Cell membrane transport

Passive transport
 Requires cytosis Example: sodium-potassium pump
o Also goes against electrochemical gradient (concentration gradient of charge)
 Vesicular transport
o A kind of active transport, also called cytosis
o Done by vesicles
 When it goes outside, it’s exocytosis
 This is when the vesicle merges with the cell membrane and then
spits out the material inside
 When it goes inside, it’s endogroups
 The phosphates all hate each other, so two of them can kick the other one to form
adenosine diphosphate, releasing energy
o A hydroxide replaces the third phosphate (hydrolysis)

 The materials goes into a hole in the membrane which turns into a
vesicle
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
o When the thing is in very small concentrations
o Specialized protein receptors in the membrane
 Phagocytosis
 When a cell eats something else
 Pinocytosis
 When a cell drinks something else
Cellular respiration

Glucose + 6 Oxygen  6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + Energy (Adenosine Triphosphate)

Adenosine triphosphate
 Currency of energy
 Made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate does this across membranes, it’s called
osmosis
 Things go from higher density to lower density
 Channel proteins, which are hydrophilic, allow passage through the phospholipid bilayer
of the cell membrane. no energy
 Used by water and oxygen to get into cells by diffusion
 When water

o The ones specifically for water are called aquaporin
 Hypertonic
 o The one with more solute, or the more concentrated one
 Hypotonic
o The one with less solute, or the less concentrated one
 Isotonic
o Same solution concentration

Active transport
 This requires energy, because you are going against the concentration gradient
 Cell has to pay a fee of ATP to a transport protein
o Example: sodium-potassium pump
o Also goes against electrochemical gradient (concentration gradient of charge)
 Vesicular transport
o A kind of active transport, also called cytosis
o Done by vesicles
 When it goes outside, it’s exocytosis
 This is when the vesicle merges with the cell membrane and then
spits out the material inside
 When it goesIn yeast, this makes ethyl alcohol. In humans, it makes lactic acid.
 2) Krebs Cycle
o Happens in the inner mitochondria membrane
o Takes the pyruvate molecules to make two ATPs and some energy
o Lots of oxidation happens
o Also makes two more NADH, and ends up in citric acid, which becomes
oxaloacetic acid, which becomes citric acid, cycle
o Inhaled and exhaled
o Aerobic proess
 3) Electron Transport Chain
o There are a bunch of channel proteins on the inner membrane
o A bunch of protons from NADHs and FADHs get spit out and then go back in, lots
of energy released, binding some ADP and phosphate, making ATP

Photosynthesis
Plants
 Vascular plants have pipe-like tissues that conduct water, minerals, and other materials
to other parts of the plants (e.g. trees, grasses, flowering plants), through tissues called
xylem
 Leaf holes are stomata that regulate oxygen content in the leaves

Chloroplast
 It’s a plastid
 Chlorophyll is stacked in sacs called thylakoids
  Thylakoids are stacked into grana inside, it’s endogroups
 The phosphates all hate each other, so two of them can kick the other one to form
adenosine diphosphate, releasing energy
o A hydroxide replaces the third phosphate (hydrolysis)

How is it made?
 Oxygen and glucose
o One molecule glucose can make some heat and up to 38 molecules of ATP
o This happens through cellular respiration
 1) Glycolysis
o Breaking down the glucose
o Into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate molecules, also two NADH
(energy af) which helps make more ATP
o This process needs two ATPs but makes 4 ATPs
o Anaerobic process
 Fermentation is a process that frees up some NADH+ when there’s no
oxygen, in order to get energy

 Inside thylakoid is lumen
 Outside thylakoid is stroma

Kinds of reactions
 Light-dependent
o A photon goes into a molecule of chlorophyll
o There are four protein complexes:
 Photosystem II
 An electron absorbs energy and gets excited (photoexcitation)
 Electron Transport Chain
 Electrons, due to excitement, leap off of the chlorophyll onto a
protein called a mobile electron carrier
 Cholorophyll freaks out, splits a water atom
 Cytochrome Complex
 Intermediary between PSII and PSI
 Uses some of the energy created in PSII to pump a proton into the
thylakoid
 Pumping the thylakoid full of protons, which helps make ATP
because of energy and crap, with the help of
 ATP Synthase
 Photosystem I
 Electrons pop off and hitch a ride on another electron carrier
 NADP+ makes independent stuff into water, turns into NADH,
which is also another energy crap
  Light-independent
o Calvin Cycle
 Also known as a dark reaction, or Stage 2
 Uses the ATP and the NADHs to make useful stuff
 Happens in stroma
 Phases
 Carbon Fixation
o Fuses CO2 with ribulose bisphosphate, which is abundant,
with the help of an enzyme known as rubisco
o (Plants are retarded, they made rubisco when oxygen was
sparse, when it proliferated the rubisco started tearing
apart oxygen to make phosphoglycolate, which is toxic to
plants. Now plants have to make other enzymes just to
deal with the by-product of their own mess.
o It’s super unstable so it breaks into two 3-
phosphoglycerate, and this happens thrice
 Reduction
o Some ATP throws phosphates onto it, and NADPH lends
some electrons, and now it’s G3P (energy af, and super
useful)
o Only one of 6 G3Ps makes it out, the rest are regenerated
 Regeneration
o The other 3GPs are used to make ribulose bisphosphate,
starting the cycle all over again
 Fermentation is a process that frees up some NADH+ when there’s no
oxygen, in order to get energy

