic issue or
area of concern, the situation which exist and then how it ought to be. It
should be defined precisely and the summary questions which will be
answered by the proposed research should be stated. The problem may
be stated in question from or given as a declarative statement.
You will notice that this is clearly stated sentence or two which tell
exactly what you expect to do.
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The primary objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that there
is a relationship between salary increase and job satisfaction.
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If you analyze the specific investigative questions, you will notice that
they were written in quantifiable terms. The question ‘’how’’ makes them
quantifiable. This is one important characteristics of a good question. In the
first sample, the question ‘’how do they perceive …in term of’’ is amenable
to measurement. Quantification and measurement provide more direction
to the investigation which is one vital characteristics of a good question.
The specificity you have set will ascertain just what questions you need to
answer. Quantification and measurement will give more direction to the
investigation. If the question is too broad. It has to be broken down into
smaller ones using the Mapping Sentence Approach of Clark et al. (1998,
p. 49).
Examples:
Poor: How effective are homogenous and heterogeneous groups?
Improved: What is the effect of homogenous grouping on the
achievement in science among Grade IV pupils?
Poor: Will there be differences between the more accepted and the
less accepted freshman students?
Improved: Will there be differences between the more accepted and
the less accepted students in terms of personal and social adjustments?
Poor: What is the performance of the middle level and the upper level
managers?
Improved: is there a difference between the performance of the middle
level and the upper level managers in technical, human relations and
conceptual skill test?
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RESULT:
A male subject having experience of the product and having interest
in the product will recall more advertisements depending upon the length
of advertisement.
Laying out this way allows the researcher to see at the variables and
to select the ones of interest (Clark et al 1998 p. 49).
You may formulate a problem which elicits a hypothesis that could
be tested statistically. Example of a problem would be; is there a significant
difference in the perception of the local government administrators and
the clergy as to the factors that cause the rise of Insurgency in Cagayan?
Such a problem question calls for a null hypothesis which could be stated
thus:
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IS HYPOTHESIS NECESSARY?
A basic reason why a hypothesis is necessary is to keep you from
being biased. Your biases might affect the research process when you state
the expected relationship among variables. You usually expect the
relationship to occur based on your experience or in the course of
reviewing some related literature. You might have been influenced by early
researchers when they disseminated their findings.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
It is usually to see several ways of stating hypotheses as they are
discussed in books. These are the null hypothesis, the operational,
theoretical or research hypothesis. The objective of researchers is to reject
the null hypothesis, therefore, it is advisable that you state your hypothesis
in the null form.
Since hypothesis, is the intelligent answer to the researcher’s stated
problem, this is his/her position or conviction regarding the problem. It can
therefore be stated declaratively.
Examples:
Research Hypothesis: People – oriented administrators are more
productive than product – oriented administrators
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2. The mean for the boys equals that of the girls on the Torrance
Verbal Test of originality.
3. There is no significant interaction effect of sex and socio-economics
status on the spatial concept development of Grade One children.
4. Sex is independent of positive or negativeness towards some
concepts among senior high school boys and girls.
5. There is no significant relationship between organizational climate
in terms of eight subscales and leadership behavior among
administrators in selected government agencies.
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Some theses have assumptions just like some dissertation. They even
occupy prominent place in the report. In other theses, the investigators do
not have a section titled as such because the assumptions have been
integrated in the introductory part of their report. According to Gay, 1976,
assumptions are important facts presumed to be true but not actually
verified. This pertains to events or situations that seen so true that they are
taken for granted. Unlike the hypothesis, assumptions do not need testing
or confirmation.
Some assumptions that some researches have taken are as follows:
1. That the interviewee answered the interview questions accurately.
2. That the respondents rated some situations truthfully.
3. That the attitude of a group of respondents are stable.
4. That perceptions can be quantified and therefore be measured.
5. That the subjects of the study all being to the low socio-economic
status group.
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Sample in a Dissertation
Title of Dissertation: Perceived Management Ambience of the AFP Mutual
Benefit Associations, 1985: An Assessment
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In writing this portion, answers these questions. Why make the study
of all? What benefits would be derived from it? Will the benefits of
knowledge gained worth the express in money, time and effort? Who are
the direct beneficiaries of the result of the study should the problem be
solved? To what extent will the solution affect them? How much change
can your study make?
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should be defined. Important terms are needing clarification which you use
in your own sense must be definite accordingly. We call this operational
definition. You must be aware that terms are usually equivocal, therefore,
they are ambiguous or vague. In order for the reader to have a full and
good grasp of the problem. The terms must be clearly defined. Here are
some terms defined by Dr. Alit in his Study which he defined operationally.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following terms are defined according to their operational use in this
study:
Custodial Force – It refers to the unit that provides security in a jail facility
and may be composed of male and female members of the BJMP.