 Inside thylakoid is lumen
 Outside thylakoid is stroma

Kinds of reactions
 Light-dependent
o A photon goes into a molecule of chlorophyll
o There are four protein complexes:
 Photosystem II
 An electron absorbs energy and gets excited (photoexcitation)
 Electron Transport Chain
 Electrons, due to excitement, leap off of the chlorophyll onto a
protein called a mobile electron carrier
 Cholorophyll freaks out, splits a water atom
 Cytochrome Complex
 Intermediary between PSII and PSI
  Uses some of the energy created in PSII to pump a proton into the
thylakoid

HEREDITY
 Gregor Mendel is a cool Austrian monk who studied peas
 Classical Genetics
o Chromosomes are form that DNA takes
 Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes
 A gene is a place on a chromosome that affects a trait
 If many g thylakoid

HEREDITY
 Gregor Mendel is a cool Austrian monk who studied peas
 Classical Genetics
o Chromosomes are form that DNA takes
 Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes
 A gene is a place on a chromosome that affects a trait
 If many genes affect a trait, it’s a polygenic trait
 If one gene affects many traits, it’s a pleiotropic gene
 If one gene is to one trait, it’s called Mendelian trait
 Somatic cells are diploid (two sets of chromosomes)
 Gamete cells are haploid (one set of chromosomes)
 There are some plants with polyploid cells
 Genotype = genetic makeup, phenotype = what it looks like
 Heterozygous = both dominant and recessive, homozygous = gay
o Dominant/recessive
 Dominant means it masks the recessive
o Sex-linked inheritance
 Inheritance through sex chromosome (X-Y)
 Recessive traits are on X chromosome, since men don’t have another,
they just need one for it to be in the phenotype
 Balding mother’s father

DNA STRUCTURE AND REPLICATION

 DNA is a nucleic acid

o A polymer of nucleotides
 o Made of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate sugar, and a nitrogenous base:
adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine
o 5’ - 3’
 Oxygen always points from 3 to 5
 They run in two directions
 Upstream is toward 3, downstream is towards 5
o AT base pair, weaker than GC base pair
o Genetic uniqueness depends on base sequence
 Helicase
o Unwinds base pairs at replication fork
 Top strand is called leading strand, bottom is lagging strand
 They go in opposite directions
 For leading strand, DNA polymerase just adds nucleotides
 For the lagging strand, RNA primase helps also, and this happens in
okizaki fragments, and then dna ligase helps also

DNA TRANSCRIPTION/TRANSLATION

 How do we make proteins?

o Starts in nucleus
 The part of DNA that will be transcribed on the RNA is the transcription
unit
 Starts with a promoter — TATAAAA (TATA box)
 Enzyme RNA polymerase unzips double helix and copies DNA
downstream onto an mRNA
 (some RNA polymerase starts from ur mom and then it just
regenerates)
 Ends with a termination signal, and a 5’ CAP is added to the 5’ end, and
the Poly-A tail is added onto the 3’ end
 Useless stuff is cut out through RNA splicing (snurps and spliceosome,
which is what cuts the thing)
 Exons are nice, introns go back in the nucleus kasi pangit sila
 This was called transcription
o We’re out of the nucleus
 mRNA jumps into a ribosome, which has binding sites that have transfer
RNA, or tRNA
 a tRNA has an amino acid on one end, and a particular nucleotide
sequence on the other
 mRNA jumps into ribosome, it gets read, and the appropriate tRNA goes
there also
 This happens by threes (triplet codon), and is matched by an anticodon
 Starts at 5’ cap, at AUG (methionine)
  Then all the amino acids come together to form a polypeptide chain
 This is called translation
o Proteins
 Primary structure = amino acids
 Secondary structure = alpha helix, pleated sheets, basically the folding
 Tertiary structure = the shape, r group bonds
 Quaternary structure = how it talks to others