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References:
Brion, Juan C. DPA, Thesis and Dissertation Writing Without Aguish.
Related Literature
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Related Studies
• Are inquiries, investigations, researches already conducted to which
your proposed study is related or has some bearing. They are usually
unpublished materials such as manuscript, theses and dissertation.
They may classified as; Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines;
and Foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.
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2. They help the investigator understand his topic for research better.
Reviewing related literature and studies may clarify vague points about his
problem.
3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is
duplication if an investigation already made is conducted again in the
same locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a
survey of literature be made first.
4. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related
information. This is because bibliography of a study already conducted
indicate references about similar studies.
5. They help and guide the research design especially in:
6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his
findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of
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CHAPTER 2
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INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a
measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish
between instrument and instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the
device and instrumentation is the course of action (the process of
developing, testing, and using the device).
Four categories in collection of data into, as follows: (1) observation, (2)
interview, (3) inquiry forms, and (4) psychological tests and inventories.
1. The types of observation are naturalistic and participant. The
preferred method of conducting observation nowadays involves the use of
unobtrusive techniques. ”Unobtrusive“means that the observers are not
visible in the setting or they do not play an active role. One-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, and films are some of the techniques that have been
developed to observe behaviour and unobtrusively.
Many authorities agree that the interpretation of the meaning of
behavior described and recorded should be deferred until a later time. The
reason for this is that simultaneous recording and interpretation often
interfere with objectivity. Devices used for recording information include
checklist, rating scale and score card.
Unstructured Observation
A method of collecting research data that has both opponents and
proponents.
Structured observation
Preparation of record-keeping forms such as category systems,
checklist and rating scales.
Researcher typically has some prior knowledge about the behavior
or event of interest.
2. The interview is an oral questionnaire. The respondent or interviewee
gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face relationship. If
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Types of Questionnaires
o Questionnaires may be designed as:
o Structured or closed form
o Unstructured, open ended form
Structured questionnaires
They are those in which some control or guidance is given for the
answer. This may be described as closed form because the questions are
basically short, requiring the respondent to provide a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response,
or checking an item out of a list of given responses.
Unstructured questionnaire
This type which is also termed as open-ended or unrestricted type of
questionnaire calls for a free response in the respondent’s own words. The
respondent frames and supplies the answer to the question raised in the
questionnaire.
3. The Psychological test in which a person fills out a survey or
questionnaire with or without the help of an investigator. Self-report
inventories often ask direct questions about personal interests, values,
symptoms, behaviors, and traits or personality types.
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the validity of a unit test for 7th grade mathematics. This would involve
taking representative questions from each of the sections of the unit and
evaluating them against the desired outcomes.
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these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more valid measure of the applicant’s
potential for graduation, later social involvement, and generosity (alumni
giving) toward the alma mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of
the SAT argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future
success and a moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in
Mathematics, Critical Reading, and Writin
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
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In this part of the thesis proposal you have to discuss step by step all the
procedures you conducted in collecting your data.
After approval of concerned authorities from the two selected
educational institutions to administer the instruments, the researcher
identified from the rosters filed in their respective Human Resource
Management Departments the sample respondents in the study.
Those who fit into required categories for the respondents were included in
the list. The researcher administered the instruments and conducted
interviews, when necessary, individually or in groups depending on the
convenience on the part of the participants. Some of the questionnaires,
however, were distributed through the help of the deans or heads of the
departments where the faculty-respondents belong.
The questionnaires were coded to identify the respondents who
participated in the study. This aided in the speedy retrieval of the floated
questionnaires. All the names of the faculty listed in the roster were coded
and majority responded favorably to the request of the researcher for them
to participate in the study.
Because of clarity of description of what the researcher did during
the data gathering, one can do the same procedure if he or she wants to
conduct similar studies in different setting or situations.
After measuring the variables and collecting the data, you have to
organized these and present your findings in tables and chart. These
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I - Questionnaire
defined as;
1. A set of questions for obtaining statistically useful or personal
information from individuals.
2. A written or printed questionnaire often with spaces for
answers.
3. A survey made by the use of a questionnaire.
- Commonly used to gather first-hand information from a large
audience, in the form of a survey or predefined series of questions used
to collect information from individuals. Questionnaires are highly
practical and can be carried out by any number of people, and the
results can be quickly quantified as well. Over the years, this form of
conducting research has also been proven to be more scientifically
accurate, as compared to other quantitative research tools.
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age range will help you get more respondents than limiting yourself
to a specific age.
Consider what else would make a person a target for your
questionnaire. Do they need to drive a car? Do they need to have
health insurance? Do they need to have a child under 3? Make sure
you are very clear about this before you distribute your questionnaire.
6. Ensure you can protect privacy.
Make your plan to protect respondents’ privacy before you begin
writing your survey. This is a very important part of many research projects.
Consider an anonymous questionnaire. You may not want to ask
for names on your questionnaire. This is one step you can take to
prevent privacy, however it is often possible to figure out a
respondent’s identity using other demographic information (such
as age, physical features, or zipcode).
Consider de-identifying the identity of your respondents. Give
each questionnaire (and thus, each respondent) a unique
number or word, and only refer to them using that new identifier.
Shred any personal information that can be used to determine
identity.
Remember that you do not need to collect much demographic
information to be able to identify someone. People may be wary
to provide this information, so you may get more respondents by
asking less demographic questions (if it is possible for your
questionnaire).
Make sure you destroy all identifying information after your study
is complete.
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Your introduction should explain who you are, and what your credentials
are. You should clarify if you are working alone or as a part of a team.
Include the name of the academic institution or company for whom you
are collecting data. Here are some examples:
My name is Jack Smith and I am one of the creators of this questionnaire.
I am part of the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan,
where I am focusing in developing cognition in infants.
I’m Kelly Smith, a 3rd year undergraduate student at the University of
New Mexico. This questionnaire is part of my final exam in statistics.
My name is Steve Johnson, and I’m a marketing analyst for The Best
Company. I’ve been working on questionnaire development to
determine attitudes surrounding drug use in Canada for several years.
2. Explain the purpose of the questionnaire.
Many people will not answer a questionnaire without understanding
what the goal of the questionnaire is. No long explanation is needed;
instead, a few concise sentences will do the trick. Here are some examples:
I am collecting data regarding the attitudes surrounding gun control.
This information is being collected for my Anthropology 101 class at the
University of Maryland.
This questionnaire will ask you 15 questions about your eating and
exercise habits. We are attempting to make a correlation between
healthy eating, frequency of exercise, and incidence of cancer in
mature adults.
This questionnaire will ask you about your recent experiences with
international air travel. There will be three sections of questions that will
ask you to recount your recent trips and your feelings surrounding these
trips, as well as your travel plans for the future. We are looking to
understand how a person’s feelings surrounding air travel impact their
future plans.
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can easily mail their responses back. Make sure that your
questionnaire will fit inside a standard business envelope.
Conduct face-to-face interviews. This can be a good way to ensure
that you are reaching your target demographic and can reduce
missing information in your questionnaires, as it is more difficult for a
respondent to avoid answering a question when you ask it directly.
Try using the telephone. While this can be a more time-effective way
to collect your data, it can be difficult to get people to respond to
telephone questionnaires.
3. Include a deadline.
Ask your respondents to have the questionnaire completed and
returned to you by a certain date to ensure that you have enough time to
analyze the results.
Make your deadline reasonable. Giving respondents up to 2 weeks
to answer should be more than sufficient. Anything longer and you
risk your respondents forgetting about your questionnaire.
Consider providing a reminder. A week before the deadline is a good
time to provide a gentle reminder about returning the questionnaire.
Include a replacement of the questionnaire in case it has been
misplaced by your respondent.
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2. Multiple Choice
In preparing copy for the printer, which method of attaching printed
pages to a backing sheet is preferred?
[1] Stapling [2] Taping [3] Gluing [4] Other:
_____________________
Please specify
3. Rating
How often do you purchase lunch in the company’s cafeteria?
[1] Very Frequently (almost daily)
[2] Frequently (Twice a week)
[3] Occasionally (Once a week)
[4] Seldom (Twice a month)
[5] Rarely (Once every six months)
[6] Never
4. Likert Scale
Indicate your agreement with the following statement by circling the
number on the scale which most closely represents your opinion.
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[3] No opinion
[4] Agree
[5] Strongly agree
The other Likert Scale type is with the response options angled up.
Not easy to set up. I usually use a table to help with the layout. The
words are inserts from Word Art. I expand my margins to help things
fit.
6. Ranking
If your company required you to transfer to one of the following cities,
what would be your order of preference. (“1” is first choice, “2” is
second choice, etc.)
7. Checklist
Which of the following would you like to see in a cafeteria?
(Check all that apply)
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8. Fill-in-the-Blank
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