MITOSIS

 What is it?
o Exact cell replication
o To be preceise, replication of just the nucleus, then everything just follow
o Invented by Walter Flemming
 What is the process?
o Interphase
 Limbo phase
 Growing, working, whatever
 Long strings of DNA, chromatin, is long and messy
 enes affect a trait, it’s a polygenic trait
 If one gene affects many traits, it’s a pleiotropic gene
 If one gene is to one trait, it’s called Mendelian trait
 Somatic cells are diploid (two sets of chromosomes)
 Gamete cells are haploid (one set of chromosomes)
 There are some plants with polyploid cells
 Genotype = genetic makeup, phenotype = what it looks like
 Heterozygous = both dominant and recessive, homozygous = gay
o Dominant/recessive
 Dominant means it masks the recessive
o Sex-linked inheritance
 Inheritance through sex chromosome (X-Y)
 Recessive traits are on X chromosome, since men don’t have another,
they just need one for it to be in the phenotype
 Balding mother’s father

DNA STRUCTURE AND REPLICATION

 DNA is a nucleic acid

 o A polymer of nucleotides
o Made of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate sugar, and a nitrogenous base:
adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine
o 5’ - 3’
 Oxygen always points from 3 to 5
 They run in two directions
 Upstream is toward 3, downstream is towards 5
o AT base pair, weaker than GC base pair
o Genetic uniqueness depends on base sequence
 Helicase
o Unwinds base pairs at replication fork
 Top strand is called leading strand, bottom is lagging strand
 They go in opposite directions
 For leading strand, DNA polymerase just adds nucleotides
 For the lagging strand, RNA primase helps also, and this happens in
okizaki fragments, and then dna ligase helps also

DNA TRANSCRIPTION/TRANSLATION

 How do we make proteins?

o Starts in nucleus
 The part of DNA that will be transcribed on the RNA is the transcription
unit
 Starts with a promoter — TATAAAA (TATA box)
 Enzyme RNA polymerase unzips double helix and copies DNA
downstream onto an mRNA
 (some RNA polymerase starts from ur mom and then it just
regenerates)
 Ends with a termination signal, and a 5’ CAP is added to the 5’ end, and
the Poly-A tail is added onto the 3’ end
 Useless stuff is cut out through RNA splicing (snurps and spliceosome,
which is what cuts the thing)
 Exons are nice, introns go back in the nucleus kasi pangit sila
 This was called transcription
o We’re out of the nucleus
 mRNA jumps into a ribosome, which has binding sites that have transfer
RNA, or tRNA
 a tRNA has an amino acid on one end, and a particular nucleotide
sequence on the other
 mRNA jumps into ribosome, it gets read, and the appropriate tRNA goes
there also
 This happens by threes (triplet codon), and is matched by an anticodon
  Starts at 5’ cap, at AUG (methionine)
 Then all the amino acids come together to form a polypeptide chain
 This is called translation
o Proteins
 Primary structure = amino acids
 Secondary structure = alpha helix, pleated sheets, basically the folding
 Tertiary structure = the shape, r group bonds
 Quaternary structure = how it talks to others

MITOSIS

 What is it?
o Exact cell replication
o To be preceise, replication of just the nucleus, then everything just follow
o Invented by Walter Flemming
 What is the process?
o Interphase
 Limbo phase
 Growing, working, whatever
 Long strings of DNA, chromatin, is long and messy
 Centrosomes duplicate
 DNA begins to replicate
o Prophase
 Chromatin condenses into thick strands of DNA, chromosomes
 Duplicates attach to each other, sister chromatids joined by a centromere
 Centrosome at opposite end of the cell, leaving behind microtubules all
across the cell
o Metaphase
 Chromosome line up at the center, attach to the microtubules
 This takes the longest
o Anaphase
 Motor proteins pull so hard at chromosomes that they detach, one goes
to each side
 Ana means back
o Telophase
 Nuclear membrane, nucleolus reform
 Chromosomes relax back into chromatid
 Cell divides, cytokinesis, into cleavage

MEIOSIS
 Homologous chromosomes
 Haploid cells need another haploid cell to become diploid
o These are diploid cells called primary oocytes or primary spermocytes which
make gamete cells
 Process
o Interphase
 Basta basta everything just replicates, then the chromatin is released into
the empty space
o Prophase I
 This is just the same as mitosis until:
 Crossover
 Homologous chromosomes have sex
 Homologous recombination
 They exchange a bunch of genes
 This happens in all except for sex chromosomes in men
o Metaphase I
 Same same as mitosis
o Anaphase
 Same
o Telophase
 Same
o Prophase II
 No DNA replication, it just clumps into chromosomes again
o Metaphase II
 Same
o Anaphase II
 Chromatids get pulled apart
o Telophase II
 Nice you have four haploids now
 Egg-making process is different
o More stuff goes into one cell in first division
o And then that happens again
o One functional egg, and then three polar bodies that are useless in humans